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Home > Journals > Florida Entomologist > Volume 88 > Issue 4
Florida Entomologist
VOL. 88 · NO. 4 | December 2005
Scientific Notes (7)
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RED IMPORTED FIRE ANTS (HYMENOPTERA: FORMICIDAE) AT GOPHER TORTOISE (TESTUDINES: TESTUDINIDAE) BURROWS
James K. Wetterer, Jon A. Moore
Florida Entomologist 88 (4), 349-354, (1 December 2005) https://doi.org/10.1653/0015-4040(2005)88[349:RIFAHF]2.0.CO;2
KEYWORDS: edge effect, exotic species, Florida, Gopherus, greenway, Solenopsis invicta
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The gopher tortoise, Gopherus polyphemus Daudin, is endemic to the southeastern US, where its populations are declining primarily due to habitat destruction. Tortoises are preyed upon by many species, including the red imported fire ant, Solenopsis invicta Buren, a destructive exotic species now common throughout the tortoises' entire range. We surveyed ants using tuna bait at 154 G. polyphemus burrows in a greenway reserve established to protect the tortoises in a residential area of southeast Florida. We found S. invicta present, typically recruiting to the bait in very high numbers, on the aprons of 33% of the tortoise burrows. Solenopsis invicta occurred significantly more often at burrows within 30 m of the greenway's outer edge than at burrows in more interior parts of the greenway (57% versus 16%). Among the interior burrows, S. invicta occurred significantly more often at burrows directly on two narrow strips of disturbed habitat, along an old fence line and an old pipeline, than at burrows not on these two strips (46% versus 12%). The greenway interior appears to offer tortoises and other species some refuge from S. invicta. However, the long thin design typical of greenways, the inclusion of walking paths through the greenways, and the policies of prescribed burning and reduction mowing used to maintain open habitat for the tortoises all may increase the tortoises' exposure to S. invicta. Solenopsis invicta is also a grave threat to other native species in these reserves, including the many animals that obligately live inside gopher tortoise burrows.
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STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF THE WHITE GRUB COMPLEX (COLEOPTERA: SCARABAEIDAE) IN AGROECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS OF NORTHERN CAUCA, COLOMBIA
Luis Carlos Pardo-Locarno, James Montoya-Lerma, Anthony C. Bellotti, Aart Van Schoonhoven
Florida Entomologist 88 (4), 355-363, (1 December 2005) https://doi.org/10.1653/0015-4040(2005)88[355:SACOTW]2.0.CO;2
KEYWORDS: beetles, scarabs, rhizophagous pests, crop pests
The larvae of some species of Scarabaeidae, known locally as "chisas" (whitegrubs), are important pests in agricultural areas of the Cauca, Colombia. They form a complex consisting of many species belonging to several genera that affect the roots of commercial crops. The objective of the present study was to identify the members of the complex present in two localities (Caldono and Buenos Aires) and collect basic information on their biology, economic importance, and larval morphology. The first of two types of sampling involved sampling adults in light traps installed weekly throughout one year. The second method involved larval collections in plots of cassava, pasture, coffee, and woodland. Each locality was visited once per month and 10 samples per plot were collected on each occasion, with each sample from a quadrants 1 m2 by 15 cm deep, during 1999-2000. Light traps collected 12,512 adults belonging to 45 species and 21 genera of Scarabaeidae within the subfamilies Dynastinae, Melolonthinae, and Rutelinae. Members of the subfamily Dynastinae predominated with 48% of the species (mostly Cyclocephala), followed in decreasing order by Melolonthinae (35%) and Rutelinae (15%, principally Anomala). Melolonthinae comprised 60% of the specimens (Plectris spp. 59.5% and Phyllophaga spp. 35.9%). A total of 10,261 larvae of 32 species was collected, including 12 species each of Melolonthinae (Phyllophaga, Plectris, Astaena, Macrodactylus, Ceraspis, Barybas, and Isonychus), Rutelinae (Anomala, Callistethus, Stigoderma, and Leucothyreus) and Dynastinae (principally Cyclocephala). At least a third of the species sampled as larvae are rhizophagous pests. Taken together, adult and larval sampling methods permitted a more precise definition of the whitegrub complex in Caldono and Buenos Aires.
BEHAVIORAL AND ELECTROPHYSIOLOGICAL RESPONSES OF THE MEXICAN FRUIT FLY (DIPTERA: TEPHRITIDAE) TO GUAVA VOLATILES
Edi A. Malo, Leopoldo Cruz-López, Jorge Toledo, Alejandro Del Mazo, Armando Virgen, Julio C. Rojas
Florida Entomologist 88 (4), 364-371, (1 December 2005) https://doi.org/10.1653/0015-4040(2005)88[364:BAEROT]2.0.CO;2
KEYWORDS: Anastrepha ludens, guava volatiles, attractants, GC-EAD, GC-MS
The behavioral and electrophysiological responses of males and females of the Mexican fruit fly Anastrepha ludens (Loew) to guava (Psidium guajava L.) volatiles were investigated in laboratory tests. Males and females were significantly more attracted and landed more often on guava fruits than yellow spheres used as control in the wind tunnel. Also, both sexes were more attracted to Porapak Q extracts of guava than to solvent controls. Gas chromatography-electroantennographic detection (GC-EAD) analysis of the behaviorally active extracts showed that consistently eight and seven compounds elicited antennal response from male and female, respectively. The compounds were identified by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) as ethyl butyrate, (E)-3-hexenol, (Z)-3-hexenol, hexanol, ethyl hexanoate, hexyl acetate, (Z)-3-hexenyl butyrate and ethyl octanoate. The electrophysiological activity of the identified compounds at three different doses was evaluated with electroantennography (EAG). An analysis of covariance of the EAG amplitude revealed that synthetic chemicals, sex, dose, and the synthetic chemical × dose interaction significantly influence the antennal response of A. ludens. Males and females were significantly more attracted to septa loaded with the eight-component synthetic blend compared to solvent controls in the wind tunnel.
EFFECTS OF ELEVATED ATMOSPHERIC CO2 ON WATER CHEMISTRY AND MOSQUITO (DIPTERA: CULICIDAE) GROWTH UNDER COMPETITIVE CONDITIONS IN CONTAINER HABITATS
Barry W. Alto, Stephen P. Yanoviak, L. Philip Lounibos, Bert G. Drake
Florida Entomologist 88 (4), 372-382, (1 December 2005) https://doi.org/10.1653/0015-4040(2005)88[372:EOEACO]2.0.CO;2
KEYWORDS: global change, freshwater, Aedes albopictus, larval competition, population growth parameters
We investigated the direct and indirect effects of elevated atmospheric CO2 on freshwater container habitats and their larval mosquito occupants. We predicted that a doubling of atmospheric CO2 would (1) alter the chemical properties of water in this system, (2) slow degradation of leaf litter, and (3) decrease larval growth of Aedes albopictus (Skuse) mosquitoes raised on that litter under competitive conditions. Effects of elevated CO2 on water quality parameters were not detected, but the presence of leaf litter significantly reduced pH and dissolved oxygen relative to water-filled containers without litter. Degradation rates of oak leaf litter from plants grown under elevated CO2 atmospheres did not differ from breakdown rates of litter from ambient CO2 conditions. Litter from plants grown in an elevated CO2 atmospheres did not influence mosquito population growth, but mosquito production decreased significantly with increasing larval density. Differences among mosquito density treatments influenced survivorship most strongly among male Ae. albopictus and time to emergence most strongly among females, suggesting fundamental sex-determined differences in response to competition. Results of this and other studies indicate that direct and indirect effects of doubled atmospheric CO2 are minimal in artificial containers with freshwater.
