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The Kingdom of Sicily ( , , ) was a state that existed in the south of Italy from its founding by Roger II in 1130 until 1861. It was a successor state of the County of Sicily, which had been founded in 1071 during the Norman conquest of southern Italy. The Kingdom covered not only the island of Sicily itself, but also the whole Mezzogiorno region of southern Italy . The island was divided into three regions; Valle di Mazzara, Valle di Demona and Valle di Noto.
It was sometimes called the regnum Apuliae et Siciliae until 1282. In 1282 a revolt against the Angevin rule, known as the Sicilian Vespers threw off Charles of Anjou's rule of the island of Sicily. The Angevins managed to maintain control in the mainland areas of the kingdom, which eventually became known as the Kingdom of Naples, after its capital. The island became a separate kingdom, under the rule of an Aragonese dynasty. After 1302 the island kingdom was sometimes called the Kingdom of Trinacria (the English equivalent word of Trinacria is the Triangle). Often the kingship was vested in another monarch such as the King of Aragon, the King of Spain or the Holy Roman Emperor. In 1816 the Kingdom of Sicily merged with Kingdom of Naples into the newly created Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. In 1861 its areas were united with the Kingdom of Italy.
Norman kingdom
The Norman Kingdom was created in 1130 by Roger II of Sicily. Roger united the lands he inherited from his father Roger I of Sicily. These areas included the Duchy of Apulia and the County of Sicily, which belonged to his cousin William II, Duke of Apulia, until his death in 1127, and the other Norman vassals. Roger threw his support behind the Antipope Anacletus II, who enthroned him King of Sicily on Christmas Day 1130.
In 1136, the rival of Anacletus, Pope Innocent II, convinced Lothair III, Holy Roman Emperor to attack the Kingdom of Sicily with help from the Byzantine Emperor John II Comnenus. Two main armies, one led by Lothair, the other by Duke of Bavaria Henry the Proud, invaded Sicily. On the river Tronto , William of Loritello surrendered to Lothair and opened the gates of Termoli to him. This was followed by Count Hugh II of Molise. The two armies were united at Bari , from where in 1137 they continued their campaign. Roger offered to give Apulia as a fief to the Empire, which Lothair refused after being pressured by Innocent. At the same period the army of Lothair revolted.
Then Lothair, who had hoped for the complete conquest of Sicily, gave Capua and Apulia from the Kingdom of Sicily to Roger's enemies. Innocent protested, claiming that Apulia fell under papal claims. Lothair turned north, but died while crossing the Alps on December 4, 1137. At the Second Council of the Lateran in April 1139, Innocent excommunicated Roger for maintaining a schismatic attitude. On March 22, 1139, at Galluccio, Roger's son Roger III, Duke of Apulia ambushed the papal troops with a thousand knights and captured the pope. On March 25, 1139, Innocent was forced to acknowledge the kingship and possessions of Roger with the Treaty of Mignano.
Roger spent most of the decade, beginning with his coronation and ending with the Assizes of Ariano, enacting a series of laws with which Roger intended to centralise the government, fending off multiple invasions and quelling rebellions by his premier vassals: Grimoald of Bari, Robert II of Capua, Ranulf of Alife, Sergius VII of Naples and others. It was through his admiral George of Antioch that Roger then proceeded to conquer the Mahdia in Africa (Ifriqiya), taking the unofficial title "King of Africa". At the same time Roger's fleet attacked the Byzantine Empire, making Sicily the leading maritime power in the Mediterranean Sea for almost a century.
Roger's son and successor was William I of Sicily, known as "William the Bad", though his nickname derived primarily from his lack of popularity with the chroniclers, who supported the baronial revolts which William suppressed. His reign ended in peace (1166), but his son, William II, was a minor. Until the end of the boy's regency in 1172, the kingdom saw turmoil which almost brought the ruling family down. The reign of William II is remembered as two decades of almost continual peace and prosperity. For this more than anything, he is nicknamed "the Good". He died in 1189 without having heirs, which led the kingdom to decline.
Tancred of Lecce seized the throne but had to contend with the revolt of his distant cousin Roger of Andria and the invasion of Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor on behalf of his wife, Constance, the daughter of Roger II. Constance and Henry eventually prevailed and the kingdom fell in 1194 to the Hohenstaufen dynasty. Through Constance, the Hauteville blood was passed to Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor.
Hohenstaufen kingdom
The accession of Frederick, a child who would then become also the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II in 1197, greatly affected the immediate future of Sicily. For a land so used to centralised royal authority, the king's young age caused a serious power vacuum. His uncle Philip of Swabia moved to secure Frederick's inheritance by appointing Markward von Anweiler, margrave of Ancona , regent in 1198. Meanwhile, Pope Innocent III had reasserted papal authority in Sicily, but recognised Frederick's rights. The pope was to see papal power decrease steadily over the next decade and was unsure about which side to back at many junctures.
The Hohenstaufen's grip on power, however, was not secure. Walter III of Brienne had married the daughter of Tancred of Sicily. She was sister and heiress of the deposed King William III of Sicily. In 1201 William decided to claim the kingdom. In 1202, an army led by the chancellor Walter of Palearia and Dipold of Vohburg was defeated by Walter III of Brienne. Markward was killed, and Frederick fell under the control of William of Capparone, an ally of the Pisans . Dipold continued the war against Walter on the mainland until the claimant's death in 1205. Dipold finally wrested Frederick from Capparone in 1206 and gave him over to the guardianship of the chancellor, Walter of Palearia. Walter and Dipold then had a falling out, and the latter captured the royal palace, where he was besieged and captured by Walter in 1207. After a decade, the wars over the regency and the throne itself had ceased.
