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Extreme weather, more extreme greenhouse gas emissions beckon urgent activism
Posted on August 28, 2013 by Kim Kalliber
Patrick Bond; Source: Climate Connections
The northern hemisphere summer has just peaked and though the torrid heat is now ebbing, it is evident the climate crisis is far more severe than most scientists had anticipated. The latest report of the UN Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change – a notoriously conservative research agency – will be debated in Stockholm next month, but no one can deny its projections: "widespread melting of land ice, extreme heat waves, difficulty growing food and massive changes in plant and animal life, probably including a wave of extinctions."
Even worse is coming, for a giant Arctic Ocean "belch" of 50 billion tonnes of methane is inexorably escaping from seabed permafrost, according to scientists writing in the journal Nature. North Pole ice is now, at maximum summer heat, only 40 per cent as thick as it was just 40 years ago, a crisis only partially represented in the vivid image of a temporary "lake" that submerged the pole area last month.
The damage that will unfold after the burp, according to leading researchers from Cambridge and Erasmus Universities, could cost $60 trillion, about a year's world economic output. Global warming will speed up by 15-35 years as a result.
With these revelations, it is impossible to mask the self-destructive greed of fossil-fuel firms and their carbon-addicted customers. The ruling crew in the United States, Russia and Canada will enthusiastically let oil companies exploit the soon-to-be ice-free Arctic summers with intensified drilling, joined by unprecedented bunker-fuel-burning in the newly opening shipping lanes.
Heat blowback in the US, China and Durban
But the extreme weather that necessarily results has just hit China, whose world-record CO2 emissions – mainly a result of producing junk purchased by wealthier countries which have outsourced their industrial emissions to East Asia – generate as a byproduct not only thick layers of smog in the main cities. There were also scores of heat-related deaths earlier this month. Shanghai suffered 10 straight days above 38C, with temperatures in some places high enough to use a sidewalk to fry eggs and prawns.
In the second-biggest greenhouse gas emitter (and biggest historically), the western United States is suffering a brutal drought, so severe that 86 per cent of New Mexico's water supply evaporated, extreme wildfires broke out – this week, for example, scorching Yosemite Park's legendary redwoods and threatening San Francisco's water supply – while California's Death Valley temperatures soared to 50C.
The effects are highly uneven, with environmental-justice research now proving that as climate change hits US cities, the wealthy turn up the air conditioner while the poor – and especially black and Latino people – suffer in "heat islands". Likewise, poor people in the Himalayan mountains died in their thousands as a result of last month's floods.
In Alaska, a source of enormous oil extraction, record temperatures in the 30s left thousands of fish dead. The effect of global warming on the oceans is to push marine life towards the poles by seven kilometres each year, as numerous species attempt to find cooler waters.
The impact here in South Africa, from East London to Durban, was a disaster for the local fishing industry last month, as billions of sardines which annually swim to shore stayed away due to warmer waters.
Can shipping survive the climate chaos it causes?
And here along the Indian Ocean, more local climate damage comes from – and is also visited upon – the shipping industry. In the world's largest coal export site, South Africa's Richards Bay harbour, an idiot captain of the China-bound MV Smart (sic) tried to exit the port in 10-metre swells on August 20 with a load of nearly 150,000 tonnes of coal and 1700 tonnes of oil. He promptly split the huge ship in half on a sandbank.
This followed by hours the strategic offshore sinking of a Nigeria-bound cargo ship, Kiani Satu, which had run aground a week earlier, further down the coast, close to a nature reserve and marine protected area. As plans were made to extract 300 tonnes of oil from the boat, more than 15 tonnes spilled, requiring the cleaning of more than 200 oil-coated seabirds.
The maniacs whose ships now rest at the bottom of the Indian Ocean can identify with the fly-by-night owners of the MT Phoenix, after that ship's willful self-destruction off the Durban north coast holiday resorts exactly two years ago. Taxpayers spent $4 million pumping out 400 tonnes of oil and then towing the Phoenix out deeper to sink. A few weeks ago, that salvage operation's contested audit resulted in the implosion of the South African Maritime Safety Authority.
These are just some surface-level indications that our shipping industry is utterly ill prepared for the rise of both overall sea levels and the "monster waves" which accompany climate change. The Columbia University Earth Institute now projects "sea-level rise of as much as six feet globally instead of two to three feet" by 2100, with higher amounts (three metres) possible if further ice sheets crack from their foundations.
As Susan Casey, wrote in her book, The Wave: In Pursuit of the Rogues, Freaks, and Giants of the Ocean, "Given that 60 per cent of the world's population lives within 30 miles of a coastline, wave science is suddenly vital science, and the experts are keenly aware that there are levees, oil rigs, shorelines, ships and millions of lives at stake."
Her experts need to visit South Africa, because ours are apparently asleep at the wheel, as they now plan an extreme makeover of Durban's harbour. The shipping mania that made China such a successful exporter – and wiped out so much of South Africa's manufacturing industry – has generated vessels that can carry more than 10,000 containers (which in turn require 5800 trucks to unload), known as "super post-Panamax". They are so named because the Panama Canal's current limits allow only half that load, hence a $5.25 billion dig will deepen and widen the canal by 2015, with a $40 billion Chinese-funded competitor canal being considered in nearby Nicaragua.
Most ports around the world are following suit, including here where $25 billion is anticipated from national, provincial and municipal subsidies and loans for South Durban's port/petrochemical complex – the origin of our status as the most polluted African suburb south of Nigeria. The project is mainly managed by Transnet, a huge (but hot-to-privatise) transport state-owned agency, and is the second main priority in the the African National Congress government's National Development Plan, which claims that from handling 2.5 million containers in 2012, Durban's productivity will soar to 20 million containers annually by 2040 – though these figures certainly don't jell with the industry's much more conservative projections of demand.
More examples of state planning hubris: Transnet's $2.3 billion doubling of the Durban-Johannesburg oil pipeline is still not complete, but already massive corruption is suspected in the collusion-suffused construction industry, given that early costings were half the price. And notwithstanding their "aerotropolis" fantasies, Durban's King Shaka International Airport and the speedy Johannesburg-Pretoria-airport Gautrain are both operating at a tiny fraction of the capacity that had been anticipated by state planners. The 2010 Soccer World Cup sports stadiums are such blatant white elephants that even arrogant local soccer boss Danny Jordaan felt compelled to apologise.
Climate denialists from Durban to Deutschland
One reason they breed is that climate is not being factored into any of these carbon-intensive white elephants, as I have learned by fruitlessly offering formal Environmental Impact Analysis objections. As a result of a critique I offered last November, Transnet's consultants finally considered prospects that sea-level rise and intense storms might disrupt the Durban port's new berth expansion.
But Transnet's study on sea-level rise by Christopher Everatt and John Zietsman of ZAA Engineering Projects in Cape Town is as climate-denialist as the consultancy report last year by the South African Council on Scientific and Industrial Research's Roy Van Ballegooyen. I do understand that – like the dreaded AIDS-denialism of a decade ago – the allegation of climate-denialism is a strong insult these days. But what else would you call a November 2012 report (mainly by Everatt) that cites five studies to claim we will suffer only a maximum 0.6 metre maximum sea-level rise this century, but based on data from 1997, 2004, 2006 and 2008 reports. Five years old information is, in this field, ridiculously outdated.
In South Africa, de facto climate denialists are now led by a South African Communist Party leader: minister of trade and industry Rob Davies. Last week, Davies pushed through cabinet approval to build yet another coal-fired power plant plus permission to frack the extremely water-sensitive Karoo, "Land of the Great Thirst" in the original inhabitants' San language.
Awful precedents Davies tactfully avoided mentioning include the massive environmental damage and the corruption, labour-relations and socio-ecological crises at South Africa's main coal-fired powerplant construction site, Eskom's $10 billion Medupi generator which at 4800 megawatts will be the world's third largest. Medupi was meant to be generating power in 2011, but due to ongoing conflict, may finally be finished only in mid-2014.
Eskom's main beneficiary, also unmentioned by Davies, is BHP Billiton, the world's largest mining house, a firm at the centre of South Africa's crony-capitalist nexus dating to apartheid days. Eskom now subsidises this Australian company with $1.1 billion annually by gifting it the world's cheapest electricity.
Another de facto climate denialist is the German development aid minister, Dirk Niebel, an opponent of Ecuadoran civil society's plan to save the Yasuni National Park from oil exploitation. According toNiebel, "Refraining from oil drilling alone is not going to help in forest preservation." Of course not, but it could have been a vital step for Germany to make a downpayment on its huge climate debt to the victims of extreme weather.
The Yasuni campaign to "leave the oil under the soil" is excellent, and while there, deep in the Amazon on the Peruvian border two years ago, I witnessed the Oilwatch network mobilising to expand the idea(even to Durban where oil prospecting recently began offshore). Oilwatch generated a "Yasunization" strategy for other fossil fuels, also promoted by the Environmental Justice Organisations, Liabilities and Trade scholar-activist network based in Barcelona. Network leaders Joan Martinez-Alier and Nnimmo Bassey are also heartbroken at Yasuni's apparent demise.
The government of Rafael Correa – trained in the US as an economist – always had the intention to sell Yasuni into the global carbon markets, a self-defeating strategy given the markets' tendency to both fraud and regular crashing; carbon prices today only about a quarter of what they were two years ago.
So now, because the erratic Correa doesn't have his hands on the cash yet, in part because he failed to address world civil society to put pressure on governments, Ecuador's PetroAmazonas and China's PetroOriental will go ahead and drill. A fresh campaign has been launched to halt the extraction, starting with one letter after another from Accion Ecologica, the eco-feminist lobby that initiated the project, joined by the eloquent leader of the Confederación de Nacionalidades Indígenas del Ecuador, Carlos Perez Guartambel.
Climate activist counter-power gathers
Yasuni is a critical place to draw the line, for it is probably the world's most biodiverse site. But there are other vulnerable points of counter-power, too, as across the world, many more defenders of nature come forward against rapacious fossil-fuel industry attacks.
South Africa has not been particularly climate-conscious, because the thousands of recent social protests are mainly directed against a state and capitalists which deny immediate needs, from municipal services to wages. Still, in Johannesburg, the Anglo American Corporation and Vedanta coal-fired power plant witnessed a protest of 1000 community and environmental activists last month.
Surprisingly, a Pew Research Centre poll found that 48 per cent of South Africans worry "global climate change" is a "major threat", followed by "China's power and influence" (40 per cent) and "international financial instability" (34 per cent). Across the world, 54 per cent of people Pew asked cited climate change as a major threat, the highest of any answer (in second place, 52 per cent said "international financial stability"). Only 40 per cent of the US populace agreed, putting it at seventh place.
Yet even in the belly of the beast, more people seem to be mobilising, and there are growing connectivities in the spirit that what happens in Yasuni is terribly important to the First Nations activists of western Canada (one of the finest blog sites to make these links is http://climate-connections.org/).
For example, fossil fuel projects have been fought hard in recent weeks by forces as diverse as Idaho'sNez Perce Native Americans, Idle No More and Wild Idaho Rising Tide; by Nebraska farmers; by activists from the filthy oil city of Houston who are contesting a new coal terminal; and in Utah where not only have conservationists sued to halt drilling of an 800,000-acre tar sands field stretching into Colorado and Wyoming, but 50 activists physically blocked tar sand mining and construction at two sites last month.
350.org's Bill McKibben recently mentioned the "Summerheat" rebirth of US climate activism, "from the shores of Lake Huron and Lake Michigan, where a tar-sands pipeline is proposed, to the Columbia River at Vancouver, Washington, where a big oil port is planned, from Utah's Colorado Plateau, where the first US tar-sands mine has been proposed, to the coal-fired power plant at Brayton Point on the Massachusetts coast and the fracking wells of rural Ohio".
The growing movement has had results, says McKibben, in part through civil disobedience: "In the last few years, it has blocked the construction of dozens of coal-fired power plants, fought the oil industry to a draw on the Keystone pipeline, convinced a wide swath of US institutions to divest themselves of their fossil fuel stocks, and challenged practices like mountaintop-removal coal mining and fracking for natural gas."
This is encouraging partly because summertime is a lull when it comes to challenging power in many parts of the world. Meanwhile, our political winter was mostly spent wondering whether the crucial Congress of South African Trade Unions would remain aligned to the government or split in half. The more enlightened wing would logically move towards environmental, community and social struggles, leaving behind the likes of Rob Davies, just as US progressives (should) have shed any last illusions about slick Barack Obama.
But not far from Durban, 100 years ago next month, Mahatma Gandhi began preparing a non-violent mass assault on a white-owned coal mine in support of both Indian women's right to cross a regional border and workers' wage demands. The idea known as satyagraha (truth force) went from theory to practice, as militant passive defiance gained concessions that, 80 years later, helped free South Africa from apartheid. This time, there's no 80-year window; we all have to rise to the challenge as fast as do the thermometer and the greenhouse gas emissions.
This entry was posted in Environment and tagged climate change, greenhouse gases, methane by Kim Kalliber. Bookmark the permalink.