LABORATORY EVALUATION OF COLORED LIGHT AS AN ATTRACTANT FOR FEMALE AEDES AEGYPTI, AEDES ALBOPICTUS, ANOPHELES QUADRIMACULATUS, AND CULEX NIGRIPALPUS
Douglas A. Burkett, Jerry F. Butler
Florida Entomologist 88 (4), 383-389, (1 December 2005) https://doi.org/10.1653/0015-4040(2005)88[383:LEOCLA]2.0.CO;2
KEYWORDS: mosquito, attractants, visual ecology, Color vision, visual spectrum
Mosquito feeding activity was monitored in an electronic apparatus (visualometer), having ten ports, illuminated from below with narrow bandwidths of light (700, 650, 600, 550, 500, 450, 400, or 350 nm). Responses of adult female Aedes albopictus Skuse, Ae. aegypti (L.), Anopheles quadrimaculatus, Say and Culex nigripalpus Theobald to feeding stations (blood containers) over each light port. No-light and broad spectrum white light were used as controls. Color preferences were based on electronic detection of feeding times. Aedes aegypti showed no significant feeding preferences over any of the colors. Conversely, Ae. albopictus, An. quadrimaculatus, and Cx. nigripalpus showed preferences for several of the wavelengths of light. In decreasing order, Aedes albopictus fed significantly longer at 600 nm, 500 nm, white, 450 nm, 400 nm, and black. For An. quadrimaculatus, significantly longer feeding durations were found over the black or white controls and all other individual wavelengths had significantly longer feeding durations than 350 nm. Finally, in decreasing order, significantly greater feeding times were recorded for Cx. nigripalpus over 500 nm, 600 nm, 450 nm, white, 650 nm, and 550 nm compared to the other wavelengths tested.
STEMBORERS ASSOCIATED WITH SMOOTH CORDGRASS, SPARTINA ALTERNIFLORA (POACEAE), IN A NURSERY HABITAT
W. H. White, D. Adamski, G. Fine, E. P. Richard Jr.
Florida Entomologist 88 (4), 390-394, (1 December 2005) https://doi.org/10.1653/0015-4040(2005)88[390:SAWSCS]2.0.CO;2
KEYWORDS: Lepidoptera, Crambidae, Coleophoridae, pest introductions, sugarcane
Extensive ecological studies have been conducted on insects inhabiting native stands of smooth cordgrass, Spartina alterniflora Loisel; however, this is not the case for insects found in smooth cordgrass in a nursery habitat. We investigated species composition and larval disposition among stemborers (Lepidoptera: Coleophoridae and Crambidae) infesting stems of smooth cordgrass in nursery plots. One thousand and forty stems of smooth cordgrass were randomly selected in 2003 and examined for presence of stemborer larvae. Height of larvae on or within stem, height of stem from ground level to top-visible dewlap, and condition of the leaf-whorl were documented. Stemborers representing six species of Lepidoptera were recovered. These species were Blastobasis graminea Adamski (Lepidoptera: Coleophoridae); a four-species complex comprised of Diatraea saccharalis (F.), Chilo demotellus Walker, Chilo plejadellus Zincken, and Thaumatopsis probably actuella Barnes & McDunnough (Lepidoptera: Crambidae); and Donacaula probably unipunctella Robinson (Lepidoptera: Crambidae). Larvae were generally on different parts of the stem and, with the possible exception of larvae of the four-species complex, seemed unlikely to contact one another. Blastobasis graminea was the most abundant species collected (n = 128; 52%) and was located at the base of the stem (eq x̄ eqx- = 6.7 ± 5.4 cm). The four-species complex was the next most abundant (n = 85; 35%) and was always found within the stalk about mid-way up the stem (eq x̄ = 16.7 ± 8.6 cm). Donacaula sp. was the least abundant species (n = 32; 13%) and was always found in the tight leaf-whorl just above the stem meristem (eq x̄ = 23.6 ± 15.4 cm). A total of 544 (52%) of the stems sampled had a dead leaf-whorl, but only 140 (26%) were infested. Stemborer species did not significantly affect the number of plants with and without deadhearts.
LABORATORY EVALUATION OF INSECTICIDES FOR CONTROL OF THE INVASIVE CACTOBLASTIS CACTORUM (LEPIDOPTERA: PYRALIDAE)
Stephanie Bloem, Russell F. Mizell III, Kenneth A. Bloem, Stephen D. Hight, James E. Carpenter
Florida Entomologist 88 (4), 395-400, (1 December 2005) https://doi.org/10.1653/0015-4040(2005)88[395:LEOIFC]2.0.CO;2
KEYWORDS: insecticides, invasives, Cactoblastis cactorum, Lepidoptera, Pyralidae, cypermethrin, Emamectin benzoate, abamectin, spinosad, azadirachtin, fenoxycarb, imidacloprid, acephate, Bacillus thuringiensis
We conducted laboratory assays of nine products registered for use on ornamental plants in Florida for their ovicidal and larvicidal activity against the invasive cactus moth Cactoblastis cactorum. One-hundred percent mortality (or 0% survival) of 1-day-old eggs was obtained when eggstick sections were treated with cypermethrin, spinosad, or imidacloprid. These products were equally as effective when assayed against eggs that were fully embryonated (28 days old), when cladodes of Opuntia stricta were exposed to neonates 24 hours after dipping, or to cladodes that were dipped and stored for 30 days before exposure. When Bacillus thuringiensis (Dipel®) was used to prevent neonate penetration into treated cladodes of O. stricta, 100% mortality (or 0% survival) was recorded in the laboratory.
EFFECT OF A NEEM BIOPESTICIDE ON REPELLENCY, MORTALITY, OVIPOSITION, AND DEVELOPMENT OF DIAPHORINA CITRI (HOMOPTERA: PSYLLIDAE)
A. A. Weathersbee III, C. L. McKenzie
Florida Entomologist 88 (4), 401-407, (1 December 2005) https://doi.org/10.1653/0015-4040(2005)88[401:EOANBO]2.0.CO;2
KEYWORDS: Asian citrus psyllid, Diaphorina citri, citrus, neem, azadirachtin
The biological effects of a neem-based biopesticide, containing 4.5% azadirachtin, were assessed against the Asian citrus psyllid, Diaphorina citri Kuwayama, a recently introduced insect pest and potential disease vector of citrus in the United States. Over the concentration range 11-180 ppm azadirachtin, no mortality of adult psyllids was observed when exposed to treated plants. Adult psyllids demonstrated a small but significant repellent effect from treated plants in a choice experiment, but showed no preference to oviposit on treated or untreated plants. Psyllid nymphs were susceptible to azadirachtin at very low concentrations and activity perhaps was due to developmental inhibition. At a concentration of 22.5 ppm azadirachtin, ecdysis was not observed past 4 days after treatment and all nymphs were dead within 7 days. The densities of psyllid nymphs on treated plants exposed to a greenhouse population were significantly reduced by concentrations as low as 10 ppm azadirachtin. Over the range of concentrations used in these experiments, the product caused no phytotoxicity to tender foliage of either citrus or orange jasmine plants. Field trials are warranted to determine suitability of neem-based biopesticides for inclusion in citrus integrated pest management programs.
