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Les Atomes est un ouvrage de physique de 324 pages écrit et édité par le physicien Jean Perrin en 1913. Il est considéré comme un ouvrage de référence ayant fait date en physique et a été réédité à plusieurs reprises, en 1921, 1927, 1936, 1948, 1970 puis 1991, respectivement chez Félix Alcan puis aux PUF puis chez Gallimard. Il est dédicacé à la mémoire du botaniste Noël Bernard et à l'écrivain Rosny Ainé.

Composition de l'ouvrage
 Avant-propos
 Préface

Chapitre premier : La théorie atomique et la chimie
Molécules : Persistance des composants dans les mélanges, Une sorte bien déterminée de molécules constitue chaque espèce chimique, Les diffusions révèlent l'agitation moléculaire, L'agitation moléculaire explique l'expansibilité des fluides.

Atomes : Les corps simples, Lois de discontinuité chimique, Hypothèse atomique, On saurait les poids relatifs des atomes si l'on savait combien il y en a de chaque sorte dans les molécules, Nombres proportionnels et formules chimiques, Les composés qui se ressemblent, Les équivalents.

L'hypothèse d'Amedeo Avogadro : La compressibilité est la même pour tous les gaz, Les volumes gazeux qui se combinent sont dans des rapports simples, Masses proportionnelles de Gay-Lussac, Hypothèse d'Avogadro, Rapports des masses atomiques et nombre d'Avogadro, Justification de l'hypothèse d'Avogadro, Lois de Raoult, Analogie des gaz et des solutions étendues, Pression osmotique et loi de van 't Hoff, Loi de Dulong et Petit, Liste des poids atomiques et loi de Prout.

Structure des molécules : Les substitutions, Leur considération ne peut suffire à déterminer les poids atomiques, L'hypothèse de la dislocation minimum des molécules réagissantes, Valence, Formules de constitution, Groupes fonctionnels, Stéréochimie, Chaînes moléculaires illimitées.

Les ions : Hypothèse d'Arrhénius, Première idée d'un atome d'électricité, Charge charriée par un ion-gramme et loi de Faraday, Mobilités des ions.

Limite supérieure des grandeurs moléculaires Divisibilité de la matière, Solutions superficielles.

Chapitre deux : L'agitation moléculaire
Vitesses des molécules : Agitation moléculaire en régime permanent, Calcul des vitesses moléculaires, Température absolue, proportionnelle à l'énergie moléculaire, Équipartition de l'énergie, Effusion par les petites ouvertures, Largeur des raies spectrales.

Rotations ou vibrations des molécules : Chaleur spécifique d'un gaz à volume constant, Gaz monoatomiques, Une difficulté fondamentale, Énergie de rotation des molécules polyatomiques, Équipartition de l'énergie, L'énergie interne des molécules ne peut varier que par bonds discontinus, Chaleur spécifique des solides, Gaz aux très basses températures, Même l'énergie de rotation varie de façon discontinue.

Libre parcours moléculaire : Viscosité des gaz, Diamètre moléculaire, Surface et volume vrais des molécules qui s'agitent dans une masse donnée d'un gaz pur, Première détermination des grandeurs moléculaires.

Chapitre trois : Mouvement brownien, émulsions
Historique et caractères généraux : Le mouvement brownien, Signification statistique du principe de Carnot, Origine probable de l'agitation.

L'équilibre statistique des émulsions : Extension des lois des gaz aux émulsions diluées, Répartition d'équilibre dans une colonne gazeuse verticale, Extension à une colonne verticale d'émulsion, Émulsions appropriées aux recherches, Centrifugation fractionnée, Densité de la matière des grains, Volume des grains, Extension de la loi de Stokes, Chute de sphérules dans un fluide, Mise en observation d'une émulsion, Dénombrement des grains, Équilibre statistique d'une colonne verticale, Epreuve décisive, Influence de la température, Détermination précise des grandeurs moléculaires.

Chapitre quatre : Lois du mouvement brownien
Irrégularité de l'agitation : Le déplacement en un temps donné, L'activité du mouvement brownien, Vérifications expérimentales de l'irrégularité.

Théorie d'Einstein : Diffusion des émulsions, Mouvement brownien de translation, Mouvement brownien de rotation.

Contrôle expérimental : Premières vérifications, Calcul des grandeurs moléculaires d'après le mouvement brownien de translation, Calcul de ces grandeurs d'après le mouvement brownien de rotation, La diffusion des grosses molécules, Diffusion des granules visibles et nouveau calcul des grandeurs moléculaires, Réalité moléculaire, Feuillets monomoléculaires visibles, Liquides stratifiés et cristaux.

Chapitre cinq : Fluctuations
Fluctuations dans la densité d'un fluide, Théorie de Marian Smoluchowski et sa vérification, Diffusion de la lumière par les fluides, Par les gaz, Bleu du ciel, Opalescence critique, Fluctuations de l'orientation moléculaire, Fluctuations chimiques.

Chapitre six : Grains d'énergie
Le corps noir : Toute enceinte isotherme est pleine de lumière en équilibre statistique, La densité de cette lumière est proportionnelle à la quatrième puissance de la température absolue, Composition spectrale de la radiation isotherme, Loi de Wien.

Quanta : Mécanique chimique, Molécules activées d'Arrhénius, La radiation est un facteur de cet équilibre, Matière et lumière en équilibre, Lois de Planck et de Bohr, La théorie de Planck, Chaleur spécifique des solides, Extension de la notion d'activation aux rotations, L'absorption de la lumière se fait par quanta, Photons, Ondes associées aux grains de matière, Rotations stationnaires possibles, Fluorescence, Rendement de fluorescence, Phosphorescence, Part de la radiation thermique dans les activations, Induction moléculaire, Induction de résonance, Transferts d'activation.

Chapitre sept : Les électrons
Rayons cathodiques, Charge négative de ces rayons et mesure de leur potentiel d'arrêt, Leur charge a une masse spécifique invariante, Les électrons, Les rayons X, Ionisation des gaz, Effet Townsend, Étincelle, Rayons cosmiques, Charge des ions des gaz, Identité de la charge ionique élémentaire dans les gaz et dans les électrolytes, Observation individuelle des gros ions des gaz, Structure atomique de l'électricité, Mesure directe de la charge élémentaire, Perception individuelle de trajectoires d'électrons, L'effet photoélectrique révèle, comme l'absorption, la structure granulaire de la lumière, Énergie d'un photon de fréquence donnée, Effet Compton, La réalité électronique, Ondes associées, L'électron positif ou positron, Matérialisations et dématérialisations.

Chapitre huit : Structure des atomes
La réalité des molécules et des atomes, Rayons positifs, Spectrographes de masse, Isotopes et loi de Prout, Rayons alpha, Électrons planétaires et noyaux, Vérification de la théorie nucléaire, Nombres électroniques, La charge nucléaire détermine l'état du cortège électronique, Atome de Bohr et mécanique quantique, Rayons X caractéristiques, Niveaux énergétiques des électrons d'un cortège, Discontinuités dans l'absorption des rayons X, Rayons corpusculaires caractéristiques, Loi de Moseley, Se rattache au concept de Bohr, Liste des numéros atomiques, Hypothèse de Walther Kossel, Loi de Mendeleiev, Symboles numériques des cortèges, Effectifs des électrons aux divers niveaux, Dimensions des cortèges moléculaires, Combinaison chimique, Persistance des couches électroniques profondes, Les noyaux, Radioactivité, Transmutations provoquées, Neutrons, Synthèse d'atomes de durée notable positogènes ou négatogènes.

 Une étape de la physique
 Tableau périodique des éléments
 Liste des éléments

Notes et références
 Jean Perrin, Les Atomes, Librairie Félix Alcan, Paris, 1913.

Voir aussi

Articles connexes

Liens externes
 Les Atomes, sur le site Gallica.
 Mouvement brownien et molécules, par Jean Perrin, 1923, sur la Vidéothèque du CNRS.
 Jean Perrin et la réalité moléculaire, sur la Vidéothèque du CNRS.