本発明は、半導体製造等に用いられる露光装置に関し、特に投影光学系と基板との間の露光光通過領域を液体で満たした状態で露光を行う露光装置に関するものである。 The present invention relates to an exposure apparatus for use in semiconductor manufacturing, etc., is particularly exposed light passage region between the projection optical system and the substrate relates exposure apparatus which performs exposure in a state filled with liquid.
図5は従来の露光装置の概略構成を示し、31は半導体製造等に用いられる露光装置の光源である。 Figure 5 shows the schematic structure of a conventional exposure apparatus, 31 is a light source of an exposure apparatus used in semiconductor manufacture and the like. 光源31は、露光パターンの微細化に伴い短波長化が進みi線からエキシマレーザーへとシフトし、更にはそのレーザー光源もKrFからArFへとシフトしてきた。 Light source 31, shifted from i-line shorter wavelength advances with miniaturization of the exposure pattern to the excimer laser, it has further shifted to its laser light sources ArF from KrF. 現在更なる微細化への要求を満足するためにF2レーザーやEUV光の使用が検討されている。 The use of F2 laser or EUV light in order to satisfy the requirements of the current further miniaturization has been studied.
光源31から出た光は、導入部32を経て照明光学系33に送られる。 Light emitted from the light source 31 is sent to the illumination optical system 33 through the inlet portion 32. 照明光学系33にて照度むらの除去並びにビームの成形が行われて、照明光として露光パターンの原版となるレチクル34に照射される。 Been removed and beam shaping of the illuminance unevenness in the illumination optical system 33 is carried out, it is irradiated on the reticle 34 serving as a precursor of the exposure pattern as illumination light. レチクル34は、レチクルステージ35に配置されている。 The reticle 34 is placed on the reticle stage 35.
レチクル34を透過した光は、パターン光となり投影光学系36を介してレチクル34と光学的共役面に配置されたウエハ37に縮小投影される。 Light transmitted through the reticle 34 is reduced and projected on the wafer 37 disposed on the reticle 34 and the optical conjugate plane via the projection optical system 36 becomes a pattern light.
ウエハ37はリニアモータ駆動のウエハステージ38に配置され、ステップアンドリピートによる繰り返し露光が行われる。 Wafer 37 is placed on the wafer stage 38 of the linear motor drive, repeated exposure is performed by the step-and-repeat. ここで、集積回路線幅の微細化に伴い、最適な結像が行える投影光学系36の中心部に露光エリアをスリット状に絞り込み、レチクルステージ35もリニアモータ駆動させてウエハステージ38とレチクルステージ35とを同期スキャンしながら露光する半導体露光装置が開発されている。 Here, along with the miniaturization of the integrated circuit line width, optimal imaging can be performed to narrow the exposure area in a slit form in the center of the projection optical system 36, the wafer stage 38 and reticle stage reticle stage 35 also is driven by a linear motor semiconductor exposure apparatus which exposes while synchronously scanning the 35 has been developed.
また近年、投影光学系36の最下面とウエハ37の間の露光光通過空間(以下、液浸部又は液浸領域ともいう。)を純水等の液体で満たした状態で露光を行う液浸型露光装置が注目されている。 In recent years, the lowest surface and the exposure light passing space between the wafer 37 in the projection optical system 36 (hereinafter also referred to as immersion unit or immersion area.) The immersion exposure is performed in a state filled with liquid such as pure water type exposure apparatus has been attracting attention. このように液浸化を図ることにより、液体の持つ高屈折率により高NA化が図れる。 By achieving this immersion, high NA can be achieved by a high refractive index with the liquid. これは、設備負荷の大きいF2やEUV光源を使用せずにArFの既存の露光装置をベースとして液浸装置を付加することにより、容易に更なる微細化への道が開けることを意味する(例えば、特許文献1)。 This can be achieved by adding an immersion device without the use of large F2 and EUV light source equipment load ArF existing exposure apparatus as a base, it means to open the door for easily further miniaturization ( For example, Patent Document 1).
図6は液浸型露光装置の形態の一例で、局所的な液浸を行う場合の構成を示し、投影光学系36の最下面に液浸壁21にて区画された液浸領域を作り、液体供給ノズル22並びに液体回収口23をこの液浸領域に臨むように配置し、一定量の液浸液を液体供給ノズル22から供給すると同時に、液体回収口23から回収していくことによって液浸領域を液浸液で満たした液浸状態として露光を行う方法が液浸露光の原理である。 Figure 6 is an example of a form of the liquid immersion type exposure apparatus, showing a configuration for performing localized immersion, making the liquid immersion area that is partitioned by immersion wall 21 to the lowermost surface of the projection optical system 36, a liquid supply nozzle 22 and the liquid recovery port 23 is arranged so as to face the liquid immersion area, a certain amount of the immersion liquid at the same time is supplied from the liquid supply nozzle 22, the liquid immersion by going recovered from the liquid recovery ports 23 method of performing exposure as immersed state filled space with an immersion liquid is the principle of immersion exposure.
液浸用に使用される液体(以下、液浸液ともいう。)は光学部品の一部とも言え、厳しい純度、流量並びに温度の管理が要求される。 Liquid used for immersion (hereinafter also referred to as immersion liquid.) Is thought of as a part of the optical component, strict purity, control of flow rate and temperature is required. 通常、超純水が使用され、工場設備で生成された超純水は供給ライン28を介して、冷却器24、ヒーター25、温度センサー26並びに温調器27にて温調され、液体供給ノズル22を介して液浸領域へ供給される。 Usually, ultra-pure water is used, the ultra-pure water produced by the plant equipment via the supply line 28, temperature is adjusted by the cooler 24, the heater 25, the temperature sensor 26 and temperature controller 27, the liquid supply nozzle 22 is supplied to the liquid immersion area via the.
液浸液に超純水を使用する場合には、パーティクルやイオン等の不純物の混入を避けるため、接液部の材質はテフロン(登録商標)系、ガラス系、塩化ビニル等の樹脂等に制限され、金属系は使用できない。 When using ultrapure water immersion liquid limit, to avoid contamination of impurities such as particles and ions, the material of the wetted parts Teflon (registered trademark), glass-based, the resins such as vinyl chloride are, metal-based can not be used. 当然、液浸液に接触する接液部を有する冷却器24、ヒーター25並びに温度センサー26の材質についても同様である。 Of course, the same applies to the material of the cooler 24, heater 25 and temperature sensor 26 having a liquid contact portion which contacts the immersion liquid.
しかしながら、これら液浸液の温度調節(以下、温調ともいう。)を行う機器にテフロン(登録商標)等の材質を使用すると伝熱特性が非常に悪くなる。 However, the temperature regulation of these immersion liquid (hereinafter also referred to as temperature control.) Teflon Using material (registered trademark) heat transfer characteristics becomes extremely poor to a device for performing. 特に工場設備側から多くの流量変動や温度変動を受けた状態で超純水が供給されると、温調系の応答性が悪いため外乱を除去しきれない状態で液浸領域に液浸液が供給されてしまい、液浸露光の結像性能に致命的な打撃を与えかねない。 In particular, when ultrapure water is supplied in a state received many flow fluctuations and temperature fluctuations from the factory equipment side, the immersion liquid in the liquid immersion area in a state that can not be removed disturbance due to poor responsiveness of the temperature control system There will be supplied, it could give a fatal blow to imaging performance of immersion lithography.
また、供給開始時の熱容量変化への追従性も悪くなるため、温度安定待ち時間が必要となりスループットを低下させてしまう。 Moreover, since the deteriorated followability to the heat capacity change at the start of the supply, resulting in lowering the throughput is required temperature stabilization time.
このような問題を考慮し、本発明は、液浸液の温度調節精度およびスループットの良好な露光装置の提供を例示的目的とする。 In consideration of such problems, the present invention is an exemplary object to provide a temperature control accuracy and good exposure device throughput of the immersion liquid.
上記問題を解決し、目的を達成するために、本発明に係る1つの態様では、投影光学系を介して原版のパターンを基板に投影する露光装置であって、投影光学系と、前記投影光学系と基板との間の露光光通過領域に液体を供給するためのノズルと、前記ノズルに供給するための液体を循環させる循環系と、前記循環系内の液体の温度を調節する第1の温度調節手段とを有する。 To solve the above problems and to achieve the object, in one aspect of the present invention, there is provided an exposure apparatus for projecting a substrate a pattern of an original through a projection optical system, a projection optical system, the projection optical a nozzle for supplying a liquid to the exposure light passage region between the system and the substrate, and a circulation system for circulating the liquid to be supplied to the nozzle, first adjusting the temperature of the liquid in the circulation system and a temperature adjusting means.
また、上記態様において、前記循環系は、外部から供給される液体を溜めるタンクを有する。 In the above embodiment, the circulation system has a tank for storing the liquid supplied from the outside.
また、上記態様において、前記循環系は、前記タンクから出て前記タンクに戻る第1の流路を有する。 In the above embodiment, the circulation system has a first flow path back to the tank out of the tank.
また、上記態様において、前記第1の温度調節手段は、液体との間で熱交換を行う熱交換手段を有する。 In the above embodiment, the first temperature regulating means comprises a heat exchange means for exchanging heat between the liquid.
また、上記態様において、前記タンク内の液体の量を検出する検出手段と、前記検出手段の検出結果に基づいて、外部から前記タンクに供給される液体の流量を調節する第1の流量調節手段とを有する。 In the above embodiment, a detecting means for detecting the amount of liquid in the tank, based on a detection result of said detecting means, a first flow rate adjustment means for adjusting the flow rate of the liquid supplied to the tank from the outside with the door.
また、上記態様において、前記循環系から前記ノズルに流体を供給するための弁を有する。 In the above embodiment, a valve for supplying fluid to the nozzle from the circulatory system.
また、上記態様において、前記循環系は、前記タンクに還流する流量を調節する第2の流量調節手段を有する。 In the above embodiment, the circulation system has a second flow rate adjusting means for adjusting the flow rate of recirculated to the tank.
また、上記態様において、前記弁と前記ノズルとの間に配された第2の流路と、前記第2の流路内の液体の流量を調節する第3の流量調節手段とを有する。 In the above embodiment, and a third flow rate adjusting means for adjusting the second flow path disposed between said nozzle and said valve, the flow rate of liquid in the second flow path.
また、上記態様において、前記弁と前記ノズルとの間に配された第2の流路と、前記第2の流路内に気体を供給する気体供給手段とを有する。 Also has the above embodiment, a second flow path disposed between said valve said nozzle, and a gas supply means for supplying gas to the second flow path.
また、上記態様において、前記循環系は、液体中に溶存するイオンを除去するイオン交換手段、液体中の気泡を除去する脱気手段および滅菌手段の少なくとも1つを有する。 In the above embodiment, the circulatory system, the ion exchange means for removing ions dissolved in the liquid, having at least one degassing means and sterilizing means for removing air bubbles in the liquid.
また、上記態様において、前記循環系の流路は、前記投影光学系と熱交換する部分を有する。 In the above embodiment, the circulation flow path, having the projection optical system and portions of the heat exchange.
また、上記態様において、前記第1の温度調節手段は、前記熱交換手段の下流に液体を加熱する加熱手段を有する。 In the above embodiment, the first temperature regulating means comprises heating means for heating the liquid downstream of the heat exchange means.
また、上記態様において、外部から前記タンクに供給される液体の温度を調節する第2の温度調節手段を有する。 In the above embodiment, a second temperature adjusting means for adjusting the temperature of the liquid supplied to the tank from the outside.
また、本発明の他の態様では、上記いずれかの態様の露光装置を用いて原版のパターンを基板に投影する段階を有するデバイス製造方法を提案する。 According to another aspect of the present invention proposes a device manufacturing method including the step of projecting a pattern of an original onto a substrate using the exposure apparatus of any of the above aspects.
本発明によれば、液浸液の温度調節精度およびスループットの良好な露光装置を提供することができる。 According to the present invention, it is possible to provide a good exposure apparatus temperature control accuracy and throughput of the immersion liquid.
尚、以下に説明する実施の形態は、本発明の実現手段としての一例であり、本発明が適用される装置の構成や各種条件によって適宜修正又は変更されるべきものである。 Incidentally, the embodiments described below are examples as implementation means of the present invention and should be properly modified or changed depending on various conditions and the structure of the apparatus to which the present invention is applied. 例えば、本発明は後述する各実施形態の構成に限られず、第2乃至第4の実施形態のうち、少なくとも2つの特徴点を組み合わせて構成した場合も、本発明に含まれることは言うまでもない。 For example, the present invention is not limited to the configuration of the embodiments to be described later, of the second to fourth embodiments, even if formed by combining at least two feature points, which falls within the scope of the present invention.
図1は、本発明の好適な第1の実施形態に係る露光装置の液浸液供給系統図であり、図5と共通する構成は同じ符号で示している。 Figure 1 is a immersion liquid supply system diagram of an exposure apparatus according to the first preferred embodiment of the present invention, components common to the FIG. 5 are denoted by the same reference numerals.
本実施形態の液浸液供給系統は、液浸液温調循環系8と、液浸液とは別の温調用流体循環系10とに大別される。 Immersion liquid supply system of this embodiment, the immersion liquid temperature control circulation system 8, the immersion liquid is classified roughly into a separate temperature control fluid circulation system 10.
不図示の工場設備から供給される液浸液は、先ず液浸液温調循環系8の供給ライン28から供給され、液浸液流量制御部1によってその流量が制御されて断熱タンク2に供給される。 Immersion liquid supplied from the factory facility (not shown) is first supplied from the supply line 28 of the immersion liquid temperature control circulation system 8, fed a flow rate thereof is controlled by the immersion liquid flow control unit 1 to the insulated tank 2 It is. 液浸液流量制御部1は、断熱タンク2と供給ライン28の間に配置された遮断弁3と断熱タンク2内に配置された液面レベルセンサー4とを有し、断熱タンク2内の液面レベルが常に所定の範囲内になるように遮断弁3を開閉制御する。 Immersion liquid flow control unit 1, and a liquid level sensor 4 disposed arranged shutoff valve 3 and the heat insulating tank 2 between the insulated tank 2 and the supply line 28, liquid in the insulated tank 2 surface level always controls the opening and closing of the shut-off valve 3 to be within a predetermined range. そして、断熱タンク2に供給される液浸液の流量は、露光装置の液浸部に供給される流量以上になるように制御される。 Then, the flow rate of the immersion liquid supplied to the insulated tank 2 is controlled to be equal to or greater than the flow rate supplied to the immersion of the exposure apparatus.
断熱タンク2は、工場設備側から供給される液浸液の流量変動、圧力変動並びに温度変動の外乱を除去(吸収)するために設置される。 Insulated tank 2, the flow rate fluctuation of the immersion liquid supplied from the factory facility side, is installed to the disturbance of the pressure fluctuations and temperature fluctuations removal (absorption). 断熱タンク2の容量は、供給される最大流量並びに最大温度差に対し、少なくとも液浸部で許容される温度変動に対応する熱容量分の液浸液を蓄えられる必要がある。 Capacity of the heat insulating tank 2, to the maximum flow rate and maximum temperature difference is supplied, it is necessary to be accumulated heat capacity component of the immersion liquid corresponding to the temperature variations allowed by the least immersion unit. 換言すると、液浸部の許容温度変動並びにタンク容量から、断熱タンク2に供給される液浸液の流量並びに温度の許容値が定められる。 In other words, the allowable temperature variation and tank capacity of the immersion section, the allowable value of the flow rate and the temperature of the immersion liquid supplied to the insulated tank 2 is determined.
また、断熱タンク2を断熱構造にすることによりタンク自身に直接入り込む熱外乱の液浸液への影響を抑えている。 Further, to suppress the influence of the insulated tank 2 into the immersion liquid Netsugairan entering directly to the tank itself by the heat insulating structure. また、断熱タンク2を所定の温度になるように制御するための不図示の温調系を設ければ更に好適となる。 Moreover, further it is suitable by providing the temperature control system (not shown) for controlling such that the insulated tank 2 to a predetermined temperature.
液浸液温調循環系8における断熱タンク2の下流側ラインには、ポンプ5と熱交換器6が配設されている。 Downstream line of the insulated tank 2 in the immersion liquid temperature control circulation system 8, the pump 5 and the heat exchanger 6 is disposed. また、熱交換器6の下流側ラインには、液浸部に通じるラインから分岐して液浸液が断熱タンク2に還流する回収配管7が配設されている。 Further, on the downstream side line of the heat exchanger 6, recovery pipe 7, where immersion liquid is refluxed to the insulated tank 2 branches from the line leading to the immersion portion is disposed. 本実施形態の特徴の1つは、上記液浸液温調循環系8における熱交換器6の下流側ラインに、分岐して断熱タンク2に還流する回収配管7を設けた点にある。 One feature of this embodiment is on the downstream side line of the heat exchanger 6 in the immersion liquid temperature control circulation system 8 lies in having a recovery pipe 7 for recirculating branch to the insulated tank 2. なお、ポンプ5からの液浸液の流量は液浸部への供給に必要な流量以上になるように制御される。 The flow rate of the immersion liquid from the pump 5 is controlled so that the flow rate more than necessary to supply to the immersion section.
更に、熱交換器6の下流側ラインであって、回収配管7の上流側に温度センサー9が配置され、温度センサー9により検知される液浸液の温度が所定の温度になるように制御される。 Furthermore, a downstream line of the heat exchanger 6, the temperature sensor 9 is disposed on the upstream side of the collecting pipe 7 is controlled so that the temperature of the immersion liquid to be detected by the temperature sensor 9 becomes a predetermined temperature that.
次に、温調用流体循環系10の説明と併せて、液浸液の温度制御方法について説明する。 Then, together with the description of the fluid circulation system 10 for temperature control, a description is given of a temperature control method of the immersion liquid.
温調用流体循環系10は、冷却器11、タンク12、ポンプ13、ヒーター14を有し、液浸液とは別の温調用流体は液浸液温調循環系8の熱交換器6に供給され、液浸液と熱交換される。 For temperature control fluid circulation system 10, a cooler 11, tank 12, pump 13 includes a heater 14, another temperature control fluid to the immersion liquid supplied to the heat exchanger 6 of the immersion liquid temperature control circulation system 8 It is, is the immersion liquid and the heat exchange. この時、温度センサー9から温調器15に検知信号を出力し、温調器15からヒーター14に出力信号を与えて、温度センサー9の液浸液が所定温度になるように温調用流体の温度を制御する。 At this time, the temperature controller 15 outputs a detection signal from the temperature sensor 9, giving an output signal from the temperature controller 15 to the heater 14, the temperature sensor 9 immersion liquid fluid for temperature adjustment to a predetermined temperature to control the temperature.
ここで、液浸液として超純水(例えば、比抵抗17.8MΩcm以上、無機イオン0.01ppb以下)を用いた場合、熱交換器6の接液部はテフロン(登録商標)、ガラス、塩化ビニル等の材質が好適である。 Here, as the immersion liquid ultrapure water (e.g., resistivity 17.8MΩcm above, inorganic ions 0.01ppb below) is used, wetted parts of the heat exchanger 6 is Teflon, glass, vinyl chloride, etc. the material of is preferred. 一方、温調用流体に対しては伝熱特性の良い金属製の温調機器を使用することで、応答性を向上させる。 On the other hand, for temperature control fluid by using the metal temperature control device good heat transfer characteristics, improving the responsiveness. 当然、熱交換器6においては液浸液と温調用流体は熱以外絶縁されているため、温調用流体の接液部に金属を使用しても問題はない。 Of course, in the heat exchanger 6 because the fluid immersion liquid and the temperature control are insulated than heat, there is no problem in using the metal liquid contact portion of the fluid temperature control. 但し、若干量の浸透は生じるため、該浸透現象を軽減するためには、温調用流体も純水であることが好ましい。 However, since the small amount of penetration occurs, in order to reduce the permeation phenomenon, it is preferred fluid for temperature control also is pure water.
液浸液温調循環系8には、温度センサー9の下流側ラインに、供給弁16並びに流量調整弁17から構成されるノズル供給制御部18が配設されており、供給弁16から下流側に延びるノズル供給配管29が液体供給ノズル22に連通している。 The immersion liquid temperature control circulation system 8, on the downstream side line of the temperature sensor 9, the nozzle supply controller 18 composed of a supply valve 16 and flow control valve 17 is disposed downstream from the supply valve 16 nozzle supply line 29 which extends in communication with the liquid supply nozzle 22. 液浸領域への液浸液の供給は、ノズル供給制御部18の供給弁16を開成することにより行われる。 Supply of immersion liquid to the immersion region is performed by opening the supply valve 16 of the nozzle supply controller 18. また、このとき、流量調整弁17にて所定の流量に調整される。 At this time, it is adjusted to a predetermined flow rate by the flow regulating valve 17. ここで、ノズル22へ供給される流量より回収配管7から断熱タンク2に還流する流量の方が支配的であれば、供給開始による熱容量変化(断熱タンク内液量変化)を小さくすることができる。 Here, if the dominant direction of flow of reflux from the collection pipe 7 than the flow rate to be supplied to the nozzle 22 to the insulated tank 2, it is possible to reduce the heat capacity change due to start supplying the (insulated tank in fluid volume change) . また、回収配管7に回収流量調整弁20を設け、供給弁16の開成時に熱交換器6を通過する液浸液の流量が供給弁16の閉成時と同じになるように回収配管7内の流量を制御しても良い。 The recovery pipe 7 is provided to recover the flow rate regulating valve 20, the supply valve 16 of the flow rate of the immersion liquid passing through the heat exchanger 6 when opened the collection pipe 7 to be the same as during closing of the supply valve 16 the flow rate may be controlled for.
また、液浸露光を停止する場合、ノズル供給制御部18内の供給弁16を閉成すれば液浸領域への液浸液の供給は停止される。 Further, when stopping the immersion exposure, the supply of immersion liquid to the immersion region if closing the supply valve 16 in the nozzle supply control unit 18 is stopped. しかし、ノズル供給配管29内には液浸液が残存しており、そのまま放置すれば腐食して所望の純度が低下して、次回の液浸露光開始時に悪影響を及ぼす。 However, the nozzle supply pipe 29 has remained in the immersion liquid, it left to decrease the desired purity corrosion to be adversely affected during the next immersion exposure start. そこで供給弁16の下流側直近にガス供給弁19を設け、液浸液の供給停止時にガス供給弁19から不活性ガスを管内に注入して排出することにより、供給弁16から液体供給ノズル22間の管内を残存液から不活性ガスに置換することができる。 Therefore the gas supply valve 19 on the downstream side nearest the supply valve 16 is provided, by discharging from the gas supply valve 19 by injecting an inert gas into the tube when the supply stop of the immersion liquid, the liquid supply nozzle 22 from the supply valve 16 the tube between the residual liquid can be replaced with the inert gas.
本実施形態によれば、工場設備から供給される液浸液の持つ温度変動並びに流量変動等の外乱並びに供給開始時の熱容量変化を液浸液温調循環系8により除去でき、かつ、超純水対応の伝熱特性の低い温調機器の構成においても高い温度並びに流量の安定性を有し、液浸液の液浸部への供給がスピーディーに行える。 According to this embodiment, the heat capacity change in the disturbance as well as supply start time such as temperature variations and flow rate variation with the immersion liquid supplied from the factory facility can be removed by the immersion liquid temperature control circulation system 8, and ultrapure It has stability at a higher temperature and flow rate in the structure of the low temperature control device of the heat transfer properties of water corresponding supply to the immersion of the immersion liquid can be performed speedily.
また、液浸液供給停止時においても、液浸液が配管内にとどまることがないため腐食による影響を防止できる。 Further, even when the immersion liquid supply stop, the immersion liquid can be prevented the influence of corrosion due never remain in the piping.
図2は、本発明の好適な第2の実施形態に係る露光装置の液浸液供給系統図であり、図1の第1の実施形態と共通する構成は同じ符号で示している。 Figure 2 is a immersion liquid supply system diagram of an exposure apparatus according to the second preferred embodiment of the present invention, components common to the first embodiment of FIG. 1 are denoted by the same reference numerals.
第2の実施形態の特徴は、第1の実施形態の液浸液温調循環系8に超純水生成維持機能を新たに備えた点にある。 Feature of the second embodiment is the ultrapure water production maintenance function to the immersion liquid temperature control circulation system 8 of the first embodiment in that additionally includes.
具体的には、熱交換器6の下流側ライン(回収配管7の上流側)に、液浸液に溶存するイオンを除去するイオン交換膜41を配置し、超純水生成機能を付加する。 Specifically, the downstream line of the heat exchanger 6 (the upstream side of the collecting pipe 7), arranged an ion-exchange membrane 41 to remove the ions dissolved in the immersion liquid, the addition of ultrapure water generating function. これにより、工場設備から供給される純水の純度が多少低くても高純度の超純水の供給を行うことができる。 Accordingly, even if the purity of pure water supplied from the factory facility slightly lower can be supplied high purity ultra-pure water. 更に、イオン交換膜41の下流側に、液浸液中の気泡を除去する脱気膜42を配置することにより、微生物の発生の低減が図れ、更には気泡の発生も抑制でき、液浸露光時のマイクロバブル等の泡による像性能の悪化防止に寄与する。 Further, on the downstream side of the ion exchange membrane 41, by arranging a degassing membrane 42 to remove air bubbles in the immersion liquid, Hakare reduction of occurrence of the microorganisms, even can be suppressed occurrence of bubbles, liquid immersion exposure It contributes to preventing deterioration of image performance due to bubbles such as microbubbles when. また、液浸液温調循環系8の断熱タンク2内にUVランプ43を設けて、液浸液中の微生物を紫外線により滅菌して微生物の発生を抑えることもできる。 Further, by providing a UV lamp 43 in the insulated tank 2 of the immersion liquid temperature control circulation system 8, it is also possible to suppress the occurrence of microbial microorganisms in the immersion liquid and sterilized by UV.
本実施形態によれば、工場設備から供給される純水が液浸露光に適さない場合でも、超純水の生成、脱気並びに滅菌機能を設けることにより液浸露光用の超純水を生成維持できるため、工場設備に大きな負荷を与えない液浸露光装置を提供できる。 According to this embodiment, generates a pure water even if not suitable for immersion exposure, the generation of ultra-pure water, ultra-pure water for the liquid immersion exposure by providing the deaeration and sterilization function is supplied from the factory facility because be maintained, it is possible to provide an immersion exposure apparatus that does not have a significant impact on the plant equipment.
図3は、本発明の好適な第3の実施形態に係る露光装置の液浸液供給系統図であり、図1の第1の実施形態と共通する構成は同じ符号で示している。 Figure 3 is a immersion liquid supply system diagram of an exposure apparatus according to a third preferred embodiment of the present invention, components common to the first embodiment of FIG. 1 are denoted by the same reference numerals.
第3の実施形態の特徴は、第1の実施形態の液浸液温調循環系8に精密温調手段を新たに備えた点にある。 Features of the third embodiment is that the newly provided with precise temperature control means in the immersion liquid temperature control circulation system 8 of the first embodiment.
具体的には、熱交換器6の下流側ラインに精密な温度調節が行えるヒーター44を設けたことで、更なる温調精度の向上を図ることができる。 Specifically, by providing the heater 44 capable of performing precise temperature control in the downstream side line of the heat exchanger 6 can be improved further temperature control accuracy. 温度制御は、ヒーター44の下流側に設置した温度センサー45から温調器46に検知信号を出力し、温調器46からヒーター44に出力信号を与えて、温度センサー45の液浸液が所定温度になるように液浸液の温度を制御する。 Temperature control outputs a detection signal from the temperature sensor 45 installed in the temperature controller 46 on the downstream side of the heater 44, giving an output signal from the temperature controller 46 to the heater 44, the immersion liquid temperature sensor 45 is predetermined controlling the temperature of the immersion liquid so that the temperature. また、温度センサー44の下流側ラインを投影光学系36の外筒部等に巻装することで、温調された液浸液を投影光学系36に供給して液浸液と投影光学系36の温度を略同等にすることができ、温度安定性に優れた温調系を実現することができる。 Further, by winding the downstream line of the temperature sensor 44 to the outer tubular portion or the like of the projection optical system 36, the temperature-controlled immersion liquid is supplied to the projection optical system 36 the immersion liquid and the projection optical system 36 can be a temperature substantially equal, it is possible to achieve excellent temperature control system to temperature stability. また、温度センサー45を投影光学系36近傍に配置できれば更に好適となる。 Further, the more preferable if disposed a temperature sensor 45 in the vicinity projection optical system 36.
本実施形態によれば、精密な温度調節による温度安定性の向上、並びに液浸液と投影光学系の温度均一性により、温度変化による像性能の悪化を防ぎ、絶えず安定した温度の液浸液の供給が行える露光装置を提供することができる。 According to this embodiment, improvement of temperature stability by precise temperature regulation, as well as the temperature uniformity of the immersion liquid and the projection optical system, preventing the deterioration of image performance due to temperature changes constantly immersion liquid stable temperature it can provide enable supply of the exposure apparatus.
図4は、本発明の好適な第4の実施形態に係る露光装置の液浸液供給系統図であり、図1の第1の実施形態と共通する構成は同じ符号で示している。 Figure 4 is a immersion liquid supply system diagram of an exposure apparatus according to a fourth preferred embodiment of the present invention, components common to the first embodiment of FIG. 1 are denoted by the same reference numerals.
第4の実施形態の特徴は、第1の実施形態の液浸液の供給ライン28に温調手段を新たに備えた点にある。 Features of the fourth embodiment is that with a temperature control means newly to the first embodiment of the immersion liquid supply line 28.
具体的には、断熱タンク2の上流側にヒーター47を設けたことで、工場設備側から供給される液浸液の温度を調節することができる。 Specifically, by providing the heater 47 on the upstream side of the insulated tank 2, it is possible to adjust the temperature of the immersion liquid supplied from the factory facility side. 温度制御は、ヒーター47の下流側ラインに配設された温度センサー49から温調器48に検知信号を出力し、温調器48からヒーター47に出力信号を与えて、温度センサー49の液浸液が所定温度になるように液浸液の温度を制御する。 Temperature control, gives an output signal from the temperature sensor 49 disposed on the downstream side line and outputs a detection signal to the temperature controller 48, the temperature controller 48 to the heater 47 of the heater 47, the immersion of the temperature sensor 49 liquid to control the temperature of the immersion liquid to a predetermined temperature.
本実施形態によれば、工場設備側から供給される純水への温度外乱の更なる低減化を図ることで、液浸液温調循環系8に対する温度変動を小さくし、温度変化による像性能の悪化を防ぎ、絶えず安定した温度の液浸液の供給が行える露光装置を提供することができる。 According to this embodiment, possible to further reduce the temperature disturbance to the pure water supplied from the factory facility side, to reduce the temperature variation with respect to the immersion liquid temperature control circulation system 8, image performance due to a temperature change prevent deterioration constantly can provide a stable temperature exposure apparatus supply it can be performed in the immersion liquid.
以下に、第1乃至第4の実施形態の少なくとも1つに係る効果を列挙する。 They are listed below effect according to at least one of the first to fourth embodiments. 工場設備から供給される液浸液の持つ温度変動並びに流量変動等の外乱並びに供給開始時の熱容量変化を温調循環系により除去できることにより、光学性能への液浸液の温度変動による影響を排除でき、安定した像性能を有する露光装置を提供することができる。 By the heat capacity change in the disturbance as well as supply start time such as temperature variations and flow rate variation with the immersion liquid supplied from the factory facility can be removed by temperature control circulation, eliminate the influence of temperature variation of the immersion liquid on the optical performance can, it is possible to provide an exposure apparatus having a stable image performance.
また、超純水対応の伝熱特性の低い温調機器の構成においても高い温度並びに流量の安定性を有し、液浸液の液浸部への供給をスピーディーに行え、また液浸液供給停止時においても液浸液が配管内にとどまることがないため腐食による影響を防止でき、立ち上げ時間の短縮化が図れ、スループットの向上に寄与する。 Also has a high temperature and flow rate of the stability in the construction of ultra-pure water corresponding low temperature control device of the heat transfer characteristics of, it can supply to the immersion of the immersion liquid quickly, also immersion liquid supply can also prevent the influence due to corrosion because there is no immersion liquid may remain in the pipe at the time of stop, Hakare to shorten the startup time, it contributes to the improvement of throughput.
更に、工場設備から供給される純水が液浸露光に適さない場合でも、工場設備に大きな負荷を与えずに液浸露光が行える露光装置を提供することができる。 Furthermore, it is possible to pure water supplied from the factory facility even if not suitable for immersion exposure, to provide an exposure apparatus in which the immersion exposure can be performed without causing heavy load on the plant equipment.
次に、この露光装置を利用した半導体デバイスの製造プロセスを説明する。 Next, a manufacturing process of a semiconductor device using the exposure apparatus. 図7は半導体デバイスの全体的な製造プロセスのフローを示す図である。 Figure 7 is a flowchart showing the flow of the entire semiconductor device manufacturing process. ステップS1(回路設計)では半導体デバイスの回路設計を行う。 In step S1 (circuit design), a semiconductor device circuit is designed. ステップS2(マスク作製)では設計した回路パターンに基づいてマスクを作製する。 Step S2, a mask is fabricated on the basis of the circuit pattern design (mask fabrication).
一方、ステップS3(ウエハ製造)ではシリコン等の材料を用いてウエハを製造する。 On the other hand, a wafer is manufactured using a material such as silicon In step S3 (wafer manufacture). ステップS4(ウエハプロセス)は前工程と呼ばれ、上記のマスクとウエハを用いて、上記の露光装置によりリソグラフィ技術を利用してウエハ上に実際の回路を形成する。 In step S4 (wafer process) called a pre-process wherein, by using the mask and wafer, an actual circuit is formed on the wafer by lithography using the above-described exposure apparatus. 次のステップS5(組み立て)は後工程と呼ばれ、ステップS5によって作製されたウエハを用いて半導体チップ化する工程であり、アッセンブリ工程(ダイシング、ボンディング)、パッケージング工程(チップ封入)等の組み立て工程を含む。 The next step S5 (assembly) called a post-process, a semiconductor chip by using the wafer manufactured in step S5, assembling such an assembly step (dicing, bonding), packaging (chip encapsulation) comprising the step. ステップS6(検査)ではステップS5で作製された半導体デバイスの動作確認テスト、耐久性テスト等の検査を行う。 Step S6 (inspection) performs various tests for the semiconductor device manufactured in step S5, a durability check and perform. こうした工程を経て半導体デバイスが完成し、ステップS7でこれを出荷する。 The semiconductor device is completed through these steps and shipped in step S7.
上記ステップS4のウエハプロセスは以下のステップを有する(図8)。 The wafer process in step S4 includes the following steps (Fig. 8). ウエハの表面を酸化させる酸化ステップ、ウエハ表面に絶縁膜を成膜するCVDステップ、ウエハ上に電極を蒸着によって形成する電極形成ステップ、ウエハにイオンを打ち込むイオン打ち込みステップ、ウエハに感光剤を塗布するレジスト処理ステップ、上記の露光装置によって回路パターンをレジスト処理ステップ後のウエハに転写する露光ステップ、露光ステップで露光したウエハを現像する現像ステップ、現像ステップで現像したレジスト像以外の部分を削り取るエッチングステップ、エッチングが済んで不要となったレジストを取り除くレジスト剥離ステップ。 Oxidation step of oxidizing the surface of the wafer is coated CVD step of forming an insulating film on the wafer surface, an electrode formation step of forming by vapor deposition electrodes on the wafer, an ion implantation step of implanting ions in the wafer, a photosensitive material onto the wafer resist processing step, exposure step of transferring the circuit pattern to the wafer after the resist process step by the exposure apparatus described above, a developing step of developing the wafer exposed in the exposure step, an etching step of etching portions other than the resist image developed in the developing step , resist removal step of removing any unnecessary resist remaining after etching is removed. これらのステップを繰り返し行うことによって、ウエハ上に多重に回路パターンを形成する。 By repeating these steps, multiple circuit patterns are formed on the wafer.
本発明の好適な第1の実施形態に係る露光装置の液浸液供給系統図である。 In the immersion liquid supply system diagram of an exposure apparatus according to the first preferred embodiment of the present invention. 本発明の好適な第2の実施形態に係る露光装置の液浸液供給系統図である。 In the immersion liquid supply system diagram of an exposure apparatus according to the second preferred embodiment of the present invention. 本発明の好適な第3の実施形態に係る露光装置の液浸液供給系統図である。 In the immersion liquid supply system diagram of an exposure apparatus according to a third preferred embodiment of the present invention. 本発明の好適な第4の実施形態に係る露光装置の液浸液供給系統図である。 In the immersion liquid supply system diagram of an exposure apparatus according to a fourth preferred embodiment of the present invention. 従来の露光装置を示す図である。 It is a diagram showing a conventional exposure apparatus. 従来の露光装置の液浸液供給系統図である。 In the immersion liquid supply system diagram of a conventional exposure apparatus. デバイス製造方法を示す図である。 It is a diagram showing a device manufacturing method. ウエハプロセスを示す図である。 It is a diagram illustrating a wafer process.
前記循環系内の液体の温度を調節する第1の温度調節手段と を有することを特徴とする露光装置。 Exposure apparatus characterized by having a first temperature adjusting means for adjusting the temperature of the liquid in the circulation system.
前記循環系は、外部から供給される液体を溜めるタンクを有することを特徴とする請求項1に記載の露光装置。 The circulatory system, an exposure apparatus according to claim 1, characterized in that it comprises a tank for storing the liquid supplied from the outside.
前記循環系は、前記タンクから出て前記タンクに戻る第1の流路を有することを特徴とする請求項2に記載の露光装置。 The circulatory system, an exposure apparatus according to claim 2, characterized in that it comprises a first flow path back to the tank out of the tank.
前記第1の温度調節手段は、液体との間で熱交換を行う熱交換手段を有することを特徴とする請求項1乃至3のいずれかに記載の露光装置。 It said first temperature adjusting means, an exposure apparatus according to any one of claims 1 to 3, characterized in that it has a heat exchange means for exchanging heat between the liquid.
前記検出手段の検出結果に基づいて、外部から前記タンクに供給される液体の流量を調節する第1の流量調節手段と を有することを特徴とする請求項2または3に記載の露光装置。 On the basis of the detection result detecting means, an exposure apparatus according to claim 2 or 3, characterized in that it has a first flow rate adjustment means for adjusting the flow rate of the liquid supplied to the tank from the outside.
前記循環系から前記ノズルに流体を供給するための弁を有することを特徴とする請求項1乃至5のいずれか1項に記載の露光装置。 An apparatus according to any one of claims 1 to 5, characterized in that a valve for supplying fluid to the nozzle from the circulatory system.
前記循環系は、前記タンクに還流する流量を調節する第2の流量調節手段を有することを特徴とする請求項6に記載の露光装置。 The circulatory system, an exposure apparatus according to claim 6, characterized in that it comprises a second flow rate adjusting means for adjusting the flow rate of recirculated to the tank.
前記第2の流路内の液体の流量を調節する第3の流量調節手段と を有することを特徴とする請求項6または7に記載の露光装置。 An apparatus according to claim 6 or 7, characterized in that a third flow control means for regulating the flow rate of liquid in the second flow path.
前記第2の流路内に気体を供給する気体供給手段と を有することを特徴とする請求項6または7に記載の露光装置。 An apparatus according to claim 6 or 7 and having a gas supply means for supplying gas to the second flow path.
前記循環系は、液体中に溶存するイオンを除去するイオン交換手段、液体中の気泡を除去する脱気手段および滅菌手段の少なくとも1つを有することを特徴とする請求項1乃至9のいずれか1項に記載の露光装置。 The circulatory system, the ion exchange means for removing ions dissolved in the liquid, any one of claims 1 to 9, characterized in that at least one of the degassing means and sterilizing means for removing air bubbles in the liquid An apparatus according to item 1.
前記循環系の流路は、前記投影光学系と熱交換する部分を有することを特徴とする請求項1乃至10のいずれか1項に記載の露光装置。 The circulation system of the channel, the exposure apparatus according to any one of claims 1 to 10, wherein a portion of the projection optical system and the heat exchanger.
前記第1の温度調節手段は、前記熱交換手段の下流に液体を加熱する加熱手段を有することを特徴とする請求項4に記載の露光装置。 It said first temperature adjusting means, an exposure apparatus according to claim 4, characterized in that it comprises a heating means for heating the liquid downstream of the heat exchange means.
外部から前記タンクに供給される液体の温度を調節する第2の温度調節手段を有することを特徴とする請求項1乃至12のいずれか1項に記載の露光装置。 The exposure apparatus according to any one of claims 1 to 12, characterized in that from the outside having a second temperature adjusting means for adjusting the temperature of the liquid supplied to the tank.
請求項1乃至13のいずれか1項に記載の露光装置を用いて原版のパターンを基板に投影する段階を有することを特徴とするデバイス製造方法。 Method of manufacturing a device, said method including the step of projecting a substrate a pattern of an original using the exposure apparatus according to any one of claims 1 to 13.
NL2006648A (en) * 2010-06-01 2011-12-06 Asml Netherlands Bv A fluid supply system, a lithographic apparatus, a method of varying fluid flow rate and a device manufacturing method.