The reform of the laws began with the Assizes of Ariano in 1140 by Roger II. Fredecik continued the reformation with the Assizes of Capua (1220) and the promulgation of the Constitutions of Melfi (1231, also known as Liber Augustalis), a collection of laws for his realm that was remarkable for its time. The Constitutions of Melfi were created in order to establish a centralized state. For example, citizens were not allowed to carry weapons or wear armour in public unless they were under royal command. As a result, rebellions were reduced. The Constitutions made the Kingdom of Sicily an absolute monarchy, the first centralized state in Europe to emerge from feudalism; it also set a precedent for the primacy of written law. With relatively small modifications, the Liber Augustalis remained the basis of Sicilian law until 1819. During this period, he also built the Castel del Monte , and in 1224, he founded the University of Naples, now called Università Federico II. It remained the sole athenaeum of Southern Italy for centuries.
After the death of Frederick, the Kingdom was ruled by Henry VII of Germany and Conrad IV of Germany. The next legitimate heir was Conrad II, who was too young at the period to rule. Manfred of Sicily, the illegitimate son of Frederick, took the power and ruled the kingdom for fifteen years while other Hohenstaufen heirs were ruling various areas in Germany. After long wars against the Papal States , the Kingdom managed to defend its possessions, but the Papacy declared the Kingdom escheated because of disloyalty of the Hohenstaufen. Under this pretext he came to an agreement with Louis IX, King of France. Louis's brother, Charles of Anjou, would become king of Sicily. In exchange, Charles recognized the overlordship of the Pope in the Kingdom, paid a portion of the papal debt, and agreed to pay annual tribute to the Papal States. The Hohenstaufen rule in Sicily ended after the 1266 Angevin invasion and the death of Conradin, the last male heir of Hohenstaufen, in 1268.
Angevin and Aragonese kingdoms
In 1266, conflict between the Hohenstaufen house and the Papacy led to Sicily's conquest by Charles I, Duke of Anjou . Opposition to French officialdom and taxation combined with inciment of rebellion by Aragonese and Byzantine agents led to the Sicilian Vespers insurrection and successful invasion by king Peter III of Aragon in 1282. The resulting War of the Sicilian Vespers lasted until the Peace of Caltabellotta in 1302, dividing the old Kingdom of Sicily in two. The island of Sicily, called the "Kingdom of Sicily beyond the Lighthouse" or the Kingdom of Trinacria, went to Frederick III, who had been ruling it. The peninsular territories (the Mezzogiorno), contemporaneously called Kingdom of Sicily but called Kingdom of Naples by modern scholarship, went to Charles II, who had likewise been ruling it. Thus, the peace was formal recognition of an uneasy status quo.
Coat of Arms of the Aragonese Kings of Sicily.
Sicily was ruled as an independent kingdom by relatives of the kings of Aragon until 1409 and thence as part of the Crown of Aragon. The Kingdom of Naples was ruled by the Angevin ruler René of Anjou until the two thrones were reunited by Alfonso V of Aragon, after the successful siege of Naples and the defeat of René in June 6, 1443. Eventually, Alfonso of Aragon divided the two kingdoms during his rule. He gave the rule of Naples to his son Ferdinand I of Naples, who ruled from 1458 to 1494, and Aragon and Sicily to Alfonso's brother John II of Aragon. From 1494 to 1503 successive kings of France Charles VIII and Louis XII, who were heirs of Angevins, tried to conquer Naples (see Italian Wars) but failed. Eventually the Kingdom of Naples was reunited with the Aragonese Kingdom.
The titles were held by the Aragonese kings of the Catalan-Aragonese Crown until 1516, followed by the Kings of Spain until 1707. From 1713 until 1720 the Kingdom of Sicily was ruled by the House of Savoy, which annexed it under the Treaty of Utrecht. In 1720 the House of Savoy traded Sicily for Sardinia to the House of Habsburg, who already ruled Naples. In 1735, Naples and Sicily were attacked by King Philip V of Spain, a Bourbon, who installed his younger son, Duke Charles of Parma, as King Charles VII of Naples and Sicily. In 1799 Napoleon conquered Naples, governed by Ferdinand IV of Naples (later Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies) at the time. It was formed into the Parthenopaean Republic with French support. Under British pressure, especially from Lord William Bentinck, who was commander of British troops in Sicily, Naples was then handed back to Ferdinand, being forced to create a constitution for the Kingdom of Sicily.
A two-chamber parliament in Palermo and in Naples was formed. The formation of the parliament brought the end of feudalism in the Kingdom. After the defeat of Napoleon in 1815 Ferdinand repealed all reforms. The people of Sicily rebelled but were defeated by Spanish and Austrian forces. In 1848 another Sicilian revolution of independence occurred, which was put down by Ferdinand II of the Two Sicilies, who was surnamed Re Bomba after his 5-day bombardment of Messina. From 1816 to 1861 the kingdoms were united under the name Kingdom of the Two Sicilies.
Malta under the Knights
In 1530, in an effort to protect Rome from Ottoman invasion from the south, Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, as Charles I of Spain, gave the Islands of Malta and Gozo to the Knights Hospitaller in perpetual fiefdom, in exchange for an annual fee of two (one for the emperor and one for the viceroy of Sicily) Maltese falcon, which they were to send on All Souls' Day to the Viceroy of Sicily. The Maltese Islands had formed part of the Duchy, and later the Kingdom of Sicily, since 1127. The feudal relationship between Malta and the Kingdom of Sicily was continued throughout the rule of the Knights, until Malta was conquered by Napoleon, in 1798.
Unification with the Kingdom of Italy
The beginning of the expedition at Quarto.
On April 4, 1860 a revolt against the Bourbon regime broke out. Giuseppe Garibaldi assisted the revolt with his forces. He arrived at Marsala on May 11, 1860 with 1,000 Redshirts. The arrival of the Redshirts is known as the Expedition of the Thousand ( ) On May 15, the Italian forces defeated the Spanish army, consisting of 15,000 troops, two weeks later Palermo was freed. Francis II of the Two Sicilies tried to regain control of the Kingdom. On June 25, 1860 he restored the constitution of the Kingdom, adopted the Italian tricolour as the national flag, and promised special institutions for the Kingdom. On October 21, 1860 a referendum regarding the unification with Italy was conducted. The majority of the Kingdom's population (99%) voted for the unification. A small part of Sicilians viewed the unification as occupation by the House of Savoy, in which belonged Victor Emmanuel II, the first king of Italy.