Livre de physique
Livre de chimie
Livre scientifique
Histoire des sciences
Histoire de la physique
Histoire de la chimie
1913


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Long Island Food & Fun
Skate in the sky at The William Vale
A brand new skating rink has opened up on top of The William Vale hotel in Williamsburg, Brooklyn.
"Parasite" has officially infected Hollywood's award season. Bong Joon Ho's Korean class satire became the first foreign language film to take top honors from the Screen Actors Guild.
The Kansas City Chiefs will meet the San Francisco 49ers in the Super Bowl on Feb. 2 in Miami.
East End: Winter wines
2020-01-20T13:01:46Z 2020-01-20T13:01:46Z In this week's the East End segment, News 12's Doug Geed visited Lieb Cellars and Suhru Wines where you can find a cozy spot to relax and drink wine.
Kids Corner Events: Jan. 17-23
2020-01-17T13:30:00Z 2020-01-17T13:30:00Z Here are some great events to take your kids to this weekend.
Jonas Brothers recreate iconic movie scenes in new music video with wives
The Jonas Brothers released a new single Friday - and the music video features something near and dear to them - their wives.
Newsday stylist Anne Bratskeir gives tips on adding classic blue to your wardrobe in 2020
2020-01-16T12:19:53Z 2020-01-16T12:19:53Z Pantone's color of the year for 2020 is classic blue, and Newsday stylist Anne Bratskeir is giving News 12's Elizabeth Hashagen and Elisa DiStefano tips on how to add the color to your wardrobe!
Dishin' Long Island: Dirty Burger in Plainview
2020-01-17T12:14:59Z 2020-01-16T10:52:32Z Dirty Burger is a contemporary eatery with creative burgers and other American food, including steaks, plus a full bar.
2020-01-15T15:49:21Z 2020-01-15T15:49:21Z Posthumous inductees Whitney Houston and The Notorious B.I.G. will lead a new class into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, joined by Depeche Mode, the Doobie Brothers, Nine Inch Nails and T-Rex.
What's Cooking: Seafood salad
2020-01-15T12:27:02Z 2020-01-15T12:27:02Z Chef Nader Gebrin, of Bravo! Nader, shows News 12's Lily Stolzberg how to make a seafood salad.
Chick-fil-A gives free nuggets to app users in January
Chick-fil-A is gifting customers a "nugget of their appreciation" with free nuggets during the month of January.
Tasty Tuesday: Fogo de Chão
2020-01-14T11:38:19Z 2020-01-14T11:39:15Z Brazilian steakhouse chain Fogo de Chão has opened its first Long Island location on Old Country Road in Carle Place.
'Joker' tops Oscar nominations with 11; 3 other films get 10
Todd Phillips' much-debated supervillain origin story and R-rated box-office smash "Joker" topped all films with 11 Academy Awards nominations.
Pitt, Sandler and 'The Irishman' celebrated at NBR Awards
The National Board of Review assembled many of the regulars of this year's awards season in the annual, untelevised gala dinner at Cipriani's 42nd Street in midtown Manhattan.
East End: Long Island Woodwork
2020-01-13T11:27:48Z 2020-01-13T11:27:48Z Colin Salmaggi, of Long Island Woodwork, creates maps of Long Island with wood.
Long Island artist strives to change art culture on the Island
Long Island native Efren Andaluz, better known as Andaluz the Artist, brings creative pieces to life through his many forms of art.
East End: 8 Hands Family Farm, Koppert Cress, Uncle Joe's Restaurant
2020-01-10T13:54:16Z 2020-01-10T13:54:16Z For this week's The East End Show, News 12's Doug Geed visited 8 Hands Farm - to see sheep getting sheared; Koppert Cress - where they grow unique tasting microgreens; and Uncle Joe's Restaurant - a nice, cozy restaurant perfect for winter time.
Disney On Ice presents Dream Big: Disney heroes are back on Long Island
2020-01-10T12:12:26Z 2020-01-10T12:12:26Z News 12's Elizabeth Hashagen and Elisa DiStefano checked out what it takes to make the magic come alive on the ice.
Stars hit the red carpet for the premiere of 'Like a Boss'
The stars of the film "Like a Boss" hit the red carpet Tuesday in New York City for the premiere.
Food & FunMore>>
Guide: Indoor fun around Long Island
Looking for something fun to do with the kids? Here is a guide to all of the fun places to take kids that are inside - so no matter the weather - hot or cold - we've got you covered!
Guide: Restaurants with fireplaces on Long Island
George Martin's Strip Steak has a fireplace to dine next to.
Looking to warm up while you dine in the colder months? Here is a list of restaurants across Long Island that feature a fireplace to cozy up next to.
Guide: Winter theater shows on Long Island
John W. Engeman Theater
Do you want to see a theater show this winter but don't want to travel into New York City? Look no further.
Guide: Ice skating rinks on Long Island
Are you looking to perfect your triple axel? Or maybe you want to learn how to ice skate without clinging to the wall? Here is a guide for ice skating rinks open this winter.
Guide: Entertainment Venues in the Tri-State Area
Looking for a place to listen to some music or see a local play? Here is a list of concert venues in the Tri-state area.
Guide: Animal shelters on Long Island
Friday is a 6-month-old Jack Russell mix. She loves everyone.
Check out our list of animal shelters on Long Island!
Each week, News 12's Doug Geed explores the best of the East End.
Get your taste buds ready, News 12 has some tasty dishes to try across the Island.
Dishin' Long Island
News 12's Stone Grissom is on the hunt for great food, great culture and great people.
Test your knowledge on various topics, then see how your rank with others!
Each week, Lily Stolzberg finds out what's cooking.
Looking for something fun to do with the kids this weekend? News 12 has you covered.
Looking for something fun to do? Check our our guide of things to do in the tri-state area.
All across Long Island, choirs, bands and orchestras sing songs for the season.
Cutest Pet Contest Winners!
'Tis the season! The holidays are here! All season-long, News 12 will bring you fun things to go, give you ideas if your hosting parties and more!
Get the latest on upcoming events on Long Island.
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Highly anticipated movies for 2020
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Jones Beach Summer Concert Lineup
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Here are some of the concerts at Northwell Health at Jones Beach Theater this summer.
What fun T-shirt will Stone Grissom wear?
Updated: Thursday, October 10 2019 6:55 AM EDT2019-10-10 10:55:55 GMT
News 12's Stone Grissom is dishin' some fun T-shirts during his award-winning Dishin' Long Island segments! What fun shirt will he wear next?

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


This easy, homemade sauerkraut packs probiotic goodness in a recipe that can be served hot or cold. No need for fancy equipment, cabbage brines in a simple solution of sea salt and caraway seeds for a kraut full of flavor.
Making sauerkraut can seem like an intimidating task, but it is quite simple and well worth the time. This small batch, artisan-style kraut can be served alongside Paleo sausages or by itself. In as quick as 3 days, your batch of sauerkraut is ready to devour. So, grab some large mason jars and let's get started.
Start with clean equipment and hands. It is important that all of the utensils and equipment are clean to avoid contaminating the sauerkraut with unwanted bacteria. Begin by finely shredding cabbage and combining in a large bowl along with Himalayan sea salt. Massage and squeeze the cabbage for about 5 minutes. This helps soften the cabbage and encourages it to release moisture, which is the beginning of the fermentation process.
Divide mixture between two mason jars and add apple cider vinegar. Apple cider vinegar adds more strains of probiotics to the kraut and helps form the brine. Place clean stones on top to help weigh the cabbage down as brine starts to fill the jars. If you don't have stones, add a small onion half or leaves of cabbage to cover the cabbage. Cover with cheesecloth and secure with twine around the band of a mason jar lid. Set jars at room temperature in a dry spot.
Over the next few days, the sauerkraut will ferment and fill with liquid brine, and bubbles will begin to form. This is a natural part of the lactobacillus bacteria present on cabbage converting to lactic acid. This good bacteria is a natural preservative that helps stave off harmful bacteria.
Check sauerkraut and regularly push it down, keeping it submerged in the brine. If the liquid brine isn't forming after 24 hours, dissolve ½ teaspoon of sea salt in 1 cup of water and add enough to cover the cabbage. If the sauerkraut is exposed to the air, it runs the risk of growing mold. Taste the kraut after 3 days and if it is to your liking, remove the weights and store in the refrigerator. This sauerkraut is equally tasty hot or cold.
For a Bavarian-style kraut with a touch of sweetness, sauté cabbage in beef tallow along with a little bit of coconut sugar and serve alongside brats or on Paleo sandwiches.
This easy, homemade sauerkraut packs probiotic goodness in a recipe that can be served hot or cold.
In a large mixing bowl, combine sea salt and shredded cabbage. Use hands to massage and squeeze cabbage to help soften and release moisture. This will take about 5 minutes. Mix in caraway seeds.
Using hands or a large spoon, stuff cabbage into each mason jar, packing as you go. Leave about 3 inches at the top for room to add the weight. Pour in any liquid from bowl along with a teaspoon of ACV into each jar.
Weigh down cabbage mixtures with clean stones inside of a small dish. Place cheesecloth on top and tie securely. Over the next few days, press cabbage down as liquid begins to release from cabbage, keeping the cabbage submerged in liquid. Skim off any scum that may form. Ferment for 3-10 days, tasting cabbage after 3 days. Once taste reaches your preference, remove stones and transfer to a smaller container or combine into one. Refrigerate up to 2 months.
To serve sauerkraut: Melt tallow over medium/low heat in a large skillet. Drain and discard any excess liquid from sauerkraut and pour sauerkraut into skillet. Stir in coconut sugar. Cook uncovered for 10 minutes or until cabbage has lightly browned, stirring occasionally. Serve hot.