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Home / Employer of Record / Top 3 Locations for Employing in Europe
Top 3 Locations for Employing in Europe
Europe has become a hotspot for global expansion. Affluent economies, stable legal systems, varied cultures and a wealth of business opportunities mean it's little wonder that many companies look to Europe when embarking on their expansion journey.
Of course, 'Europe' isn't a destination in itself, so you'll have to choose where in Europe is best for your business. The 'big three' European countries to employ in change every few years. But currently, the top spots are taken by Germany, the UK and France.
These countries are positioned at the top for having the highest GDP, but is this an accurate reflection of how suitable they are for expanding businesses? What really makes these nations so desirable? And what do you need to be mindful of when looking to expand?
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Germany's GDP amassed over 3.57 trillion euros in 2021, making it the largest in Europe. In fact, it's had the continent's largest economy since 1980 — before East and West Germany were reunited. And in 2019, Germany accounted for nearly a quarter of the EU's total GDP!
The country is also home to plenty of innovation, with over one-third of adults educated to tertiary level in Germany obtaining their degree in the science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) fields. As such, it's little surprise that Germany hosts two-thirds of the world's leading trade fairs. And in terms of its geographical location, Germany is bordered by nine countries — a strategic positioning within the EU.
Germany's economic success can also be attributed to its highly skilled workforce, developed transport infrastructure and, perhaps, its clear-cut approach to compliance.
Germany has a reputation for playing by the rules and is renowned for its strict regulations. Whilst this could, on face value, make it an unattractive place for foreign companies to employ, having explicit, unambiguous rules often makes it easier to stay compliant.
However, employing in Germany isn't without its challenges.
Ranking 125th in the world for ease of doing business (DB), it can be a tedious process to set up a German entity, and the country is home to some of the strictest employee protections in the world — not to mention a complex corporation tax scheme. A high minimum wage and lofty payroll taxes also mean that employing in Germany can quickly become expensive.
Following closely behind Germany is the United Kingdom. With a GDP of GBP 2.2 trillion at the end of 2021, the UK is the fifth-largest economy in the world.
Despite its size compared to other European superpowers, the UK encompasses four distinct nations, many regions and hundreds of different dialects. Its stable economy and thriving tech start-up scene mean the UK is one of the best places for businesses looking to extend their international footprint. Whilst London is a hyper-connected hub of highly educated and skilled workers, the UK is also home to other major cities such as Manchester, Edinburgh and Bristol that all have something unique to offer expanding businesses. These footholds provide a diverse workforce comprised of people from all over the globe, giving access to truly world-class talent.
The UK has fewer regulations around doing business than many other developed nations. It's regularly ranked as one of the easiest places to employ — not least because English has become the international language of business. Its flexible, transparent regulatory system, low corporation tax and tax incentives all encourage foreign attention, and over the years, it's established itself as an attractive destination for growing businesses.
Arguably, employing in the UK has become more complex in recent years. Although everyone in the UK is still navigating the impact of Brexit, it's already clear that international travel and trade within the EU have become much more challenging. The UK's tax system is also burdensome, and it can take over 110 hours each year to fulfil all necessary tax obligations. Employment laws in the UK are also very changeable and require businesses' constant attention to ensure they don't slip up on compliance.
As Europe's third-largest economy, France is a progressive and industrialised nation. The country offers an openly pro-business environment that's propped up by a sophisticated financial market and well-educated workforce.
France's investment climate encourages new business. The French government expanded its policies to continue attracting interest and investment from overseas organisations, making it an attractive location for growing businesses. The capital of Paris is one of Europe's most important financial centres. It boasts a diverse and bustling culture and houses the Sophia Antipolis technology park: an area with the highest concentration of technology engineers outside the Silicon Valley.
Bolstered by an entrepreneurial culture, France's business sector is focused on technology and innovation — and the country's business leaders are reputably innovative, firm and talented.
However, as with employing anywhere in Europe, companies must understand the country's laws, rules and regulations to expand into France successfully.
The process of setting up a business in France is lengthy. Coupled with intricate labour laws and high employer costs, there are several strict regulatory hoops to jump through. Similarly to Germany, there's a heightened emphasis on employee rights and protections in France. For example, in the wake of increased hybrid working, French employees now legally have the 'right to disconnect' from any work-related technology they use outside working hours.
No matter where in the world you're looking to employ, it can quickly become an incredibly arduous and complex process — not to mention that you'll have to stay on top of all of the ever-changing employment regulations. And you don't need us to tell you that non-compliance comes with consequences.
Partnering with a global employer of record (EOR) like TopSource Worldwide gives you peace of mind that you're complying with all relevant employment regulations in your chosen location. Whether you're employing in Germany, the UK or France, our local experts know all the up-to-date rules and nuances associated with expanding into Europe's top three locations. Our global EOR services provide hassle-free management of your employees, from start to finish.
Outsourcing your international employment obligations to TopSource Worldwide means we'll ensure legal, HR and payroll compliance across the board and will help you find and onboard the best talent available. Our full-employment model simplifies your overseas expansion as we complete all statutory filing and provide electronic payslips for all your employees. We're also aware that every business is different, so we'll always tailor our EOR offering to your bespoke needs.
We'll remove any hassle associated with expanding overseas, keeping your business on the right side of compliance so that you can employ anywhere in Europe seamlessly. Get in touch to find out more.
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Published On: 27/04/22Last Updated: 14/09/22
About the Author: Sam Barnes
Sam is our Global Business Development Manager for Employer of Record services. For the last 10 years, he has assisted companies in the successful execution of their international expansion plans. Sam tells us "There's something inherently exciting about growing a business into overseas jurisdictions. Each country does things slightly differently and it's great to be able to share learnings on statutory requirements and cultural nuances". Email: sam.barnes@topsourceworldwide.com
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Forgetting something when traveling can end up being anything from an inconvenience to a show stopper. To help you avoid forgetting the big things that can quickly derail an international trip, we have setup this checklist for you to use.
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To ensure the related procurement activities are conducted in line with the applicable National and Global Fund Policy Requirements to ensure timely implementation of grant activities.
Confirms full compliance of procurement activities with GF rules, regulations, policies and strategies including elaboration of the effective internal control, proper design and functioning of a client-oriented procurement management system.
Drafting submissions to the Contract, Asset and Procurement Committee (CAP) and Advisory Committee on Procurement (ACP).
Reviews SR and State Office financial and operational reporting systems to ensure integrity and reliability of information for decision making.
Conducts market research to keep abreast of market developments, research and analyze statistical data and market reports on the world commodity situation, production patterns and availability of goods and services.
Bachelor's Degree in Pharmacy, any of the Social Sciences or any Development related field is a requirement.
Professional membership to a standard body will be an added advantage.
Minimum of five years' professional experience providing technical support to large organization or project or government projects, preferably in donor-funded programs includes at least 5 years of experience in pharmaceutical and medical procurement.