During the Norman Kingdom of Sicily, the local communities maintained their privileges. The rulers of the Hohenstaufen Kingdom replaced the local nobility with lords from northern Italy, leading to clashes and rebellions against the new nobility in many cities and rural communities. These revolts resulted in the destruction of many agrarian areas and the rise of middle class nationalism, which eventually led to urban dwellers becoming allies of the Aragonese. This situation was continued during the short rule of the Angevin until their overthrowing during the Sicilian Vespers. The Angevin began feudalising the country, increasing the power of the nobility by granting them jurisdiction over high justice. During the 15th century due to the isolation of the Kingdom, the Renaissance had no impact on it. In 1513 the Spanish Inquisition was introduced in Sicily, virtually stopping all possible progress.
At the same period the feudalisation of the Kingdom of Sicily was intensified, through the enforcement of feudal bonds and relations among its subjects. In 1669 the eruption of Mount Etna destroyed Catania . In 1693, 5% of the Kingdom's population was killed because of earthquakes. In that period there were also plague outbreaks. The 17th and 18th century were an era of decline of the Kingdom. Corruption was prevalent among the upper and middle classes of the society. Widespread corruption and maltreatment of the lower classes by the feudal lords led to the creation of groups of brigands, attacking the nobility and destroying their fiefs. These groups which were self-named "Mafia", were the foundation of the modern Mafia. The escalation of revolts against the monarchy eventually led to the unification with Italy.
During the reign of Frederick II the kingdom had a population of about 2.5 million. During the Hohenstaufen era, the Kingdom had 3 towns with a population of over 20,000 each. After the loss of the northern provinces in 1282 during the Sicilian Vespers and several natural disasters like the eruption of Mount Etna in 1669, the population of the Kingdom of Sicily was reduced. In 1803 the population of the Kingdom was 1,656,000. The main cities of the Kingdom at that period were Palermo , Catania , Messina , Modica , Syracuse .
Population of the Kingdom of Sicily in 1803
Val di Mazzara 643,000
Val di Demona 521,000
Val di Noto 459,000
Lipari Islands 18,000
Aegadian Islands 12,000
Pantelleria Island 3,000
Population of the main cities of the Kingdom of Sicily in 1803
Palermo 120,000
Catania 40,000
Messina 36,000
Modica 23,500
Syracuse 17,000
Amalfi, an important port during the Norman Kingdom.
The high fertility of the land led the Norman kings to bring settlers from neighbouring regions or to resettle farmers to areas where cultivation of land was needed. This led to increase of agrarian production. The main sources of wealth for the Kingdom of Sicily at that period were its maritime cities, most important of which were Naples and Amalfi , from which local products were exported. The main export was hard grain, with tther products exported including nuts, timber, oil, bacon, cheese, skins, hides, hemp and cloth. Grain and other dry products were measured in salme, which was equivalent to 275.08 litres in the western part of the Kingdom, and 3.3 litres in the eastern part. The salma was divided in 16 tumoli. One tumolo was equivalent to 17,193 litres. Weight was measured in cantari. One cantaro was equivalent to and was divided in one hundred rottoli. Cloth was measured in canne. One canna was 2.06 meters long. By the end of the 12th century Messina had become one of the leading commercial cities of the kingdom.
The main trading partners of Sicily were Genoa, Pisa, the Byzantine Empire, and Egypt. Various treaties with Genoa secured and strengthened the commercial power of Sicily. The feudalising of the society during the Angevin rule reduced royal wealth and treasury. The dependence of the Angevin on north Italian commerce and financing by Florentine bankers were the main factors which led to the decline of the Kingdom's economy. The continuation of the economic decline combined with the increased population and urbanization led to decrease of agrarian production. In 1800 one-third of the available crops was cultivated, with obsolete cultivation methods escalating the problem. In the later period of Spanish rule the trading system was also inefficient in comparison with previous periods because of high taxes on exports and monopolising corporations which had total control of prices.
Example of a Messinese augustale.
The Norman kings in the 12th century used the tari, which had been used in Sicily from 913, as the basic coin. One tari weighed about one gram and was of gold. The Arab dinar was worth four tari, and the Byzantine solidus six tari. In the kingdom one onza was equivalent to thirty tari or five florins. One tari was worth twenty grani. One grana was equivalent to six denari. After 1140 the circulation of the copper coin romesina stopped and it was replaced by the follaris. Twenty four follari were equivalent to one Byzantine militiarenses.
After defeating the Tunisians in 1231 Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor minted the augustalis. It was minted in carats and weighed 5.28 grams. In 1490 the triumphi were minted in Sicily. They were equivalent to the Venetian ducat. One triumpho was worth aquilae. One aquila was worth twenty grani. In transactions tari and pichuli were mainly used.
The three dominant religions of the Kingdom of Sicily during the Norman reign were: Roman Catholicism, Eastern Orthodoxy, and Islam. While the practice of every religion in local communities was not interrupted, the change of authority empowered Roman Catholicism. Bishops of the Eastern Orthodox rite were obliged to recognize the claims of the Roman Catholic Church in Sicily, while Muslim communities were no longer ruled by local emirs. As a result of religious tolerance, intermarriage between members of all religions increased until it became a common practice. In many cities, each religious community had its own administrative and judicial order. In Palermo , Muslims were allowed to publicly call for prayer in mosques, and their legal issues were settled by qadis, judges who rule in accordnance to the Islamic law.
After the establishment of Hohenstaufen authority Roman Catholic and Orthodox believers maintained their privileges, but the Muslim population lost most of its privileges. The settlements of Italians brought from northern Italy led many Muslim communities in revolting or resettling in mountainous areas of Sicily. These revolts resulted in massacres and deportations of most Muslim communities. Eventually, the government gathered the entire Muslim population in Lucera in Apulia and Girifalco in Calabria. The Jewish community was expelled after the establishment of the Spanish Inquisition from 1493 to 1513 in Sicily. The remaining Jews were gradually assimilated, and most of them converted to Roman Catholicism.
Emirate of Sicily
Norman conquest of southern Italy
Kingdom of Naples
War of the Sicilian Vespers
List of monarchs of Sicily
Ottoman-Habsburg wars
Kingdom of the Two Sicilies
Arab-Norman culture
Expulsion of the Jews from Sicily