POTENTIAL PEST MITE SPECIES COLLECTED ON ORNAMENTAL PLANTS FROM CENTRAL AMERICA AT PORT OF ENTRY TO THE UNITED STATES
Carl C. Childers, Jose Carlos V. Rodrigues
Florida Entomologist 88 (4), 408-414, (1 December 2005) https://doi.org/10.1653/0015-4040(2005)88[408:PPMSCO]2.0.CO;2
KEYWORDS: Acari, Acaridae, Tenuipalpidae, Tarsonemidae, Tetranychidae, virus-like diseases, citrus leprosis
Twenty-four plant shipments arriving via air cargo from Guatemala, Honduras, and Costa Rica to Miami International airport in Florida, were sampled on February 6-7, 2003. Random samples of rooted plants or cuttings were washed in 80% ethanol to collect the mite species present. Altogether 81 mites in 11 families were identified in 12 plant shipments (i.e., 50% of the 24 shipments sampled were found to contain mites). Plant mite pests included Brevipalpus phoenicis (Geijskes), Fungitarsonemus sp., Polyphagotarsonemus latus (Banks), Tarsonemus sp., Tarsonemus confusus Ewing, Tetranychus urticae Koch, Tetranychus sp., and Rhizoglyphus sp. (Acaridae). These mites, recovered from a variety of ornamental plant genera, are potentially serious pests. Of special importance is B. phoenicis because it is a known vector of citrus leprosis and several related viruses of ornamental plants that occur in Central and South America. A dilemma exists because many of these diseases, including citrus leprosis, do not occur in the United States, but potential vectors are already present. Relevant needs include (a) a special sampling program for mites on live plant materials received at ports of entry, (b) new legislation that requires imported plant propagules to be free of pest species of mites, and (c) mandatory risk mitigation in nurseries abroad where shipments originate and pre-clearance at the port of export.
THE ANT (HYMENOPTERA: FORMICIDAE) FAUNA OF COCOS ISLAND, COSTA RICA
Scott E. Solomon, Alexander S. Mikheyev
Florida Entomologist 88 (4), 415-423, (1 December 2005) https://doi.org/10.1653/0015-4040(2005)88[415:TAHFFO]2.0.CO;2
KEYWORDS: invasion, non-native species, species richness, Wasmannia auropunctata
Cocos Island, Costa Rica is a 24-square kilometer volcanic island in the tropical eastern Pacific Ocean, located approximately 480 kilometers from the mainland. Despite its biogeographic significance, much of the entomofauna have not been systematically surveyed. A detailed survey of the ant (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) fauna of this island was conducted over a three-week period. The results suggest that, despite the relatively minor presence of humans on Cocos, much of the ant fauna is dominated by non-native species. Furthermore, the current ant community is substantially different from that described by previous expeditions. One of the previously described endemics, Camponotus biolleyi Forel, was not found during the survey. A species known to be invasive, Wasmannia auropunctata Roger, was found in extremely high abundance near disturbed sites, but was not present in more pristine habitats. Furthermore, this population displays intraspecific aggression, which is uncommon among invasive ants, including other invasive populations of this species.
TRAPPING MOCIS SPP. (LEPIDOPTERA: NOCTUIDAE) ADULTS WITH DIFFERENT ATTRACTANTS
Robert L. Meagher, Paul Mislevy
Florida Entomologist 88 (4), 424-430, (1 December 2005) https://doi.org/10.1653/0015-4040(2005)88[424:TMSLNA]2.0.CO;2
KEYWORDS: Mocis latipes, Mocis disseverans, Mocis marcida, Acetic acid, 3-methyl-1-butanol, grass loopers
Experiments conducted in a pasture agroecosystem in central Florida showed that two-component lures composed of acetic acid and 3-methyl-1-butanol placed in Unitraps collected adults of three species of grass looper. Mocis disseverans (Walker), M. latipes (Guenée), and M. marcida (Guenée) males and females were collected from July through November, with peaks from late September through late October. Other noctuid moths also were captured, but constituted less than 33% of the total moths collected. In 2001 and 2002, 67.7 and 72.4% of the Mocis spp. moths collected were females, respectively. Phenylacetaldehyde-baited traps collected fewer Mocis spp. moths. The trapping system suggested by our results will aid growers in monitoring for a pest complex that lacks commercially-available sex pheromone lures.
INFECTIVITY OF TWO ISOLATES OF HELICOSPORIDIUM SPP. (CHLOROPHYTA: TREBOUXIOPHYCEAE) IN HETEROLOGOUS HOST INSECTS
Tracy Conklin, Verena-Ulrike Bläske-Lietze, James J. Becnel, Drion G. Boucias
Florida Entomologist 88 (4), 431-440, (1 December 2005) https://doi.org/10.1653/0015-4040(2005)88[431:IOTIOH]2.0.CO;2
KEYWORDS: Helicosporidium spp, entomopathogenic alga, mosquitoes, citrus root weevil, bioassays
Members of the genus Helicosporidium are the first described algal insect pathogens. They have a close affinity to the non-photosynthetic algae of the genus Prototheca, and have a wide host range, infecting many species of aquatic and terrestrial insects. In this study the infectivity of two Helicosporidium spp. isolates, originating from a black fly (SjHe) and an aquatic weevil (CsHe), was tested against a weevil Diaprepes abbreviatus (L.) and three mosquito species Anopheles quadrimaculatus Say, Culex quinquefasciatus Say, and Aedes aegypti (L.). The weevil constitutes a new experimental host record for helicosporidia. The CsHe isolate was more virulent than the SjHe isolate in D. abbreviatus. Anopheles quadrimaculatus was the most susceptible mosquito species measured by infection rate and mortality. The infectivity and virulence of SjHe and CsHe isolates did not differ in any of the mosquito species.
POPULATION DYNAMICS OF STENOMA CATENIFER (LEPIDOPTERA: ELACHISTIDAE) AND RELATED LARVAL PARASITOIDS IN MINAS GERAIS, BRAZIL
Dori E. Nava, José R. P. Parra, Valmir A. Costa, Tânia M. Guerra, Fernando L. Cônsoli
Florida Entomologist 88 (4), 441-446, (1 December 2005) https://doi.org/10.1653/0015-4040(2005)88[441:PDOSCL]2.0.CO;2
KEYWORDS: Persea americana, biological control, larval parasitoids
The avocado seed moth Stenoma catenifer Walsingham (Lepidoptera: Elachistidae) can cause total production losses and is considered a key pest of avocado in Brazil. This research aimed to evaluate the larval dynamics of S. catenifer and its associated parasitoids in an avocado growing region throughout two consecutive agricultural seasons. The highest percentage of fruits attacked by S. catenifer was found in the period near harvest, starting in June. The percentage of infested fruits in the first agricultural season was approximately 60%, near 11% above that of the second season. Five undetermined braconids within five genera (Dolichogenidea sp., Hypomicrogaster sp., Apanteles sp., Chelonus sp., and Hymenochaonia sp.) and two ichneumonids (Eudeleboea sp. and Pristomerus sp.) were found. Dolichogenidea sp. and Apanteles sp. were the most abundant, and therefore are the species with the highest potential as S. catenifer population regulators. In both seasons, the emergence peak of parasitoids occurred at the end of the winter (August), when at least 30 and 40% total larval parasitism was observed.
A REVIEW OF THRIPS SPECIES BITING MAN INCLUDING RECORDS IN FLORIDA AND GEORGIA BETWEEN 1986-1997
Carl C. Childers, Ramona J. Beshear, Galen Frantz, Marlon Nelms
Florida Entomologist 88 (4), 447-451, (1 December 2005) https://doi.org/10.1653/0015-4040(2005)88[447:AROTSB]2.0.CO;2
KEYWORDS: Thysanoptera, Thripidae, Phlaeothripidae, nuisance insects, biting insects
Two species of thrips (Frankliniella tritici and Limothrips cerealium) were reported biting people in Georgia during 1986 and 1990. Frankliniella bispinosa was the only thrips species documented biting people in Florida between 1986 and 1997. This species occurs in great abundance throughout Florida and is a recognized plant pest on numerous crops. Because of the tremendous numbers of F. bispinosa that are produced on dozens of different cultivated and weed host plants during the spring months, this species can become a serious nuisance problem. Frankliniella bispinosa will bite people and produce variable reactions from slight irritation to formation of a rash with associated intense itching that can last for several days. The problem usually is seasonal and associated with maximum seasonal increase in F. bispinosa populations and favorable environmental conditions that can occur anytime between February and April in central and south Florida. Colored sticky-trap tests in Florida demonstrated the strong attraction of both white and blue colors to F. bispinosa. People wearing white or blue colored clothing tend to be more at risk of being bitten by this thrips pest.