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Bureau of International Labor Affairs
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Promoting Apprenticeship as a Path for Youth Employment in Argentina, Costa Rica, and Kenya through Global Apprenticeships Network (GAN) National Networks
Region/Country:
Funding and Year:
: USD
The Promoting Apprenticeship as a Path for Youth Employment Project is working directly with employers, workers' organizations, and governments to help increase the number of apprenticeship opportunities for vulnerable youth in Argentina, Costa Rica, and Kenya. The project will create and strengthen private sector networks in support of apprenticeship and other types of work-based training, such as internships, in all three countries, helping employers launch quality work training programs while ensuring these programs are accessible to disadvantaged youth.
One of the most pressing global challenges is providing quality job opportunities to the approximately 75 million youth of legal working age in search of a job. Youth from vulnerable backgrounds are at great risk of turning to hazardous or illicit forms of work to support themselves. Many national governments, businesses, and workers organizations want to find ways to reduce the skills gap and equip youth with the skills that are in-demand in modern economies. While large businesses often implement work-based training and apprenticeships programs, smaller companies are often unaware of the benefits of such programs or how to implement them.
The Promoting Apprenticeship Project seeks to create more and better apprenticeship opportunities for vulnerable youth by helping employers understand how youth apprenticeship works, launch apprenticeship programs, and cooperate with the government to build national apprenticeship systems that are inclusive of youth from disadvantaged backgrounds. A key outcome of the project will be the creation and consolidation of national-level apprenticeship networks in each country (Argentina, Costa Rica, and Kenya), which will serve as coordination platforms for large and small employers to implement apprenticeship programs, learn from one another, and collaborate with government and civil society organizations. In addition to developing country-specific tools and best practices related to youth work-based training programs, the project will help the Argentina, Costa Rica, and Kenya country networks access regional and international best practices related to youth training, and adapt these practices to their local contexts.
GAN national networks have been launched in Argentina and Costa Rica, and coordination has begun with potential network members in Kenya. The Argentina and Costa Rica networks have begun evaluating their member companies' knowledge of and capacity to implement work-based training programs for vulnerable youth, as well as the countries' legal and policy frameworks on youth training and employment, to identify and advocate for improvements.
Grantee: Global Apprenticeships Network (GAN)
Office of Child Labor, Forced Labor, and Human Trafficking (OCFT)
Tags: Child Labor Apprenticeships Capacity Building Youth Employment
An agency within the U.S. Department of Labor
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text:
class Timer(object):
    """ A Timer that can periodically call a given callback
        function.

        After creation, you should call update() with the
        amount of time passed since the last call to update()
        in milliseconds.

        The callback calls will result synchronously during these
        calls to update()
    """
    def __init__(self, interval, callback, oneshot=False):
        """ Create a new Timer.

            interval:
                The timer interval in milliseconds

            callback:
                Callable, to call when each interval expires

            oneshot:
                True for a timer that only acts once

        """
        self.interval = interval
        self.callback = callback
        self.oneshot = oneshot
        self.time = 0
        self.alive = True

    def update(self, time_passed):
        if not self.alive:
            return

        self.time += time_passed
        if self.time > self.interval:
            self.time -= self.interval
            self.callback()

            if self.oneshot:
                self.alive = False

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaGithub


Not so very long ago, Spain's economy was firing on all cylinders, with GDP growing more than expected, and outpacing the rest of the European Union. But since 2015, with exports slowing and tourists heading to different destinations, GDP growth has been decelerating. Nevertheless, Spain is still outperforming the Continent, and is expected to continue to do so, at least in the next few years, despite political turnover in Madrid, royal scandals and the disruption caused by Catalonia's messy demand for independence.
According to the IMF World Economic Outlook, in the three years from 2015, Spain's GDP rose an average of 3.3%, against 2.1% for the euro area and 2.4% for the EU as a whole. Now it is expected to retreat. This year, Spain's GDP is expected to expand 2.7%, down from 3% last year but still well above the 2% seen for the rest of the eurozone.
Spain's recent brisk turnaround followed the deepest financial and economic crisis of the post-Franco decades. The 2008 deflation of the property-market bubble hit the banking system hard, and then, one by one, all the country's major industries. In 2012, Spain's European partners bailed it out, yet the following year, the economy contracted nearly 2% anyway, as unemployment surged past 26%. After such a sharp recession, radical job-market reform and a deleveraging of private debt triggered a recovery; a multitude of new firms and businesses added breadth and dynamism to the old mix of construction and a few large and traditional companies.
External factors also gave the economy an extra boost. Oil prices hit a record low, the euro was devalued, and terrorism scares in other popular destinations such as Turkey and North Africa drove tourists back to Spain—all of which supported the economic expansion. Most of these favorable external elements are now played out, however.
The wild card in this guardedly optimistic scenario is Catalonia: Will the political turmoil in this rich region spill over into the economic realm? A year after Catalonia unilaterally declared its independence from the central government in October 2017, only small, inconclusive signs are emerging in the data.
"We've seen a slowdown specifically in Catalonia, and that also is important to note," says Cardoso. "It's very, very difficult to say what's behind this trend, and there are several elements affecting it. For sure there is the political uncertainty; but there is also, for example, the terrorist attack that Catalonia suffered just over a year ago." Cardoso also notes a decline in the growth of Catalonians enrolled in social security.
Spain's other big—and traditional—hurdle is the jobs market. Much of the country's economic future will depend on whether new jobs are able to generate higher revenue. "Employment has registered remarkable growth in recent years," says Antonio Cortina, deputy director of economic research at Banco Santander. "The unemployment rate has been reduced from 27% to around 15%, thanks to growth, competitive improvements of Spanish companies and the labor reforms undertaken during the crisis." A 15% rate of unemployment is still high, however; Spain must carry off the trick of reducing that figure while increasing labor income.
In Santander's baseline scenario, unemployment drops to around 11% in 2021. "The fundamental challenge now is to promote more-inclusive growth by reducing the duality of the labor market, boosting productivity and improving wages, particularly in the lower income segments," says Cortina. That will, he adds, require another application of reformist energy to the labor market. But with growth, at least, the government has some breathing room.