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While veterans of World War II prospered, Vietnam veterans suffered economically after coming home.
By their nature military conflicts produce veterans, but all veterans do not have the same experiences when they come home; World War II veterans generally prospered after 1945, while Vietnam Veterans have often been viewed as being 'damaged goods'. In new research, Alair MacLean examines the socioeconomic status of groups of veterans, finding that veterans of World War II and Korea benefited from the country's growing postwar economy which included government benefits, whereas those returning from Vietnam in the 1970s received far less generous benefits, earned less, and were relatively less equal by comparison.
When Americans think of veterans of the armed forces, they tend to visualize different men depending on the era of military service. One of the starkest contrasts in the popular imagination is between men who served in World War II and those who went to Vietnam. World War II veterans have long been seen as heroes, called the "Greatest Generation." They have also been viewed as conformists participating in the post-war bureaucracy, exemplified by The Man in the Gray Flannel Suit.
By contrast, Vietnam veterans have long been viewed as damaged goods. According to this narrative, they most likely were wounded physically by their service, like the protagonists of the movies Coming Home or Born on the Fourth of July. Perhaps even more commonly, they are assumed to be scarred psychologically, like the men returning from war in The Deer Hunter, who play Russian roulette as a sign of their alienation.
Do these different cultural representations reflect something fundamental about how the position of veterans changed over time? According to recent research I conducted with Meredith Kleykamp, veterans did benefit from higher earnings, as well as lower inequality, if they served during the World War II era, and, to some extent the decade immediately after that war. They began to suffer lower earnings if they served in the Vietnam War and the decade following the end of that conflict. While we cannot tease out causal links, our findings suggest that the cultural and socioeconomic positions of veterans were at least somewhat in sync.
There are a number of reasons to believe that the socioeconomic status of veterans should vary over time. The United States drafted service-members between 1941 and 1973, a period that stretches from the beginning of the nation's involvement in World War II to the withdrawal of troops from Vietnam. During the draft, however, men came to serve in different ways. During World War II, more than half of all men served, and men were only excluded from service if they had health problems, either physical or mental. During the Vietnam War, less than half enlisted, and men were able to evade service by enrolling in higher education. Some have therefore referred to this later war as one dominated by class bias.
After enlisting in these decades, US service-members were exposed to different situations: World War II, the wars in Korea and Vietnam, as well as the decade of peacetime Cold War in between. Nearly a third of those who were wounded during World War II were killed, compared to only one quarter in the later wars in Korea and Vietnam. Thus, men were more likely to die and less likely to come home injured from that earlier than from those later wars.
World War II and Korean era veterans returned to a relatively prosperous and egalitarian nation that treated them well. They came back to the United States of the 1940s and 1950s, which scholars believe may have been anomalous with reference to the low level of economic inequality. It was a period of growth that was spread relatively evenly across the population. Veterans also received governmental benefits that were unprecedented, providing them with money for education and housing.
Veterans received far less generous benefits than their forebears when they came home from Vietnam. They also returned to a society that was in the early stages of the takeoff in inequality that scholars trace in the United States to the 1970s and 80s.
Since the end of the draft, the country has operated a system in which people volunteer to enter the military. For the first thirty years of the volunteer force, service-members had relatively limited involvement in combat. Over the last decade and a half, of course, US troops have been engaged in the conflicts in Afghanistan and Iraq.
Consistent with some of these historical changes, researchers have generally found that veterans earned more than other men if they served in World War II, and less if they served in Vietnam. We wanted to use consistent data over a long time period to test if these differences were robust and statistically significant, as well as what patterns held for veterans of eras that have received less attention. In addition, we wanted to examine a research question that had not previously received any attention. To wit: Do veterans exhibit the same patterns of increased inequality since the 1970s as do other men?
To address these questions, we analyzed data from the Current Population surveys of 1967-2010. We began by observing how average earnings and earnings inequality had changed historically and then how they may have differed across generations. We accessed the data using the Integrated Public Use Microdata Series, or the IPUMS.
Our research confirmed the intuition that veterans occupied a relatively privileged position if they served in World War II and were relatively disadvantaged if they served in the Vietnam era. The veterans of the "Greatest Generation" earned substantially more than comparable non-veterans, and experienced the least inequality. Those of the Vietnam era earned less than non-veterans and were relatively more unequal from each other.
We also found that veterans who served between those two wars, who fought in Korea or served during the peacetime Cold War period of the late 1950s and the early 1960s, were at an advantage relative to men who did not serve, though increasingly less so than the men of the earlier era. In addition, veterans appear to have suffered the biggest disadvantage if they served in the immediate post-Vietnam period, earning substantially less than men who did not serve, and having the largest within group inequality. In the years since the mid-1980s, the gap between veterans and non-veterans seems to have closed, with both types of men having relatively similar levels of earnings and income inequality.
The data do not allow us to definitively identify the causes of these changes. We can, however, speculate. It may be that the military became increasingly unpopular in the United States after World War II, reaching a nadir around the time of the Vietnam War and immediately thereafter. The loss of popularity could lead to more negative outcomes among former soldiers, by shaping both the preservice characteristics of those who enlisted and their experiences after they left the military. As mentioned, men were able to avoid the draft during the Vietnam War by going to college. The armed forces thus drew disproportionately from those who had fewer options when they went in and likely did not improve those chances after they left. Service during World War II was much more common, with men excluded primarily for health problems. Thus, it drew from a large pool of relatively advantaged men. In addition, as mentioned, veterans returned home to different societies both culturally and economically.
What does this mean for the contemporary era, when more than a million veterans have returned from the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan? It is too early to tell definitively. These veterans have come home to an environment that resembles in some ways that to which the World War II veterans returned, but also differs in important ways. Like those earlier veterans, they are eligible to receive more generous educational funding than those returning in the intervening decades. They also return to a society that appears to be more welcoming to previous service-members than at any time since the 1940s. Yet, they were a third less likely to die if they were wounded, meaning that they are more likely today to return with injuries. They must reintegrate into a radically different economy. Unlike the veterans of that previous era, they face extremely high levels of inequality. Many returned during the years of the Great Recession that began in 2008. They represent a much smaller share of the population than did the men who served during the forties, fifties, and sixties, who were part of a mass mobilization. Their socioeconomic fate remains to be seen.
Featured image credit: Leo Reynolds (Flickr, CC-BY-NC-SA-2.0)
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Alair MacLean – Washington State University
Alair MacLean is an Associate Professor of Sociology at Washington State University. Her research and teaching focus on inequality and the life course. Her current research focuses on veterans who served between World War II and the contemporary wars in Iraq and Afghanistan.
March 14th, 2016|Alair MacLean, US foreign affairs and the North American neighbourhood|1 Comment
Paul Schmehl July 3, 2019 at 8:32 pm - Reply
As a Vietnam era veteran (US Navy '68-'75), I'd like to thank you for doing this research.
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Online sales strategies intensified by MCO
Sales had dropped 98% at the start of the Movement Control Order (MCO) period for smart home appliances company Corvan Asia, but it fought back and doubled up on its online marketing.
The result was a 'drastic' jump, of more than 30% in its online sales, which picked up at a steady pace.
"We are blessed to have our sales and services back to the pre-MCO level,'' said business development manager Bevan Lee.
Prior to the sudden imposition of the MCO, Corvan had built up a strong following of customers who are credited with helping it to pull through the tough times.
It had also given good after sales support, for which operations was adversely affected during the MCO and Controlled MCO periods, due to strict adherence to standard operating procedures.
But after a few weeks of readjustment, levels are back to Corvan offering instant technical service on 90% of its home appliances.
Since 2009, the company had been involved in online sales which only made up less than 15% of total sales during peak time.
During the MCO period, team members who worked from home, focused their efforts on improving their online operations. There were no activities offline.
"Most us were working more than 12 hours a day for five weeks without any rest day,'' said Bevan.
The team had to study what their target audience were looking for; they then had to brainstorm and come up with new marketing strategies for each product.
They also collaborated with other companies, while engaging influencers and key opinion leaders whose lifetyles and demographics matched the target audience at Corvan.
As an example, the cordless vacuum giveaway in July and August had garnered some traction on social media, with many participants sharing their stories on how the product would help improve their quality of life.
Many consumers, especially those with families, are looking for products that allow them to apply disinfectants while cleaning the floor.
In this case, the robot vacuum, Corvan picaBot, comes with a large, electronically controlled water tank where disinfecting floor cleaning solutions including Ajax, Lysol, Dettol and others, can be added.
With its tagline of 'making housework enjoyable,' Corvan's value proposition lies in its award winning after sales service, as well as the efficiency, convenience and energy saving nature of its products.
Favourites among consumers are the Corvan cordless vacuum, picaBot ActiveMapping robotic vacuum, picaMop cordless polishing mop and Corvan cordless power scrub.
Priced between RM650 and RM2,400, the products are sold at Corvan's own store at The Starling Mall in Petaling Jaya, and all six Homepro outlets countrywide.
Corvan works closely with foreign technological and manufacturing partners especially from the US and Germany, on product development.
The products are 'Made in The World,' as key components of all the products are made in various countries including Japan, the US, Germany, the UK, South Korea, Malaysia and China for their best-in-class performance.
In line with its technical inclination, Corvan which previously operated from a shared shoplot in Sunway Mas, has evolved from being an agent selling other brands of household products, to become a brand owner today.
The company intends to strengthen its foothold in Malaysia before moving out to other countries next year.
"We believe that our products are suitable for users in other parts of the world, especially Asian families,'' said Bevan.
Having worked in Corvan for the past five years, Bevan finds that it is the steady hands of the management that has guided the team through all its up and downs.
With this major sales challenge thrown up by Covid-19, responsiveness from all angles, at all times, has become a top priority.
"We are lucky to have a very supportive senior management team who are accessible 16 hours a day for in-depth queries.
"At times, we have to call customers in person to explain to them in detail regarding their queries,'' said Bevan.
Such is the hard work and dedication required in this fast-moving, competitive pace within the current retail sales environment.
By Yap Leng Kuen, Chief Story Teller, The Artisans Haven
← Home Choices → Flower Power
Restyle with MML
Reimagine with Seng Hup
© 2021	Haven By Artisans