The Skagit Valley Tulip Festival is a destination event for the Pacific Northwest. Every year the month-long Festival celebrates the beginning of springtime with millions of tulips bursting into bloom. People from all over the world come to see the beautiful Roosengardde and Tulip Town gardens and marvel at the flower fields (just 10 minutes outside the city center of Mount Vernon). The spectacular colored lines light up the beautiful landscape some of which will bloom directly across the street from Christianson's Nursery this year!
With plentiful parking and the best plant selection in Skagit Valley, Christianson's Nursery is a highlight for flower enthusiasts and gardeners who love to discover unusual plants and enjoy historical mid-century glass Greenhouses. Be sure to visit Primrose Antiques and Gift Shop, located across the courtyard from the Garden Store, for Spring inspiration such as vintage-inspired Easter basket stuffers, antique treasures, and a wonderful selection of seasonal books, cards and home decor.
For the entire month of April, our original 1888 Meadow Schoolhouse will be transformed into an art gallery as the Stanwood Camano Arts Guild showcases handmade expressions of fine and garden art. Just outside the Schoolhouse, tulip fields, snow geese, daffodils, and Mount Baker all provide a dramatic backdrop for Pat's Philly Steak Sandwiches and Crepes, while inside the Front Greenhouse, Sweet & Savory Catering will serve fresh 'pour over' coffee, tea and hot chocolate from France along with delectable handmade pastries.
Plan to spend an afternoon with us and enjoy a picnic lunch in our charming English-styled Rose Garden as you experience stunning vistas of our beautiful valley. No matter how you choose to experience the Skagit Valley during the Tulip Festival, you are sure to marvel at the beauty!