THE EFFECT OF AGE AND SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT ON DEALATION IN SOLENOPSIS INVICTA (HYMENOPTERA:FORMICIDAE) FEMALE ALATES
S. N. Burns, R. K. Vander Meer, P. E A. Teal
Florida Entomologist 88 (4), 452-457, (1 December 2005) https://doi.org/10.1653/0015-4040(2005)88[452:TEOAAS]2.0.CO;2
KEYWORDS: fire ant, primer pheromone, mating flight
The fire ant (Solenopsis invicta Buren) queen produces a primer pheromone that prevents dealation (wing removal) of cohabiting female alates presumably by suppressing endogenous titers of juvenile hormone (JH). Alates are released from the effects of this primer pheromone when they are separated from the queen by physical disturbance, queen death, or mating flights. We investigated whether maturity influences the time at which female alates shed their wings. Results indicated that dealation rates were not different for newly-eclosed (sexually immature) or sexually mature alates. The dealation inhibitory pheromone did not suppress the casting of wings in newly-eclosed female alates that were relieved of their antennae. Dealation normally occurs within 1 h of a mating flight, whereas uninseminated alates isolated from colony members shed their wings significantly later. Therefore, dealation in the context of the colony and after mating flights appears to occur via separate mechanisms.
THE IMPORTANCE OF TAXONOMIC TRAINING TO THE EARLY DETECTION OF EXOTIC PESTS IN THE ORDER HEMIPTERA (AUCHENORRHYCHA, STERNORRHYCHA)
Amanda C. Hodges, Gail C. Wisler
Florida Entomologist 88 (4), 458-463, (1 December 2005) https://doi.org/10.1653/0015-4040(2005)88[458:TIOTTT]2.0.CO;2
KEYWORDS: National Plant Diagnostic Network, NPDN, Southern Plant Diagnostic Network, SPDN, Homoptera workshop, non-native pests
The introduction and establishment of non-native arthropods continually threatens United States agriculture, forests, and natural areas. In order to assist in the early detection of exotic pests, including arthropods, the National Plant Diagnostic Network (NPDN) was formed in June, 2002 by USDA CSREES. The NPDN promotes early detection of exotic pests through diagnostics, training and education, information technology, and response exercise scenarios. The NPDN is divided into five regions based on geography and crop similarities, and the University of Florida is the coordination center for the Southern Plant Diagnostic Network (SPDN). The NPDN primarily links land grant universities nationwide, but also seeks to communicate with USDA APHIS and state departments of agriculture as appropriate for regulated pest issues. Organization of intensive taxonomic workshops covering a broad range of topics was one of the objectives established for SPDN entomology in 2004-05. A 3-day workshop on Hemiptera (Auchenorrhycha, Sternorrhycha) was held in December, 2004. Eight national experts led the training and 30 participants from 13 states in the U.S. attended. Major outcomes of the workshop for participants included (1) improved diagnostic abilities, (2) an increased ability to network with specialists, and (3) improved diagnostic resources. The following papers by Miller, Wilson, Dietrich, and Hodges and Evans resulted from the workshop.
KEYS TO THE FAMILIES OF FULGOROMORPHA WITH EMPHASIS ON PLANTHOPPERS OF POTENTIAL ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE IN THE SOUTHEASTERN UNITED STATES (HEMIPTERA: AUCHENORRHYNCHA)
Stephen W. Wilson
Florida Entomologist 88 (4), 464-481, (1 December 2005) https://doi.org/10.1653/0015-4040(2005)88[464:KTTFOF]2.0.CO;2
KEYWORDS: Insecta, Homoptera, Delphacidae, Cixiidae, pests
Planthoppers (Hemiptera: Fulgoromorpha) are of concern to agriculture in the southeastern United States because of their potential to cause significant damage to economically important plants. These keys are intended to aid diagnosticians attempting to identify planthopper crop pests. This work includes lists of pathogen vectors and those species considered pests of economically important plants grown in the region, brief descriptions of planthopper collecting and curating techniques, a summary of morphological features used for identification, a revised key for identification of planthoppers to family, a key to the economically important delphacids, and a list of literature useful for planthopper identification.
SELECTED SCALE INSECT GROUPS (HEMIPTERA: COCCOIDEA) IN THE SOUTHERN REGION OF THE UNITED STATES
Douglass R. Miller
Florida Entomologist 88 (4), 482-501, (1 December 2005) https://doi.org/10.1653/0015-4040(2005)88[482:SSIGHC]2.0.CO;2
KEYWORDS: scales, identification, southeastern United States
This publication includes general discussions on the Conchaspididae, Diaspididae, Eriococcidae, Ortheziidae, Pseudococcidae, and Putoidae. Keys are presented for genera in the families Eriococcidae, Ortheziidae, and Pseudococcidae. Material for each family include introduction, field appearance, diagnosis, life history, important references, illustration of a slide-mounted adult female, and a checklist of the species occurring in the Southern Region of the United States and their distribution by state.
KEYS TO THE FAMILIES OF CICADOMORPHA AND SUBFAMILIES AND TRIBES OF CICADELLIDAE (HEMIPTERA: AUCHENORRHYNCHA)
C. H. Dietrich
Florida Entomologist 88 (4), 502-517, (1 December 2005) https://doi.org/10.1653/0015-4040(2005)88[502:KTTFOC]2.0.CO;2
KEYWORDS: morphology, identification, taxonomy, phylogeny, Homoptera
Illustrated keys to adults reflecting the current higher classification are provided for families of Cicadomorpha (cicadas, spittlebugs, leafhoppers, and treehoppers) and for subfamilies and tribes of Cicadellidae (leafhoppers), excluding Deltocephalinae. The following families (and superfamilies) are recognized: Cicadidae and Tettigarctidae (Cicadoidea); Aphrophoridae, Cercopidae, Clastopteridae, Epipygidae, and Machaerotidae (Cercopoidea); Aetalionidae, Cicadellidae, Melizoderidae, Membracidae, Myerslopiidae (Membracoidea). The higher classification of Cicadellidae is currently undergoing revision, but a provisional key to subfamilies and tribes (except Deltocephalinae) is provided. Two new synonymies are proposed: Signoretiinae Baker, 1915 equals Phlogisinae Linnavuori, 1979, new synonym; Iassini Walker, 1870, equals Hyalojassini Evans, 1972, new synonym.
AN IDENTIFICATION GUIDE TO THE WHITEFLIES (HEMIPTERA: ALEYRODIDAE) OF THE SOUTHEASTERN UNITED STATES
Gregory S. Hodges, Gregory A. Evans
Florida Entomologist 88 (4), 518-534, (1 December 2005) https://doi.org/10.1653/0015-4040(2005)88[518:AIGTTW]2.0.CO;2
KEYWORDS: Aleyrodidae, Aleyrodinae, Aleurodicinae, whiteflies, key, illustrated key
Whiteflies (Aleyrodidae) are some of the most potentially detrimental pests for agricultural crops and the ornamental plant industry in the southeastern U.S. Generic and species-level identification can be difficult for entomology identifiers that have not received specialized training, but correct identification is essential for (1) the detection of exotic, invasive species and (2) providing proper management recommendations for established pest problems. In order to assist in the identification of commonly occurring specimens in the southeastern U.S. and promote the early detection of exotic species, a generic level key with corresponding distribution records has been developed for thirty four genera and/or whitefly species. Photographs of slide-mounted specimens are provided for each species.