text:
Q: mv command failed now file missing So i ran mv command and it failed with
mv: cannot stat '/root/HIDDENDIR/HIDDEN-DIR/recover.php': No such file or directory

And now file is missing from original and target directory. I even tried find on whole server and no luck there
I ran mv command from PHP by exec and after that i used exec with chmod and chown.
If it helps this is exact exec command:
exec("mv \"".$file[1]."\" \"".$file[0]."\"");

Is file deleted or just lost somewhere (and if deleted any way to recover it?)
EDIT: Both directories are on same filesystem.

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaStackExchange


text:
package medicament

import (
	"bytes"
	"errors"
	"fmt"
	"time"
)

// Medicament holds medicament data.
type Medicament struct {
	refill
	Name string
	Dosage
	expire
}

// String returns medicament string representation.
func (m Medicament) String() string {
	return fmt.Sprintf("%3d   %6s %3s   %s [%s]\n",
		m.DaysToExpire,
		m.ExpireDate.Format("2.1."),
		m.ExpireDate.Format("Mon"),
		m.Name,
		m.Dosage)
}

// Compare compares medicaments by days to expiration.
func Compare(m1, m2 Medicament) bool {
	return m1.DaysToExpire < m2.DaysToExpire
}

// midnight returns date with zeroed time.
func midnight(t time.Time) time.Time {
	return time.Date(t.Year(), t.Month(), t.Day(), 0, 0, 0, 0, time.UTC)
}

// New create medicament.
func New(date time.Time, in []byte) (Medicament, error) {
	empty := Medicament{}
	// format
	all := bytes.Split(in, []byte{','})
	if len(all) < 4 {
		return empty, errors.New("medicament: format error")
	}
	// init
	m := Medicament{}
	// refill
	r, err := newRefill(all[0], all[1])
	if err != nil {
		return empty, fmt.Errorf("medicament: %s", err)
	}
	m.refill = r
	// name
	n, err := parseName(all[2])
	if err != nil {
		return empty, err
	}
	m.Name = n
	// dosage
	d, err := newDosage(all[3:]...)
	if err != nil {
		return empty, fmt.Errorf("medicament: %s", err)
	}
	m.Dosage = d

	// expire
	e := newExpire(date, r, d.ratio)
	m.expire = e
	return m, nil
}

// parseName returns medicament name.
func parseName(in []byte) (string, error) {
	s := string(in)
	if s == "" {
		return "", errors.New("medicament: empty name")
	}
	return s, nil
}