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Home / Entertainment News / PETER MAYHEW, CHEWBACCA IN 'STAR WARS' FILMS, DIES AT 74
PETER MAYHEW, CHEWBACCA IN 'STAR WARS' FILMS, DIES AT 74
Peter Mayhew, who became known to fans worldwide as the lovable Wookiee Chewbacca in the Star Wars galaxy of films, has died. He was 74. Mayhew's death comes just days before Star Wars Day on May 4th.
The actor died Tuesday in his North Texas home with his family by his side. His official Twitter account shared the news Thursday.
Mayhew had undergone spinal surgery in July in an effort to improve his mobility. The London native played Chewbacca in Star Wars (1977), The Empire Strikes Back (1980), Return of the Jedi (1983), Revenge of the Sith (2005) and The Force Awakens (2015).
Mayhew had done some minor acting – he played a minotaur in the Ray Harryhausen fantasy "Sinbad" and the "Eye of the Tiger" (1977) – and was working as a hospital orderly when he tried out for the part of Chewbacca. He got the role based on his physique; writer-director George Lucas was in desperate need of someone who would be able to play taller than Darth Vader. In his prime, Mayhew stood 7-foot-3. After wrapping the first Star Wars, he went back to work as an orderly and did not leave the job for good until the release of Return of the Jedi, after which he made a living off of Chewbacca, becoming a favorite on the fan convention circuit.
Mayhew acted as a key mentor to Finnish actor Joonas Suotamo, who appeared in a few Force Awakens scenes as the furry hero. Suotamo took over the Chewie mantle permanently in 2017's The Last Jedi.
A private memorial for Mayhew will take place June 29th, and there will be a gathering for fans at EmpireConLA in December. Mayhew is survived by his wife, Angie, and three children.
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Its good that you save your marriage from break up by talking to a marriage specialist that you can trust. However, not every person that has the title of a marriage counselor is the best for you. You have to make sure that you have investigated about the marriage therapist that you are interested with before you hire the services. Here are some of the guidelines that can lead you to make the best choice of a marriage counselor.
The practice of the counselor in the business is the first factor to consider. Most of the marriage counselors will make sure that they include their years of experience in the website so that everyone can be able to know of their industry experience. You can also request the counselor to tell you of the experience in marriage counseling. Make sure you don't just agree with the word of the mount but also be served with some supportive documents. The marriage counselor with many years of experience would be best to choose because s/he has a wide knowledge in dealing with marriage issues.
The reputation of the marriage counselor. If you are looking for a marriage counselor you must have confidence that counselor will be able to solve your differences. For you to be promised that you have to make sure that you choose a marriage counselor with a good reputation from other people. To know who has the best reputation you can check in the website if the counselor has ever been awarded for quality services to customers. Additionally, clients that post their feedback on the counselor's website after experiencing the services can really help you in making the decision.
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text:
Heart attacks less recognizable in women
by Tribune News Service | January 24, 2023 at 4:00 a.m.
Women are more likely to die from a heart attack than men. Studies suggest that's because women are less able to recognize the symptoms of a heart attack. (Dreamstime/TNS)
While heart attacks don't discriminate based on gender, women are more likely to die from a heart attack than men.
Studies suggest that's because women are less able to recognize the symptoms of a heart attack.
Cardiovascular nurse Jennifer Gaydosh knows firsthand how tricky it can be to recognize heart attack symptoms in women.
Gaydosh woke up in the middle of the night with a burning pain in her arm. After a visit to the ER and some tests, Gaydosh was cleared and released. But later at work, a coworker told her she didn't look good and suggested she go back for additional testing. Those tests revealed Gaydosh was having a heart attack. That a cardiovascular nurse who deals with patients experiencing heart attacks all the time couldn't be sure what she was experiencing, just goes to show how difficult it can be for women to recognize the symptoms.
"I see patients all the time who try to talk themselves out of symptoms, and I roll my eyes," Gaydosh told Good Morning America. "It really is easy to convince yourself that you're fine."
The truth is, heart attack symptoms in women are often overlooked and missed. Unlike the chest-grabbing, arm-tingling symptoms men often experience, the signs of a heart attack in women can be a bit more subtle.
• Nausea
• Indigestion
• Dizziness
• Chest pain
• Burning sensation
• Uncomfortable pain between shoulder blades
• Shortness of breath
• Indigestion or gas-like pain
• Unexplained fatigue and sleep disturbances
"Don't ignore your symptoms. Women, in particular, are worried about looking foolish or making a big deal or thinking, 'I have to go to work and I have to take care of everything,'" Gaydosh added.
"Ultimately you have to take care of yourself first," she said. "Go get your symptoms checked out rather than ignore them."
Print Headline: Heart attacks less recognizable in women