Scientific Notes
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Richard W. H. Pluke, Gary L. Leibee
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DETERMINATION OF SEX IN PUPAE OF PHYCIODES PHAON (LEPIDOPTERA: NYMPHALIDAE)
Hanife Genc
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GYNAIKOTHRIPS UZELI (THYSANOPTERA: PHLAEOTHRIPIDAE) IN THE SOUTHEASTERN UNITED STATES: DISTRIBUTION AND REVIEW OF BIOLOGY
David W. Held, David Boyd, Tim Lockley, G. B. Edwards
Florida Entomologist 88 (4), 538-540, (1 December 2005) https://doi.org/10.1653/0015-4040(2005)88[538:GUTPIT]2.0.CO;2
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Florida Entomologist 88 (4), 541-543, (1 December 2005) https://doi.org/10.1653/0015-4040(2005)88[541:DEOATI]2.0.CO;2
MANUFACTURE AND USE OF A TRAP TO ASSESS HELIOTHIS VIRESCENS AND HELICOVERPA ZEA (LEPIDOPTERA: NOCTUIDAE) ADULT EMERGENCE
Carlos A. Blanco, Owen Houston
Florida Entomologist 88 (4), 544-546, (1 December 2005) https://doi.org/10.1653/0015-4040(2005)88[544:MAUOAT]2.0.CO;2
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Todd E. Shelly, James Edu, Elaine Pahio
Florida Entomologist 88 (4), 547-548, (1 December 2005) https://doi.org/10.1653/0015-4040(2005)88[547:LOAIEO]2.0.CO;2
SURVEY OF THE TERMITES (ISOPTERA: KALOTERMITIDAE, RHINOTERMITIDAE, TERMITIDAE) OF NICARAGUA
Rudolf H. Scheffrahn, Jan Krecek, Boudanath Maharajh, James A. Chase, John R. Mangold, Jorge Moreno, Herrera Bayardo
Florida Entomologist 88 (4), 549-552, (1 December 2005) https://doi.org/10.1653/0015-4040(2005)88[549:SOTTIK]2.0.CO;2
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Home » Diseases » Azotemia – Definition, Development, Types, Diagnosis, Treatments
Azotemia – Definition, Development, Types, Diagnosis, Treatments
Last reviewed by Editorial Team on August 25th, 2018.
What is azotemia?
The word azotemia is made up of two words, 'azot' means nitrogen and 'emia' means in blood. It is a laboratory abnormality which is characterized by urea nitrogen and creatinine increased above a normal range. It is a type of nephrotoxicity and in severe conditions can adversely affect the kidneys and lead to renal failure in patients.
How does azotemia develop?
Each kidney consists of approximately 1 million units known as nephrons, which are primarily involved in the formation of urine. This formation of urine is to ensure that the body is eliminating and getting rid of metabolic products and even excess water just with the aim to maintain an internal environment i.e. homeostasis. The process of forming of urine involves the following processes
Filtration at the glomerular rate
Selective reabsorption at the site of renal tubules
Secretion in tubules by the cells into this filtrate
Perturbation in any of the above processes will impair the excretory function, resulting in azotemia.
The quantity of glomerular filtrate produced each minute by all nephrons from both kidneys is known as glomerular filtration rate (GFR). The normal GFR value is 125mL/min (women have 10% less than men). On an average, about 99% of the filtrate is reabsorbed and the remaining is excreted in form of urine.
What is uremia?
Uremia is a condition in which urea appears in urine. Even though urea is a major component that is actively excreted in urine but in such a condition, excess amounts of nitrogenous products including those obtained from amino acids and protein metabolism are excreted. Uremia is a pathological demonstration of severe azotemia. This can cause damage which can be pre renal, renal or post renal.
Types of Azotemia
Presently, azotemia has been classified in 3 different types. These classes are: prerenal azotemia, intrarenal azotemia and postrenal azotemia. This classification is done on the basis of the site of the renal system which is affected.
Prerenal Azotemia
Prerenal azotemia occurs due to a decrease in glomerular filtration rate (GFR) which occurs due to disturbances in circulatory system ultimately causing decreased renal perfusion.
If the renal perfusion decreases, it can worsen the condition of the patient as it can cause hypervolemia, cardiac diseases. As a result of insufficient blood flow excess of nitrogen occurs in the blood. This has been the most common cause of failure of kidneys especially in hospitalized patients.
When the volume or pressure of blood is decreased, the baroreceptor reflexes which are present in aortic arch and carotid sinuses are activated. As a result there is activation of sympathetic system resulting in the vasoconstriction of renal afferent arterioles and secretion of rennin through β1 receptors.
This constriction of the arterioles leads to decrease in intraglomerular pressure and a proportional decrease in GFR is observed. Reduced blood flow results in production of renin, which converts angiotensin I to angiotensin II. Angiotensin II secretion further stimulates the secretion of aldosterone. Raised levels of aldosterone in kidney result in the absorption of salt and water, more specifically in the regions of distal collecting tubules.
Furthermore, when the blood flow to kidneys is decreased or a decrease in pressure is sensed, a non-osmotic stimulus is activated that includes the production of anti-diuretic hormone from the hypothalamus. ADH exerts its effect in the collecting duct in the region of medulla for water reabsorption.
However, through unidentified mechanisms, sympathetic system is activated which leads to enhanced tubular reabsorption of salt and water as well as BUN, uric acid, creatinine, bicarbonate and calcium molecules in proximal region. As a result of this, the total salt and water retention is decreased and as an outcome of which decreased urinary excretion of sodium is observed.
Conditions that cause prerenal azotemia
Conditions that reduce the blood flow to the kidney may cause pre-renal azotemia. Examples include; burns, loss of blood volume, heat exposure, decreased fluid intake, long term vomiting, diarrhea and even chronic bleeding.
Pre renal azotemia can even occur in those conditions where the heart is unable to pump enough blood such as heart failure or septic shock.
Finally, condition in which there is disruption in the blood flow to the kidneys will also cause pre-renal azotemia.
Intrarenal azotemia
Intrarenal azotemia is also identified as acute renal failure (ARF), renal-renal failure and acute kidney injury (AKI). It is distinguished by the excess accumulation of nitrogen in blood which is basically due to the damaged kidneys and their disturbed functions.
There are various definitions, including an increase in serum creatinine levels of 30% from baseline or sudden decrease in output below 500mL/day. AKI is basically non-oliguric; a condition when the output falls below 500mL/day, ARF is oliguric. Any kind of AKI can be so severe that it virtually stops the formation; this condition is called anuria (<100mL/day).
Some of the recent studies have shown and indicated that the nonoliguric forms of AKI are correlated with less morbidity and mortality than is oliguric AKI. More studies have also demonstrated that volume expansion, renal vasodilators and some of the potent diuretic agents have the ability to covert oliguric AKI to non oliguric AKI. However, this is only possible when these drugs are administered early.
The pathophysiology of both oliguric and non-oliguric acute kidney injury depends on the site of the injury. In acute tubular necrosis (ATN), the functional decrease in the ability of the tubules is due to epithelial damage.
As a result, the reabsorption of salt, water and other electrolytes like sodium, bicarbonate is declined. Additionally, the excretion of acid and potassium is also impaired. In severe cases, the tubular lumen is filled with epithelial casts causing intraluminal obstruction and hence resulting in a decline in GFR.
Net effect is a loss of urinary concentrating ability, as an outcome of which there is low osmolality, low specific gravity, high urinary sodium and often hypokalemia tubular acidosis is seen. On the other hand, if prerenal azotemia is superimposed, the specific gravity, sodium content and hence osmolality may be misleading.
Glomerulonephritits or vasculitis is proposed in the presence of hematuria, red blood cells, white blood cells, granular and cellular casts, and even unpredictable amount of proteinuria. Nephrotic syndromes, however is not allied inflammation and if proteinuria is seen, it is greater than 3.5g/24h. Some patients with nephrotic syndrome may present with acute renal failure.