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Fonterra takes local community from Te Rapa to the world
Local farmers, neighbours, staff and families from around the Waikato were invited to meet the Te Rapa team, taste-test products coming out of Te Rapa and get a behind-the-scenes look at the processing facilities.
Fonterra Te Rapa Operations Manager Scott Nelson says the community open day was a significant milestone for the site and an opportunity to share Fonterra's pride for Te Rapa with the community.
"We often talk about volume, velocity and value, and Te Rapa is a great example of these three principles at work. Day and night the team work hard to ensure that we are delivering the finest products for our consumers and we are very proud of what we do.
"Eight million litres of milk flow through Te Rapa daily – that's 300 tankers of milk coming out of one of the country's strongest dairying regions and turned into 325,000 tonnes of product each year for customers in more than 100 markets around the world."
Mr Nelson says Te Rapa's success comes from decades of support from the surrounding community.
"No matter the background, almost everyone in the Waikato has a connection to our site in some way or another – many through family or friends who work at the site, as Fonterra farmers who supply our milk, and as customers using our ingredients to make their products.
"It's the support of these communities that allows us to continue making some of the world's most sought after and trusted products."
Those who visited the site are encouraged to share their photos and experiences from the day on social media via Fonterra Co-operative's Facebook page with the hash tags: #fonterra #openday
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https://sputniknews.com/20160821/fbi-doj-podesta-clinton-yanukovych-1044476988.html
Irony: FBI, DOJ Launch Criminal Probe of Hillary Campaign Chair Over Putin Links
The FBI and Department of Justice have launched an investigation into whether the Podesta Group has any connections to alleged corruption that occurred in the... 21.08.2016, Sputnik International
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business, newsfeed, us, russia, ukraine, moscow, washington, kiev, viktor yanukovych, donald trump, petro poroshenko, vladimir putin, hillary clinton, john podesta, paul manafort, kremlin, party of regions, democrats, doj, white house, republicans, department of justice, federal bureau of investigation (fbi)
© AP Photo / Mikhail Metzel, PoolRussian President Vladimir Putin, left, meets U.S. Secretary of State Hillary Rodham Clinton on her arrival at the APEC summit in Vladivostok, Russia, Saturday, Sept. 8, 2012.
© AP Photo / Mikhail Metzel, Pool
The FBI and Department of Justice have launched an investigation into whether the Podesta Group has any connections to alleged corruption that occurred in the administration of former Ukrainian President Viktor Yanukovych.
It seems like just yesterday that the top campaign official for Donald Trump found himself caught in the middle of a political dragnet for his work as a lobbyist on behalf of Viktor Yanukovych with the media clamoring about his purported ties to Russian President Vladimir Putin as a reason why the Republican nominee was a less desirable candidate than Hillary Clinton. Wait, that was just yesterday?
It turns out that Hillary Clinton's campaign guru, head of the lobbying firm the Podesta Group, has found himself smack dab in the middle of the same criminal investigation spawned when devious political operatives decide to merge international relations with campaign politics. For weeks, the pages of the Washington Post, the Daily Beast, the New York Times, and the Wall Street Journal have chimed that Trump is a "Putin pawn" as part of some maniacal plot by the Kremlin to interfere with the US election.
Turns out, the Podesta Group founded by none other than John Podesta, Hillary's campaign chair and chief strategies, was retained by the Russian-owned firm UraniumOne in 2012, 2014, and 2015 to lobby Hillary Clinton's State Department based on John Podesta's longstanding relations with the Clinton family – he was the White House Chief of Staff under Bill Clinton.
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Interestingly, UraniumOne's chairman used his family foundation to make four donations totaling $2.35 million to the Clinton Foundation from 2009 to 2013. Perhaps a more blatant evidence of allegations that Hillary Clinton's State Department operated on a pay-to-play basis is the fact that, as the New York Times reported last April, "shortly after the Russians announced their intention to acquire a majority stake in Uranium One, Mr. Clinton received $500,000 for a Moscow speech from a Russian investment bank with links to the Kremlin that was promoting UraniumOne stock.
Not only are investigators wondering whether there was any impropriety in the lobbying arrangement such as the provision of beneficial treatment by the State Department to an old friend, but they are also probing the work that Viktor Yanukovych's regime paid the Podesta Group to do while he was the head of the Ukrainian government.
Minneapolis Mayhem: Anti-Trump Protests Turn Violent During Campaign Fundraiser
The controversy for Podesta links to his work for the Centre for a Modern Ukraine, a Brussels based organization that describes itself as "an advocate for enhancing EU-Ukraine relations." Unfortunately for Mr. Podesta, the organization has been described as "an operation controlled by Yanukovych" and tied to the former leader's Party of Regions suggesting the Podesta Group may have been, like has been said of Paul Manafort, tasked with greater reporting requirements pursuant to US law.
The Podesta Group quickly hired the white-shoe law firm Caplin & Drysdale as "independent, outside legal counsel to determine if we were misled by the Centre for a Modern Ukraine or any other individuals with regard to the Centre's potential ties to foreign governments or political parties."
And the plot of the 2016 presidential election thickens.
Viktor Yanukovych
John Podesta
Paul Manafort
Party of Regions