text:
Kingdom of Hungary
Title: Kingdom of Hungary
Subject: House of Habsburg, Magyarization, List of wars 1000–1499, Lands of the Crown of Saint Stephen, Hungarians
Collection: Former Countries in Europe, Former Kingdoms, Former Monarchies of Europe, Habsburg Monarchy by Location, History of Croatia, History of Hungary, History of Transylvania, History of Vojvodina, Kingdom of Hungary, Medieval History of Vojvodina, Medieval Serbia, Serbia Under Habsburg Rule, States and Territories Disestablished in 1918, States and Territories Disestablished in 1946, States and Territories Established in 1000, States and Territories Established in 1920, Transylvania in the Kingdom of Hungary, Vojvodina Under Habsburg Rule
Regnum Hungariae (la)
Königreich Ungarn (de)
Magyar Királyság (hu)
Flag (1867-1918) Coat of Arms
Regnum Mariae Patrona Hungariae[1]
"Kingdom of Mary, the Patron of Hungary"
God save, God protect Our Emperor, Our Country!
Kingdoms of Hungary (dark green) and Croatia-Slavonia (light green) within Austria-Hungary in 1914
Capital Budapest
Historical capitals:
Esztergom (10th to mid-13th century)
Budaa
Pressburg (1536–1783)
Debrecen (1849)
Székesfehérvár (royal seat, crowning and burial site until the 16th century)
Languages Official languages:
(1000–1784; 1790–1844)
Other spoken languages:
Romanian, Slovak, Croatian, Slovene, Serbian, Italian, Ruthenian, Carpathian Romani, Mideastern Yiddish,
Religion Roman Catholic,[2] Calvinism, Lutheranism, Eastern Orthodoxy, Eastern Catholic, Unitarianism, Judaism
Government Monarchy
• 1000–1038 Stephen I (first)
• 1916–1918 Charles IV (last)
• 1920–1944 Regent Miklós Horthy
• 1009–1038 Samuel Aba
• 1847–1848 Stephen Francis Victor
• 1848 Lajos Batthyány
• 1945–1946 Zoltán Tildy
Legislature Diet (from the 1290s)
• Upper house House of Magnates
• Lower house House of Representatives
Historical era 2nd millennium
• Coronation of Stephen I 25 December 1000
• Ottoman occupation
of Buda 29 August 1541
• Hungarian Revolution 15 March 1848
• 1867 Compromise 20 March 1867
• Treaty of Trianon 4 June 1920
• Monarchy abolished 1 February 1946
• 1910[3] 282,870 km² (109,217 sq mi)
• 1930[4] 93,073 km² (35,936 sq mi)
• 1941[5] 172,149 km² (66,467 sq mi)
• 1711[6] est. 3,000,000
• 1910[7] est. 18,264,533
Density 64.6 /km² (167.2 /sq mi)
Currency Florentinus (1325–1553)
Florin (1754–1867)
Forint (1867–1892)
Korona (1892–1918)
Pengő (1927–1946)
Adópengő (1946)
Today part of Austria
a. First became capital in 1256
The Kingdom of Hungary was a monarchy in Central Europe that existed from the Middle Ages into the twentieth century (1000-1946 with the exception of 1918-1920). The Principality of Hungary emerged as a Christian kingdom upon the coronation of the first king Stephen I at Esztergom in about the year 1000;[10] his family (the Árpád dynasty) led the monarchy for 300 years. By the 12th century, the kingdom became a European middle power within the Western world.[10]
Due to the Ottoman occupation of the central and southern territories in the 16th century, the monarchy split into three parts: the Habsburg Royal Hungary, Ottoman Hungary and the semi-independent Principality of Transylvania.[10] The House of Habsburg held the Hungarian throne after the Battle of Mohács until 1918 and also played a key role in the liberation wars against the Ottoman Empire.
From 1867, territories connected to the Hungarian crown were incorporated into Austria-Hungary under the name of Lands of the Crown of Saint Stephen. The monarchy ended with the deposition of the last king Charles IV in 1918, after which Hungary became a republic. The kingdom was nominally restored during the "Regency" of 1920–1946, ending with the Soviet occupation in 1946.[10]
The Kingdom of Hungary was a multiethnic[11] state from its inception[12] until the Treaty of Trianon and it covered what is today Hungary, Slovakia, Transylvania and other parts of what is now Romania, Carpathian Ruthenia (now part of Ukraine), Vojvodina (now part of Serbia), Burgenland (now part of Austria), and other smaller territories surrounding present-day Hungary's borders. From 1102 it also included Croatia (except Istria), being in personal union with it, united under the King of Hungary.
Today the feast day of the first king Stephen I (20 August) is a national holiday in Hungary, commemorating the foundation of the state (Foundation Day).[13]
Capital cities 3
Middle Ages 4
High Middle Ages 4.1
Mongol invasion 4.1.1
Late Middle Ages 4.2
The Anjou Age 4.2.1
The Age of Sigismund 4.2.2
Hunyadi family 4.2.3
The divided kingdom 5.1
The Kuruc age 5.2
Age of Enlightenment 5.3
Hungarian Revolution of 1848 5.4
Austria-Hungary (1867–1918) 6
Transitions (1918 to 1920) 7
Two short-lived republics 7.1
Treaty of Trianon (1920) 7.2
Between 1920 and 1946 8
Interwar period 8.1
During World War II 1941–1945 8.2
Transitioning into a republic 8.3
The Latin forms Regnum Hungariae or Ungarie (Regnum meaning kingdom); Regnum Marianum (Kingdom of Mary); or simply Hungaria, were the names used in official documents in Latin from the beginning of the kingdom to the 1840s.
The German name Königreich Ungarn was used officially between from 1784 to 1790[14] and again between 1849 and the 1860s.
The Hungarian name (Magyar Királyság) was used in the 1840s, and then again from the 1860s to 1946. The non-official Hungarian name of the kingdom was Magyarország,[15] which is still the colloquial, and also the official name of Hungary.[16]
The names in the other native languages of the kingdom were: Polish: Królestwo Węgier, Romanian: Regatul Ungariei, Serbian: Kraljevina Ugarska, Croatian: Kraljevina Ugarska, Slovene: Kraljevina Ogrska, Slovak: Uhorské kráľovstvo, and Italian (for the city of Fiume), Regno d'Ungheria.
In Austria-Hungary (1867–1918), the unofficial name Transleithania was sometimes used to denote the regions covered by the Kingdom of Hungary. Officially, the term Lands of the Holy Hungarian Crown of Saint Stephen was included for the Hungarian part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, although this term was also in use prior to that time.
The Hungarians led by Árpád settled the Carpathian Basin in 895, established Principality of Hungary (896–1000).[17] The Hungarians led several successful incursions to Western Europe, until they were stopped by Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor in Battle of Lechfeld.
Esztergom 1000-1256
Buda 1256-1315
Temesvár 1315-1323
Visegrád 1323-1408
Vienna 1485-1490
Pozsony 1536-1784
Debrecen 1849
Budapest 1873-1944
King Stephen I of Hungary
The principality was succeeded by the Christian Kingdom of Hungary with the coronation of St Stephen I (son of principal Géza. Originally called Vajk until baptized) at Esztergom on Christmas Day 1000. The first kings of the kingdom were from the Árpád dynasty. He fought against Koppány and in 998, with Bavarian help, defeated him near Veszprém. The Catholic Church received powerful support from Stephen I, who with Christian Hungarians and German knights wanted a Christian kingdom established in Central Europe. Stephen I of Hungary was canonized as a Catholic saint in 1083 and an Orthodox saint in 2000.
After his death, a period of revolts and conflict for supremacy ensued between the royalty and the nobles. In 1051 armies of the Holy Roman Empire tried to conquer Hungary, but they were defeated at Vértes Mountain. The armies of the Holy Roman Empire continued to suffer defeats; the second greatest battle was at the town now called Bratislava, in 1052. Before 1052 Peter Orseolo, a supporter of the Holy Roman Empire, was overthrown by king Samuel Aba of Hungary.[18][19]
The Holy Crown of Hungary along with other regalia
Hungary (including Croatia) in 1190, during the rule of Béla III
This period of revolts ended during the reign of Béla I. Hungarian chroniclers praised Béla I for introducing new currency, such as the silver denarius, and for his benevolence to the former followers of his nephew, Solomon. The second greatest Hungarian king, also from the Árpád dynasty, was Ladislaus I of Hungary, who stabilized and strengthened the kingdom. He was also canonized as a saint. Under his rule Hungarians successfully fought against the Cumans and conquered Croatia in 1091, due to a dynastic crisis in Croatia, he managed to swiftly seize power in the kingdom, he also was a claimant to the throne due to the fact that his sister was married to the late Croatian king Zvonimir who died childless.
However, kingship over all of Croatia would not be achieved until the reign of his successor Coloman. With the coronation of King Coloman as "King of Croatia and Dalmatia" in Biograd in 1102, the two kingdoms of Croatia and Hungary were united under one crown.[20][21] Although the precise terms of this relationship became a matter of dispute in the 19th century, it is believed that Coloman created a kind of personal union between the two kingdoms. The nature of the relationship varied through time, Croatia retained a large degree of internal autonomy overall, while the real power rested in the hands of the local nobility.[22] Modern Croatian and Hungarian historiographies mostly view the relations between Kingdom of Croatia and Kingdom of Hungary from 1102 as a form of a personal union, i.e. that they were connected by a common king.[23] Also, one of the greatest Hungarian jurists and statesmen of the 16th century, István Werbőczy in his work Tripartitum treats Croatia as a kingdom separate to Hungary.
In 1222 Andrew II of Hungary issued the Golden Bull which laid down the principles of law.
Mongol invasion
The Meeting of Ladislaus IV and Rudolf I during the Battle on the Marchfeld, painting by Mór Than (1873)
In 1241, Hungary was invaded by the Mongols and while the first minor battles with Subutai's vanguard probes ended in seeming Hungarian victories, the Mongols finally destroyed the combined Hungarian and Cuman armies at the Battle of Muhi. In 1242, after the end of the Mongol invasion, numerous fortresses to defend against future invasion were erected by Béla IV of Hungary. In gratitude, the Hungarians acclaimed him as the "Second Founder of the Homeland", and the Hungarian Kingdom again became a considerable force in Europe. In 1260 Béla IV lost the War of Babenberg Succession, his army was defeated at the Battle of Kressenbrunn by the united Czech forces. However, in 1278 Ladislaus IV of Hungary and Austrian troops fully destroyed the Czech army at the Battle on the Marchfeld.
The Árpád dynasty died out in 1301 with the death of Andrew III. Subsequently, Hungary was ruled by the Angevins until the end of the 14th century, and then by several non-dynastic rulers - notably Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor and Matthias Corvinus - until the early 16th century.