Destruction of capillary construction in the kidneys either due to edema or obstruction of tubules from protein casts, also a decline in effective has been suggested as the mechanisms for the progression of ARF in patients suffering from nephrotic syndrome.
Conditions that cause intra-renal azotemia
Acute vascular diseases which include malignant hypertension, scleroderma renal crisis and several other conditions, all of which might cause renal hypoperfusion and even ischemia lead to azotemia. Apart from this bilateral renal artery stenosis might also lead to intra renal azotemia.
How does bilateral renal artery stenosis lead to azotemia?
In bilateral renal artery stenosis, maintenance of sufficient intraglomerular pressure for filtration process depends on efferent arteriolar vasoconstriction.
Azotemia occurs when angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors or angiotensin II receptor blockers (ARBs) cause the dilation of efferent arterioles leading to a decline intraglomerular pressure and filtration. It is due to this effect that ARBs and ACE inhibitors contraindicated in bilateral renal artery stenosis.
Moreover, in addition to the accumulation of urea creatinine and other waste products, a progressive reduction in glomerular filtration rate results in the following
A decrease in the production of red blood cells causing anemia and also in the blood levels of vitamin D3 causing hypocalcaemia, renal osteodystroply
Decrease in acid, potassium and water and salt excretion leading to acidosis, hypertension, and edema.
Dysfunctioning of platelets, this may cause to enhanced bleeding tendencies.
Several classes of medicines have been majorly involved kidney damage. These include aminoglycoside toxicity, anti-fungal drugs, chemotherapy agents such as lithium toxicity and cisplatin toxicity, biological therapies, ACE inhibitors, radiological contrasts and few NSAIDs.
It has been found that some of the medical conditions such as pyelonephritis and diabetes can also cause intra renal azotemia in patients.
Renal stenosis on CT angiogram
Post-renal azotemia
Post-renal azotemia is a condition when an excess of blood nitrogen occurs due to the blockage in the kidneys as a result of which it prevents the urine to excrete out from the renal urinary system. It also causes painful urination. Hindrance to flow leads to reversal in the Starling forces which is responsible for the glomerular filtration.
Progressive bilateral obstruction causes hydronephrosis with a rise in Bowman capsular hydrostatic pressure and blockage in the tubules that leads to gradual decrease in and ultimately is the stoppage of glomerular filtration, acidosis, hypokalemia, fluid overload and azotemia. Blockage maybe due to any of the following reasons: stone, infection, enlarged prostate gland (in elderly male patients) or even a tumor (both malignant and benign).
Azotemia is rarely caused by bilateral obstruction. Evidence is present that if complete obstruction is present at the ureteral site, it can be recovered within a time span of 48 hours of the onset, and relatively a complete upturn of the glomerular filtration rate can be achieved within a week. However, after a span of 12 weeks, little or no recovery is possible.
Moreover, complete or chronic obstruction of ureter can cause tubular atrophy or irreversible renal fibrosis. If the collecting system is enclosed by retroperitoneal tumor or fibrosis, chances for hydronephrosis may be absent.
How does pre-existing kidney disease influence azotemia development?
According to reports, the incidence of hospital acquired or even community acquired acute renal failure has shown a variable pattern. In a study carried, it is responsible for approximately 1% of hospital readmissions.
In chronic kidney disease, gradually worsening azotemia leads to end stage renal disease thus making it important for the patient to have dialysis or undergo kidney transplantation. Kidney transplant is often recommended in patients who are already going through other chronic medical conditions such as diabetes, hypertension, cystic kidney disease, glomerulonephritis and other commonly occurring kidney diseases.
Which populations are at a higher risk of developing azotemia?
According to demographic survey, the frequency of occurrence in males was 56% whereas in females it was found nearly 44%. If we looked according to age groups, the highest rate was found in those people aging between 65-75 years and the lowest was among children between 0-19 years.
Racial distribution showed that azotemia was more common in white people followed by black and Asians.
Prognosis of azotemia
The prognosis of azotemia due to AKI/ARF is poor and is highly dependent on the original disease and to which extent the organs are damaged in that disease. However, in patients without an underlying disease, the mortality rate is low around 7-23% as compared to those who are admitted in hospital in intensive care unit (ICU) on a ventilator. Mortality rate for such patients have dangerously increased up to 80%.
The prognosis of chronic kidney disease greatly depends upon the etiology. Patients going through diabetic kidney disease, ischemic nephropathy (i.e. large vessel arterial occlusive disease) have a tendency for the worsening of the conditions from azotemia to end stage renal disease.
Diagnosis of Azotemia
History for azotemia diagnosis
It is important to know as early as possible if the azotemia is either acute or chronic and whether it is caused due to prerenal, intra renal or post renal factors. This is essential in determining the treatment and further stopping the progression of disease. Evaluation of azotemia clinically, requires a complete history, physical examination and other laboratory tests.
Patients experiencing prerenal azotemia have typical history of diarrhea, vomiting, heat exhaustion, sweat loss, concurrent illness that disturb their tendency to eat and drink according to the need of body, liver disease, hemorrhage, congestive heart failure and even polyuria.
Patients going through intra renal azotemia may have the history of polyuria, proteinuria, nocturia, shock and edema. Other reasons include hereditary linkage or systemic diseases like diabetes, hypertension, and systemic lupus erythematosus, various collagen vascular diseases, hepatitis B, hepatitis C, syphilis, AIDs.
After a comprehensive history has been taken, it is important to look for nephrotoxic medications like antibiotics, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors, diuretics and selective herbal treatments. Chemical exposure given to cancer patients and drug abuse especially those consuming through intravenous routes also cause nephrotoxicity.
Patients who have post renal azotemia often have a history of benign prostatic hypertrophy, renal colic, dysuria, frequency, hesitancy, pelvic malignancy.
Physical Examination for azotemia diagnosis
In suspected patients of prerenal azotemia, look out for tachycardia, orthostatic hypotension when the systolic blood pressure drops down to more than 20 mm Hg or diastolic drop more than 10mm Hg, signs of dehydration, including dry mucus membrane, loss of skin turgidity, loss of sweat, and signs of congestive heart failure or hepatic insufficiencies.
In patients who have been suspected with intra renal azotemia, look for hypertension and its end organ side effects, like hypertensive retinopathy and left ventricular hypertrophy, rash, joint swelling or joint tenderness, abnormalities in hearing, abdominal bruits, palpable kidneys and pericardial rub. Pericardial rub is a characteristic sign of uremia. However, occurrence of uremic pericarditits requires immediate dialysis.
Post renal azotemia in which obstruction is seen, a palpable bladder is observed which is dull to percussion and the presence of mass in pelvic or rectal regions is seen when digital examination is done.
Diagnostic Considerations for azotemia
Besides differential diagnosis which is done, it is necessary to monitor and evaluate the causes of increased levels of BUN and creatinine levels. Even though these are unrelated to kidney disease but these must be considered. The causes might be
Ketoacidosis
Large intake of protein meal
Total parenteral nutrition
Hemorrhage especial in gastrointestinal tract
Laboratory procedures for azotemia
For the start of evaluation, the first step is to obtain a complete blood count (CBC), a biochemical profile, urinalysis, and urine electrolyte concentrations. These tests give hints on determining the original cause of azotemia.
Diagnostic indices are used to differentiate among prerenal azotemia, intra renal azotemia and post renal azotemia. Even though such indices are useful but because it is not in the compulsion workup plan demand, these tests are not performed on every patient.
Relationship should always be established with the patients' baseline values in order to identify the pattern's consistency whether it is increasing or decreasing in the circulating volume. Medically, there are limitations to everything. Even in case of diagnostic indices, there are limits in certain medical conditions. Examples include
Anemia ( hematocrit value)
Hypocalcaemia (serum calcium)
Decreased muscle mass (serum creatinine)
Liver diseases (blood nitrogen urea, total protein and albumin)
Use of diuretics (urine sodium)
Prerenal Azotemia: in this, the hemoconcentration outcome is the increased hematocrit value and total protein/ albumin, bicarbonate, uric acid and calcium levels from baseline values.