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaGithub


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text:
Cambodia: Overview
Cambodia is on every Southeast Asia backpacker's list of places to visit and for good reason. There are a ton of other backpackers, but you can't miss it. At the very least, you have to visit Krong Siem Reap to see Angkor Wat. We also stopped over in Phnom Penh. I highly suggest that you don't take any overnight buses while you are in Cambodia. They are known for crashing, and one of our friends was involved in one of the crashes. The bus driver died during the crash, and it was traumatizing (obviously) for her. Just don't do it.
Krong Siem Reap, Cambodia
This is where the backpackers flock to. Angkor Wat and all the other temples! Look at our photos from Cambodia here to see photos of each of the temples we visited in Krong Siem Reap. We went to Angkor Wat (duh), Bayon Temple, Ta Prohm (the Lara Croft / Tomb Raider temple), Preah Khan Temple, Ta Keo, Neak Pean / Jayatataka (in the middle of a lake), Ta Som Temple, Eastern Mebon, Prae Roup Temple, and some other smaller ones that I don't even remember. There are so many, and they are everywhere.
I talk more about the Cambodian genocide in my overview post here, but Phnom Penh is really the place to go to learn about it. There is also the Royal Palace to see, but it wasn't too exciting.
We stayed at Eighty8 Backpackers, and there was a lot of partying with all the other backpackers. It was really fun, and the pool was much needed in the heat. They had beer pong too!! They also have a sign-up sheet so you can find other people to split a tuk tuk with to go out to the Killing Fields and the Tuol Sleng Genocide Museum (S21). I, personally, had seen enough about the genocide after the Killing Fields, but I think you may as well see both while you're there. It's devastating stuff.
See our photos from Cambodia here.
Vietnam: Overview
You can't visit Vietnam and not learn about the Vietnam War – it's a key part of history and the region's current identity and conflicts. Vietnam had been a French colony since the 1880s. The Vietnamese had been fighting the French for independence for a long time before the Japanese came in during WWII. After Japan left, the Vietnamese took over what was left and kicked out the French. The country was split into communist North Vietnam and non-communist South Vietnam. The Vietnam War was fought between North Vietnam (supported by China and the Soviet Union) and South Vietnam (supported by the US and allies to defeat communism), and it was nearly 20 years from 1955 – 1975. North Vietnam ended up winning, but the country still seems very divided. For example, people in the southern city of Ho Chi Minh City still call the city Saigon (the name of the city before the south lost).
In lighter news, my favorite part about Vietnam was the food. Yummmmm, the food! What you need to make sure you eat:
Hoi An, Vietnam
Hoi An is known for tailors. You can get anything you want custom made for you, and there are hundreds to choose from. Colin and I got matching outfits:
Hanoi means "land inside the river." You definitely can't skip Hanoi if you're visiting Vietnam. Come for the food, history, and bars.
Halong Bay means descending dragon bay. It is known for its emerald waters and thousands of towering limestone islands topped by rainforests. There are about 2,000 islands in about 1,500 square kilometers. We took a 2 day cruise around the bay through Rosa Cruise for $235 (total for both of us). We spent another $55 on drinks, and another $10 for tip. Total was $300 for the 2 days for 2 people.
Overall, I don't think it was worth it. I mean, it may have been if it had been sunny, but the weather didn't totally cooperate. It wasn't horrible, but it wasn't bright and perfect either. See our video of the bay here to see what I'm talking about.
Myanmar: Overview
Colin and I really liked Myanmar. It's a lot less touristy than other areas we've been to. The people are really nice and still seem happy to see tourists; whereas in other more touristy areas, I think that you get a lot of locals who hate the tourists (and I'm one of those crotchety locals when I'm at home too, so I don't blame them). Colin and I actually got stopped a lot to take photos with locals and other Asian tourists (because of my purple hair and Colin's red beard). In the photo above, I took individual pictures with almost everyone in the group – men and women. All the girls I passed stared at me, and a lot of them complimented me with something like, "pretty hair!" At one point, Colin was approached in a temple by about 15 men with military uniforms on. He was thinking he was in big trouble for something, but each of them wanted a picture with him so they could show their friends back in the smaller town in Myanmar that they were all from. It was fun!
Inle Lake, Myanmar
We spent 2 full days in Inle Lake. I could have been fine with 1, but Colin wanted to explore more on the second day, so it depends on how interesting you find the area. Lake Inle is the second largest lake in Myanmar. There are a lot of people that live on the shores and also on the lake itself. A lot of the houses you see are on stilts on the lake. They even grow gardens that float on the surface of the lake! Take a look at this video to get a better idea of what you'll see in Inle Lake: Boating Inle Lake, Myanmar.
From Wiki because I'm classy like that: "Bagan is an ancient city... From the 9th to 13th centuries, the city was the capital of the Pagan Kingdom, the first kingdom that unified the regions that would later constitute modern Myanmar. During the kingdom's height between the 11th and 13th centuries, over 10,000 Buddhist temples, pagodas and monasteries were constructed in the Bagan plains alone, of which the remains of over 2,200 temples and pagodas still survive to the present day." OVER TWO THOUSAND, TWO HUNDRED! You don't even know how many that is until you are driving around and see them EVERYWHERE!


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Services funded by the South Dakota Department of Social Services, and Division of Child Care Services.


This ridge of Reese Mtn begins at about a 400 feet change in elevation north of the Ashley Creek confluence to Duck Creek.
Begin your hike at the Toni Gulch parking lot. It's 2.57 miles to the confluence of Ashley with Duck Creek.


Icess Fernandez Rojas is a journalist, blogger, teacher, and writer based in Houston. She earned my BA in Communications from the University of Houston and my MFA from Goddard College. She's been published in USA Today, NBCNews.com, HuffingtonPost and the Guardian. She's had fiction anthologized in Soul's Road: A Fiction Collection and published in literary journals including Minerva Rising and The Fem Lit Magazine. Icess is also a VONA/Voices of Our Nation Foundation alum.


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Nueva Colonia y Fuerte de Floridablanca, Nueva Población y Fuerte de Floridablanca o, sencillamente, Floridablanca, es el nombre de una antigua población española  establecida en la Patagonia por Antonio de Viedma (o Biedma) el 19 de abril de 1780. Las ruinas de su asiento están próximas a Puerto San Julián en la Provincia de Santa Cruz, República Argentina.

Ubicación

Se halla hacia las coordenadas , próximo a la encrucijada entre la RN 3 y la ruta provincial 25, unos 10 kilómetros al noroeste del Puerto San Julián y a 10 kilómetros al oeste de la costa del Mar Argentino, a orillas de un curso de agua en un pequeño valle que posee un bioma de estepa semiárida. El clima es riguroso, con inviernos fríos y veranos bastante cálidos si bien moderados por las proximidades del Océano Atlántico. Las pequeñas serranías que rodean al sitio le resguardan bastante de los fuertes vientos típicos de la Patagonia.