King Charles I of Hungary
The administrative divisions of medieval Hungary
The Anjou Age
When Andrew III's predecessor, Ladislaus IV, was assassinated in 1290, another nobleman was set up as titular King of Hungary: Charles Martel of Anjou. Charles Martel was the son of King Charles II of Naples and Mary of Hungary, the sister of Ladislaus IV. However, Andrew III took the crown for himself, and ruled without inconvenience after Charles Martel's death in 1295.
Upon Andrew's death in 1301, the throne was claimed by Charles Martel's son, Charles Robert. After a period of instability, he was finally crowned King Charles I in 1310. He implemented considerable economic reforms, and defeated the remaining nobility who were in opposition to royal rule, led by Máté Csák III. The kingdom of Hungary reached an age of prosperity and stability under Charles I. The gold mines of the Kingdom were extensively worked and soon Hungary reached a prominent standing in European gold production. The forint was introduced as a currency, replacing the denars, and soon after Charles's reforms were implemented, the economy of the Kingdom started to prosper again, having fallen into a parlous state following the Mongol invasion.
Charles exalted the cult to Saint Ladislaus I, using him as a symbol of bravery, justice and purity. He also venerated his uncle, Saint Louis of Toulouse. On the other hand, he gave importance to the cults of the princesses Saint Elizabeth and Saint Margaret, which added relevance to the lineage inheritance through the feminine branches.[24]
Charles restored the royal power which had fallen into feudal lords' hands, and then made the lords swear loyalty to him. For this, he founded in 1326 the chivalric order in the world, and included the most important noblemen of the Kingdom.
Louis I of Hungary on Heroes Square, Budapest
Charles married four times. His fourth wife was Elizabeth, the daughter of Władysław I of Poland. When Charles died in 1342, his eldest son by Elizabeth succeeded him as Louis I. In the first years of his reign, Louis was advised closely by his mother, making her one of the most influential personalities in the Kingdom.
Charles had arranged the marriage of his second son, Andrew, with his cousin Joanna, the granddaughter of King Robert of Naples, in 1332. Robert died in 1343, bequeathing his kingdom to Joanna but excluding the claim of Andrew. In 1345, a group of noble Neapolitan conspirators murdered Andrew at Aversa. Almost immediately, Louis declared war on Naples, conducting a first campaign in 1347–1348 and a second in 1350. He eventually signed a peace with Joanna in 1352. Louis also waged wars against the Serbian Empire and the Golden Horde, restoring the Hungarian monarchs' authority over territories along the frontiers which had been lost during the previous decades.
In 1370 Louis's uncle, Casimir III of Poland, died without male issue. Louis succeeded him, thus establishing the first union of Hungary and Poland. This lasted until 1382, when Louis himself died without male issue; his two daughters, Mary and Jadwiga, then ascended the thrones of Hungary and Poland respectively.
The Age of Sigismund
King Sigismund of Hungary
Louis I of Hungary always kept good and close relationships with the Holy Roman Emperor Charles IV of Luxembourg and finally proclaimed Charles's son Sigismund of Luxembourg to succeed him as King of Hungary. Sigismund became a renowned king who created many improvements in the Hungarian law system and who rebuilt the palaces of Buda and Visegrád. He brought materials from Austria and Bohemia and ordered the creation of the most luxurious building in all central Europe. In his laws can be seen the traces of the early mercantilism. He worked hard to keep the nobility under his control. A great part of his reign was dedicated to the fight with the Ottoman Empire, which started to extend its frontiers and influence to Europe. In 1396 was fought the Battle of Nicopolis against the Ottomans, which resulted in a defeat for the Hungarian-French forces led by Sigismund and Philip of Artois, Count of Eu. However, Sigismund continued to successfully contain the Ottoman forces outside of the Kingdom for the rest of his life.
Losing popularity among the Hungarian nobility, Sigismund soon became victim of an attempt against his rule, and Ladislaus of Anjou-Durazzo (the son of the murdered King of Naples Charles II of Hungary) was called in and crowned. Since the ceremony was not performed with the Hungarian Holy Crown, and in the city of Székesfehérvár, it was considered illegitimate. Ladislaus stayed only few days in Hungarian territory and soon left it, no longer an inconvenience for Sigismund. In 1408 he founded the Order of the Dragon, which included the most of the relevant monarchs and noblemen of that region of Europe in that time. This was just a first step for what was coming. In 1410 he was elected King of the Romans, making him the supreme monarch over the German territories. He had to deal with the Hussite movement, a religious reformist group that was born in Bohemia, and he presided at the Council of Constance, where the theologist founder Jan Hus, was judged. In 1419 Sigismund inherited the Crown of Bohemia after the death of his brother Wenceslaus of Luxembourg, obtaining the formal control of three medieval states, but he struggled for control of Bohemia until the peace agreement with the Hussites and his coronation in 1436. In 1433 was crowned as Holy Roman Emperor by the Pope and ruled until his death in 1437, leaving as his only heir his daughter Elizabeth of Luxembourg and her husband. The marriage of Elizabeth was arranged with the Duke Albert V of Austria, who was later crowned as King Albert of Hungary in 1437.
Western conquests of Matthias Corvinus
Matthias Corvinus as depicted in Johannes de Thurocz's Chronica Hungarorum
Hunyadi family
The Hungarian kingdom's golden age was during the reign of Matthias Corvinus (1458–90), the son of John Hunyadi. His nickname was "Matthias the Just". He further improved the Hungarian economy and practised astute diplomacy in place of military action whenever possible. Matthias did undertake campaigning when necessary. From 1485 until his death, he occupied Vienna, aiming to limit the influence and meddling of the Holy Roman Empire in Hungary's affairs.
Matthias died without heir, and was thus succeeded by Vladislaus II Jagiellon (1490–1516), the son of Casimir IV of Poland. In turn, Vladislaus was succeeded by his son Louis II (1516–26).
At the time of the initial Ottoman encroachment, the Hungarians successfully resisted conquest. John Hunyadi was leader of the Crusade of Varna, in which the Hungarians tried to expel the Turks from the Balkans. Initially, it was successful, but finally they had to withdraw.
In 1456, John Hunyadi delivered a crushing defeat on the Ottomans at the Siege of Belgrade. The Noon Bell commemorates the fallen Christian warriors. In the 15th century, the Black Army of Hungary was a modern mercenary army, with the Hussars the most skilled troops of the Hungarian cavalry. In 1479, under the leadership of Pál Kinizsi, the Hungarian army destroyed the Ottoman and Wallachian troops at the Battle of Breadfield. The Army of Hungary destroyed its enemies almost every time when Matthias was king.
In 1526, at the Battle of Mohács, the forces of the Ottoman Empire led by Suleiman I annihilated the Hungarian army. In trying to escape, Louis II drowned in the Csele Creek. The leader of the Hungarian army, Pál Tomori, also died in the battle.
Early modern history
The divided kingdom
Due to a serious defeat by the Ottomans (Battle of Mohács) the central authority collapsed. The majority of Hungary's ruling elite elected John Zápolya (10 November 1526). A small minority of aristocrats sided with Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor, who was Archduke of Austria, and was related to Louis by marriage. Due to previous agreements that the Habsburgs would take the Hungarian throne if Louis died without heirs, Ferdinand was elected king by a rump diet in December 1526.
Although the borders shifted frequently during this period, the three parts can be identified, more or less, as follows:
Royal Hungary, which consisted of northern and western territories where Ferdinand I was recognized as king of Hungary. This part is viewed as defining the continuity of the Kingdom of Hungary. The territory along with Ottoman Hungary suffered greatly from the nearly constant wars taking place.
Ottoman Hungary The Great Alföld (i.e. most of present-day Hungary, including south-eastern Transdanubia and the Banat), partly without north-eastern present-day Hungary.
Eastern Hungarian Kingdom under the Szapolyai. Note that this territory, often under Ottoman influence, was different from Transylvania proper and included various other territories sometimes referred to as Partium. Later the entity was called Principality of Transylvania.
The Battle of Buda (1686): Hungarians and the Holy League (1684) reconquer Buda.
On 29 February 1528, King John I of Hungary received the support of the Ottoman Sultan. A three-sided conflict ensued as Ferdinand moved to assert his rule over as much of the Hungarian kingdom as he could. By 1529 the kingdom had been split into two parts: Habsburg Hungary and the "eastern-Kingdom of Hungary". At this time there were no Ottomans on Hungarian territories, except Srem's important castles. In 1532, Nikola Jurišić defended Kőszeg and stopped a powerful Ottoman army. By 1541, the fall of Buda marked a further division of Hungary into three areas. The country remained divided until the end of the 17th century.
In the following centuries there were numerous attempts to push back the Ottoman forces, such as the Long War or Thirteen Years' War (29 July 1593 – 1604/11 November 1606) led by a coalition of Christian forces. In 1644 the Winter Campaign by Miklós Zrínyi burnt the crucial Suleiman Bridge of Osijek in eastern Slavonia, interrupting a Turkish supply line in Hungary. At the Battle of Saint Gotthard (1664), Austrians and Hungarians defeated the Turkish army.
After the Ottoman siege of Austria failed in 1683, the Habsburgs went on the offensive against the Turks. By the end of the 17th century, they managed to invade the remainder of the historical Kingdom of Hungary and the principality of Transylvania. For a while in 1686, the capital Buda was again free from Ottoman Empire, with the aid of other Europeans.
The Kuruc age
Kuruc-Labanc battle
Counties of Lands of the Crown of Saint Stephen around 1880