Oliguria (urine volume < 500mL/day) or anuria (< 100mL/day)
High specific gravity (> 1.015)
Normal urinary sediment
Low urinary Na (<20mEq/L)
When volume depletion is more dominant, amplified proximal tubular reabsorption usually results in azotemia. Along with azotemia, hypernatremia, and increased levels of calcium, bicarbonate and uric acid leads to rise in the values of hematocrit values, albumin and total protein. It has been observed that these values vary widely.
One of other major determinant for differentiating between prerenal azotemia and acute tubular necrosis is fractional excretion of sodium (FENa). A value below 1% proposes a prerenal cause like volume depletion. Above 2% suggests the presence of acute tubular necrosis. As FENa is dependent on the fact that reabsorption is enhanced in the setting of the volume depletion, use of diuretics may raise the value of FENa even volume depletion is present.
Intrarenal Azotemia: in this, anemia, hypocalcaemia, thrombocytopenia, and elevated anion gap metabolic acidosis may be present.
Low specific gravity of urine (<1.015)
Presence of active urinary sediment
High excretion of sodium in urine (>40mEq)
FENa >5%
Plasma BUN to creatinine ratio less than 20
Low osmolality of urine.
Patients suffering from chronic CKD, their renal ultrasonography usually show small kidneys. However, in some cases of CKD kidneys may be of normal size or even enlarged. This is usually the case with HIV nephropathy, diabetes and renal amyloidosis. Patients with polycystic kidney disease are recommended to undergo renal sonogram for the confirmation of diagnosis.
Postrenal Azotemia: Set of urinary indices in this condition which is due to complete bilateral blockage is not really useful in diagnosing the medical condition. The prime finding in this is the anuria, which may or may not be accompanied by hypertension.
If partial ureteral blockage is present, urine flow may be present. Foley's catheter must be inserted in the initial steps of evaluation. This is done to confirm that there is no obstruction at the bottom of urinary bladder.
When obstruction occurs unilaterally, it gradually progresses to azotemia. It occurs acutely like in cases of obstruction from calculi or hematoma causing renal colic. It can also be chronic and does not show any symptoms leading to the formation of hydronephrosis.
Bilateral obstruction may be linked with azotemia in the presence of normal urine flow. Patient who are given maneuvers have an increased urine output because of which they show an increased pressure in the collecting ducts and possibilities are that they may even feel pain.
Along with azotemia, polyuria, type 1 renal tubular acidosis, with hypercalcaemia, hypokalemia and even a prostatic pelvic tumor and in turn raised prostate specific antigens (PSA) levels hints towards post renal azotemia. Renal ultrasonography is the test of choice for excluding the obstructive uropathy.
Ultrasonography for azotemia
This is used for determining the size of kidneys and echogenicity which is an important consideration in renal biopsy. It also helps in the differentiation of cystic lesions from solid lesions and in the spotting of kidney stones. Doppler ultrasonography identifies the vascular flow of kidneys which can be useful for renal artery stenosis.
Other procedures for azotemia diagnosis
Besides ultrasonography, other techniques are used in evaluation of the clinical condition. These include Computed tomography (CT) scan, Magnetic Imagining Resonance (MRI), abdominal radiography, pyelography and angiography. Recently new techniques are derived such as radionuclide involved studies. Renal biopsy is also recommended.
Each of these procedures has their own limitations and uses. Their recommendation is highly dependent on the doctor who is checking the patient.
Renal Biopsy has certain contraindications such as when the size of kidneys is smaller than normal, severe consistent hypertension, hydronephrosis, multiple cysts or tumors, renal or peri renal infections. It is also not recommended in patients who not showing cooperation.
Pharmacological & Supportive therapy for azotemia
Azotemia treatment depend on whcih type of azotemia is manifested
Prerenal azotemia treatment
Prerenal Azotemia: if the reason behind the volume depletion is water loss, the levels of serum sodium raises up to 10mEq from normal. The fluid which is to be administered to the patient should be a hypotonic solution for example, 0.5% saline or 5% dextrose solution in distilled water (D5W). The patients are counseled and encouraged to drink more and more water via oral route. If not possible, nasogastric route is utilized.
Serum sodium levels are constantly monitored every other 6-8 hours and fluid replacement therapy should be such that serum sodium levels are maintained to avoid reaching the precipitous decline. In cases of volume depletion due to chronic or excessive bleeding, it is required to administer IV saline and transfusion for maintaining the pressure.
Fluid loss in diarrhea needs to be replaced by normal saline but when normal anion gap metabolic acidosis occurs; bicarbonate in 0.5% normal saline should be given.
When there is decreased effective arterial volume of blood due to the shunting of the system either due to failure of liver or septic shock it results in a number of problems such as reduced oncotic pressure, raised vascular permeability and more salt and water reabsorption.
In such cases, effective treatment of sepsis is possible with antibiotics and for hypotension, epinephrine and nor epinephrine is required. If the treatment is proper, it may improve the oncotic pressure and bring the vascular permeability back to normal. The net outcome is better renal perfusion, and preventing the shunting of the system.
Intrarenal azotemia treatment
Intrarenal Azotemia: Acute kidney disease; in case of ischemic or nephrotoxic kidney injuries, which occur due to shock. Shock can be hypovolemic, cardiogenic or even septic shock. The initial plan is to reinstate volume and pressure both. This can be done by fluid replacement therapy and vasopressors. If the patient experiences oliguria or anuria in shock, crystalloids should be immediately administered as bolus.
However, if even after the administration of around 2L of liquid in a short time, no recovery is seen a high dose of furosemide at 100-160mg is prescribed to the patient. If the patient is unable to improve even after 6 hours put the patient on dialysis.
Albumin can be given along with furosemide to augment the diuretic effect. Albumin is basically to increase the bounding between drug and protein and fasten its delivery through organic anion transporter. The renal failure stage can last for 7- 21days if proper treatment is given immediately.
Chronic kidney disease and azotemia treatment
Chronic kidney disease: these patients are advised to undergo dialysis and even kidney transplant is severe cases. According to some studies, it has been seen that patient can recover in short duration after renal replacement therapy.
The progression of disease can be slowed down by controlling the concurrent diseases such as diabetes, proteinuria, and hypertension. Other measures include limiting the protein & phosphate intake. Other medical conditions like anemia, acidosis should be treated first and then replacement therapy should be initiated.
Postrenal azotemia treatment
Postrenal azotemia: opening of the obstruction should be the core of the therapy. When anuria is present, catheter should be inserted in the bladder.
When there is obstruction in ureters and it has caused hydronephrosis, either unilateral or bilateral stenting is done. The revival of the renal function is done within 7-10 days but it depends on the severity of the condition.
In extreme cases, full recovery is not possible so only a partial recovery is seen. Around 500-1000ml/min of urine flow occurs postoperatively. Yet, a large amount of salt and water is wasted during the process, dehydration may occur. For such patients, normal saline and potassium chloride (to treat hypokalemia) is recommended. Monitoring is necessary otherwise the patient may become hypotensive.
Medicines used for azotemia treatment
The main target should be to maximize the renal blood flow and keep a balance of urine output. The following are drugs that are given in patients with azotemia.
Diuretics: these are helpful in inducing diuresis i.e. increase in urine output and also in the management of edema and hypertension. The urine flow is increased by inhibition of Na & Cl in different sites of nephrons
Furosemide: (drug of choice as a diuretic.)
Hydrochlorothiazide: its best use is in hypertension
Chlorothiazide
Metazolene (prescribes in combination to furosemide in highly dangerous edematous situation and also to promote the diuretic effect of furosemide. It is also a better drug in the disturbed renal function)
Volume Expanders: these help in raising the plasma oncotic pressure and helps in the movement of the fluid from interstitial space to intravascular space.
