text:
SpVgg 02 Griesheim is een Duitse voetbalclub uit het Frankfurtse stadsdeel Griesheim.

Geschiedenis
De club werd in 1902 opgericht als FC Alemannia Griesheim. In 1923 fuseerde de club met FV Viktoria en nam zo de huidige naam aan. Beide clubs speelden begin jaren twintig kort op het hoogste niveau, maar degradeerden in 1922. In 1929 promoveerde de club naar de hoogste klasse van de Maincompetitie, maar werd laatste en degradeerd meteen weer. Na één seizoen keerde de club terug, maar kon ook nu het behoud niet verzekeren.

Externe links
 Officiële website

Griesheim, SpVgg
Sportclub in Frankfurt am Main

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


After a bad first impression I was ready for Paris to show me why it was so great. My first stop would be the musee de Louvre. I decided to walk instead of taking the subway. I always like to walk around a bit and get my bearing when I first arrive in a new city. Paris was a whole different being in the hazy daylight. The moaning clawing zombie had become a lazy sleeping hobo. Still covered in filth and emitting a horrid stench but far less threatening.
The Louvre is a massive complex at the center of which is the famous glass pyramid. The building is beautiful, with ornate stone work and massive white marble statues. Once inside I like everyone else headed directly toward the Italian renaissance paintings. More specifically the "Mona Lisa". I enjoy art, especially that of the quality the Louvre has to offer. So, I didn't go directly for Da Vinci. I must have viewed 5000 paintings before reaching "La Gioconda " and after viewing it I can't recall a single one. There were as many as 500 people in the room when I entered, but as soon as I was within viewing distance it was as if she was looking directly at me. No matter where I went her gaze followed, no matter which angle I viewed from we made perfect eye contact. The eyes are alive. To give it as little credit as possible, it was unimaginable exceptional and infallible.
In the daylight the pyramid is anything but impressive, the reflecting ponds are littered with trash And the grandeur is drown out by the surrounding buildings. After sundown it was magnificent. The geometries of pyramid and reflecting pond are flawless and complement each other perfectly. It seems everything in Paris comes alive when the sun goes down and the lights come on.
The Eiffel Tower – The French Sure do Know How to Make a Nation Symbol.
Whether your Slovakian, Iranian, Kazak, Karakalpak, Taiwanese, Japanese, Jamaican, Lithuanian or American. You no doubt are familiar with the Eiffel Tower. I could never count the amount of times I have seen or heard of the Eiffel Tower. I have viewed it in countless photographs, seen it in movies, read of it in books and studied it in school. I have had an image of the tower burned into my mind since childhood, but it was a fragmented image. It lacked the surroundings, the atmosphere, and the culture. All of the things you can't get from a photo, a video or a book. This is why I traveled to Paris. To experience it's celebrated sights with my own eyes and to fully grasp their greatness.
I stepped of the train after arriving in Paris feeling a bit nervous, then as I walked out of the station and saw the city for the first time my anxiety turned to excitement, this was the home of the Louvre and the Eiffel Tower. I was in "The City of Lights" and it was amazing.
I ventured on a little further in an attempt to find my hostel. The sidewalks were filthy, stained black and littered with cigarette butts, chewing gum, liquor bottles and beer cans. The light poles, phone booths, shop windows, street signs, mopeds and motorcycles were covered in stickers and graffiti. The further I traveled away from the train station the worse it got. Then came the street hustlers and beggars. Jabbing at me with packs of cigarets and cups of change, attempting to converse with me using everything in the french vocabulary except the handful of words and phrases I had learned. I finally built up enough courage to reply "Je ne comprehends pas, Je ne parle pas francais". It turned out to be good practice as I would be using those expressions quite often. I eventually arrived safely, checked in, dropped off my pack and went to find some food.
On January 2nd, I leave for a backpacking trip across Europe. The fruition of a unrelenting childhood dream. It has recently come to dominate my thought. This seems like as good a time as any to start my travel blog.
I fly out of Fargo, North Dakota; have an eighteen hour layover in Chicago, before heading over the pond to London. I will be spending a few days in London before moving on to Paris. After Paris my travel plans are wide open. I don't like anything concrete, especially travel plans. Detailed itineraries are exhausting, I want to leave room for unanticipated adventures. I do however have a list of places I can not miss Nice, Venice, the Cinque Terre, Florence, Rome and Naples. It is a short list which leaves me plenty of room for improvisation. I have been reading a lot of Thoreau lately, consequently there are a few passages I can't seem to get out of my head. This one seems to back my need to be free of tangible travel plans, "Let him turn which way he will, it falls opposite to the sun; short at noon, long at eve." (A week on the Concord and Merrimack).