Rákóczi's War for Independence (1703–1711) was the first significant freedom fight in Hungary against absolutist Habsburg rule. It was fought by a group of noblemen, wealthy and high-ranking progressives who wanted to put an end to the inequality of power relations, led by Francis II Rákóczi (II. Rákóczi Ferenc in Hungarian). Its main aims were to protect the rights of the different social orders, and to ensure the economic and social development of the country. Due to the adverse balance of forces, the political situation in Europe and internal conflicts the freedom fight was eventually suppressed, but it succeeded in keeping Hungary from becoming an integral part of the Habsburg Empire, and its constitution was kept, even though it was only a formality.
After the departure of the Ottomans, the Habsburgs dominated the Hungarian Kingdom. The Hungarians' renewed desire for freedom led to Rákóczi's War for Independence. The most important reasons of the war were the new and higher taxes and a renewed Protestant movement. Rákóczi was a Hungarian nobleman, son of the legendary heroine Ilona Zrínyi. He spent a part of his youth in Austrian captivity. The Kurucs were troops of Rákóczi. Initially, the Kuruc army attained several important victories due to their superior light cavalry. Their weapons were mostly pistols, light sabre and fokos. At the Battle of Saint Gotthard (1705), János Bottyán decisively defeated the Austrian army. The Hungarian colonel Ádám Balogh nearly captured Joseph I, the King of Hungary and Emperor of Austria.
In 1708, the Habsburgs finally defeated the main Hungarian army at Battle of Trencsén, and this diminished the further effectiveness of the Kuruc army. While the Hungarians were exhausted by the fights, the Austrians defeated the French army in the War of the Spanish Succession. They could send more troops to Hungary against the rebels. Transylvania became part of Hungary again starting at the end of the 17th century, and was led by governors.[25][26]
Distribution of Hungarians in the Kingdom of Hungary and the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia (1890)
Ethnographic map of Hungary without Croatia and Slavonia (1910). The population of areas under 20 persons/km2 is represented in the nearest area above that level, and the area is left blank.
In 1711, Austrian Emperor Charles VI became the next ruler of Hungary. Throughout the 18th century, the Kingdom of Hungary had its own Diet (parliament) and constitution, but the members of the Governor's Council (Helytartótanács, the office of the palatine) were appointed by the Habsburg monarch, and the superior economic institution, the Hungarian Chamber, was directly subordinated to the Court Chamber in Vienna. The Hungarian Language reform started under reign of Joseph II. The reform age of Hungary was started by István Széchenyi a Hungarian noble, who built one of the greatest bridges of Hungary, the Széchenyi Chain Bridge. The official language remained Latin until 1844. Then, between 1844 and 1849, and from 1867, Hungarian became the official language.
Hungarian Revolution of 1848
The European revolutions of 1848 swept Hungary, as well. The Hungarian Revolution of 1848 sought to redress the long suppressed desire for political change, namely independence. The Hungarian National Guard was created by young Hungarian patriots in 1848. In literature, this was best expressed by the greatest poet of the revolution, Sándor Petőfi.
As war broke out with Austria, Hungarian military successes, which included the campaigns of the Hungarian general, Artúr Görgey, forced the Austrians on the defensive. One of the most famous battles of the revolution, the Battle of Pákozd, was fought on the 29 September 1848, when the Hungarian revolutionary army led by Lieutenant-General János Móga defeated the troops of the Croatian Ban Josip Jelačić. Fearing defeat, the Austrians pleaded for Russian help. The combined forces of the two empires quelled the revolution. The desired political changes of 1848 were again suppressed until Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867.
Austria-Hungary (1867–1918)
Following the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867, the Habsburg Empire became the "dual monarchy" of Austria-Hungary. The Austro-Hungarian economy changed dramatically during the existence of the Dual Monarchy. Technological change accelerated industrialization and urbanization. The capitalist way of production spread throughout the Empire during its fifty-year existence and obsolete medieval institutions continued to disappear. By the early 20th century, most of the Empire began to experience rapid economic growth. The GNP per capita grew roughly 1.45% per year from 1870 to 1913. That level of growth compared very favorably to that of other European nations such as Britain (1.00%), France (1.06%), and Germany (1.51%).
The lands of the Hungarian Crown (comprising the Kingdom of Hungary proper, into which Transylvania was fully incorporated, and the Kingdom of Croatia–Slavonia, which maintained a distinct identity and a certain internal autonomy) were granted equal status with the rest of the Habsburg monarchy. Each of the two states comprising Austria-Hungary exercised considerable independence, with certain institutions, notably the reigning house, defence, foreign affairs, and finances for common expenditures, remaining under joint management. This arrangement lasted until 1918, when the Central Powers went down in defeat in World War I.
Transitions (1918 to 1920)
Two short-lived republics
Romanian forces entered Budapest on 6 August, putting an end to the Hungarian Soviet Republic.
Treaty of Trianon (1920)
The Treaty of Trianon: Hungary lost 72% of its territory, its sea access, half of its 10 biggest cities and all of its precious metal mines. 3,425,000 ethnic Hungarians found themselves separated from their motherland.[27][28][29]
The new borders set in 1920 by the Treaty of Trianon ceded 72% of the territory of the Kingdom of Hungary to the neighbouring states. The beneficiaries were Romania, the newly formed states of Czechoslovakia, and the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. The areas that were allocated to neighbouring countries in total (and each of them separately) possessed a majority of non-Hungarian population, but more than 3.3 million ethnic Hungarians were left outside the new borders of Hungary. Many view this as contrary to the terms laid out by US President Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points, which were intended to honour the ethnic makeup of the territories.
Miklós Horthy was regent of Hungary.
After the pullout of occupation forces of Romania in 1920 the country went into civil conflict, with Hungarian anti-communists and monarchists purging the nation of communists, leftists and others by whom they felt threatened. Later in 1920, a coalition of right-wing political forces united, and reinstated Hungary's status as a constitutional monarchy. Selection of the new King was delayed due to civil infighting, and a regent was appointed to represent the monarchy. Former Austro-Hungarian navy admiral Miklós Horthy became that regent. New international borders separated Hungary's industrial base from its sources of raw materials and its former markets for agricultural and industrial products. Hungary lost 84% of its timber resources, 43% of its arable land, and 83% of its iron ore. Furthermore, post-Trianon Hungary possessed 90% of the engineering and printing industry of the Kingdom, while only 11% of timber and 16% iron was retained. In addition, 61% of arable land, 74% of public road, 65% of canals, 62% of railroads, 64% of hard surface roads, 83% of pig iron output, 55% of industrial plants, 100% of gold, silver, copper, mercury and salt mines, and 67% of credit and banking institutions of the prewar Kingdom of Hungary lay within the territory of Hungary's neighbors.[30][31][32]
Because most of the country's pre-war industry was concentrated near Budapest, Hungary retained about 51% of its industrial population, 56% of its industry. Horthy appointed Count Pál Teleki as Prime Minister in July 1920. His government issued a numerus clausus law, limiting admission of "political insecure elements" (these were often Jews) to universities and, in order to quiet rural discontent, took initial steps towards fulfilling a promise of major land reform by dividing about 3,850 km2 from the largest estates into smallholdings. Teleki's government resigned, however, after Charles IV unsuccessfully attempted to retake Hungary's throne in March 1921. King Charles's return produced split parties between conservatives who favored a Habsburg restoration and nationalist right-wing radicals who supported election of a Hungarian king. Count István Bethlen, a non-affiliated right-wing member of the parliament, took advantage of this rift forming a new Party of Unity under his leadership. Horthy then appointed Bethlen prime minister. Charles IV died soon after he failed a second time to reclaim the throne in October 1921. (For more detail on Charles's attempts to retake the throne, see Charles IV of Hungary's conflict with Miklós Horthy.)
As prime minister, Bethlen dominated Hungarian politics between 1921 and 1931. He fashioned a political machine by amending the electoral law, providing jobs in the expanding bureaucracy to his supporters, and manipulating elections in rural areas. Bethlen restored order to the country by giving the radical counterrevolutionaries payoffs and government jobs in exchange for ceasing their campaign of terror against Jews and leftists. In 1921, he made a deal with the Social Democrats and trade unions (called Bethlen-Peyer Pact), agreeing, among other things, to legalize their activities and free political prisoners in return for their pledge to refrain from spreading League of Nations in 1922 and out of international isolation by signing a treaty of friendship with Italy in 1927. The revision of the Treaty of Trianon rose to the top of Hungary's political agenda and the strategy employed by Bethlen consisted by strengthening the economy and building relations with stronger nations. Revision of the treaty had such a broad backing in Hungary that Bethlen used it, at least in part, to deflect criticism of his economic, social, and political policies.
István Bethlen, the Prime Minister of Hungary