Motivos de la fundación

Las causas de la fundación de Floridablanca fueron básicamente estratégicas: el gobierno español durante el reinado de Carlos III decidió afianzar su presencia en la Patagonia y al mismo tiempo emprender una experiencia para aliviar la situación socioeconómica en la cual se encontraba sumida gran parte de la población de la España metropolitana. En Floridablanca se pretendieron plasmar las modernas ideas de la Ilustración en un novedoso ensayo poblacional que proclamaban la "Igualdad" de los hombres, idealizaban a la comunidad agrícola y definían al concepto de familia patriarcal moderna como pilar del orden social. No obstante, y a pesar de los ambiciosos augurios, a menos de cuatro años la colonia fue abandonada.

José Moñino, Conde de Floridablanca, Ministro de Indias del rey Carlos III de España, propuso fundar dos poblaciones y dos fuertes subordinados a ellas en la costa atlántica patagónica, una población en la Bahía Sin Fondo y otra en la bahía San Julián. De la primera dependería un fuerte en la desembocadura del río Colorado y de la segunda un fuerte en la desembocadura del río Deseado. Los establecimientos serían poblados por colonos procedentes de Galicia, Asturias, Castilla y León.

En 1778 el rey dictó una real cédula disponiendo que:

Para materializar tales propósitos la monarquía efectuó contratos con labradores españoles de Castilla la Vieja y León, por tales contratos el estado español se comprometía a brindar gratuitamente a los colonos tierras en calidad de propietarios libres, arados, semillas de trigo  y otros elementos, más una ración de alimentos y cuidados de salud mientras durara el tiempo necesario para el afianzamiento de la nueva población patagónica.

Fundación

Hacia 1779 varias familias se congregaron en el puerto de la La Coruña (Galicia), donde el gobierno español promovió el casamiento de los y las jóvenes que estuvieran aún solteros, para colonizar la Patagonia. El nombre del establecimiento homenajeaba al Conde de Floridablanca el principal funcionario del gobierno en la España de entonces.

De la Coruña partieron 24 familias que arribaron al área de colonización a bordo del bergantín San Francisco de Paula  en el mes de enero de 1780, dado que la intención española era la creación de colonias agrícolas se evitó adrede la fundación costera (por otra parte muy vulnerable al accionar de piratas y corsarios), también se desestimó la fundación con objetivos militares por lo que también se evitó el establecimiento inicial en zonas elevadas, en lugar de ello se buscó y se halló merced a guías patagones un área lo suficientemente fértil en una pequeña vega irrigada por un pequeño pero suficiente curso de agua dulce.

La costa de la abrigada bahía de San Julián fue utilizada como lugar de desembarco y almacenamiento de provisiones, con este fin existía allí un precario almacén o depósito; la mayoría de los que residentes en la costa era temporaria, por ejemplo marinos que pernoctaban en sus barcos; la relación de los labradores con estos marinos parece haber tenido algún grado de conflictividad.

Vida en la colonia

Habitantes de la colonia

En el momento de la fundación la localidad de Floridablanca poseía unos 150 habitantes, tal población estaba compuesta en un 24% por los labradores, un 18% presidiarios y desterrados procedentes del Río de la Plata los cuales redimirían sus penas trabajando en este sitio que para ellos era de confinamiento, 14% los hombres de la tropa del Regimiento de Artillería e Infantería del Río de la Plata (ya que la población patagónica se encontraba bajo la supervisión del Virreinato del Río de la Plata), 11% tripulantes del navío, 7% personal de maestranza (carpinteros, albañiles, herreros, tejeros), 7% funcionarios.

En Floridablanca se celebró la primera boda de la Patagonia Austral, pero el primer año fue particularmente aciago: el hacinamiento y las deficiencias nutricionales debidas al clima duro del primer año  provocaron una epidemia de escorbuto que causó la defunción de 37 personas (o un 20% de la población), este inicio funesto sería -como luego se verá- la causa del fracaso de a experiencia.

Aunque el contrato estipulaba que la población estaba libre de toda carga feudal y no existirían privilegios que diferenciaran a los habitantes sino que estos podrían ejercer su libre iniciativa, también quedaba estipulado que como forma de pago a los gastos y providencias del Estado los floridablanquenses se hallaban obligados a permanecer y trabajar (en su propio provecho) las nuevas tierras que se les otorgaban en la Patagonia.

Todas las familias recibieron parcelas de iguales dimensiones así como iguales cantidades de semillas e instrumentos de labranza.

La agricultura

La agricultura era el principal objetivo a futuro de la colonia,debido a que, la estadía en las colonias durante los primeros años de su fundación dependió muy fuertemente de los abastecimientos que brindara la corona española por lo incipiente y poca fructífera que resultaba la agricultura en ese momento. Con el fin de aumentar el cultivo en la zona, se enviaban desde España yuntas, arados y semillas. Además, desde su fundación, se habían repartido equitativamente parcelas de tierra para las familias. Los cultivos dieron sus primeros frutos en 1782, se cultivaba trigo, cebada, lechuga, nabos y otros vegetales (aunque aún incipientes).
Esta era avalada por la Corona, debido a que los ideales de la Ilustración decían que el cultivo era la fuente de riqueza y felicidad de los súbditos.

El fuerte

Inicialmente los pobladores residieron en el fuerte  construido ad hoc el cual estaba hecho de adobe, de baja calidad comparado con otros edificios del poblado, tenía también postes de madera y era cuadrado con 50 metros de lado rodeado de un foso de 70 cm de profundidad que no tenía una función defensiva (tal foso era poco eficaz y sirvió más que nada de muladar o basurero), la parte norte del fuerte poseía en el medio una capilla, los muros norte, oeste y este estaban constituidos por las paredes que internamente correspondían a las oficinas, cuadras, y las viviendas provisorias, por el frente sur corría una empalizada de "palo a pique" flanqueada por dos baluartes cuadrados. En la plazuela central del fuerte se encontraba una cocina comunal

El fuerte era el lugar donde se asentó el poder político y social de la colonia. En este edificio residían los funcionarios de la Corona, los soldados, los presos y las familias de campesinos, que a partir del año 1782 tuvieron sus propias tierras y viviendas.
Además, el fuerte funcionaba como almacén de productos que se llegaban de Buenos Aires, para venderlos a la población e incluso había una pequeña capilla en donde se celebraban los oficios religiosos.