text:
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A new University of Toronto study has found that by two years of age, children are remarkably good at comprehending speakers who talk with accents the toddlers have never heard before.
Even more striking, say researchers, children as young as 15 months who have difficulty comprehending accents they've never heard before can quickly learn to understand accented speech after hearing the speaker for a short time.
The researchers wanted to study if and how young children in the early stages of learning their first language come to understand words spoken in different regional variants of their native language. This is the first study showing rapid adaptation to accents at such a young age and the findings speak to the great developmental steps children take with regards to language comprehension.
The findings are based on two studies by the researchers that have been recently published in The Journal of Experimental Psychology: General and in Language Learning and Development.
The human mind is something that is so powerful and amazing. I agree that while children are young, they're brains are still developing and it is normal that children learn a lot faster at that age. Being at university, and having to cope with large loads of work- reading this article made me wonder. What would the possibility be to create mediums that could help and keep an individuals brain to continuously develop? I know that we don't use our brain to even a hundredth of it's full potential. Wouldn't life just be so much easier if we had the ability to learn as fast as we did when we were infants?
A possible reason for children being able to comprehend different accents is due to the fact that during younger stages of development there is a high level of neuroplasticity, which has been shown by various tests and studies. Neuroplasticity is defined as:'the ability of the brain to adapt to the specific demands of the environments in which a person spends their waking hours'. Children also possess brains which are in a highly adaptive state which enables them to learn new skills quickly for adult life. For this reason, the way one acts and speaks around younger children in critical as children often imitate the behaviour of the adults around them. This is also the reason why the early stages of schooling are immensely important for children, as a good foundation in literacy and mathematics is essential. The learning abilities of children is definitely another trait of the incredible human mind that is so interesting to investigate.
It is clear that infants have the ability to comprehend their mother tongue, but their ability to recognize diction of the same language in another accent is absolutely phenomenal. Adults often have difficulty understanding accents in the beginning, but as they adapt to the unfamiliarity, it becomes easier to understand. For infants to be able to do the same shows how sophisticated and complex the learning ability is as well as how rapidly it occurs. We still have a lot to learn about the development of our future leaders!