text:
By Hood
Free Williamsburg
The Williamsburg Brooklyn-based culture guide to New York and beyond.
Food & Drink All
Punk and hardcore fest "New York's Alright" returns one last time this April
February 11, 2015 By Peter Rittweger
Over the past three years, New York's Alright has served as sort of an antidote for the bland, big-box shitshows and corporate-backed music conferences that have come to define music festivals. More specifically, the punk and hardcore fest has been everything that the much-maligned CBGB festival should have aspired to be – real ass punk rock without any co-opted bullshit, played loudly by sweaty dudes in dingy spaces like ABC No Rio and The Acheron. And it's almost time to do it again.
Advance tickets will be available online on Valentine's Day (Saturday, February 14) for this year's fest, which runs from Friday, April 17 through Sunday, April 19. You can also pick up tickets at Bushwick's Heaven Street Records. You'll want to do that; the 2015 edition of New York's Alright is the best-curated one yet, boasting both the finest in Japanese hardcore and Australian noise. It even includes past "Over the Counter" luminaries, L.O.T.I.O.N. and Sadist, so you know its pretty dope right off the bat. But there's one more reason to go. This is its last hurrah.
It is the last year of the fest, for sure. Why? I feel this is the biggest and best year, it's the third year, don't want to keep overwhelming all the locals who have to deal with the influx of tourists, etc. Also, I never wanted the fest to become some sort of institution like a lot of fests. I've actually made it smaller each year and I think it's finally the right size. [IMPOSE]
It sucks that we're losing the fest, but I'd rather it ended now than bear witness to its slow castration and transformation into a "branded experience." Fortunately, the lineup is quite virile. Vicious modern New York hardcore bands Ajax, Warthog, Nandas, Anasazi and La Misma are easy recommendations. They're some of the best bands out there today, but they're regulars at all of our local haunts. The real draw here are rare appearances from the incredible out-of-town acts Whites has brought into the fold (special exception for Dawn of Humans, see them no matter what, geography be damned.)
He calls Japanese hardcore band Warhead, the "biggest get" for the fest, and they'll make the long flight across an ocean and a continent with Isterismo and Raw Distractions. Other bands making a journey and a half include Sweden's Urbanoia and Herätys, and Australia's Kromosom.
Glue and post-punks Institute are two Austin-based bands I've become a pretty big fan of. Shoutout to Blood Pressure and Sheer Mag too. Really though, wherever you end up should be pretty wild. Here's the full lineup:
Friday, April 17th
Blazing Eye
L.O.T.I.O.N.
Pure Disgust
Sadist
@ Le Poisson Rouge (158 Bleecker Street)
6pm, $25, All Ages
Isterismo
Aspects of War
+ a special guest
@ The Acheron (57 Waterbury Street)
Aftershow, $15, 18+
Mystic Inane
Freak Vibe
Nandas
@ Palisades (906 Broadway Ave)
La Misma
Bad Noids
Gowanus Mutant Komandos
Sunday, April 19th ("BBQ & Flea Market")
Dawn of Humans
Raw Distractions
Urbanoia
+ 1 new local band without a name yet
@ The Wick
Brooklyn, NY (260 Meserole St)
Unofficial shows:
Thursday, April 16th (DanO's Birthday Bash!)
S.H.I.T.
Vaaska
Party Plates
8pm, $20, 18+
13th Chime
Rule of Thirds
@ St. Vitus Bar (1120 Manhattan Ave)
Pleasure Leftists
Filed Under: Bushwick, Events, Greenpoint, Music, Williamsburg Tagged With: Ajax, festivals, Glue, Institute, L.O.T.I.O.N, La Misma, Nandas, New York's Alright, Sadist, Warthog
The Best Bars In Williamsburg, Greenpoint, and Bushwick
Williamsburg, Greenpoint and Bushwick Visitor's Guide – 48 Hours in North Brooklyn
The 22 Best Restaurants in Williamsburg, Greenpoint and Bushwick
About | Contribute | Advertise
FREEwilliamsburg © 2020 | 163 Franklin Street, Brooklyn, NY 11222 | [email protected]
Reproduction of material found on FREEwilliamsburg without written permission is prohibited.

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


Delhi Subordinate Services Selection Board (DSSSB) with the purpose of recruiting capable, competent, highly skilled individuals by conducting written tests, professional tests and personal interviews wherever as desired for various departments and organisations of Government of Delhi.
Application Fee: Rs.100/- (No fee from SC/ST/PH/Ex.SM/Women candidates) to be paid online only through SBI e-pay.
How to Apply: Apply Online at DSSSB website https://dsssbonline.nic.in from 05/01/2018 to 31/01/2018 only.


Arbico's £1,199 Elite 9870EX looks very similar to its £749 Elite 8070EX, which actually beats it by three WorldBench points.
Arbico's £1,199 Elite 9870EX looks very similar to its £749 Elite 8070EX, which uses the same Coolermaster Elite 330 case. The two PCs also share the Gigabyte GA-P35-DS3L motherboard, Intel Core 2 Duo E8600 processor and 4GB of RAM.
With so many similarities between the systems, it's hardly surprising that the two Arbicos produce closely matched scores in our WorldBench 6 real-world speed tests. In fact, the Arbico Elite 9870EX managed three points fewer than its lower-cost stablemate.
But the Arbico Elite 9870EX provides a handful of significant upgrades. Following Mesh's lead in recent months, Arbico has delivered a system tailor-made for HD multimedia. You get Samsung's 245B display, one of the original low-cost 24in panels, which enables full 1,080p HD playback from the Pioneer combo Blu-ray reader/DVD writer. This drive's DVD burning speeds are lower than we'd like, but the ability to read the Blu-ray Disc format is a very welcome feature.
A Creative X-Fi Extreme Audio sound card drives five Cyber Acoustic speakers and a subwoofer, turning the Arbico Elite 9870EX into an all-round entertainment system.
The ATI Radeon HD3870 X2 graphics card, like the CyberPower Sli KO GT's GeForce 9800 GX2, provides twin processors on a single card and 1GB of graphics memory. Gaming scores were quick, but the Arbico Elite 9870EX trailed the nVidia-based systems on Crysis. If you plan to use the higher resolutions supported by a 24in display you may want a little more graphics power.


My 2 yo started climbing out of her pack 'n play on our latest trip. She only got a small bump on the chin, but she was getting into things that could have been hazardous. Other than sitting in her room until she falls asleep (almost 2 hours last night!), how can I keep her in her bed. She has a crib tent at home and is definitely not yet ready for a big bed. I don't want to stop visiting the grandparents and taking other great trips!
Travel Crib or Solution for Toddler Too Big for Pack-n-Play?
Bad Dog - Diapers Are Not Food!
I watch a little girl during the day who can now get out of the pack n play. I'm not sure what to do. Her Mom was thinking about buying one of those tent-like covers. She already had to buy one for her crib at home. I'm trying now to lay her down but she keeps kicking her leg over and then falling hard on her head. You would think she might get tired of doing this bc it would hurt but no...Help.
We are going to be getting a pack n play soon to use in our bedroom for a newborn. After seeing many reviews it seems the bassinets in them do not always work well and tend to bend and the same is true for the ones with the changing table addition. I was wondering if there is a brand that anyone loves. Our room is too small for a crib and the baby's room will be on another floor, so this is our best option for the bedroom and it will be usable for travel too. Thanks for any and all comments.
How Much Is Too Much Change for a 3 1/2 Yr Old?
Does anyone have any recommendations on how to get rid of a moldy smell in a pack -n- play. Someone gave me theirs and it has that smell and I was hoping someone had some advice.
Need Your Advice - How to "Train" 18 Mo Old to Sleep in Pack N Play?


Amazon Advertising is expanding its team in Bratislava and Advertiser Success Team (AST) is seeking a highly motivated Onboarding specialist. This person will help new and existing advertisers grow their business. Working with new advertisers, you will be responsible to help them identify the advertising opportunities on Amazon, review their product listings and create advertising campaigns in order to influence their success in advertising. Additionally you will also get the opportunity to test new and existing tools, gather & share insights and optimize processes by closely partnering with product and engineering teams.
Base pay for this position starts from EUR 1.080 gross per month and salary depends on the skills and requirements. Company benefits apply subject to further terms, including annual membership in medical clinic, life insurance, retirement pension, meal voucher card.
At Amazon.com, we're working to be the most customer-centric company on the Earth. To get there, we need exceptionally talented, bright, and result driven people.
Amazon opened a center in Slovakia in 2011 creating over 1000 new jobs till today. The new center is operated by Amazon /Slovakia/ s.r.o. and is located at the Park One office center (Namestie 1.maja, Bratislava). Currently there are divisions like Vendor Contact Management, Financial Operations, Payroll, Listing Specialists, Catalog, Amazon Media Group, Mass Vendor Recruitment and more. We even have virtual roles with possibility to work from home.
All open positions together with a job description and contact details can be found on www.amazon.jobs.
ID: 3635153 Datum zveřejnění: 2.4.20192019-04-02 Lokalita: Bratislava Pozice: Administrative Worker, Official, Marketing Analyst, Marketing Specialist Společnost: Amazon /Slovakia/ s.r.o. Základní složka mzdy (brutto) a další odměny: Base pay for this position starts from EUR 1.080 gross per month and salary depends on the skills and requirements. Company benefits apply subject to further terms, including annual membership in medical clinic, life insurance, retirement pension, meal voucher card.


text:
Growth Toronto company's new equipment could relieve vinyl pressing backlog
Toronto company's new equipment could relieve vinyl pressing backlog
Toronto's Microforum Services Group is investing in a crucial but obscure step in their manufacturing – making the grooved metal pressing plates
Microforum Services Group
Josh O'Kane Technology Reporter
Published May 9, 2017 Updated May 9, 2017
As production bottlenecks continue to squeeze vinyl records' remarkable resurgence, Toronto's Microforum Services Group is investing in a crucial but obscure step in their manufacturing – making the grooved metal pressing plates – in a move that could cut down lag times for Canadian artists and record companies who hope to take advantage of huge global demand for LPs.
A handful of Canadian companies manufacture records themselves, but Microforum's new equipment would make it the only plant in the country to make stamper plates – incredibly precise negatives of a record that, on a presser with the perfect amount of heat and steam, squish grooves into unassuming pucks of PVC and transform them into physical music's last hope.
In one sense, vinyl records remain a niche product, accounting for 3.6 per cent of global recorded-music revenues. But their growth has surged in the double-digits for nearly a decade – with revenues up 23.5 per cent last year alone – as they've transformed into a de-facto luxury alternative to music's more ephemeral download-and-streaming mainstream. With companies the world over racing to accommodate the demand, Microforum's new equipment could position it not just as a Canadian one-stop pressing shop, but a key player in bringing global production in line with ever-growing appetite.
"I think vinyl was held back the last couple years" because of production delays, says Noble Musa, partner and vice-president of sales and marketing at Microforum. "You're talking turnarounds of six to eight months.… [Growth] numbers could have been even higher."
The 50-employee company has been manufacturing media such as CDs since 2003, but began pressing vinyl earlier this year. Most new pressing plants worldwide have had to use old machines, but Microforum was actually one of the first to use brand-new, state-of-the-art Warm Tone presses from fellow Toronto company Viryl Technologies.
Microforum invested several hundred thousand dollars in the new plating equipment, and plans for it to be operational by August. Mr. Musa expects to have capacity to make up to 10 stampers a day, for his company and others. In total, he says Microforum has invested more than $1.5-million on vinyl-making infrastructure this year alone.
Combined with their printing and packaging capabilities, and their growing cache of presses – there are two, with two more in the works – the company wants to be a one-stop shop for records, sleeves and all. If it goes according to plan, Mr. Musa believes Microforum could press more than 10,000 records a day when it hits full capacity.
To get to the pressing stage, a physical "master" must be made with an album's finalized audio, often from digital files. This is traditionally done with a lathe onto a custom "lacquer" disc – which a handful of Canadian companies, including Toronto's Lacquer Channel Mastering, can make. Lacquer masters then need to be "electroplated" – sprayed with silver, then dipped into a metal solution with electric current to create a solid disc – which is repeated several times, until negative "stampers" are made that can precisely smoosh grooves into hot plastic.
While Canadian companies have offered electroplating services before, including the recently shuttered Canada Boy Vinyl, record-pressing plants here have lately had to go to the United States or as far as Prague for the service. For all the eager new names in the pressing business – including Microforum and Burlington, Ont.'s Precision Record Pressing – this can still mean delays.
"Whenever capacity increases in one area, that moves the bottleneck either up or down the line," says Kevin Park, Lacquer Channel's lacquer master engineer.
Right now, Microforum's turnaround time for orders is about eight weeks. Mr. Musa hopes to cut that in half. For a "rush" fee, the company might be able to cut time for reasonable-size orders down to a week.
Mr. Musa believes the investment will pay off for a long time. "The vinyl experience is something people are really discovering right now," he says. "We're selling experiences, not just vinyl."
Music community left in the lurch after sudden shutdown of record plant
At HMV Canada, the record's not dead yet
Amp Me song-syncing app gets $8-million in funding
Follow Josh O'Kane on Twitter @joshokane


Happy Hour at Microsoft Ready Seattle!
Join the hottest cloud networking company for a drink at Elephant & Castle - just a short walk from the Washington Convention Center.
Barracuda Networks' solutions have proven to drive Azure consumption and fill gaps in customers' security – meaning greater adoption. Plus, we now offer direct connections to Microsoft VirtualWAN, and the only solution to manage multiple Microsoft Azure Firewalls.


There must be a conspiracy to keep home owners in the dark on mirror and glass cleaning. Why is it so hard to clean mirrors and not leave streaks?
The struggle is real. Anyone else agree? I have tried everything, paper towels don't work, they leave streaks and lint. Next came newspaper, did that for years until they changed the ink on the paper and that method doesn't work anymore. Even went to the squeegee, I found that works okay on glass doors if you use it right after a shower.
Mirrors are a different story. I have had the hardest time coming up with a permanent solution to this dilemma. Well, I'm happy to report that I uncovered the big secret to a streak free mirror! Woohoo! Feels like I won the lottery!
Check out this mirror I have hanging in our dining room. It's a beautiful reclaimed wood mirror that I have never been able to get completely clean! Drives me nuts! It always has streaks on it…no matter how many times I clean it.
Here's a picture after I discovered the "big secret" to streak free cleaning! I couldn't believe the results…no streaks at all!
Now that I have uncovered the secret, I moved on to a much bigger project – cleaning the 6 ginormous floor to ceiling mirrors in our gym.
First step is to look for any areas that have toothpaste, hairspray or anything goopy like your kids sticky fingers that made their way onto your mirrors. If you don't remove it before you start, it could spread when you use the cleaner. Dab your cotton with the rubbing alcohol and remove the globs. Dry completely.
Mix the vinegar and hot distilled water in an empty spray bottle (HERE). I love these spray bottles, they are so handy to keep around the house to mix solutions, or mist plants with water. We have even used them for misting the hair of my daughter's American Girl Dolls.
When mixing the solution for cleaning your mirrors, it best to use distilled water especially if you have hard water, which could leave calcium buildup and deposits. Use micro fiber clothes folded up in fourths. Using a micro fiber cloth is critical for a streak free shine, I used 7 clean clothes for my gym project. Check out these clothes in a bundle pack (HERE).
Clean in a zig zag pattern, swiping from top to bottom of mirror.
Here are a few before pictures showing the cloudy mirrors and streaks.
These mirrors were so streaked and cloudy, I had to clean each panel at least twice. The first time removed the cloudiness and the second time cleaned and shined the mirror.
It's important to make sure you spray enough solution on the mirror, especially if the mirror is wide. For a narrow mirror, spraying down the middle would be sufficient, but these panels are extra wide, so I sprayed the left, middle and right sides. Then I followed the zig zag pattern down the mirror.
The pictures below are the after pictures. It was hard to fully capture the change with all the reflections and use of flash in the room, but I think you can get an idea of how it turned out. It really was a remarkable difference, my husband was thrilled when he saw the changes in the room!
The picture below shows the difference between the left clean panel and the right dirty panel.
The picture below shows both mirror panels cleaned.
I hope this post helps you get your clean on!
You're very welcome! Thank you for stopping by.


Telephone numbers for Madera County crisis referral services.
What students are expected to learn at each grade level.
Academic performance and growth of schools on a variety of academic measures.
Parenting advice, child development, family games and activities.
Virtual encyclopedia of information for adults who want to make their communities better places for kids.
Collection of research-based online activities designed to help families reinforce the reading and language arts skills that their children are learning in school.
Educational and training opportunities to assist individuals and organizations in the work of improving the quality of life for people with disabilities.
National initiative to encourage parents to talk with their children.


Coaching is a structured dialogue about your challenges and goals. The coach asks questions that make it easier for you to find your own solutions. Coaching can be relevant both when things are going well (and there is a potential for much more), and when things are going less well.
The important thing is that coaching offers an individually tailor-made process that focuses on exactly your challenges and dreams and ensures that you gain a broader understanding of these challenges - an understanding which points towards new ways of action, as well as gain competences to actually take the desired steps.
We help you clarify dilemmas and challenge ideas that work as obstacles on the road.
We help you clarify your values and dreams based on the assumption that the more you know about where you want to get; the easier it is to find the roads leading there.
We support you in the exploration of your resources and past achievements and offer a dialogue on how to use these to move towards your goals.
We focus on engaging in dialogue with you about your strengths and goals as well as concrete dilemmas and challenges in relation to being a leader in your particular organisation. Through focusing on strengths and things that work well, rather than shortcomings, an appreciative and respectful basis for development and motivation is created.
Individual coaching can take many shapes depending on your concrete challenges and goals. The coaching sessions can focus on improving performance in a work-related area, on setting priorities, becoming assertive and managing stress in a busy work-situation, on clarifying future career ambitions or on finding the balance between work ambitions and personal needs and goals.
In Dialogue offers team coaching to support the team in reaching its full potential. The sessions will take different shapes depending on the needs of the team.
One possibility is to work with the team on developing a shared vision and a story about what the team is and how they will work towards their goals.
Another option is to work on building up good relationships among team members, by focusing on creating a personal feeling of appreciation and influence, and a feeling that everyone is empowered to take responsibility for constructive ways of dealing with differences of perspectives and competences. This is done through facilitating dialogue about what works well, what the common interests are, the role, strengths and competences of each team-member, and which new and improved options for action these stories create.
Thirdly the team-coaching can be task-related focusing on the tasks and strategies of the team, what works well and what can be changed to improve task-related interactions.
In Dialogue offers supervision/ intervision within a systemic, appreciative and narrative approach. Supervision/ intervision gives a group the space to reflect on their challenges on an ongoing basis.
The method is often applied within the social domain. Working with people in a difficult situation can be personally and emotionally challenging and there is the risk of burn out or of letting the work be influenced by personal issues. At the individual level supervision/ intervision can help the service provider/ social worker understand what happens in the meeting with the user of the service, what the evoked emotions are about, what the resources are as well as the possible strategies in the situation. At the group-level supervision/ intervision can help the group learn from each other, share knowledge, make their assumptions explicit, challenge practice and innovate and professionalize their work.
During the last years supervision/ intervision has proven a successful leadership-reflection tool, where groups of leaders meet in a safe space to reflect upon their leadership-challenges and learn about themselves as well as share knowledge with others.


text:
Oluf kan have flere betydninger:

 Oluf er et drengenavn.

Flere danske konger har haft navnet Oluf eller Olaf:
 Olaf var en dansk konge sandsynligvis med base i Hedebyegnen, der regerede sent i det 9. århundrede og tidligt i det 10. århundrede (gives almindeligvis ikke noget nummer i kongerækken).
 Oluf Hunger (Oluf 1.) var søn af Svend Estridsen og konge af Danmark 1086-1095.
 Oluf Haraldsen (visse steder benævnt Oluf 2. eller Oluf II Haraldsen) var konge af Skåneland 1140-1143 og forsøgte uden held at blive konge af Danmark.
 Oluf 2. (Oluf Håkonsen, norsk Olav IV Håkonsson, visse steder omtalt som Oluf 3.) var søn af Margrete 1. og konge af Danmark 1376-1387 og af Norge 1380-1387.

 Andre
 Oluf (biskop i Roskilde) - biskop i Roskilde 1301-1320

Se også
 Kongerækken

Noter


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How Bell Labs is Reinventing the Future all Over Again
By Andrew Tarantola on at
In 1964, a pair of Bell Labs researchers in New Jersey pointed the world's largest radio telescope to the skies and unwittingly stumbled upon one of the greatest discoveries of the 20th Century: cosmic background radiation. We talked with the legendary physicist behind that breakthrough to find out more—and with the president of Bell Labs to see what the future holds for one of our finest research institutions.
Ahead of today's Big Bang Celebration at Bell Labs, which honours those groundbreaking revelations, Gizmodo sat down with Nobel prize-winning physicist Dr. Robert Wilson and Bell Labs President Marcus Weldon to discuss both how that fateful discovery has impacted our understanding of the cosmos and what Bell Labs is doing to reignite scientific discovery in America.
Dr. Robert Woodrow Wilson
Gizmodo: Can you give us first a brief overview of your time at Bell Labs and the discoveries that you made there?
Wilson: All right. Let's see. I guess you probably heard in the video I came directly to Bell Labs from Cal Tech where I was a graduate student. There was a recruiter who came around about twice a year—astrophysics and engineering people were at quite high demand in the country as we responded to Sputnik, there was considerable interest—which was very lucky for me.
I decided that Bell Labs suited me in many ways, because there were quite a few of the projects I was interested in, but the most interesting was teleradio astronomy. And actually the communications work would also be interesting. It was agreed by management that we'd spend half our time on astronomy and the other half for something on the Bell system working on communication satellites. That actually wasn't spelled out because, in fact, COMSAT had been created and AT&T had been ruled out of communications satellites, so it wasn't clear what was going to happen there next, although in the end they figured out that domestic satellites could be interesting too and they did several experiments that way.
Giz: And that was related to the launch of the echo balloon?
Wilson: No, that was later on. So the Echo, then TELSTAR, were very much oriented to intercontinental satellites. Something to replace the ocean cables. And I guess by the time I got here, the horn of rector had been set up to receive a TELSTAR beacon. Penzias and I got permission after a while to take that apart and convert it to radio astronomy. And I guess you've heard the story about what we did and what we'd found.
Giz: Yes, could you give us a general overview of what you did discover though?
Wilson: What we did that had not been done before was that Arnold built a liquid helium cooled reference source, basically a microwave absorber, surrounded by liquid helium, that would radiate at the temperature of the helium, and I set up a switch and a way of measuring so we could compare that with the antenna. And what we found immediately was that the antenna had considerably more noise than we'd expected, hotter.
We tend to speak of the thermal noise in terms of the thermal temperature, because that's the easiest way to calibrate. I say that as using liquid helium, so we could compare liquid helium to a room temperature absorber as one way of calibrating. And so when I say temperature, I really mean tower in the band of interest. So we found there was more there than we expected, however, we were into a project for measuring a radio source called CAFE, which was the brightest source in the sky, and by then a fellow named Dave Horn and I had already measured the gain of the twenty foot horn reflector by flying the source in a helicopter. And that was a fairly big deal, and so we didn't want to disturb anything for quite a while until we actually used that gain measurement to measure something in the sky, so it was almost nine months that we watch and saw the same noise whenever we weren't looking at any known source, you know it just didn't change.
We kept thinking of what the problems might be and we looked out, we got to the point where one more experiment we were willing to do, and we were put in touch with the Princeton group. I'll go through that story again but I did that in the lecture [the video above - ed].
Giz: With such an important discovery, as cosmic background radiation, what brought you guys to share that Nobel with the Princeton team?
Wilson: Oh no we didn't share the Nobel with them. Well, we didn't know what we had. We had excess noise, we didn't know where it was coming from. The Princeton people had a theory of where it was coming from. You might ask why didn't the Princeton people share in the prize, well it turns out that George Gamoff, Ralph Alpher, and Herman, I forget his first name, they had the same ideas, that a hot big bang would leave radiation in the universe that might be measurable.
Although I don't think they thought it was measurable, although at one point they'd did in fact predict that 5 kelvin might be the temperature of the universe. But they made no effort to measure it other than asking a couple of people if it was possible, and unfortunately for them they were told no. So the theory wasn't new, although clearly the astronomical constant that needed to go into it had improved some since the 40s, but by the 60s. But those numbers were still very crude from our present point of view.
I believe that, Jim Kebils had predicted something like 10 Kelvin for the brightness based on the numbers that he had at hand. So they were a little surprised that it was low, when they came over and looked at what we had, they were good microwave people, they could see that we'd been very careful about what we had done. I have no idea what deliberations the Nobel people had in deciding who to include and who not to include.
Giz: For something a bit more recent, the recent discoveries of the Higgs Boson and what's been discovered by the BICEPT 2 telescope in Antarctica, what are your thoughts on those discoveries, and do you feel that they are even bigger discoveries than your initial find regarding cosmic background radiation?
Wilson: Umm, the Higgs, uhh seems like an important discovery in physics, although I am not an expert in that. Actually, Jon Kovak who's the PI of the BICEPT 2 team, has an office next to mine in Cambridge.
Giz: Ah, very cool.
Wilson: And so I was really excited by that, in fact. You know, we really didn't realize in 1965 how big and how important the cause of background microwave background was going to be. The thought was at that time that it would be completely uniform, since its variation is a few parts per million, it's not a bad approximation, but the ability to measure has improved so much that there's been a tremendous amount of information that's been derived from what you might call the picture of the baby universe, at two hundred and seventy eight thousand years of age.
And it's just been amazing to see how much has come from it. And the BICEPT thing, I think in some ways its rather astounding that only assuming that the measurement holds up, it not only sort of verifies the last part of inflation theory, and we can talk about inflation in just a bit, but it also brings up the reality of quantum gravity. If you may know Einstein spent the last part of his life trying to put general relativity and quantum mechanics together unsuccessfully. And a few other people have tried and made a little progress, but there is no such theory at this point.
But the BICEPT measurement indicates that there were quantum fluctuations in gravitons at the time. Which is not surprising, just that we didn't have a theory for it. So if we're going to push physics as well as astrophysics. So inflation is sort of remarkable in that it was invented in a way to solve two problems with the big bang, one of them being, both in how it got started. One of was why is space so flat, or why was the density exactly the critical value. And the other being why do we see the same temperature when we look in different directions, because the material which at 280,000 years radiated, or last interacted with them, had never been in causal contact between the two.
Giz: Wow.
Wilson: So inflation was a way of solving that problem. Then it predicted the fluctuations which Plank saw, and predicted the polarisation, the simple mode polarisation, which was found some years ago, in fact Jon Kovak was a part of that project also, and now its predicted this interaction with primordial gravity waves, the quantum fluctuations, during the inflation of producing the gravity waves. So, its a rather remarkable set of predictions to start out with one little bit, it's what science is supposed to do of course: you take a little bit and you make plausible theory, and if tis a good theory it'll predict several other things, which could be verified.
Giz: That actually leads me to my next question, was there any equipment that you'd wished during your career that you'd had access to, or even today that you wish you could play around with in order to push the boundaries of physics?
Wilson: I considered during my career at Bell Labs that I was very fortunate to have access to Bell Labs development and inventions that were done largely for communications, but I had the privilege to apply them to astronomy and astrophysics. The first of course was the horn reflector and the MAZR amplifier, but later in 1970 Arnold and I took the receiver that Charlie Burs down the hall had made for millimetre communications, and used it to discover carbon monoxide and many other molecules in interstellar clouds. That's the way new stars are formed.
In fact, we built a seven metre diameter antenna on Crawford Hill with two purposes, one was to investigate satellite communications at shorter wavelengths, and the other was if the radio was good, to do radio astronomy. We did quite a lot of mapping of clouds even though you might say that 300 feet above sea level on the east coast is not an ideal site. But given access to it 24/7, you could pick your good times and could be very productive. And it was good that the synergy between doing the measurements for satellite communications when the weather was bad and doing astronomy when the weather was good. We could do either of the projects the other part of the time.
Giz: You mentioned in a recent presentation that there was no real "Eureka!" moment with your initial discovery of background radiation. Does that disappoint you at all? Were you hoping for something like Newton's apple falling onto his head?
Wilson: Oh, we were mostly trying to figure out what our problem was at that time, and why we weren't getting the answer we should, or thought we should. We believed in physics and that what came out of it had to come some source, and we were really getting very puzzled. But I think cosmology at the time had not explained very much and we felt very cautious about the cosmology, it was only over time that it really became evident that was really the source of it and that it was an important source that would tell us about the universe.
The carbon monoxide story on the other hand was completely different. We set out to measure it, we spent quite sometime building the best receiver we could, we took it to a national radio astronomy observatory at Kip Peak near Tucson, and after Keith Jeffers and I got the receiver working out there, there were still some bugs to deal with, it took almost a week of trying to get it to go, when it went, I asked the antenna operator to point the antenna at a place in the Orion region where we knew there were two interesting objects—and I was watching the real-time output, at that point, well there was a computer that drove the antenna, but not that took data or allowed us to really look at it, but the reporting channels of the spectrometer and there was the real time output with a two second time cut, but these were analogue, so each one had its own characteristic, so anyway... so I was watching this cluster of points on the telescope and suddenly the ones in the centre went up, so I asked the operator "did you get to the source," and he said "yes," I said, "please move off," he moved off, and they went back down. In 20 seconds or something we found carbon monoxide. When I called home my wife said that's the most excited she'd that's the most excited she'd ever heard me.
Giz: That's fantastic. Thank you so very much for taking the time to speak with me today, it's been a great honour.
Wilson: You're very welcome.
Marcus Weldon, President of Bell Labs
Giz: If you could, please give us a quick rundown of what Bell Labs has been up to for the last couple of years? I know you just came on as president in November of last year, what have you guys been up to for the last couple of months?
Weldon: We've just been resting on our laurels.
Giz: Of course!
Weldon: Haha, no. Well, it's a very interesting time. Obviously I was a Bell Labs researcher way back when before I became CTO [at Alcatel-Lucent], and now we've combined CTO and Bell Labs. So why is that, you could ask. Why would you combine CTO and Bell Labs? It's been done in the past and it was in this case recently.
Actually, for the following reason: it's to remake the connection between Bell Labs and industry direction. Historically—and the Big Bang Celebration we've been talking about is a very good example of this—Bell Labs has been in its primacy when it was solving big industry problems. In the case of the Big Bang, it was all these satellite communications, a satellite, and a thing dangling from a balloon, which was also a mini-satellite; they were trying to figure out radio communications and they discovered the microwave background radiation. And Bell Labs historically was always in that mode—big challenges in the industry around information telecommunication networking—and go on to that challenge, hire the smartest people, and because they were smart and unique minds, they would see the stuff off to the side, which in the case of the Big Bang was the microwave cosmic background.
So I have essentially been charted with returning Bell Labs to its classic configuration of solving big challenges in the industry and, therefore, connecting CTO and Bell Labs. CTO gives the vision for the industry while Bell Labs provides the fuel, or the engine, to solve those big problems, and that's really what I've been driving the organisation to do. I've used two methods. I want them to solve what I call "TenX" problems, problems that I want to be 10x better than anything today; more capacity, 10x lower latency, more scalability, 10x lower energy consumption.
So they're going up to TenX problems and then we combine some of those TenX pieces of research into what I call "FutureX Projects," which are just projects that take a few things, put them together to create something that's more than the sum of its parts. That's really what I've been driving for the first few months, refocusing on the big industry challenges where big means TenX and then combining individual ideas into ideas that are greater than the sum of their parts as FutureX Projects, and I can talk about what the X in FutureX means if you want to know but that's my first statement.
Giz: Can you share any FutureX projects that you're currently working on?
Weldon: So let me explain the X first because there have been some articles on Google's X labs and whatever. The X for us means the following: X for a start means the TenX. These projects, of course, have been made up of TenX pieces of research, so the whole project should deliver TenX, so its obvious, the Roman numeral X, for ten times. X is also the variable of 'we don't know' this yet. It's knowing the problems but with unknowable answers currently.
So it's going after the unknown in many ways rather than saying we know the answer to that and then go after that and just build something better. We're actually going big enough that we don't always know the answers. So the X is the uncertainty of the variable X. And the other degree of X is there are ten of these projects, generally. So we have ten projects aimed at solving a challenge that is ten times better, or bigger, or faster than today, and we're going to solve these, but some we have already innovated on — we've got sort of a backlog of innovations if you want—but some of them have big unknowns, so we don't yet know how to solve, and that's sort of the classic genius of Bell Labs.
And the other X that I don't really like as an X is ten years. What I mean is that I don't really want to wait ten years to solve it but I want the definition of the problem we're solving to be what the world looks like 10 years from now. I just want to solve it faster than that. There is an X that ten years from now but it means that's the reality we'll be living so hopefully we solve the problem well before that. Does that makes sense?
Giz: Yeah, absolutely.
Weldon: So you asked for some examples, and they're the classic ones. You could argue that 5G is an obvious one, and we call that project "Future Connected," recognizing that all future connectivity will be wireless. It may be very quickly onto a wire but the world of smart phones, machine to machine, tablets, etc... it's a wireless world that quickly gets onto a wire but it's a wireless problem. So 5G, we call that project "Future Connected," and you can see it has multiple dimensions with the radio and the packet core, the virtualisations, and new air interfaces. That's how we might bring together 4 or 5 pieces of research and put them into one project, so 5G, or "Future Connected," is an obvious one that gives you an example of these types of thing.
We've got another on the future data centre, looking at having a more optical data centre. You could start disaggregating computers, storage, and memory, and actually have a more optimal interface between servers, their memory, and their storage as we're looking at an all-optical future data centre, that project is called "Future Data Center," of course.
There's another one called "Future Comms," or future communications, about reinventing communications for a Twitter, Facebook, and Instagram enabled world, so that we're reimagining communication in collaborations with a chat-based methodology that will allow you to control your interaction with anything and anyone as if you were chatting to that object, and so it's a very new way of looking at communications. The message interface will actually define how you interact with objects, people, services, media, and so that's why it's called future communications. So that's just three examples of the FutureX projects.
Giz: Interesting. So for the Future Comm, are you saying that's the new internet of things? My internet-connected refrigerator, or coffee maker—I will be able to interact will those objects? Could you clarify what that project does exactly?
Weldon: So that's why I got a little vague on you.
Giz: Ah...
Weldon: Haha, it might be exactly what you said. In fact, the hint might be, you'll interact with everything the same way in a way that's intuitive and short-message based in new and interesting ways, but it gets much richer and much more complicated in that the interaction is you chatting with things, and that will cause remarkable things to happen.
Giz: Oh, I see. You're enabling that conversation to even happen in the first place. Now are these all specifically in-house projects or you collaborating with governmental agencies such as NASA, DARPA, or any research universities?
Weldon: We always collaborate with universities. We have an active program of university collaboration of probably 13, 14, 15 universities. In terms of government funding, we typically use that for some of the work we've done in the past, but that generally comes through our LGS subsidiary [which handles sensitive US government technology contracts - ed] that we just got spun out, so we won't see much government funding there. So we're mostly internally funded, we have support from the company to do these new and interesting things. But what I would say is that this connects well to the Bell Labs prize.
One of the things we're launching at the Big Bang celebration is the new Bell Labs prize, the first ever external Bell Labs prize. It will seek to get ideas on either the existing projects we have to the extent that they will be made available for people to see at a high level, but there will also be new ideas, or new FutureX projects, launching an open call with $100,000 as the first prize. But the interesting part is that you will get to collaborate with a Bell Labs researcher. So the selected ideas, of which we expect there to be a few tens of ideas, will actually be paired with a Bell Labs researcher, and that'll allow your idea to grow in the magic of Bell Labs into something more realizable, bigger or faster, and then be ultimately judged by an industry panel of imminent people who will award the final prize.
So it's collaborative, external call for the best ideas on FutureX things, but you get to collaborate with a Bells Labs researcher through the second phase of the prize before the final judgement. So it's a neat opportunity, we think, to reach out to others, which is really what your question is, and collaborate with others to invent the future.
Giz: Interesting. What happens to the prize winner? Is that technology developed further in collaboration with Bell Labs? What happens after you win the prize?
Weldon: If conditions are right, there will be an offer for you to join Bell Labs for a period of time, and so that's a strong option that we made available. It's not actually possible in all environments, which made me hesitant because in some countries, in fact, it's not possible to tie those two things together. Wherever possible, we will be offering a short-term contract to the winner as well as the prize so they can continue to grow their idea and within Bell Labs and have it become a reality.
Giz: Interesting. So this is open to basically everybody in the world, it's not strictly US submission.
Weldon: It's open to everywhere we can legally get the prize certified. Unfortunately it comes down to the legal language. It turns out that every country has to register such a prize. It's how governments make money by forcing you to register, but basically "prizes" come close to this legal definition as you have to actually guarantee you have the prize, you have to guarantee that the judging process is fair and transparent, and each country has different rules for that. So you have to register that your prize abides by the rules. So we've opened it up to about 40 countries, and that 40 is simply limited by the number by the locations we could get certified in the time we had available.
Giz: That's perfectly understandable. Are there any other aspects of the Big Bang celebration or is this just to announce the inception of the prize, aside from, obviously, the 50th anniversary of Dr. Wilson's discovery?
Weldon: In many ways the prize is trying to find the next Dr. Wilson. If you remember, what they were doing was working on radio communications and they saw something off to the side. So the prize is about that same model of solving the next big problems in communications and information technology, and finding people that in solving those problems have the mentality of seeing things off to the side as well. So that's really why the two are coupled.
We could have separated them but they're logically coupled because we're actually looking for those things, but it's not the Nobel prize necessarily. We're looking to solve big industry problems, finding new talent to solve those problems, and helping that talent in the Bell Labs way solve that problem but also see the stuff to the side.
Giz: So that's all within the framework of telecommunications, technology advancements, because you all shifted away from the hard basic sciences in 2007/2008, around there. So your advancements are going to be coming through telecommunications technology with the hope that you'll discover something "off the side," as you said, that meets more basic sciences?
Weldon: Yeah, it's worth explaining that era where Bell Labs was focused on basic sciences was a bit of an anomaly in terms of Bell Labs. And it happened for a specific reason: the industry starting being in a bit of disarray. It was going through various devolutions: the web was coming up, web companies were appearing, wireless was becoming big... so much flux that the industry stopped being a sponsor of research in some ways. And in that way Bell Labs more or less became autonomous and started working on law, as you said, or basic science problems. The reality is that everything up until 1980, you could argue, maybe 85, was almost focused on solving real world problems and just happened to find the basic science because we hired brilliant people who were capable of thinking about the science whilst they actually solved the problem.
So all we're doing is saying that we're looking for people like the old Bell Labs, the classic Bell Labs, who can solve big problems but that will also be smart enough to actually understand the science behind the scenes, and if we happen to win a prize because of that, that's fantastic, but that's not the goal. In this period, to me, people thought the 90s at Bell Labs were the classic era - that was the year when it became more of an academic institution, and then the industry didn't need it anymore. And so we're back to being the classic era, mind you, solving real world problems but hiring smart enough people that understand the science so they naturally uncover the science. Does that make sense?
Giz: Absolutely. That's very renaissance-esque. So getting back to the TenX/FutureX stuff, where do you see Bell Labs in 10 years and the industry itself?
Weldon: Yes, that's a tough one. So I have this vision I'm about to write a blog about, where in ten years I honestly believe that the paradigm will be the network of you, rather than you attaching to a network that is the same for all people in all circumstances in all applications. The network will actually morph itself and adapt itself to reflect your needs wherever you are and for whatever you're doing, and so the network becomes sort of a "digital skin," I'd like to say, that surrounds you and connects your physical world to your digital world. It's always adapting like any skin does to conform to your needs at every point in time. So that's the paradigm I think, but when I think about what that might involve, it's many of the things you think Bell Labs might be great at.
Definitely new radio techniques, right? New infrastructure of the radio layout, too, which if you think of have elements of 5G. It's also virtualisation - I want to be able to uproot pieces of my network and repart them, or recreate them, somewhere else, and that's what virtualisation is about: following the needs of the users as opposed to fixing my capacity to access physical points. I want to dynamically change all that, so that's where SDN comes in. I would obviously want to be able to manage the routing and optical piece of that so the traffic can flow from anywhere to anywhere and not just from the radio layer, but the network behind it. I want to do a dynamic control of the IP optical layer, and then I want a control plane that is smart enough to figure out the right thing to do. And that's a big maths and algorithmic problem requiring a very complex calculation to do the right thing for everyone everywhere. When I say it that way, it sounds easy but it's incredibly complicated. And if you think about all those ingredients, that's what Bell Labs historically has been brilliant at and it's what we need going forward to build this sort of "network of you."
For more information on how to submit your research for the Bell Labs prize, click here!
Andrew Tarantola


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Posts Tagged 'Brighton'
Arcades, Benjamin, Brighton, collaboration, cultural materialism, image, liminality, Method, Parataxis, Photos, Promenade, Promenades, publications, seaside resort, teignmouth
Images of the liminal
In Arcades, Promenades on July 1, 2010 at 5:08 pm
This is a slideshare version of our paper from the Liminal Landscapes conference, given today in Liverpool.
Benjamin, Brighton, Method, Parataxis, Photos, Promenade, Promenades, publications
Found images of Brighton promenade
In Promenades on June 9, 2010 at 9:13 am
A short snippet from our paper for the Liminal Landscapes symposium next month. This shows how we are using web technology to collect material for a 'working convolute' on Brighton. We are gathering images taken by other people that have been uploaded to the web, as a way of accessing representations and uses of the promenade, in an attempt to develop a methodological approach that builds on Benjamin's methods in the Arcades Project.
"Becker (1974) provides a methodological way of thinking about this potential social research resource. This relates to the second conception of photography held by Benjamin. The possibilities for producing new constellations of knowledge by using photography suggests possibilities for the collection and reconfiguration of images of the promenade as a way to access its history. Becker imagines the 'sociologist photographer' as collecting a plethora of images of a social situation, almost at random, taking care not to pre-judge what is of value in the resultant images. A consideration of the photographs then guides a further concentration in the research as the sociologist photographer spends time with "his [sic] contact sheets and work prints" and developing questions about the practices and situations that he observes. This process of collection and interpretation then opens up further avenues of enquiry and begins to produce social knowledge. In Benjamin's terms it constructs new configurations of the past, of a kind only accessible through these technological means. In this study we update Becker's work, and by seeking to reduce the impacts of sociological bias in our approach to the collection of images we aim to prevent any imposition of the very false coherences that Benjamin had tried to prevent through his parataxic method.
In practical terms, we have utilised web-technology to trawl through the online photo-hosting site flickr in an automated process. We have set up a yahoo pipe, a relatively new piece of web 2.0 software which aggregates data from the web in the form of RSS feeds, images, blog posts and visual media. Crucially, a pipe then provides a visual interface through which you can access the aggregated data. A pipe can be user-customised to a great extent. Although, following Becker and Benjamin, we aim to collect data without prejudicing it in advance, we are also conscious of sociological / historical practices and the way in which fields of inquiry are constructed to guide even the most inductive studies. In this respect we have delimited the 'feeds' to the pipe to include only the most popular photo-hosting site and also set up keywords to structure these feeds. Images uploaded to flickr are 'tagged' by users to aid retrieval and to publicise the images to a wider audience. The processes by which images arrive in the virtual public/private spaces of the internet and are distributed throughout them via social networks, direct our attention to 'sociogram' quality of all photography."
*we're working out how to reference these images accurately. All of these pictures have been uploaded on a creative commons license and we've given links to each of their sources in our bibliography.
Brighton, Convolute H, liminal, managed liminality, Photos, Promenade
Managed liminality
In Promenades on May 26, 2010 at 11:34 am
A collection of photos from Brighton's promenade that have been brought together to illustrate the concept of 'managed liminality', which is a term we are developing in our work to describe how the carnivalesque freedoms offered by the concept of the liminal can come to serve dominant power relations. These images show how the liminality of the shore is limited and exploited through the regulation of the promenade itself.
Brighton, Photos, Promenade, Promenades
The Promenade in Action
In Promenades on June 8, 2009 at 2:05 pm
Here we have a few snap shots of Brighton Promenade in action from 7 June 09.
The promenade as public space.
The promenade as social space concerns itself with movement, surveillance and observation, display and distinction, and the integration of urban space with the sea (the ocean with civilisation).
The purpose of the Promenade is to allow and require movement
Through movement we make the Promenade make sense and legitimise our presence in the social space.
As suggested by its name stillness is not permitted; only in specified locations can one opt out of movement and more often than not one must leave the promenade in order to be at rest.
Deck chairs are a stereotypical site of rest found to one side of the promenade. As they also need to be hired they are one mark of the public/private syncreticism that Benjamin found in the Parisian Arcades.
The reason for the prohibition on stillness lies in the surveillance and observation which is such a key part of the use of this social space. We use the promenade to watch and be watched and the prohibition on stillness prevents this watching developing into voyeurism. The beach, a temporary space governed by the sea, is the proper site of the voyeuristic on the public shore. The promenade marks the limit of civilisation (i.e. the urban space) and beyond it one enters the realm of nature where the rules of civilisation need not apply.
The pier is the extension of the Promenade, and thus of the limit of civilisation, into the 'natural' space of the sea.
In this sense the pier and the groins are the 'strategic embellishment' of the public shore. It is just that this is a symbolic defence of the space of civilisation rather than a concrete defence of the elite of society.
This gateway to the pier has the quality of the bastion as well as those of the turnstile.
The main use of the promenade is for leisure and it is this activity that most marks this social space. The various needs of those engaging in leisure are to be met here.
One of the roles of the promenade is to allow leisure. It is a source of leisure and it permits access to other facilities for leisure.
One of the paradoxes of the promenade is its nostalgia and entanglement in its own past. The promenade is a nineteenth century, Victorian, social construct and we know that to be its origin. The promenade thus has the odd quality of being of the past and of now and so it is a key locus of that strangest use of the past, Heritage.
Leisure as Heritage
The heritage of the public shore becomes part of our leisure.
We allow the past to be still as we move by it.
Heritage becomes a part of the whole experience and meaning of the promenade because of the promenades connexion to the Victorian age. The entire social space has the quality of Heritage and so we can expect the Heritage Industry to be found here.
The Heritage Industry organises our understanding of the past and as such is a problematic institution.
The Heritage Industry privileges certain elements of the past over others in order to simplify the tale being told. Here we have reduction of the shore to space of industry. The leisure and pseudo-medical side of the promenade's past are suppressed.
The Heritage Industry is the mask of capitalism; it is the past as Culture Industry. Shell Fish are one of the 'fetish commodities' of the promenade.
The Culture Industry is disguised within the Heritage Industry.
The Victorian origins of the promenade and the presence of the Heritage and Culture Industries in this social space force us to recognise the fundamentally capitalist nature of the promenade. This is to be expected; just as the Arcade was an expression of 19th Century French Capitalist Society so the Promenade was and is an expression of British Capitalist (or one might argue 'european' capitalist) society.


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