The Great Depression induced a drop in the standard of living and the political mood of the country shifted further toward the right. In 1932 Horthy appointed a new prime-minister, Gyula Gömbös, who changed the course of Hungarian policy towards closer cooperation with Germany. Gömbös signed a trade agreement with Germany that drew Hungary's economy out of depression but made Hungary dependent on the German economy for both raw materials and markets. On 2 November 1938, the First Vienna Award transferred parts of Southern Slovakia and Carpathian Ruthenia to Hungary, an area amounting to 11,927 km² and a population of 869,299 (86.5% of which were Hungarians according to the 1941 census). Between 5 November and 10 November, Hungarian armed forces peacefully occupied the newly transferred territories.[33] Hitler later promised to transfer all of Slovakia to Hungary in exchange for a military alliance, but his offer was rejected. Instead, Horthy chose to pursue a territorial revision to be decided along ethnic lines. In March 1939, the Czecho-Slovak Republic was dissolved, Germany invaded it, and the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia was established. On 14 March, Slovakia declared itself to be an independent state.
On 15 March, Carpatho-Ukraine declared itself to be an independent state. Hungary rejected the independence of Carpatho-Ukraine and, between 14 March and 18 March, Hungarian armed forces occupied the rest of Carpathian Ruthenia and ousted the government of Avgustyn Voloshyn. By contrast, Hungary recognized the Nazi puppet state of Slovakia led by the Clerical Fascist Jozef Tiso.[34] In September 1940, with troops massing on both sides of the Hungarian-Romanian border, war was averted by the Second Vienna Award. This award transferred the northern half of Transylvania to Hungary, with a total area of 43,492 km² and a total population of 2,578,100 with a 53.5% Hungarian majority according to the 1941 census. By dividing Transylvania between Romania and Hungary, Hitler was able to ease tensions in Hungary. In October 1940, the Germans initiated a reciprocity policy between Romania and Hungary which was continued until the end of World War II. The region of Sub-Carpathia was given special autonomous status with the intention that (eventually) it would be self-governed by the Ruthenian minority.
The Kingdom of Hungary in 1942, during World War II.
During World War II 1941–1945
After being granted part of southern Czechoslovakia and Subcarpathia by the Germans and Italians in the First Vienna Award of 1938, and then northern Transylvania in the Second Vienna Award of 1940, Hungary participated in their first military maneuvers on the side of the Axis powers in 1941. Thus, the Hungarian army was part of the invasion of Yugoslavia, gaining some more territory and joining the Axis powers in the process. On 22 June 1941, Germany invaded the Soviet Union in Operation Barbarossa. Hungary joined the German effort and declared war on the Soviet Union on 26 June, and entered World War II on the side of the Axis. In late 1941, the Hungarian troops on the Eastern Front experienced success at the Battle of Uman. By 1943, after the Hungarian Second Army suffered extremely heavy losses at the river Don, the Hungarian government sought to negotiate a surrender with the Allies. On 19 March 1944, as a result of this duplicity, German troops occupied Hungary in what was known as Operation Margarethe. By then it was clear that Hungarian politics would be suppressed according to Hitler's intention to hold the country in the war on the side of the Nazi Third Reich because of its strategic location. On 15 October 1944, Horthy made a token effort to disengage Hungary from the war. The Germans launched Operation Panzerfaust and Horthy's regime was replaced by a fascist puppet government under the pro-German Arrow Cross leader Ferenc Szálasi, thus effectively ending the possibility for independent actions in the war. However, the form of Government was only changed to a republic two years later.
Transitioning into a republic
Following its
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Hungary in the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica
Frucht, Richard. Encyclopedia of Eastern Europe: From the Congress of Vienna to the Fall of Communism (2000) online edition
Hoensch, Jörg K., and Kim Traynor. A History of Modern Hungary, 1867–1994 (1996) online edition
Hanak, Peter et al. A History of Hungary (1994)
Kontler, Laszlo. A History of Hungary (2006) excerpt and text search
Molnár, Miklós, and Anna Magyar. A Concise History of Hungary (2001) excerpt and text search
Palffy, Geza. The Kingdom of Hungary and the Habsburg Monarchy in the Sixteenth Century (East European Monographs, distributed by Columbia University Press, 2010) 406 pages; Covers the period after the battle of Mohacs in 1526 when the Kingdom of Hungary was partitioned in three, with one segment going to the Habsburgs.
^ Adeleye, Gabriel G. (1999). World Dictionary of Foreign Expressions. Ed. Thomas J. Sienkewicz and James T. McDonough, Jr. Wauconda, IL: Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers, Inc. ISBN 0-86516-422-3.
^ The majority of Hungarian people became Christian in the 10th century. Hungary's first king, Saint Stephen I, took up Western Christianity. Hungary remained solely Catholic until the Reformation took place during the 16th century and, as a result, Lutheranism and then, soon afterwards, Calvinism started to spread.
^ Emil Valkovics:Demography of contemporary Hungarian society, 1996, p. 15
^ Kollega Tarsoly, István, ed. (1996). "Magyarország". Révai nagy lexikona (in Hungarian). Volume 21. Budapest: Hasonmás Kiadó. p. 572.
^ Élesztős László; et al., eds. (2004). "Magyarország". Révai új lexikona (in Hungarian). Volume 13. Budapest: Hasonmás Kiadó. pp. 882, 895.
^ a b Historical World Atlas. With the commendation of the Royal Geographical Society. Carthographia, Budapest, Hungary, 2005. ISBN 963-352-002-9
^ a b c d Kristó Gyula - Barta János - Gergely Jenő: Magyarország története előidőktől 2000-ig (History of Hungary from the prehistory to 2000), Pannonica Kiadó, Budapest, 2002, ISBN 963-9252-56-5, p. 687, pp. 37, pp. 113 ("Magyarország a 12. század második felére jelentős európai tényezővé, középhatalommá vált."/"By the 12th century Hungary became an important European constituent, became a middle power.", "A Nyugat részévé vált Magyarország.../Hungary became part of the West"), pp. 616–644
^ Gerhard Stickel: National, Regional and Minority Languages in Europe
^ http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/276730/Hungary#toc34835
^ St. Stephen's Day, National Holidays in Hungary (officeholidays.com) (English)
^ a b Elek Fényes: Magyarország gographiai szótára, Pest, 1851
^ a b Fundamental Law of Hungary (2012), Wikisource
^ Acta orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae, Volume 36 Magyar Tudományos Akadémia (Hungarian Academy of Sciences), 1982, p. 419
^ Aba Sámuel
^ [5] Archived 6 December 2007 at the Wayback Machine
^ Larousse online encyclopedia, :Histoire de la Croatie (French)
^ "Croatia (History)".
^ John Van Antwerp Fine: The Early Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Sixth to the Late Twelfth Century, 1991, p. 288
^ Barna Mezey: Magyar alkotmánytörténet, Budapest, 1995, p. 66
^ A szentek élete I. (szerk. Dr. Diós István), Szent István Társulat, 1984.
^ Transylvania (region, Romania) - Encyclopedia Britannica
^ Grand Principality of Transylvania definition of Grand Principality of Transylvania in the Free Online Encyclopedia
^ Francis Tapon: The Hidden Europe: What Eastern Europeans Can Teach Us, Thomson Press India, 2012
^ Molnar, A Concise History of Hungary, p. 262
^ Richard C. Frucht, Eastern Europe: An Introduction to the People, Lands, and Culture p. 359-360M1
^ Flood-light on Europe: a guide to the next war by Felix Wittmer, published by C. Scribner's sons, 1937 Item notes: pt. 443 Original from Indiana University Digitized 13 November 2008 p. 114
^ History of the Hungarian Nation by Domokos G. Kosáry, Steven Béla Várdy, Danubian Research Center Published by Danubian Press, 1969 Original from the University of California Digitized 19 June 2008 p. 222
^ The European powers in the First World War: an encyclopedia by Spencer Tucker, Laura Matysek Wood, Justin D. Murphy Edition: illustrated Published by Taylor & Francis, 1996 ISBN 0-8153-0399-8, ISBN 978-0-8153-0399-2 p.697 [6]
^ Thomas, The Royal Hungarian Army in World War II, pg. 11
^ Slovakia – US State Department
^ Wettig 2008, p. 51
^ a b Wettig 2008, p. 85
^ Norton, Donald H. (2002). Essentials of European History: 1935 to the Present, p. 47. REA: Piscataway, New Jersey. ISBN 0-87891-711-X.
^ UN General Assembly Special Committee on the Problem of Hungary (1957) Chapter II.N, para 89(xi) (p. 31) PDF (1.47 MB)
^ Wettig 2008, p. 110
^ Text of the Millennium Act (Hungarian)
Lands of the Crown of Saint Stephen
List of Hungarian rulers
Nobility in the Kingdom of Hungary
Administrative divisions of the Kingdom of Hungary
Demographics of the Kingdom of Hungary
Comitatus (Kingdom of Hungary)
Holy Crown of Hungary
Coat of arms of Hungary
[40] The millennium of the Hungarian statehood was commemorated in 2000 and codified by the Millennium Act of 2000.[15] it was also the common name of the monarchy.[16] (simply Hungary) since 2012,Magyarország name of the country is Hungarian have also been retained. The official Budapest, which are the same as when the monarchy was still in place. Several holidays, the official language (Hungarian), and the capital city Coat of arms of Hungary and the Holy Crown of Hungary. In today's free republic, the Kingdom is regarded as one long stage in the development of the state. This sense of continuity is reflected in the republic's national symbols such as the free elections in March 1990 What emerged was a communist state lasting until October 1989 when the Communists agreed to give up their monopoly on power, paving the way for [39] to take a "line of more pronounced class struggle."Mátyás Rákosi In 1946 the form of government was changed to a republic. Soon after the monarchy was finally abolished, the Soviet Union pressed Hungarian leader [38], which suppressed political opposition through intimidation, false accusations, imprisonment and torture.ÁVH secret police established the László Rajk. Communist Interior Minister Hungarian Communist Party forced the freely elected Hungarian government to yield the Interior Ministry to a nominee of the Kliment Voroshilov Marshal In 1945, Soviet [36].Independent Smallholders, Agrarian Workers and Civic Party Soviet intervention, however, resulted in a government that disregarded Tildy, placed communists in important ministries, and imposed restrictive and repressive measures, including banning the victorious [37].Zoltán Tildy under Prime Minister coalition government The communists fared poorly, receiving only 17% of the vote, resulting in a [36]


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