text:
Published on Academy of American Poets (https://poets.org)
Ghazal of Oranges
On New Year's Eve, my father overfills the baskets with oranges,
mangoes, grapes, grapefruits, other citrus too, but mostly oranges.
The morning of the first, he opens every window to let the new year in.
In Chinatown, red bags sag with mustard greens and mandarin oranges.
A farmer in a fallow season kneels to know the dirt. More silt than soil,
he wipes his brow and mumbles to his dog: time to give up this crop of oranges.
The woman knows she let herself say too much to someone undeserving.
She lays her penance on her sister's doorstep: a case of expensive oranges.
At the Whitney, I take a photo of a poem in a book behind the glass.
Above it, a painting: smears of blue, Frank O'Hara, his messy oranges.
The handsome server speaks with his hands: Tonight is grilled octopus
with braised fennel and olives, topped with peppercress, cara caras, and blood oranges.
No one at the table looks up, ashamed by the prices on the chic menus.
The busser fills my water and I inhale him: his faraway scent of oranges.
Seventh grade, Southern California: we monitored the daily smog alerts.
Red: stay inside. White: play outside. I forget what warning orange is.
Clutch was serious about art and said our final projects could be
whatever . . . performative . . . like, just show up with a wheelbarrow full of oranges.
Jan, in all of those first six years, why is all you can remember this:
the mist rising in the sunny air as you watched her peeling oranges.
Copyright © 2022 by Jan-Henry Gray. Originally published in Poem-a-Day on October 28, 2022, by the Academy of American Poets.
"Often it starts with a bad idea that turns into a kind of dare: can you write a poem filled with rhymes for the word 'oranges'? Then, there are the ideas that words rhyme with themselves and that repetition is itself the most perfect kind of rhyme. As a form, the ghazal provides a place for a word to become immersive—even hypnotic. I followed the images, letting the oranges remind me of different scenes made up of scraps of memory, some imagined, others conjured up."
—Jan-Henry Gray
Jan-Henry Gray is a queer poet who was born in the Philippines and grew up in California. A graduate of San Francisco State University and Columbia College Chicago's MFA program, he is the author of Documents (BOA Editions, 2019), chosen by D. A. Powell as the winner of 2018 A. Poulin, Jr. Poetry Prize.
Source URL: https://poets.org/poem/ghazal-oranges