La casa de familia

Al norte del fuerte se extendió la plaza central con también aproximadamente unos 50 metros de lado, en torno a tal plaza, por los lados norte, oeste y este, se edificaron las casas permanentes de los pobladores, en serie continua, poseyendo cada casa muros medianeros comunes a las contiguas, los techos eran a dos aguas cubiertos de tejas "musleras" confeccionadas en el barreal próximo y cocidas en un horno comunitario (la leña era escasa).

Las casas que construyó la Corona, como parte de su compromiso con las familias, tenían unos 30 metros cuadrados, paredes de adobe y techos de tejas. Tenían por lo general dos habitaciones, una cocina y un dormitorio. En las excavaciones se encontraron restos inmobiliarios, tales como botijas, un brasero de ladrillos, huesos de pescados, lechones y terneros. Incluso se halló una vértebra de ballena, que probablemente fue usada como asiento, debido a la escasez de mobiliario.

No sólo se construyeron edificios proyectados por la Corona, sino que también, muchas familias ampliaban sus casas o se construían otras más grandes de las que ofrecía la Corona. Muchos presidiarios y soldados construyeron sus propias casas para quedarse a vivir en la colonia.

Vida cotidiana

La vida diaria de los labradores discurría entre el cultivo, la caza y la pesca. El personal de maestranza, los soldados y los presos se encargaban de hacer tejas, levantar paredes y trabajar en la carpintería y la herrería entre otras cosas. Algunos hombres cazaban guanacos y ñandúes mientras otros iban a pescar a lo hoy es la Bahía de San Julián. La colonia estaba a 10 kilómetros de la costa, debido a que la fuente de agua dulce más cercana era un pequeño arroyo. Las mercaderías traídas de Buenos Aires eran dejadas en un pequeño almacén, y desde ese almacén era transportada a Floridablanca.

La alimentación

Había dos clases de alimentos: los traídos desde el Río de la Plata y los que se conseguían en la zona. Se ha señalado que la causa del fracaso de este poblamiento fue el déficit nutricional sufrido durante su primer año, la corona española se había comprometido a entregar a los habitantes una cantidad de alimentos gratuitamente, es así que desde Montevideo llegaba charque y tocino salado de vaca, vino, grasa, ají seco, aceite, aguardiente, harina de trigo, arroz, legumbres, ¿mate?, aunque parece haber faltado o sido escaso un tipo de alimento esencial: los frutos frescos (en particular los cítricos). Uno de los objetivos era que la colonia produzca parte de sus alimentos a través del cultivo de cereales y de la cría de animales, pero en el primer año tanto las producciones locales como el abastecimiento fueron insuficientes, para paliar este defecto los floridablanquenses iniciaron un flujo de intercambio de bienes principalmente en forma de trueque con los aónikenk quienes les proporcionaban principalmente carne de guanaco, aunque los colonos también practicaron la caza de guanacos y, en la costa, emprendieron la pesca en pequeña escala así como el mariscado (recolección de mariscos, principalmente mejillones). Los recipientes como ollas y vasos no se fabricaban en la colonia, sino que fueron llevados por los colonos desde España.

Amistad con los tehuelches

Durante el tiempo que duró la vida de la colonia, los habitantes de Floridablanca intercambiaron productos, bienes y servicios con los indígenas. En cuanto a los pobladores autóctonos, los "patagones" de parcialidad aónikenk, en ningún momento se buscó la evangelización de los mismos; las relaciones fueron bastante armoniosas (similares a las que unos 85 años después serían las de los colonos galeses en el Chubut), más aún el jefe aónikenk al cual los españoles llamaron Julián Grande fue quien les señaló el sitio con suficiente agua dulce y por esto más apropiado para un establecimiento permanente.

Causas del abandono

Durante el desastroso primer año de Floridablanca los colonos desesperados remitieron una carta en la cual rogaban el rey para que les retornase a España, sin embargo a partir del siguiente año (es decir 1781) la colonia se repuso y comenzó a prosperar merced al éxito en el cultivo de las huertas y la regularización de abastecimientos desde Buenos Aires y Montevideo, al punto que varios pobladores hicieron construcciones en el "interior" y fuera de los términos del contrato, tales fundaciones eran viviendas y almacenes de adobes con techos quinchados (techos de paja). Debido a la lentitud de los transportes y a las demoras impuestas por la burocracia el petitorio llegó al rey español con mucha tardanza, y en tiempos igualmente lentos, se resolvió desmantelar la población destruyéndose todos los edificios y construcciones para que no pudieran ser aprovechados por extranjeros. Esto se llevó a cabo en 1784, los floridablanquenses fueron trasladados a otros territorios del Imperio español.

El 1 de agosto de 1783, el rey Carlos III, dictó una Real Orden decidiendo abandonar los establecimientos patagónicos ya que le resultaban muy onerosos en momentos de guerra con Inglaterra y de la insurrección de Túpac Amaru:

Proyectos actuales

Hoy en día Floridablanca es objeto de investigaciones en el marco del Proyecto "Arqueología e Historia en la Colonia Española de Floridablanca (Patagonia, siglo XVIII)" dirigido por Dra. M. X. Senatore de la Universidad de Buenos Aires y Departamento de Investigaciones Prehistóricas y Arqueológicas del Instituto Multidisciplinario de Historia y Ciencias Humanas del CONICET (Argentina).  Las investigaciones están orientadas a comprender la creación, reproducción y transformación del orden social ensayado en Floridablanca. Se ha estudiado la relación entre los discursos que subyacen al plan de poblamiento y las prácticas sociales de los individuos que vivieron en la colonia, tanto en su dimensión escrita como material.

El municipio de San Julián ha emprendido el proyecto de una reconstrucción de la localidad en un sitio adyacente al solar antiguo, la réplica sería de escala 1:1 con la asistencia de la Universidad Nacional de la Patagonia Austral

Véase también
 Establecimientos coloniales de la Patagonia atlántica

Referencias

Enlaces externos
 FloridaBlanca.com.ar

Floridablanca
Floridablanca
Floridablanca
Floridablanca
Historia de la provincia de Santa Cruz (Argentina)
Puerto San Julián
Departamento Magallanes
Fortificaciones del Virreinato del Río de la Plata

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia