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Keeping Speech Cheap: The Progressive Case for a Free Internet: In Response to Can Speech Be Progressive? by Louis Michael Seidman
By Kathrine Gutierrez
In "Can Free Speech Be Progressive?," Louis Michael Seidman claims that cheap speech, like that found on Twitter, is not really cheap, and is not helpful to progressives—because it relies too heavily on capital. In the era of #metoo and #blacklivesmatter, it seems that Seidman is wrong about cheap speech. Cheap speech exists, and it is associated with a number of progressive successes. Instead of progressive communication being stymied by speech clutter and trolling, volunteer labor effectively facilitates meaningful progressive discussion. Furthermore, cheap speech is notably low-risk for would-be progressive speakers who have reason to fear state violence for speaking. Cheap speech, then, can be a useful tool for progressives, even if, as Seidman also argues, the "modern American free speech right" is not.
In his essay "Can Free Speech Be Progressive?," Louis Michael Seidman makes a sweeping argument against the "modern American free speech right"1: "the First Amendment cannot be progressive."2 Progressivism, per Seidman, "favor[s] an activist government" and seeks to achieve the "public good" by correcting unjust market-based distributions.3 The opportunity to speak is not egalitarian. Instead, "speech opportunities reflect current property distributions" and the holders of capital have an outsized advantage in the marketplace of ideas.4 As such, the "unfettered" market, which is the goal of the modern "American free speech tradition and its accompanying ideology,"5 cannot be progressive. The genius of Seidman's analysis lies in its simplicity. Romanticize speech all you want, he says, but newspapers are printed using cold, hard, cash—and capitalists have more of it than labor does.6 Speech is not otherworldly; instead, it is bound by the political here and now, and subject to the normal rules of material power.7 From this foundation of speech anti-exceptionalism, Seidman goes on to provide a brilliant analysis of the ways in which the "modern American free speech right" preferentially serves capital.8
One of Seidman's major accomplishments, and the subject of this response, is making a powerful case for understanding an unfettered marketplace of ideas as a haven for "the rich and powerful" that serves the needs and interests of capital, to the detriment of progressive goals.9 Among other sins, the "modern American free speech right" resists any regulation that would temper capital's advantage.10 Seidman argues that this resistance to regulation and friendliness to capital is an inherent quality of the right, even as it is idealized by progressives.11
Most progressives would likely agree that the First Amendment can be perverted for cynical pro-capitalist ends, especially post–Citizens United.12 Some of Seidman's cynicism about the "modern American free speech right" treads familiar ground, albeit with a level of nuance and innovation that makes his analysis of the "recent, radical right turn in free speech law" well worth a read.13 However, Seidman does not stop there. He believes that the problem with the free speech right goes beyond its misapplication or misinterpretation.14 He thinks that the "modern American free speech right" itself is fatally flawed, even as idealized by progressives; he calls "progressive support for the speech right . . . a kind of 'trickle down' theory of civil liberties. . . . [T]he big victors are the rich and powerful."15
For anyone who has been paying attention, Seidman's assertions about wealth's outsized influence on speech have the ring of truth. Well-resourced capitalists are buying up traditional media outlets, gutting newsrooms, and dictating the content of putatively journalistic media. For example, conservative television behemoth Sinclair Media required more than a hundred nominally local television news stations to defend the teargassing of immigrants.16 A hedge fund known as the "Destroyer of Newspapers,"17 Alden Global Capital, is famous for purchasing (and gutting) functioning newsrooms. One columnist called it "one of the most ruthless of the corporate strip-miners seemingly intent on destroying local journalism."18 This is all, of course, in addition to the continued existence of that long-lamented partisan megaphone, Fox News, which is particularly cozy with the current presidential administration.19 All of these facts are an easy fit with Seidman's assertion that the marketplace of ideas is just like any other marketplace—capable of being dominated by capital to the detriment of the public good.20 Or, as A.J. Liebling wrote in 1960, "[f]reedom of the press is guaranteed only to those who own one."21
Speech is not always that expensive, though—not anymore. Eugene Volokh's 1995 prediction of the rise of "cheap speech" has come true; speech no longer seems expensive or capital-intensive.22 Instead, with the rise of the internet and technologies like text messaging, speech is everywhere.23 Seidman admits that speech has become "democratiz[ed]," but denies that cheap speech is beneficial to progressives.24 This is because, according to Seidman, cheap speech does not work as communication unless it is filtered via capital-intensive "speech management."25 That means that cheap speech is either ineffective or too capital-intensive to be meaningfully "cheap."26 Either way, Seidman's position is that cheap speech does not contribute to the progressive project, so he does not really grapple with the implications of truly cheap speech.27
Seidman's dismissal of cheap speech is mistaken. The dominance of traditional, capital-intensive media is lower than it has ever been; cheap speech is ascendant.28 Happily, the existence of cheap speech is completely compatible with Seidman's analysis. Seidman believes that "because speech opportunities reflect current property distributions, free speech tends to favor" those who hold more capital.29 A more egalitarian distribution of speech opportunities would lessen the advantage that "current property distributions" give to "the people at the top of the power hierarchy."30 If cheap speech exists, Seidman's theory implies that it would be relatively friendly to progressive goals and that powerful capitalist interests would seek to limit cheap speech.
Fitting with Seidman's theory, the internet enables cheap speech, and the progressive successes associated with the internet are substantial. Black Lives Matter does not rely on newspapers; it relies on a hashtag.31 So does #metoo.32 Progressive political organizing is flourishing. As just one example, the Democratic Socialists of America are experiencing an explosion in the number of dues paying members.33 This is in line with Seidman's theory—when capital requirements for speech are lower, progressives should be better able to advance their goals.
As Seidman's theory might also predict, capital has not been friendly to cheap speech. Instead, powerful capitalist interests seek the right to exercise control over the content of cheap speech (or to make it more costly). One of the few bipartisan bills passed in the Trump era, SESTA-FOSTA,34 made it much more costly to maintain online discussion spaces, driving smaller, nonprofit publishers to shut their doors.35 Unsurprisingly, SESTA-FOSTA was supported by 21st Century Fox and Oracle.36
The regulatory state is getting in on the action, too. Net neutrality regulations used to require communications infrastructure providers to treat all the content on their networks fairly—but no longer.37 Soon after Trump took office, the Federal Communications Commission stopped enforcing net neutrality regulations,38 and then went on to repeal them.39 The rapid deregulation of cheap speech infrastructure is not limited to the internet. In December, the FCC voted 3–1 to definitively allow wireless carriers much more control over the content of text messaging.40 The dissenting FCC commissioner stated that "your carrier now has the legal right to block your text messages and censor the very content of your messages."41
Seidman's dismissal of cheap speech as either nonexistent—or, worse, anti-progressive—does not line up with the facts. Cheap speech is real; it is useful for progressives, and it faces substantial capitalist opposition. That means that the existence of cheap speech is perfectly compatible with Seidman's theory about the relationship between capital and speech. This essay, then, functions more as a supplement to Seidman's work than a correction. It extends his arguments to assert that if one considers the evidence, one will necessarily conclude that protecting cheap speech is an important political goal for progressives—although it may be impossible to achieve.
I. How is Cheap Speech Cheap?
Seidman's counterintuitive argument is that that cheap speech will be dominated by the interests of capital because it is too cheap—there is too much of it.42 He claims that cheap speech, to be effective, needs to be "managed" by capital-intensive means.43 To Seidman, speech management is so capital-intensive for speakers that cheap speech is actually less progressive than traditional speech.44 Furthermore, managed speech, rather than exposing audiences to progressive ideas, instead risks sequestering listeners in "speech silo[s]" where they may be shielded from progressive ideas and where "listener autonomy makes real conversation impossible."45
Speech management is not necessarily all that capital-intensive, though, even in traditional publishing. Many publications, such as law reviews, are edited by volunteer or low-cost labor.46 But without capital, it is hard to amplify speech—or, at least, it was before the internet. Printing newspapers costs money.47 Owning a television station is expensive, far beyond the means of capital-poor individuals, however dedicated. While coordinated projects like phone banking and canvassing can spread messages to large numbers of people, for the most part, capital has a huge advantage when it comes to mass communication. This advantage is even more pronounced when communication channels are limited by technological constraints, as with television and radio.48
One of Seidman's concerns about cheap speech is that "aggregation and amplification—speech management—still require capital."49 That is true in some sense, but effective speech management can be accomplished with volunteer labor and minimal capital. In other words, there are some costs of communication for which labor can reasonably substitute for capital, as with speech management, and some where capital easily dominates labor. The physical means of speech amplification and mass communication are easily dominated by capital, but curatorial and editorial work, like "speech management," can be accomplished by labor.
That means that nonphysical means of mass communication even the playing field for labor substantially. This, of course, is only true when regulation prevents capitalists from dominating the means of affordable speech amplification. With equal access to cheap amplification, though, one can engage in mass communication without using much capital.
Before 2017, regulation helped keep speech cheap. The FCC required communications infrastructure owners to provide equal access to all users.50 Congress also proactively provided a sort of liability safe harbor for online publishers, which kept the liability costs of publishing or "hosting" online speech low.51 Together, those regulatory efforts kept the digital means of speech amplification affordable. Because cheap speech is enabled by regulation, it is not an exception to the general rule—which, Seidman tells us, is that regulation is required to rein in capital.52 With adequate regulation, cheap speech, and progressive communication, thrives.
A few examples will make it easier to understand how labor can enable successful progressive communication, even in the face of "the proliferation and splintering of speech opportunities," which lead to what Seidman calls "the modern free speech problem . . . speech clutter, trolling, and speech siloing."53 First, there are a number of progressive communities online which facilitate communication and organization. Many of these are subreddits, distinct spaces for communication which are easy to create using Reddit, a (mostly) content-neutral platform with a distinctly libertarian ethos.54 A number of subreddits are highly political and capital-hostile. For example, the r/socialism subreddit boasts 199,000 "Comrades" (members).55 The r/chapotraphouse subreddit, which formed to discuss ideas of the "dirtbag left," including anti-capitalism, has 126,000 members.56
While these communities provide spaces for mass communication which might not be possible elsewhere, they are by no means completely "free" in the sense of being unmanaged. Instead, their content is tightly controlled—but by volunteer labor, not by capital. This allows for communication without the disruption caused by what Tim Wu calls "flooding" tactics.57 For example, r/latestagecapitalism is a heavily moderated community which describes itself as "A One-Stop-Shop for Evidence of our Social, Moral and Ideological Rot."58 It has 413,000 members and a strict ban on "capitalist apologia," which helps it avoid "speech clutter" and "trolling," and keeps the discussion focused on the downsides of capitalism.59 Although r/latestagecapitalism may be a "speech silo," which Seidman considers part of the "modern free speech problem," it is not a capitalist speech silo.60 It is an effective progressive communication space.61
Second, labor can also effectuate successful communication by playing a role that is highly analogous to the role played by traditional editors and publishers (and self-publishers). From the infancy of the internet, bloggers and networks of bloggers, like the Volokh Conspiracy, have reached wide audiences using a publishing method reminiscent of a regular newsletter.62 More recently, Twitter has facilitated individual content creation and curation on a massive scale.63 Twitter users are able to publish their own content as well as republishing (retweeting) content that fits their preferences.64 By selecting which Twitter users to follow (and who or what topics to block or mute), Twitter users can easily filter the content they see.65 Twitter users can also use hashtags (like #blacklivesmatter or #metoo) to see everything relating to a given topic.66
It is far from true, then, that "Twitter produces an undifferentiated and useless swamp of information and opinion."67 Instead, Twitter allows its users to generate a personalized feed of news, commentary, images, and information from trusted (or, at least, interesting) sources.68 Popular Twitter users can reach thousands or even millions of people without ever having the support of a traditional, capital-intensive publisher.69 (For example, @dril, who has not had any celebrity outside of his internet fame, has approximately 1.34 million followers.)70
The people who use Twitter (and hashtags like #blacklivesmatter) clearly do not consider Twitter useless—nor does Donald Trump.71 Progressive political figures can reach massive audiences on Twitter. Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez, whose Twitter following was around one million on the day she won a Democratic congressional primary, allegedly tweets "more than Trump,"72 and her Tweets get attention.73 While an elected representative might be able to get the word out without using Twitter, the same is not true of niche thinkers and activists who find a home on Twitter. For example, Black Socialists of America, "a 501(c)(4) organization of anticapitalist Black Americans who believe in the core principles of Socialism as defined by Karl Marx,"74 is a verified account with more than 57,000 followers.75
The point here is not that cheap speech is completely independent of capital. Nothing is. Instead, the purpose of this essay is to show that, with the help of regulation, labor is able to successfully substitute for capital in ways that allow for the existence of truly cheap—and truly anti-capitalist—speech. The existence of meaningful communication and discussion on the internet—facilitated by volunteer labor—shows that speech can be cheap when the means of speech amplification are not under the unfettered control of capitalists. This is why free speech advocates like the American Civil Liberties Union have put substantial effort into maintaining content-neutral internet infrastructure76—or, to put it another way, into preventing capitalists from gaining complete control over the means of (cheap) speech production.
II. Marginalized Speakers and Risk: Cheap Speech Is Safe and Cheap
Cheap speech skeptics often point to the role that cheap speech plays in facilitating harassment and threats.77 For example, in his essay "Is the First Amendment Obsolete?," Wu warns of "vicious, swarm-like attacks" aimed at disfavored speakers.78 While Wu's analysis of government-funded harassment phenomenon is detailed and substantial,79 coordinated online harassment is, as he notes, not new.80 Women and people of color are familiar with the fact that speaking publicly on the internet risks threats of violence and harassment—which are systematically ignored by law enforcement.81
Speaking in public in general carries a risk of harassment, even for those working in traditional media, and often leads to in-person harassment or threats.82 Regardless, it seems likely that cheap speech, in particular, facilitates coordinated harassment efforts.83 So why #metoo and #blacklivesmatter? The cheapness of speech likely contributes; power and wealth go hand-in-hand and both are often denied to marginalized speakers. There is another answer, though, which Seidman and other writers on this topic miss: cheap speech is safe.
Notably, especially in light of Seidman's claim that "the modern free speech problem is not government suppression,"84 physical protest in the United States carries with it a real risk of serious harm at the hands of the state.85 In addition to direct physical harm, like being teargassed or pepper sprayed,86 protesters risk being arrested87 or sued.88 The collateral consequences of any arrest can be serious.89 Legal mechanisms for redress of harms caused by the police are severely limited and may come too late to be meaningful.90
Cheap speech, then, is cheap for two reasons: it does not require the use of capital-intensive means of speech amplification or place the speaker in close proximity to the police. So, while cheap speech may facilitate harassment or threats, it seems unlikely that it is, overall, more costly for progressive speakers than other options. After all, as Geoffrey Stone has noted, harassment of disfavored speakers is nothing new.91 What is new, however, is the ability for those at particular risk of harassment and violence to easily reach a likeminded audience without leaving the relative safety of their homes.
III. Fake News and Speech Silos: The Risks Posed by Expensive Speech
Having shown that cheap speech truly can be cheap and that it demonstrably is cheap, the baseline assumption must be that cheap speech is good for progressives. After all, the alternative is the capital-dominated speech marketplace which Seidman himself decries. Nevertheless, Seidman believes that cheap speech is an overall negative for progressive causes, echoing concerns raised by other scholars92 about the role cheap speech plays in spreading misinformation (often termed "fake news")93 and preventing "conversation."94
Those who would criticize cheap speech on these grounds must consider the alternative. If one takes seriously Seidman's assertions about the relationship between speech and capital, it is by no means a given that expensive speech will be honest or facilitate genuine "conversation."95 Tech-savvy Russian misinformation campaigns may be new (and genuinely interesting), but one cannot ignore the outsized role of boring, expensive, and effective Fox News.96 Recent efforts to consolidate ownership of traditional media outlets make the risks posed by capitalist-dominated media crystal clear.97 It is hard to imagine how one could see hundreds of local news stations being directed to air segments justifying the tear gassing of immigrants and decide that the real problem is Twitter.
One might argue that journalistic standards play an important role in keeping traditional media honest. Even assuming that is true, and that it is an inherent feature of traditional media, capital-intensive media cannot (and does not) publish everything.98 The range of information shared by capital-intensive publishers is necessarily limited by the interests of capitalist owners. Some progressive speech, especially progressive speech which is particularly unfriendly to capital, will be left on the cutting room floor.99 That limits the usefulness of traditional media for progressives.
As shown above, it is possible to effectively manage speech on the internet, and anti-progressive "speech silo[s]" full of cheap speech certainly exist. But so do progressive speech silos, and many progressive ideas are very popular.100 The "listener autonomy" that Seidman decries works in favor of progressive ideas when listeners can opt into receiving progressive information.101 But even that fact is somewhat beside the point, though—what about capitalist speech silos? As Seidman points out, "[f]reedom of the press is guaranteed only to those who own one."102 Why should a newspaper owned by multimillionaire publishers and partially supported by advertising dollars escape the charge that it "makes real conversation impossible"?103 Especially when, without cheap speech, a single newspaper might be one of only a handful of news sources available?
IV. The Future of Cheap Speech
The real progressive problem with cheap speech is not that it does not exist, or that it prevents the spread of progressive ideas, or that it limits conversation. The real problem with cheap speech is that a government dominated by the interests of capital will not act to protect or enable it. Cheap speech, having shown its value to progressive causes, is almost certainly on its way out.104
What can be done? Cheap speech was facilitated by government regulation, like the safe harbor (formerly) provided by section 230 of the Communications Decency Act (CDA 230) and the regulations (formerly) protecting net neutrality. However, it is hard to see how protection of the infrastructure that makes cheap speech possible is a workable political project. After all, the passage of FOSTA, the bill which limited CDA 230 and drove a number of smaller websites out of business by raising their costs, was a bipartisan legislative success.105 The executive branch may (or may not) prove to be more friendly to progressive goals after the coming presidential election. The good news for cheap speech is that Senators Elizabeth Warren and Bernie Sanders both signed a letter decrying the FCC ruling that allowed content discrimination in text messaging;106 and the bad news is that all of the Democratic presidential candidates who could vote for FOSTA did.107
There is another option, of course: litigation. The judiciary can, per Seidman, play a role in shielding progressive interests from the political branches.108 Communications infrastructure providers are plausibly state actors who might be held to standards of content neutrality.109 While it would not solve all of the political problems faced by cheap speech, free speech litigation might at least be able to limit blatantly content-discriminatory policies. One example of such content-discrimination would be when Verizon tried to prevent NARAL from using its services in 2007, based on an assertion that it has the "right to block 'controversial or unsavory' text messages."110
However, even the most clear-cut precedents are subject to "doctrinal manipulation," and arguments have been made that the First Amendment requires the state to allow telecommunications providers to discriminate based on content.111 Existing precedent on this issue may, at first, inspire optimism. After all, the U.S. Court of Appeals for the D.C. Circuit has found that net neutrality regulations did not violate the First Amendment,112 writing that "[c]ommon carriers have long been subject to nondiscrimination and equal access obligations . . . without raising any First Amendment question."113
Unfortunately, the D.C. Circuit denied an en banc petition in that case over two dissents—one by then-Judge, now Justice Kavanaugh.114 He wrote that "[i]nternet service providers possess a First Amendment right to exercise their editorial discretion over what content to carry and how to carry it."115 It seems appropriate, then, to extend another of Seidman's arguments, originally about traditional media, into the universe of cheap speech—maybe "[i]n a completely different world" we would treat the owners of cheap speech infrastructure as though they were "state actors constitutionally required to provide others with speech opportunities. But that is nothing like our world."116
[1]. Louis Michael Seidman, Can Free Speech Be Progressive?, 118 Colum. L. Rev. 2219, 2219 (2018)
[2]. Id. at 2234.
[6]. Id. at 2233–34.
[7]. Id.
[10]. Id.
[11]. Id. at 2233–34.
[12]. 558 U.S. 310 (2010); Seidmen, supra note 1, at 2232–33; See, e.g., Citizens United v. FEC: Corporate Political Speech, 124 Harv. L. Rev. 75, 80 (2010) ("Citizens United sparked an immediate firestorm of commentary and debate, with many commentators lamenting the expansive ruling . . . .").
[13]. Seidman, supra note 1, at 2232.
[14]. Id. at 2233–34, 2240.
[15]. Id. at 2234.
[16]. Matt Wilstein, Sinclair Forces Local TV Stations to Air Segment Defending Tear-Gassing Migrants, Daily Beast (Nov. 27, 2018, 2:04 PM), https://www.the-dailybeast.com/sinclair-forces-local-tv-stations-to-air-segment-defending-tear-gassing-migrants [https://perma.cc/699K-UXCU].
[17]. Edmund Lee & Tiffany Hsu, Hedge Fund Called 'Destroyer of Newspapers' Bids for USA Today Owner Gannett, N.Y. Times: DealBook (Jan. 14, 2009), https://www.ny-times.com/2019/01/14/business/dealbook/gannett-takeover-offer-mng.html.
[18]. Margaret Sullivan, Is this Strip-Mining or Journalism? 'Sobs, Gasps, Expletives' Over Latest Denver Post Layoffs, Wash. Post (Mar. 15, 2018), https://www.washing-tonpost.com/lifestyle/style/is-this-strip-mining-or-journalism-sobs-gasps-expletives-over-latest-denver-post-layoffs/2018/03/15/d05abc5a-287e-11e8-874b-d517e912f12-5_story.html [https://perma.cc/J6G3-WYSF].
[19]. Jane Mayer, The Making of the Fox News White House, New Yorker (Mar. 4, 2019), https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2019/03/11/the-making-of-the-fox-news-white-house [https://perma.cc/7GCY-53F6] ("Nicole Hemmer, an assistant professor of Presidential studies at the University of Virginia's Miller Center . . . says of Fox, 'It's the closest we've come to having state TV.'").
[20]. See Seidman, supra note 1, at 2220.
[21]. Id. at 2232 (quoting A.J. Liebling, The Wayward Press: Do You Belong in Journalism?, New Yorker, May 14, 1960, at 105, 109.).
[22]. Eugene Volokh, Cheap Speech and What It Will Do, 104 Yale L.J. 1805, 1806 (1995) ("[N]ew information technologies . . . will dramatically reduce the costs of distributing speech . . .").
[23]. Seidman, supra note 1, at 2235–36.
[28]. See, e.g., Neeraj Aggarwal et al., The Digital Revolution is Disrupting the TV Industry, Bos. Consulting Grp. (Mar. 21, 2016), http://image-src.bcg.com/Images/BCG-The-Digital-Revolution-Is-Disrupting-the-TV-Industry-Mar-2016_tcm9-87447.pdf [https://perma.cc/5X2U-R89S] ("Streaming video completely bypasses the traditional video-aggregation and distribution models . . . . With low costs, and a growing ecosystem of digital aggregators, online and mobile content creators are challenging the long-held belief that producing hit entertainment content must be a very expensive proposition available only to those with deep pockets.").
[31]. See Monica Anderson & Paul Hitlin, Pew Res. Ctr., The Hashtag #BlackLivesMatter Emerges: Social Activism on Twitter, in Social Media Conversations About Race 14, 14 (Aug.15,2016), https://www.pewinternet.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/9/2016/08/-PI_2016.08.15_Race-and-Social-Media_FINAL.pdf [https://perma.cc/U6SN-U2AQ].
[32]. Dalvin Brown, 19 Million Tweets Later: A Look at #MeToo A Year After the Hashtag Went Viral, USA Today (Oct. 13, 2018, 10:12 PM), https://www.usato-day.com/story/news/2018/10/13/metoo-impact-hashtag-made-online/1633570002 [https://perma.cc/H8Z9-KTQG] ("'The hashtag has had an extraordinary impact because it shows the ability of women and survivors of sexual harassment and violence,' said Kathy Spillar, executive director of Feminist Majority, a women's advocacy and policy research organization. 'It has taken an issue that was whispered about in workplaces and given it a forum. It has made it possible for people to speak out.'").
[33]. Jeff Stein, 9 Questions About the Democratic Socialists of America You Were Too Embarrassed to Ask, Vox (Aug. 5, 2017, 8:40 AM), https://www.vox.com/policy-and-politics/2017/8/5/15930786/dsa-socialists-convention-national [https://perma.cc/XGH4-GTGN].
[34]. See Eric Goldman, The Complicated Story of FOSTA and Section 230, 17 First Amend. L. Rev. 279, 283 (2018) (describing the passage of FOSTA by "overwhelming margins").
[35]. Id. at 289 (describing the expenses imposed by FOSTA on smaller web publishers); See ACLU, Communications Decency Act Section 230, https://www.aclu.org/issues/-free-speech/internet-speech/communications-decency-act-section-230 [https://perma.cc/8V9D-H4EB] (Asserting that CDA Section 230, which was amended by SESTA-FOSTA, is "the reason why websites can offer platforms for critical and controversial speech without constantly worrying about getting sued.").
[36]. Sarah Jeong, Sex Trafficking Bill is Turning Into a Proxy War Over Google, Verge (Sep. 14, 2017, 3:06 PM), https://www.theverge.com/2017/9/14/16308066/sex-trafficking-bill-sesta-google-cda-230 [https://perma.cc/X9WH-A9V2].
[37]. Daniel A. Schuleman, The FCC Restoring Internet Freedom Order and Zero Rating or: How We Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Market, Spring 2018 U. Ill. J.L. Tech. & Pol'y 149, 151 (2018).
[38]. Id. at 157.
[39]. Keith Collins, Net Neutrality Has Officially Been Repealed. Here's How That Could Affect You, NY Times (Jun. 11, 2018), https://www.nytimes.com/2018/06/11/tech-nology/net-neutrality-repeal.html [https://perma.cc/NV47-9T7B].
[40]. David Shepardson, FCC Affirms That Wireless Carriers Can Block Unwanted Text Messages, Reuters (Dec. 12, 2018, 10:08 AM), https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-fcc-texts/fcc-affirms-that-wireless-carriers-can-block-unwanted-text-messages-idUSKBN1OB2FP [https://perma.cc/W6YD-XEXE].
[46]. See Law Review, Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L-aw_review [https://perma.cc/R5C2-9GYH] ("In the US, law reviews are normally published by an organization of students at a law school or through a bar association.").
[47]. Nicholas Carlson, Printing the NYT Costs Twice as Much as Sending Every Subscriber a Free Kindle, Bus. Insider (Jan. 30, 2009, 8:35 AM), https://www.businessinsider.com/2009/1/printing-the-nyt-costs-twice-as-much-as-sending-every-subscriber-a-free-kindle [https://perma.cc/S8ZH-FUD4].
[48]. See, e.g., Radio Spectrum Allocation, Federal Comm. Comm'n, https://www.fcc.gov/engineering-technology/policy-and-rules-division/general/radio-spectrum-allocation [https://perma.cc/UR8E-BHHV] (describing the assignment of limited radio spectrum).
[50]. See U.S. Telecomm. Ass'n v. Fed. Commc'n Comm'n, 825 F.3d 674, 740 (D.C. Cir. 2016) ("The [net neutrality] rules generally bar broadband providers from denying or downgrading end-user access to content and from favoring certain content by speeding access to it. In effect, they require broadband providers to offer a standardized service that transmits data on a nondiscriminatory basis.").
[51]. Goldman, supra note 34, at 279 ("Section 230 enables [services that publish third party content] to start, grow, and thrive without crippling legal exposure or expensive editorial staffs.").
[54]. See Kashmir Hill, Reddit Co-Founder Alexis Ohanian's Rosy Outlook On The Future of Politics, Forbes (Feb. 2, 2012, 11:33 AM), https://www.forbes.com/sites/kashmir-hill/2012/02/02/reddit-co-founder-alexis-ohanians-rosy-outlook-on-the-future-of-politics/#73247e745550 [https://perma.cc/8WGB-FZGG] (Reddit's cofounder said that "[m]aybe libertarians especially like Reddit because it is a perfect marketplace of content . . . [e]veryRedditoriscreatedequal....").
[55]. r/socialism, Reddit, https://www.reddit.com/r/socialism [https://perma.cc/R23C-N6P6].
[56]. Jia Tolentino, What Will Become of the Dirtbag Left?, New Yorker (Nov. 18, 2016), https://www.newyorker.com/culture/persons-of-interest/what-will-become-of-the-dirtbag-left [https://perma.cc/TG2A-SJYG] (describing the podcast "Chapo Trap House" and the "dirtbag left").
[57]. Tim Wu, Is the First Amendment Obsolete?, 117 Mich. L. Rev. 547, 548 (2018).
[58]. r/LateStageCapitalism, Reddit, https://www.reddit.com/r/LateStageCapitalism [https://perma.cc/9WP3-GQ24].
[62]. ABA Journal: The Volokh Conspiracy, http://www.abajournal.com/blawg/the_volokh_conspiracy [https://perma.cc/9B9Y-RK5P] (last visited May 23, 2019).
[63]. Hamza Shaban, Twitter Reveals its Daily Active User Numbers for the First Time, Wash. Post (Feb. 7, 2019), https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2019/02/07/-twitter-reveals-its-daily-active-user-numbers-first-time/?utm_term=.e0eae22139c1 [https://perma.cc/JU58-GPWP] ("Twitter said that it has 126 million daily active users").
[64]. How to Use Twitter: Critical Tips for New Users, Wired, (Aug. 29, 2018, 5:25 PM), https://www.wired.com/story/how-to-setup-twitter-search-hashtag-and-login-help [https://perma.cc/KP6A-NSAM].
[67]. Seidman, supra note 1, at 2235; Seidman is not alone in criticizing Twitter, which Eric Posner called a "planetary-scale hate machine" in 2018. See Eric Posner, The Worthy Tweet, Misc. (Mar. 3, 2018), http://ericposner.com/the-worthy-tweet [https://perma.cc/HL3J-D6GM].
[68]. But see Eric Posner, Twenty Theses About Twitter, Misc. (July 3, 2017), http://ericposner.com/twenty-theses-about-twitter [https://perma.cc/24YR-JCLC](arguing that Twitter does not allow successful filtering and calling Twitter "a blackhole of value-destroying technology for all concerned.").
[69]. See Jake Swearingen, It is With a Heavy Heart That Twitter is Finding Out Who @Dril is, N.Y. Mag.: Intelligencer (Nov. 17, 2017), http://nymag.com/selectall/2017/11/it-is-with-a-heavy-heart-that-twitter-found-out-who-dril-is.html [https://perma.cc/879A-6449] (describing @dril's Twitter-only, pseudonymous rise to fame).
[70]. Wint (@dril), Twitter (last visited May 23, 2019), https://twitter.com/dril [https://perma.cc/ET5Y-CA69].
[71]. Donie O'Sullivan, Twitter Co-Founder Calls President Trump 'Master of the Platform, CNN Bus. (May 22, 2019, 4:22 PM), https://www.cnn.com/2019/05/22/tech/president-trump-twitter-ev-williams/index.html [https://perma.cc/6QVS-6N7D].
[72]. Kathryn Krawczyk, Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez Tweets More than Trump, Week (May 3, 2019), https://theweek.com/speedreads/839263/alexandria-ocasiocortez-tweets-more-than-trump [https://perma.cc/XS2X-ZD6F].
[73]. Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez Decries 'Myth' of Low-Paying Jobs in Emotional Tweet, N.Y. Post (May 11, 2019, 4:02 PM), https://nypost.com/2019/05/11/aoc-decries-myth-of-low-paying-jobs-in-emotional-tweet [https://perma.cc/38S7-N4VA].
[74]. Black Socialists of America (@BlackSocialists), Twitter, https://twitter.com/blacksocialists [https://perma.cc/UJ2K-878W].
[76]. Net Neutrality, ACLU, https://www.aclu.org/issues/free-speech/internet-speech/net-neutrality [https://perma.cc/D6HY-MJG4] (last visited July 24, 2019).
[77]. Wu, supra note 57, at 548 ("[T]he emergent techniques of speech control depend on new punishments, like the unleashing of 'troll armies' to abuse critics, the fabrication of news, and 'flooding' tactics that distort or drown out other speech . . . .").
[79]. Id. at 560–65.
[80]. See generally Danielle Keats Citron, Law's Expressive Value in Combating Cyber Gender Harassment, 108 Mich. L. Rev. 373 (2009) (describing coordinated online harassment efforts).
[82]. Michelle Ferrier, Attacks and Harassment: The Impact on Female Journalists and Their Reporting, 23 (Elisa Lees Munoz ed. 2018) https://www.iwmf.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/Attacks-and-Harassment.pdf [https://perma.cc/6ZRS-AP6J] (finding that, of surveyed female journalists working in the United States, 52 percent had been threatened or harassed in person and 18 percent had been physically attacked).
[83]. Wu, supra note 57, at 548.
[85]. Tim Elfrink, Sacramento Police Arrest Reporter, 84 Protesters at March Against Stephon Clark Shooting, Wash. Post (Mar. 5, 2019), https://www.washington-post.com/nation/2019/03/05/sacramento-police-arrest-reporter-protesters-march-against-stephon-clark-shooting [https://perma.cc/S694-9EWE].
[86]. See, e.g., Martin Kaste, Police Face Backlash Over Crowd Control Measures After Several Political Protests, NPR (Aug. 25, 2017, 4:33 PM), https://www.npr.org/2017/08-/25/546186268/police-face-backlash-over-crowd-control-measures-after-several-political-protest [https://perma.cc/P972-PJHD]; Kianna Gardner & Maddy Ryan, Phoenix Officials Promise 'Thorough' Review of Police Response After Trump Rally, Ariz. Daily Sun (Aug. 24, 2017), https://azdailysun.com/news/local/phoenix-officials-promise-thorough-review-of-police-response-after-trump/article_62cc4287-ed5a-5a6a-9b4c-97700770ba4e.html [https://perma.cc/32YA-DS33], ("'We have received many complaints that people, including children and people with mobility and respiratory issues, were taken by surprise when the police bombarded them with chemical irritants, with no warning' . . . 'Tear gas and pepper spray can have devastating health effects.'").
[87]. Yamiche Alcindor, DeRay Mckesson, Arrested While Protesting in Baton Rouge, Is Released, N.Y. Times (Jul. 10, 2016), https://www.nytimes.com/2016/07/11/us/deray-mckesson-arrested-in-baton-rouge-protest.html [https://perma.cc/8JLL-46HU].
[88]. Joe Gyan Jr., Injured BRPD Officer Can Sue Black Lives Matter Activist DeRay Mckesson, Court Says, Advocate (Apr. 24, 2019, 8:31 PM), https://www.theadvocate.com/baton_rouge/news/crime_police/article_071ec624-66ee-11e9-98a0-73787f4c25ab.html [https://perma.cc/T9GN-XQ93].
[89]. Eisha Jain, Proportionality and Other Misdemeanor Myths, 98 B.U. L. Rev. 953, 958 (2018) ("The consequences of a mere arrest—much less a misdemeanor conviction—can be severe and last long after any criminal penalty is complete.").
[90]. Leah Litman, Remedial Convergence and Collapse, 106 Cal. L. Rev. 1477, 1528 (2018) (describing "the status quo" in "public law cases related to policing" as "largely a system of no remedies for constitutional rights").
[91]. Geoffrey R. Stone, Reflections on Whether the First Amendment Is Obsolete, Knight First Amendment Inst. Colum. Univ., https://knightcolumbia.org/content/reflections-whether-first-amendment-obsolete [https://perma.cc/FL6A-W6UP] ("Individuals who take positions that offend others in their community have always been vulnerable to condemnation by others . . . . [a]nd, yet, we lived with it.").
[92]. Seidman, supra note 1, at 2235–36; see also Richard L. Hasen, Cheap Speech and What It Has Done (to American Democracy), 16 First Amend. L. Rev. 200, 201 (2017) ("In place of media scarcity, we now have a media fire hose which has diluted trusted sources of information and led to the rise of 'fake news' . . . .); Wu, supra note 57, at 549 (" . . . its cheapness makes it easier to weaponize as a tool of speech control.").
[94]. Id. at 2236. Wu, supra note 57, at 554–56.
[96]. Gregory J. Martin & Ali Yurukoglu, Bias in Cable News: Persuasion and Polarization, 107(9) Am. Econ. Rev. 2565, 2597 ("Our estimates imply increasing effects of [Fox News] on the Republican vote share in presidential elections over time, from 0.46 points in 2000 to 6.34 points in 2008. . . . we find that an influence-maximizing owner of the cable news channels could have large effects on vote shares . . . .").
[97]. Cecilia Kang, F.C.C. Opens Door to More Consolidation in TV Business, N.Y. Times (Nov. 16, 2017), https://www.nytimes.com/2017/11/16/business/media/fcc-local-tv.html.
[98]. U.S. Telecomm. Ass'n v. Fed. Commc'ns Comm'n, 825 F.3d 674, 742 (D.C. Cir. 2016), quoting Miami Herald Pub. Co. v. Tornillo, 418 U.S. 241, 257 (1974) ("In selecting which speech to transmit, newspapers and cable companies engage in editorial discretion. Newspapers have a finite amount of space on their pages and cannot "proceed to infinite expansion of ... column space").
[99]. Miami Herald Pub. Co., 418 U.S. at 257.
[100]. For example, polls have found that around 70 percent of Americans support Medicare for all. See Megan Keller, Seventy Percent of Americans Support 'Medicare for All' in New Poll, Hill (Aug. 23, 2018, 11:16 AM) https://thehill.com/policy/healthcare/403248-poll-seventy-percent-of-americans-support-medicare-for-all [https://perma.cc/J4ZN-HE5U].
[101]. Seidman, supra note 1, at 2236.
[102]. Id. at 2232.
[104]. Seidman notes, and the author agrees, that this level of cynicism about government may be incompatible with a belief in the efficacy of progressivism: "if we take seriously the argument that the political branches are likely to be controlled by the enemies of progressives, we risk impeaching the progressive position more generally." Seidman, supra note 1, at 2242.
[105]. Goldman, supra note 34, at 288–89 ("Because FOSTA imposes criminal liability based on what online services 'know' about third party content, FOSTA effectively resurrects a dilemma that Section 230 had been designed to eliminate: Should Internet services try to moderate third party, even if these moderation efforts are imperfect, or should they simply do the minimum possible moderation? . . . [S]everal smaller services have already chosen . . . to shut down.").
[106]. Letter from Senators Edward J. Markey, Ron Wyden, Kirsten Gillibrand, Tammy Baldwin, Richard Blumenthal, Tina Smith, Benjamin L. Cardin, Elizabeth Warren, Bernard Sanders, and Dianne Feinstein to Ajit Pai, Chairman of the Fed. Commc'n Comm'n (Dec. 7, 2018), https://www.markey.senate.gov/imo/media/doc/Text-ing%20Title%201.pdf [https://perma.cc/95XR-QJJN].
[107]. Zoë Beery, The 2020 Democratic Candidates Who Voted in Favor of SESTA/FOSTA, Teen Vogue (Apr. 2, 2019), https://www.teenvogue.com/story/2020-democratic-candidates-sesta-fosta [https://perma.cc/6UPS-LLSH].
[109]. Eric Sirota, Can the First Amendment Save Net Neutrality?, 70 Baylor L. Rev. 781, 814 (2018) (" . . . ISPs operate with bandwidth licensed from the federal government and often operate pursuant to municipally sanctioned de facto monopolies . . . ISP censorship should generally be treated as a State action."); Reed v. Town of Gilbert, 135 S. Ct. 2218, 2226 (2015).
[110]. Adam Liptak, Verizon Blocks Messages of Abortion Rights Group, N.Y. Times (Sept.27,2007), https://www.nytimes.com/2007/09/27/us/27verizon.html.
[111]. U.S. Telecomm. Ass'n v. Fed. Commc'ns Comm'n, 855 F.3d 381, 430 (D.C. Cir. 2017) (Kavanaugh, J., dissenting from denial of rehearing en banc).
[112]. U.S. Telecomm. Ass'n v. Fed. Commc'ns Comm'n, 825 F.3d 674, 742 (D.C. Cir. 2016).
[113]. Id. at 740.
[115]. Id.
Kathrine Gutierrez is a law clerk to the Honorable Brendan L. Shannon, United States Bankruptcy Court for the District of Delaware.
By uclalaw August 5, 2019
Evaluating a Proposed Presidential Reform: Tolling Statutes of Limitations
Due Process, State Taxation of Trusts and the Myth of the Powerless Beneficiary: A Response to Bridget Crawford and Michelle Simon


Owners can reduce or in some cases eliminate the premium by hiring architects and contractors familiar with the technique.
This means that latitude-specific fixed window overhangs, while important, are not a complete seasonal solar gain control solution. Heat storage[ edit ] The sun doesn't shine all the time. As inhabitants of buildings, we can make our lives more comfortable, preserve the environment, our health and well being.
An accelerated Ponseti technique may be as effective as a standard technique, according to moderate quality evidence. Use higher or raked ceilings to promote convective air movement. Environa Studio A well-ventilated tropical house.
Louvre windows help to vary ventilation paths and control air speed.
There are no drafts. You can put the windows where you want them. Evaluations were conducted at 48 hours, 2 weeks, 6 weeks, 3 months, and 6 months post-operatively.
A sunspace with a masonry thermal wall will need approximately 0. Space heating or cooling demand must be less than 4. For occupant safety, regulatory agencies usually require sloped glass to be made of safety glass, laminated, or a combination thereof, which reduce solar gain potential.
This is a pretty clever and simple cooler for cooling a small space like a homemade electric car that does not have AC. Sunpower Design Ponds pre-cool air before it enters a house. Comfortable You will find no hair shirts in the closets of Passive Houses! Air conditioning Refrigerated air conditioning lowers both air temperature and humidity and provides thermal comfort during periods of high temperature and humidity.
Medium-to-dark, colors with high absorptivity, should be used on surfaces of thermal mass elements that will be in direct sunlight. Pools, ponds Passive cooling techniques water features immediately outside windows or in courtyards can pre-cool air entering the house.
ROI Is liquid cooling going to increase my server costs? The convection process also prevents surface temperatures from becoming too extreme as they sometimes do when dark colored solid mass surfaces receive direct sunlight.
Employ well-designed shading and insulation to limit heat gain and maximise summer heat loss in response to the specific microclimate see Shading.
Superior sound insulation Extraordinary airtightness levels, triple-pane glass, and thick insulation also provide superior sound insulation. Rehabilitation interventions such as active and passive mobilization exercises, and training for activities of daily living, could be used on their own or in combination, and be applied in various ways by various clinicians.
Design responses consider shading, air movement, insulation and construction methods. Prefer plans with moderate building depth — two rooms is ideal.
What stock can you buy that gets that kind of return? Cooking outside during hotter months reduces heat loads inside. Overheating of the building interior can result with insufficient or poorly designed thermal mass.
Winter heating remains the predominant need in all but the warmest regions in these zones. Hybrid cooling systems Hybrid cooling systems are whole house cooling solutions that employ a variety of cooling options including air conditioning in the most efficient and effective way.
Making your home sustainable:Plans and details for solar energy saving projects such as solar space and water heating, passive solar house design, Photovotiacs, wind generation, sunspaces, greenhouses, pool heating, small hydro, solar cooking, and energy conservation. Number: Policy.
Aetna considers continuous passive motion (CPM) machines medically necessary durable medical equipment (DME) to improve range of motion in any of the following circumstances.
During the post-operative rehabilitation period for members who have received a total knee arthroplasty (TKA) or revision TKA as an adjunct to ongoing physical therapy (PT); or. Jun 09, · Before I started sketching out what my wine closet was going to look like, I did some "back of the envelope" budgeting.
Most entry-level wine cooling systems, such as the ChillR, start at $ and quickly go up from there. Data center managers turn to liquid cooling as the most reliable and efficient cooling method.
In comparison to air, liquid cooling is times more effective in transporting heat away from a source to a secondary cooling surface.
PCM for cooling applications (active and passive systems). • Factors affecting PCM effectiveness.
• Topology diagram summarizing PCM application. Direct sun can generate the same heat as a single bar radiator over each square metre of a surface, but effective shading can block up to 90% of this heat.
By shading a building and its outdoor spaces we can reduce summer temperatures, improve comfort and save energy. A variety of shading techniques can help, from fixed or adjustable shades to trees and vegetation, depending on the building.


Which acrylic line for opacity and minimal color shift?
A question about sealing acrylic paintings.
Screech Final / Insert Image Problem?
A bunch of new paintings.
Three new additions to Boxed Still Life: Floral Series #1!
Who/what do U credit 4 where U R as an artist?
Having trouble finding this color please help!!
The Colorful Land - For C & C.
'Slack Time' work in progress.
Re: A sealant for acrylics on slate please?
Will I regret Goldens because of the tubes?
The second year started !!!!
Just wondering .....what do you do?
Acrylics dry soft, How to protect them? Oil coat?
flowers: 24x 30 acrylic on canvas.
Great time at the auction!
Acrylics as Watercolor - Best Paper?


Die Union Freerunning Academy wird 3!
Wir arbeiten bereits fleißig an der dritten Auflage des Union Freerunning Contests - dieses Jahr wird es einige Neuerungen geben!
The Union Freerunning Academy´s 3rd anniversary is ahead of us!
We´re currently working on the third Union Freerunning Contest - this year will provide you with several innovations!
More information will be released in the upcoming weeks and months - so stay tuned!


FREMONT — The Terra State Community College Board of Trustees accepted the resignation of Jerome Webster, the college's president, during a special board meeting Wednesday, a college representative said.
Webster submitted his resignation and will remain on as president until May 31, according to Ronald Schumacher, who was named interim president.
Schumacher is Terra's senior vice president and executive director of the College Foundation. He is to work with Webster on a smooth transition.
Most of the trustees meeting took place during executive session, Schumacher said.
Webster has served Terra State since 2012.
Webster could not be reached Wednesday for comment.


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Tag: Catholic Social Doctrine
The growing soullessness of America
Published on June 18, 2018 June 18, 2018 by mba
A Gaping Hole in the Nation's Soul
First, we had the 'Muslim bans'. Now, we have the forced separation of young children from their parents, and the detention – in cages, nonetheless, and without any soothing provisions whatsoever – of even the former, upon their arrival at the Southern borders. This to satisfy the unmitigated blood lust of White nationalism and the mighty, highly lucrative prison-industrial complex.
Quo vadis, America?
Categories Catholic Social Doctrine, God the Father•Tags Catholic Social Doctrine
The mind of the Catholic Church on 'Just War' – From Augustine through Pope Francis
Published on June 3, 2018 by mba
I desire mercy, not sacrifice (Hos 6:6; Mt 9:13).
'Just war' according to the Scholastics
Formal 'just war' doctrine in Western Christianity is thought to have commenced with Saint Augustine. This was based on the following passage written by the Apostle Paul in his Letter to the Romans:
For the one in authority is God's servant for your good. But if you do wrong, be afraid, for rulers do not bear the sword for no reason. They are God's servants, agents of wrath to bring punishment on the wrongdoer (13:4).
Augustine, in his Contra Faustum Manichaeum, argued that Christians did not need to feel ashamed of protecting peace and punishing wickedness when mandated to do so by a government. However, he asserted that this argument was personal and philosophical: "What is here required is not a bodily action, but an inward disposition." In the meantime, in his work The City of God, Augustine elaborated:
They who have waged war in obedience to the divine command, or in conformity with His laws, have represented in their persons the public justice or the wisdom of government, and in this capacity have put to death wicked men; such persons have by no means violated the commandment 'Thou shalt not kill' . . . the wise man will wage Just Wars. As if he would not all the rather lament the necessity of just wars, if he remembers that he is a man; for if they were not just he would not wage them, and would therefore be delivered from all wars.
In the Summa Theologica written 900 years later, Saint Thomas Aquinas revised Augustine's stance by formulating three criteria that were all required to be met in order for a war to be considered 'just.' These criteria were that:
The war had to be declared and waged by a legitimate authority (e.g., the state);
The cause for war had to be both just and good (e.g., to restore something that had been lost), rather than carried out for self-gain or power; and
The right intent for the war needed to underlie the decision to go to war.
Specifically, according to Thomas:
In order for a war to be just, three things are necessary. First, the authority of the sovereign by whose command the war is to be waged. For it is not the business of a private individual to declare war, because he can seek for redress of his rights from the tribunal of his superior. Moreover it is not the business of a private individual to summon together the people, which has to be done in wartime. And as the care of the commonweal is committed to those who are in authority, it is their business to watch over the commonweal of the city, kingdom or province subject to them. And just as it is lawful for them to have recourse to the sword in defending that commonweal against internal disturbances, when they punish evil-doers, according to the words of the Apostle (Romans 13:4): "He beareth not the sword in vain: for he is God's minister, an avenger to execute wrath upon him that doth evil;" so too, it is their business to have recourse to the sword of war in defending the commonweal against external enemies. Hence it is said to those who are in authority (Ps 81:4): "Rescue the poor: and deliver the needy out of the hand of the sinner;" and for this reason Augustine says (Contra Faust. xxii, 75): "The natural order conducive to peace among mortals demands that the power to declare and counsel war should be in the hands of those who hold the supreme authority."
Secondly, a just cause is required, namely that those who are attacked, should be attacked because they deserve it on account of some fault. Wherefore Augustine says (QQ. in Hept., qu. x, super Jos.): "A just war is wont to be described as one that avenges wrongs, when a nation or state has to be punished, for refusing to make amends for the wrongs inflicted by its subjects, or to restore what it has seized unjustly."
Thirdly, it is necessary that the belligerents should have a rightful intention so that they intend the advancement of good or the avoidance of evil. Hence Augustine says (Can. Apud. Caus. xxiii, qu. 1): "True religion looks upon as peaceful those wars that are waged not for motives of aggrandizement or cruelty, but with the object of securing peace, of punishing evil-doers, and of uplifting the good." For it may happen that the war is declared by the legitimate authority and for a just cause, and yet be rendered unlawful through a wicked intention. Hence Augustine says (Contra Faust. xxii, 74): "The passion for inflicting harm, the cruel thirst for vengeance, an unpacific and relentless spirit, the fever of revolt, the lust of power and such like things, all these are rightly condemned in war" (Question 40: War).
Thus, the three criteria set forth by Thomas were elaborated into the following seven sub-criteria that all needed to be met for a 'just war' to be in effect:
It had to be carried out as a last resort;
This could only be done by a legitimate authority;
The war to be carried out for a truly just cause (i.e., not just any cause);
There had to be a significant probability of success as a result of the proposed war;
The intent underlying the decision to go to war had to be 'right' (i.e., not in revenge for perceived or actual wrongs);
The degree of force used could never be more than what was needed to attain success (i.e., proportionality); and
Civilians could never be the primary target of the war.
Continue reading "The mind of the Catholic Church on 'Just War' – From Augustine through Pope Francis" →
Categories Catholic Church, Just War•Tags Catholic Church, Catholic Social Doctrine, Just War doctrine
On migrants and refugees in Catholic Social Doctrine – From Pope Pius XII through Pope Francis
Published on June 3, 2018 June 3, 2018 by mba
Migrants and refugees in CSD – 1 (The Human Person in Christianity and the Catholic Faith)
Migrants and refugees in CSD – 2 (Pope Pius XII through Saint John Paul II)
Migrants and refugees in CSD – 3 (Pope Emeritus Benedict XVI)
Migrants and refugees in CSD – 4 (Pope Francis).
Categories Catholic Church, Catholic Social Doctrine•Tags Catholic Church, Catholic Social Doctrine, Catholicism, Migrants and Refugees
Question for those insistent on the death penalty in America
Published on May 21, 2017 May 21, 2017 by mba
If non-lethal means are sufficient to defend and protect people's safety from the aggressor, authority will limit itself to such means . . . the cases in which the execution of the offender is an absolute necessity are very rare, if not practically nonexistent (Catechism of the Catholic Church, #2267).
For those who keep insisting on the moral legitimacy of the death penalty in the United States, here is a question for you to ponder:
Does the most heinous murderer, rapist, perpetrator still bear the image (not the likeness) of God in their soul, despite the evil of their actions?
Categories Catholic, Catholic Social Doctrine, Death penalty, God the Father•Tags Catechism, Catholic Social Doctrine, Catholicism, Death penalty
Catholic Social Doctrine on migrants and refugees – 4
Published on March 19, 2017 by mba
Pope Francis on migrants and refugees. The current Vicar of Christ, Pope Francis, in an hermeneutic of continuity with his predecessors, while maintaining an eye on migration as the sign of our times, has been no less forthright about the need for Christians and Catholics to open their hearts to the brethren – baptized or non-baptized – who are migrants or refugees. Specifically, he (2013b) said,
"It is essential to draw near to new forms of poverty and vulnerability, in which we are called to recognize the suffering Christ, even if this appears to bring us no tangible and immediate benefits . . . the homeless, the addicted, refugees, indigenous peoples, the elderly who are increasingly isolated and abandoned, and many others. Migrants present a particular challenge . . . I exhort all countries to a generous openness which, rather than fearing the loss of local identity, will prove capable of creating new forms of cultural synthesis. How beautiful are those cities which overcome paralyzing mistrust, integrate those who are different and make this very integration a new factor of development! How attractive are those cities which, even in their architectural design, are full of spaces which connect, relate and favor the recognition of others!"
He (2013c) continued,
"Migrants and refugees are not pawns on the chessboard of humanity. They are children, women and men who leave or who are forced to leave their homes for various reasons, who share a legitimate desire for knowing and having, but above all for being more. The sheer number of people migrating from one continent to another, or shifting places within their own countries and geographical areas, is striking. Contemporary movements of migration represent the largest movement of individuals, if not of peoples, in history.
"We cannot remain silent about the scandal of poverty in its various forms. Violence, exploitation, discrimination, marginalization, restrictive approaches to fundamental freedoms, whether of individuals or of groups: these are some of the chief elements of poverty which need to be overcome. Often these are precisely the elements which mark migratory movements, thus linking migration to poverty. Fleeing from situations of extreme poverty or persecution in the hope of a better future, or simply to save their own lives, millions of persons choose to migrate. Despite their hopes and expectations, they often encounter mistrust, rejection and exclusion, to say nothing of tragedies and disasters which offend their human dignity . . . Working together for a better world requires that countries help one another, in a spirit of willingness and trust, without raising insurmountable barriers.
"I would point to yet another element in building a better world, namely, the elimination of prejudices and presuppositions in the approach to migration. Not infrequently, the arrival of migrants, displaced persons, asylum-seekers and refugees gives rise to suspicion and hostility. There is a fear that society will become less secure, that identity and culture will be lost, that competition for jobs will become stiffer and even that criminal activity will increase . . . A change of attitude towards migrants and refugees is needed on the part of everyone, moving away from attitudes of defensiveness and fear, indifference and marginalization – all typical of a throwaway culture – towards attitudes based on a culture of encounter, the only culture capable of building a better, more just and fraternal world."
Pope Francis (2015) added that, "God's fatherly care extends to everyone, like the care of a shepherd for his flock, but it is particularly concerned for the needs of the sheep who are wounded, weary or ill." He continued with even more plainspokenness and forcefulness,
"Refugees and people fleeing from their homes challenge individuals and communities, and their traditional ways of life; at times they upset the cultural and social horizons which they encounter. Increasingly, the victims of violence and poverty, leaving their homelands, are exploited by human traffickers during their journey towards the dream of a better future. If they survive the abuses and hardships of the journey, they then have to face latent suspicions and fear. In the end, they frequently encounter a lack of clear and practical policies regulating the acceptance of migrants and providing for short or long term programs of integration respectful of the rights and duties of all.
"Indifference and silence lead to complicity whenever we stand by as people are dying of suffocation, starvation, violence, and shipwreck. Large or small in scale, these are always tragedies, even when a single human life is lost . . . Migrants are our brothers and sisters in search of a better life, far away from poverty, hunger, exploitation and the unjust distribution of the planet's resources which are meant to be equitably shared by all. Don't we all want a better, more decent and prosperous life to share with our loved ones?
"How can we ensure that integration will become mutual enrichment, open up positive perspectives to communities, and prevent the danger of discrimination, racism, extreme nationalism or xenophobia? . . . Biblical revelation urges us to welcome the stranger; it tells us that in so doing, we open our doors to God, and that in the faces of others we see the face of Christ himself . . . the voice of Jesus Christ [states] 'Behold, I stand at the door and knock' (Rev 3:20). Yet there continue to be debates about the conditions and limits to be set for the reception of migrants.
"Each of us is responsible for his or her neighbor: we are our brothers' and sisters' keepers, wherever they live. Concern for fostering good relationships with others and the ability to overcome prejudice and fear are essential ingredients for promoting the culture of encounter, in which we are not only prepared to give, but also to receive from others. Hospitality, in fact, grows from both giving and receiving. It is important to view migrants not only on the basis of their status as regular or irregular, but above all as people whose dignity is to be protected and who are capable of contributing to progress and the general welfare . . . Migrations cannot be reduced merely to their political and legislative aspects, their economic implications and the concrete coexistence of various cultures in one territory. All these complement the defense and promotion of the human person, the culture of encounter, and the unity of peoples, where the Gospel of mercy inspires and encourages ways of renewing and transforming the whole of humanity."
The Pope (2016) elaborated,
"Migration today is not a phenomenon limited to some areas of the planet. It affects all continents and is growing into a tragic situation of global proportions. Not only does this concern those looking for dignified work or better living conditions, but also men and women, the elderly and children, who are forced to leave their homes in the hope of finding safety, peace and security. Children are the first among those to pay the heavy toll of emigration, almost always caused by violence, poverty, environmental conditions, as well as the negative aspects of globalization.
"Among migrants, children constitute the most vulnerable group, because as they face the life ahead of them, they are invisible and voiceless: their precarious situation deprives them of documentation, hiding them from the world's eyes; the absence of adults to accompany them prevents their voices from being raised and heard. In this way, migrant children easily end up at the lowest levels of human degradation, where illegality and violence destroy the future of too many innocents, while the network of child abuse is difficult to break up . . . We need to become aware that the phenomenon of migration is not unrelated to salvation history, but rather a part of that history. One of God's commandments is connected to it: 'You shall not wrong a stranger or oppress him, for you were strangers in the land of Egypt' (Ex 22:21); 'Love the sojourner therefore; for you were sojourners in the land of Egypt' (Deut 10:19). This phenomenon constitutes a sign of the times, a sign which speaks of the providential work of God in history and in the human community, with a view to universal communion. While appreciating the issues, and often the suffering and tragedy of migration, as too the difficulties connected with the demands of offering a dignified welcome to these persons, the Church nevertheless encourages us to recognize God's plan. She invites us to do this precisely amidst this phenomenon, with the certainty that no one is a stranger in the Christian community, which embraces 'every nation, tribe, people and tongue' (Rev 7:9). Each person is precious; persons are more important than things, and the worth of an institution is measured by the way it treats the life and dignity of human beings, particularly when they are vulnerable, as in the case of child migrants."
In a blistering speech given on the occasion of the World Meeting of Popular Movements in February, Pope Francis (2017a) declared with frankness that
"The grave danger is to disown our neighbors. When we do so, we deny their humanity and our own humanity without realizing it; we deny ourselves, and we deny the most important Commandments of Jesus. Herein lies the danger, the dehumanization. But here we also find an opportunity: that the light of the love of neighbor may illuminate the Earth with its stunning brightness like a lightning bolt in the dark; that it may wake us up and let true humanity burst through with authentic resistance, resilience and persistence.
"The question that the lawyer asked Jesus in the Gospel of Luke (10:25-37) echoes in our ears today: 'Who is my neighbor?' Who is that other whom we are to love as we love ourselves? Maybe the questioner expects a comfortable response, in order to carry on with his life: 'My relatives? My compatriots? My co-religionists?' Maybe he wants Jesus to excuse us from the obligation of loving pagans or foreigners who at that time were considered unclean. This man wants a clear rule that allows him to classify others as neighbor and non-neighbor, as those who can become neighbors and those who cannot become neighbors.
"Jesus responds with a parable which features two figures belonging to the elite of the day and a third figure, considered a foreigner, a pagan and unclean: the Samaritan. On the road from Jerusalem to Jericho, the priest and the Levite come upon a dying man, whom robbers have attacked, stripped, and abandoned. In such situations, the Law of the Lord imposes the duty to offer assistance, but both pass by without stopping. They were in a hurry. However, unlike these elite figures, the Samaritan stopped. Why him? As a Samaritan, he was looked down upon, no one would have counted on him, and in any case, he would have had his own commitments and things to do – yet when he saw the injured man, he did not pass by like the other two who were linked to the Temple, but 'he saw him and had compassion on him' (v. 33). The Samaritan acts with true mercy: he binds up the man's wounds, transports him to an inn, personally takes care of him, and provides for his upkeep. All this teaches us that compassion, love, is not a vague sentiment, but rather means taking care of the other to the point of personally paying for him. It means committing oneself to take all the necessary steps, so as to draw near to the other, to the point of identifying with him: 'You shall love your neighbor as yourself.' This is the Lord's Commandment.
"Jesus teaches us a different path. Do not classify others, in order to see who is a neighbor and who is not. You can become neighbor to whomever you meet in need, and you will do so if you have compassion in your heart. That is to say, if you have that capacity to suffer with someone else. You must become a Samaritan. And then also become like the innkeeper at the end of the parable to whom the Samaritan entrusts the person who is suffering. Who is this innkeeper? It is the Church, the Christian community, people of compassion and solidarity, social organizations. It is us, it is you, to whom the Lord Jesus daily entrusts those who are afflicted in body and spirit, so that we can continue pouring out all of his immeasurable mercy and salvation upon them. Here are the roots of the authentic humanity that resists the dehumanization that wears the livery of indifference, hypocrisy, or intolerance.
"No people is criminal and no religion is terrorist. Christian terrorism does not exist, Jewish terrorism does not exist, and Muslim terrorism does not exist. They do not exist. No people is criminal or drug-trafficking or violent . . . There are fundamentalist and violent individuals in all peoples and religions – and with intolerant generalizations, they become stronger because they feed on hate and xenophobia. By confronting terror with love, we work for peace. I ask you for meekness and resolve to defend these principles. I ask you not to barter them lightly or apply them superficially. Like Saint Francis of Assisi, let us give everything of ourselves: where there is hatred, let us sow love; where there is injury, let us sow pardon; where there is discord, let us sow unity; where there is error, let us sow truth."
The Vicar of Christ (2017b) elaborated that the moral and social obligations are "to welcome, to protect, to promote and to integrate" migrants and refugees. Pope Francis continued,
"Protecting is not enough. What is required is the promotion of an integral human development of migrants, exiles and refugees. This 'takes place by attending to the inestimable goods of justice, peace, and the care of creation' (Apostolic Letter Humanam Progressionem, 17 August 2016). Development, according to the social doctrine of the Church, is an undeniable right of every human being. As such, it must be guaranteed by ensuring the necessary conditions for its exercise, both in the individual and social context, providing fair access to fundamental goods for all people and offering the possibility of choice and growth.
"[There is] a duty of justice. We can no longer sustain unacceptable economic inequality, which prevents us from applying the principle of the universal destination of the earth's goods. We are all called to undertake processes of apportionment which are respectful, responsible and inspired by the precepts of distributive justice. 'We need, then, to find ways by which all may benefit from the fruits of the earth, not only to avoid the widening gap between those who have more and those who must be content with the crumbs, but above all because it is a question of justice, equality and respect for every human being' (Message for the World Day of Peace, 8 December 2013, 9). One group of individuals cannot control half of the world's resources. We cannot allow for persons and entire peoples to have a right only to gather the remaining crumbs . . . This joint responsibility must be interpreted in accord with the principle of subsidiarity, 'which grants freedom to develop the capabilities present at every level of society, while also demanding a greater sense of responsibility for the common good from those who wield greater power' (Laudato Si', 196). Ensuring justice means also reconciling history with our present globalized situation, without perpetuating mindsets which exploit people and places, a consequence of the most cynical use of the market in order to increase the wellbeing of the few . . . For all this there must be redress.
"There is a duty of civility. Our commitment to migrants, exiles and refugees is an application of those principles and values of welcome and fraternity that constitute a common patrimony of humanity and wisdom which we draw from . . . Today more than ever, it is necessary to affirm the centrality of the human person, without allowing immediate and ancillary circumstances, or even the necessary fulfilment of bureaucratic and administrative requirements, to obscure this essential dignity . . . From the duty of civility is also regained the value of fraternity, which is founded on the innate relational constitution of the human person: 'A lively awareness of our relatedness helps us to look upon and to treat each person as a true sister or brother; without fraternity it is impossible to build a just society and a solid and lasting peace' (Message for the World Day of Peace, 8 December 2013, 1). Fraternity is the most civil way of relating with the reality of another person, which does not threaten us, but engages, reaffirms and enriches our individual identity (cf. Benedict XVI, Address to Participants in an Interacademic Conference on "The Changing Identity of the Individual", 28 January 2008).
"There is a duty of solidarity. In the face of tragedies which take the lives of so many migrants and refugees – conflicts, persecutions, forms of abuse, violence, death – expressions of empathy and compassion cannot help but spontaneously well-up. 'Where is your brother?' (Gen 4:9): this question which God asks of man since his origins, involves us, especially today with regard to our brothers and sisters who are migrating: 'This is not a question directed to others; it is a question directed to me, to you, to each of us' (Homily at the "Arena" Sports Camp, Salina Quarter, Lampedusa, 8 July 2013). Solidarity is born precisely from the capacity to understand the needs of our brothers and sisters who are in difficulty and to take responsibility for these needs. Upon this, in short, is based the sacred value of hospitality, present in religious traditions. For us Christians, hospitality offered to the weary traveler is offered to Jesus Christ himself, through the newcomer: 'I was a stranger and you welcomed me' (Mt 25:35). The duty of solidarity is to counter the throwaway culture and give greater attention to those who are weakest, poorest and most vulnerable. Thus a change of attitude towards migrants and refugees is needed on the part of everyone" (ibid.).
Categories Catholic Social Doctrine, God the Father•Tags Catholic Social Doctrine, Migrants and Refugees
Pope Benedict XVI on voluntary and forced migration. Speaking at length about the difficult situations faced by migrants and refugees, Pope Benedict XVI (2007) elaborated that
"Shortly after the birth of Jesus, Joseph was forced to leave for Egypt by night, taking the child and his mother with him, in order to flee the persecution of king Herod (cf. Mt 2:13-15). Making a comment on this page of the Gospel, my venerable Predecessor, the Servant of God Pope Pius XII, wrote in 1952: 'The family of Nazareth in exile, Jesus, Mary and Joseph, emigrants and taking refuge in Egypt to escape the fury of an evil king, are the model, the example and the support of all emigrants and pilgrims of every age and every country, of all refugees of any condition who, compelled by persecution and need, are forced to abandon their homeland, their beloved relatives, their neighbors, their dear friends, and move to a foreign land' (Exsul familia, AAS 44, 1952, 649).
"In this misfortune experienced by the Family of Nazareth, obliged to take refuge in Egypt, we can catch a glimpse of the painful condition in which all migrants live, especially, refugees, exiles, evacuees, internally displaced persons, those who are persecuted. We can take a quick look at the difficulties that every migrant family lives through, the hardships and humiliations, the deprivation and fragility of millions and millions of migrants, refugees and internally displaced people."
He (2008) emphasized the need for the worldwide community of Christians to be more closely conformed to Christ in this respect, because the more a
"community is united to Christ, the more it cares for its neighbor, eschewing judgment, scorn and scandal, and opening itself to reciprocal acceptance (cf. Rm 14:1-3; 15:7). Conformed to Christ, believers feel they are 'brothers' in him, sons of the same Father (Rm 8:14-16; Gal 3:26; 4:6). This treasure of brotherhood makes them 'practice hospitality' (Rm 12:13), which is the firstborn daughter of agape (cf. 1 Tm 3:2, 5:10; Ti 1:8; Phlm 17).
"In this manner the Lord's promise: comes true: 'then I will welcome you, and I will be a father to you, and you shall be my sons and daughters' (2 Cor 6:17-18). If we are aware of this, how can we fail to take charge of all those, particularly refugees and displaced people, who are in conditions of difficulty or hardship? How can we fail to meet the needs of those who are de facto the weakest and most defenseless, marked by precariousness and insecurity, marginalized and often excluded by society? We should give our priority attention to them because, paraphrasing a well-known Pauline text, 'God chose what is foolish in the world to shame the wise, God chose what is weak in the world to shame the strong, God chose what is low and despised in the world, even things that are not, to bring to nothing things that are, so that no human being might boast in the presence of God' (1 Cor 1:27)."
Pope Benedict XVI (2009b) added that "The migrant is a human person who possesses fundamental, inalienable rights that must be respected by everyone and in every circumstance . . . [remember] the warning of Christ who at the Last Judgment will consider as directed to himself everything that has been done or denied 'to one of the least of these' (cf. Mt 25:40, 45). And how can one fail to consider migrant and refugee minors as also being among the 'least'?" He (2010) continued to elaborate that,
"'All peoples are one community and have one origin, because God caused the whole human race to dwell on the face of the earth (cf. Acts 17:26); they also have one final end, God' (Message for World Day of Peace, 2008, 1) . . . Thus, 'We do not live alongside one another purely by chance; all of us are progressing along a common path as men and women, and thus as brothers and sisters' (Message for the World Day of Peace, 2008, 6) . . . All, therefore, belong to one family, migrants and the local populations that welcome them, and all have the same right to enjoy the goods of the earth whose destination is universal, as the social doctrine of the Church teaches. It is here that solidarity and sharing are founded.
"In the case of those who are forced to migrate, solidarity is nourished by the 'reserve' of love that is born from considering ourselves a single human family and, for the Catholic faithful, members of the Mystical Body of Christ: in fact we find ourselves depending on each other, all responsible for our brothers and sisters in humanity and, for those who believe, in the faith. As I have already had the opportunity to say, 'Welcoming refugees and giving them hospitality is for everyone an imperative gesture of human solidarity, so that they may not feel isolated because of intolerance and disinterest' (General Audience, 20 June 2007: Insegnamenti II, 1 [2007], 1158). This means that those who are forced to leave their homes or their country will be helped to find a place where they may live in peace and safety, where they may work and take on the rights and duties that exist in the country that welcomes them, contributing to the common good and without forgetting the religious dimension of life."
Pope Benedict XVI (2011) continued to emphasize that
"Asylum seekers, who fled from persecution, violence and situations that put their life at risk, stand in need of our understanding and welcome, of respect for their human dignity and rights, as well as awareness of their duties. Their suffering pleads with individual states and the international community to adopt attitudes of reciprocal acceptance, overcoming fears and avoiding forms of discrimination, and to make provisions for concrete solidarity also through appropriate structures for hospitality and resettlement programs. All this entails mutual help between the suffering regions and those which, already for years, have accepted a large number of fleeing people, as well as a greater sharing of responsibilities among States.
"The press and the other media have an important role in making known, correctly, objectively and honestly, the situation of those who have been forced to leave their homeland and their loved ones and want to start building a new life. Christian communities are to pay special attention to migrant workers and their families by accompanying them with prayer, solidarity and Christian charity, by enhancing what is reciprocally enriching, as well as by fostering new political, economic and social planning that promotes respect for the dignity of every human person, the safeguarding of the family, access to dignified housing, to work and to welfare."
He (2012) elaborated that
"Faith and hope are inseparable in the hearts of many migrants, who deeply desire a better life and not infrequently try to leave behind the 'hopelessness' of an unpromising future. During their journey, many of them are sustained by the deep trust that God never abandons his children; this certainty makes the pain of their uprooting and separation more tolerable and even gives them the hope of eventually returning to their country of origin. Faith and hope are often among the possessions which emigrants carry with them, knowing that with them, 'we can face our present: the present, even if it is arduous, can be lived and accepted if it leads towards a goal, if we can be sure of this goal, and if this goal is great enough to justify the effort of the journey' (Spe Salvi, 1).
"It is true that the experience of migration often begins in fear, especially when persecutions and violence are its cause, and in the trauma of having to leave behind family and possessions which had in some way ensured survival. But suffering, great losses and at times a sense of disorientation before an uncertain future do not destroy the dream of being able to build, with hope and courage, a new life in a new country. Indeed, migrants trust that they will encounter acceptance, solidarity and help, that they will meet people who sympathize with the distress and tragedy experienced by others, recognize the values and resources the latter have to offer, and are open to sharing humanly and materially with the needy and disadvantaged. It is important to realize that 'the reality of human solidarity, which is a benefit for us, also imposes a duty' (Caritas in Veritate, 43). Migrants and refugees can experience, along with difficulties, new, welcoming relationships which enable them to enrich their new countries with their professional skills, their social and cultural heritage and, not infrequently, their witness of faith."
Pope Benedict XVI (2013) continued by declaring, "While it is true that migrations often reveal failures and shortcomings on the part of States and the international community, they also point to the aspiration of humanity to enjoy a unity marked by respect for differences, by attitudes of acceptance and hospitality which enable an equitable sharing of the world's goods, and by the protection and the advancement of the dignity and centrality of each human being." The Pope (2014) explained with great clarity that
"In an age of such vast movements of migration, large numbers of people are leaving their homelands, with a suitcase full of fears and desires, to undertake a hopeful and dangerous trip in search of more humane living conditions. Often, however, such migration gives rise to suspicion and hostility, even in ecclesial communities, prior to any knowledge of the migrants' lives or their stories of persecution and destitution. In such cases, suspicion and prejudice conflict with the biblical commandment of welcoming with respect and solidarity the stranger in need.
"Solidarity with migrants and refugees must be accompanied by the courage and creativity necessary to develop, on a worldwide level, a more just and equitable financial and economic order, as well as an increasing commitment to peace, the indispensable condition for all authentic progress."
Published on March 19, 2017 March 19, 2017 by mba
Human Persons in Christianity and Catholic Social Doctrine
The new law of love embraces the entire human family and knows no limits, since the proclamation of the salvation wrought by Christ extends to the ends of the earth. Pontifical Council for Justice and Peace.[1]
The human person was proclaimed by God the Creator in Sacred Scripture as having been "made in our image, after our likeness" (Gn 1:26; cf 5:1-3; 9:6), so that s/he could live in communion with God the Holy Trinity and one another, while progressing on the path of deification (Saint Irenaeus, Adv. Haer.) and becoming a partaker of the divine nature (2 Pet 1:4; Pope Paul VI, 1965a; Saint Athanasius, De Inc.; Saint Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theol.). The human person is considered to be "the only creature on earth which God willed for itself" (Pope Paul VI, 1965a) and who was given the divine commission:
"Be fertile and multiply; fill the earth and subdue it. Have dominion over the fish of the sea, the birds of the air, and all the living things that crawl on the earth. See, I give you every seed-bearing plant on all the earth and every tree that has seed-bearing fruit on it to be your food; and to all the wild animals, all the birds of the air, and all the living creatures that crawl on the earth, I give all the green plants for food" (Gn 1:28-30).
The human person is thus "not a lost atom in a random universe: he is God's creature, whom God chose to endow with an immortal soul and whom He has always loved" (Pope Benedict XVI, 2009a). S/he has been granted a dignity and rights that are inviolable by any system in and of the world, because "his sovereignty within the cosmos, his capacity for social existence, and his knowledge and love of the Creator – all are rooted in man's being made in the image of God" (International Theological Commission, 2004).
The Dignity of the Human Person
Constitutional limits should be set to the powers of government, in order that there may be no encroachment on the rightful freedom of the person and of associations. Pope Paul VI.[2]
The inherent dignity of the human person has been described by Saint John Paul II (1988) as "manifested in all its radiance when the person's origin and destiny are considered, created by God in His image and likeness as well as redeemed by the most precious Blood of Christ." The Spirit had testified to this in the Old Testament through the psalmist who said, "You are gods, offspring of the Most High, all of you" (Ps 82:6) and "You have made man little less than the angels, you have crowned him with glory and honor" (Ps 8:6). Jesus Christ witnessed to this in the New Testament with the words, "Is it not written in your law, 'I said, "You are gods?"' (Jn 10:34). God, therefore,
"Who has fatherly concern for everyone, has willed that all men should constitute one family and treat one another in a spirit of brotherhood. For having been created in the image of God, Who 'from one man has created the whole human race and made them live all over the face of the earth' (Acts 17:26). For this reason, love for God and neighbor is the first and greatest commandment . . . [and] love of God cannot be separated from love of neighbor . . . because all men are called to one and the same goal, namely God Himself (Pope Paul VI, 1965a)."
In consequence, "every violation of the personal dignity of the human being cries out in vengeance to God and is an offense against the Creator of the individual" (Saint John Paul II, 1988). The saint continued,
"In virtue of a personal dignity, the human being is always a value as an individual, and as such demands being considered and treated as a person and never, on the contrary, considered and treated as an object to be used or as a means or as a thing.
"The dignity of the person constitutes the foundation of the equality of all people among themselves . . . All forms of discrimination are totally unacceptable especially those forms which unfortunately continue to divide and degrade the human family: from those based on race or economics to those social and cultural, from political to geographic. Each discrimination constitutes an absolutely intolerable injustice, not so much for the tensions and the conflicts that can be generated in the social sphere, as much as for the dishonor inflicted on the dignity of the person: not only to the dignity of the individual who is the victim of the injustice, but still more to the one who commits the injustice" (ibid.).
Fundamental human rights granted by God. A set of inviolable and fundamental human rights have been thus granted to all human persons by the divine will in virtue of the individual having been created in the image, and after the likeness, of God. These human rights include the right to:
Live, from the moment of conception until natural death;
Own private property for the shelter of oneself and one's family, within the context of respect for the universal destination of goods;[3] which includes the earth itself;
Work for one's integral development and the sustenance of both oneself and one's family, in addition to the right to own the fruits of one's work;
Just remuneration for any work done;
Rest; and
Worship without any undue encumbrances.
[1] In Compendium of the Social Doctrine of the Church (2004).
[2] In Dignitatis Humanae (1965b).
[3] This includes the earth itself.
In the name of God – A perversion of Christianity in America
Published on January 31, 2017 January 31, 2017 by mba
Many Christians – Catholics included – in the United States of America speak proudly about living in the unparalleled land of the free, given to them by God to be a shining city on a hill for other peoples, other nations. And so they should as everyone should be proud of their country; their heritage. Yet in the same sentence, if not the same breath, and with their actions and behaviors, they have no compunction about targeting with a rugged ideology of exclusionism, across every dimension, in systemic ways, the most weak and vulnerable of persons, including aliens fleeing from war-torn regions and seeking refuge at their shores. And they, more often than not, do this from the very comfort of their plush couches.
In the land of the free and the home of the brave – a land originally intended by God to be a refuge for "the tired and the poor," the "huddled masses . . . wretched refuse . . . [and] the homeless" of other nations – these Christians, idolizing strength and despising weakness, lobby for and employ an exclusionism borne of fear inspired by Satan, not by the Spirit of God, while claiming that they are doing God's work by combating abortion, same-sex unions, and euthanasia. Yet all of the above begs the question: How can one be a true Christian just in part, picking and choosing what to support in the faith of Christianity, not to mention a similar cafeteria approach to the Social Doctrine of the Church? Quoting various Popes and texts in their lobbying efforts – or, rather, first decontextualizing, then (mis)quoting various Popes and texts to further the real agendas hidden deep in their hearts – these Christians seem to have conveniently forgotten the commands of God the Father in relation to strangers and aliens arriving at their shores, in the hope of living in their God-given rights to possess land, shelter, work and the fruits of their work, together with rest and peace.
It is crystal clear throughout Scripture that God and the Apostles had more than a few things to say about this matter, not to mention the fact that Christ Himself was a Stranger, an Alien; a Refugee. To be specific, here are some of the relevant parts:
You shall also love the stranger, for you were once strangers in the land of Egypt (Dt 10:18-19).
Cursed be anyone who deprives the resident alien, the orphan or the widow of justice! (Dt 27:19).
There will be one law, for the native and for the alien residing among you . . . You shall have but one rule, for alien and native-born alike (Ex 12:49; Lv 24:22).
You shall not oppress or afflict a resident alien, for you were once aliens residing in the land of Egypt (Ex 22:20).
When an alien resides with you in your land, do not mistreat such a one. You shall treat the alien who resides with you no differently than the natives born among you; you shall love the alien as yourself; for you too were once aliens in the land of Egypt. I, the Lord, am your God (Lv 19:33-34).
You shall have the same law for the resident alien as for the native of the land (Nb 9:14; 15:15-16).
Only if you no longer oppress the alien, the orphan, and the widow; if you no longer shed innocent blood in this place or follow after other gods to your own harm, only then will I let you continue to dwell in this place, in the land I gave your ancestors long ago and forever (Jer 7:6-7).
I will draw near to you for judgment and I will be swift to bear witness against sorcerers, adulterers, and perjurers, those who deprive a laborer of wages, oppress a widow or an orphan, or turn aside a resident alien without fearing me, says the Lord of hosts (Mal 3:5).
I was hungry and you gave me food, I was thirsty and you gave me drink, I was a stranger and you welcomed me . . . Then he will say to those on his left, 'Depart from me, you accursed, into the eternal fire prepared for the devil and his angels. For I was hungry and you gave me no food, I was thirsty and you gave me no drink, stranger and you gave me no welcome, naked and you gave me no clothing, ill and in prison, and you did not care for me' (Mt 25:35, 41-43).
Do not neglect to show hospitality to strangers for by doing that, some have entertained angels without knowing it (Hb 13:1).
In that renewal there is no longer Greek and Jew, circumcised and uncircumcised, barbarian, Scythian, slave and free; but Christ is all and in all (Col 3:11).
Who, therefore, is the true Christian?
Do you not understand that by your present sentiments, actions, and behaviors, you are bringing down even more judgment upon yourselves and upon the nation itself?
Peace shall not return to your shores before you return to God in whole, not in part, and with genuineness in your hearts.
Categories Catholic Social Doctrine, God the Father, Signs of the Times•Tags Aliens, Catholic Social Doctrine, Refugees, USA
Holy Octave of Consecration to God the Father

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