text:
Encyclopedia > Childeric I
Childeric I
Childeric I, (c. 437- c. 482), king of the Salian Franks, supposedly succeeded his father Merovech (Merwing) as king in 457 or 458. With his tribe he was established around the town of Tournai, on lands which he had received as a foederatus of the Romans, and for some time he kept the peace with his allies.
About 463, in conjunction with the Roman General Aegidius, he fought against the Visigoths, who hoped to extend their dominion along the banks of the Loire River; after the death of Aegidius he assisted Count Paul[?] in attempting to check an invasion of the Saxons. Paul having perished in the struggle, Childeric delivered Angers from some Saxons, followed them to the islands at the mouth of the Loire, and massacred them there. He also stopped a band of the Alamanni who wished to invade Italy.
These are all the facts known about him. The stories of his expulsion by the Franks; of his stay of eight years in Thuringia with King Basin and his wife Basine; of his return when a faithful servant advised him that he could safely do so by sending to him half of a piece of gold which he had broken with him; and of the arrival at Tournai of Queen Basine[?], whom he married, are entirely legendary.
After the fall of the Western Empire in 476 there is no doubt that Childeric regarded himself as freed from his engagements towards Rome. He died in 481 and was buried at Tournai, leaving a son Clovis, afterwards king of the Franks. His tomb was discovered in 1653, when numerous precious objects, arms, jewels, coins and a ring with a figure of the king, were found.
From a 1911 encyclopedia
Franks (main history of Frankish kingdoms)
List of Frankish Kings
... Contents Mayenne Mayenne is a French d�partement, number 53, named after the Mayenne River[?]. Pr�fecture (capital): ...


text:
Oscar Polli, né le  à Monza, est un pilote italien de rallye-raid moto.

Palmarès

Rallye Dakar

Autres rallyes
 Vainqueur de l'Africa Eco Race en 2012
 Vainqueur du Rallye des Pharaons en 2007

Championnat du monde
 Champion du monde en 2008

Voir aussi

Lien externe
 site personnel du pilote

Pilote de moto italien
Pilote du Rallye Dakar
Naissance en juin 1965
Naissance à Monza

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


Global concerns about the environmental impact from use of petroleum-based feedstock to produce chemicals have fuelled the rise of "green" chemistry. Typically, this includes the deployment of more environmentally friendly production technologies and use of biobased feedstocks to manufacture renewable chemicals, fuels and bioenergy. Use of these green chemicals is already underway with various products already in the markets. In 2011, the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) estimated that there are 20,000 biobased products currently being manufactured in North America. Recent forecasts project the renewable chemicals market to reach $100 billion by 2020. The economic benefits from this sustainable approach is also significant, with potential savings of over $65 billion in the chemical industry that is expected to grow beyond $5 trillion value by 2020. Additionally, the growth of renewable chemicals provides a major opportunity for the chemical industry to reduce its carbon footprint.


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