Albumin (it is given either in form of 5% solution in 250ml or 25% solution in 50mL, which depends on the condition of patient and severity of the disease when the patient's body is unable to produce its own albumin protein to a normal level)
Corticosteroids: these are potent immunosuppressant & anti-inflammatory agents and reduce the inflammation by reducing the cellular and humoral response
Alpha/ Beta adrenergic agonists: they show their effect mainly by causing dilation of the vasculature and consequently perfusion gets improved.
Dopamine (caution must be taken while deciding the dose because above a specific dose, this drug acts as a potent vasoconstrictor, which might worsen the condition)
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Denham Springs High's Cheyenne Stegner (2751) and Phoebe Dean (2748) run alongside each other during Episcopal Round Table Run at Highland Road Park.
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Zachary's Bradley Styranec runs down a hill during the Episcopal Round Table Run at Highland Road Park.
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Denham Springs' Kevin Kidd approaches a hill during the Episcopal Round Table Run at Highland Road Park. Kidd finished with time of 23:12.
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Scotlandville's Reece Beekman runs toward the finish line in the Episcopal Round Table Run at Highland Road Park.
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Zachary's Caleb Franklin charges toward the finish line during the Episcopal Round Table Run at Highland Road Park.
Live Oak boys team starts the Episcopal Round Table Run at Highland Road Park. Front row (from left): Nic Broderick and Harley Lee. Second row: John "Bitty" Wells, John Dyar and Will Leonard.
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Scotlandville's Dominique Baptiste sprints toward the finish of the Episcopal Round Table Run at Highland Road Park.
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Live Oak's Avery Gnann (334) sprints to finish ahead of Phoebe Dean (2748) during the Episcopal Round Table Run at Highland Road Park.


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FLORENCE, Ala. – Florence Police announced the arrest of two men on Saturday that officers said are connected to a killing on Wood Avenue that happened in May.
Jose D'Leon was found dead on North Wood Avenue on May 2, 2018. According to investigators working the case, a friend went by to check on him, that's when he was discovered dead. Shortly after, a state forensics autopsy discovered his death is a homicide.
Since then, police say Florence Police detectives issued an arrest warrant for Randy (Christian) Sanchez, who Special Operations officer arrested on Friday. Sanchez is charged with murder. Police say Sanchez was friends with the victim when the murder happened.
Saturday, police said the Russellville Police Department found Vincent Fuqua and placed him under arrest for murder too. Investigators believe Fuqua did not know D'Leon, but that he was friends with Sanchez.
"Countless hours have gone into working this case by our detectives led by Kevin Jackson and Michael Price. Detectives are still gathering information related to this case which will be presented to the court during prosecution.
Sanchez and Fuqua were released from the Lauderdale County Detention Center on a $50,000.00.


text:
Innovator Stories
Berkshire Interns
Berkshire Entry
Innovator Stories | Avril Levesque
Meet Avril Levesque
Anyone who works with Lever works with Avril Levesque. As Lever's communications manager, she's often the first point of contact.
In summer 2018, the Adams, Massachusetts native interned at MountainOne Bank in North Adams through Lever's Berkshire Interns program. That ultimately led to her being hired at Lever, where she draws on her professional experience to coordinate events, keep in touch with constituents, emcee Challenges, and make sure all of Lever's audiences have the information they need.
After graduation, an email survey sent to BI alumni led to mentorship from Lever—when Levesque indicated she'd like help with finding full-time work in the Berkshires, the staff helped her refine her resume and locate job interviews, including for a communications position on the Lever team. Now, she creates promotional materials for Lever, helps manage its pitch Challenges, works with vendors, and has even helped facilitate Berkshire Interns events, like a trip to the ropes course at Ramblewild.
A 2019 graduate of Eastern Connecticut State University, Levesque was an active volunteer in college, serving as president of the ECSU People Helping People Club. A community engagement internship at MountainOne was a great fit. "MountainOne is very outward-facing and involved with the community," she said, "so I was the face of MountainOne when they put on events." She coordinated swag giveaways for local baseball games, assembled staff to walk in Williamstown's Fourth of July parade, and made sure MountainOne was represented at North Adams' annual Downtown Celebration, working alongside Vice President of Community Engagement Kelli Kozak.
From MountainOne to the other BI interns to getting to know the Lever staff, "the most important takeaway were the connections I made," she said. "I got to know a lot of great people."
As a Berkshire native, Levesque says she's happy to be part of a team working to grow economic development in Western Massachusetts.
"Growing up here, I wanted to give back as much as I could," she said. "My family's here. I knew I wanted to stay here. I'm really excited about the growth we're seeing in the region, and about how Lever is contributing to that."
2022 © MUNGY SITE
START + GROW


The patient was supposed to be shifted to Sassoon General Hospital in Pune for treatment, but had to be taken to a private hospital in the same area. It has caused the public health department to issue a show-case to the service providers on Thursday.
The unavailability of safety gears for doctors of 108 ambulance services is directly affecting the patients, who are not being taken aboard after presenting with flu-like symptoms. In one such incident which took place at 11.30 pm on October 4, a 59-year-old patient suffering from swine flu — and was in a critical state — was denied transportation from Khatav Regional Hospital in Satara by the doctors on the 108 service.
On October 4,Vikas Pawar was to be shifted to Pune from Rural Aundh Hospital in Khatav, given his critical condition. It was around this time that the request for 108 ambulance was raised. It arrived at the location, however, after looking at the patient's history, doctors denied service as they did not have safety gears.
The incident came as a rude shock as 108 ambulances services — provided by Maharashtra Emergency Medical Services, BVG India — did have the equipment, which they claim is to be provided by the public health department. Furthermore, the demand for this provision was made on October 1.
He added that they were to get a reply on the denial of services on the same day itself. But, it was delayed as there was no complaint filed by the patient's kin. "The complaint given by the family to the tehsildar is yet to reach to us," Gadhikar said.
Dr Dnyaneshwar Shelke, chief operations officer of Maharashtra Emergency Medical Services, BVG India, while calling the incident unfortunate said that services are never denied at the control room and so, they will be taking action on the respective doctors. "There is nothing to panic about the swine flu as majority of the people have become immune to it. According to the records, the control room had dispatched the ambulance. The patient had spoken to the doctor and later was denied transportation. We want to know why this has happened and will ask them to give it in writing as well," he said.


Britain's Sebastian Coe has vowed to limit the maximum term of the International Association of Athletics Federations (IAAF) Presidency to 12 years if he is elected to the position later this year, he revealed here today.
The 58-year-old double Olympic gold medallist is competing with Ukraine's Sergey Bubka, to replace incumbent Lamine Diack, who will have been in the role for nearly 16 years when he retires later this year.
The IAAF is due to elect Diack's successor on the eve of this year's World Championships during its Congress at the China National Convention Centre in Beijing on August 18 to 20, where all 213 National Federations will vote.
Speaking here, Coe promised he would rewrite the IAAF's constitution so in future it would be limited to two four-year terms with the option of a third if that is what the membership wanted.
"The Presidency should be two four-year terms with the option for a third term and it should not exceed 12 years," said Coe, chairman of the British Olympic Association and former head of London 2012.
"If you can't make a mark, probably in the first four years, and certainly in the first eight years, you probably shouldn't be there."
Whoever is elected in August, will remarkably be only the sixth President in the 103-year history of the IAAF.
Sweden's Sigfrid Edström, the founding President of the world governing body in 1912, served for 32 years until 1946.
He was succeeded by Britain's Lord Burghley, the 1928 Olympic 400 metres hurdles champion immortalised in the Oscar-winning film Chariots of Fire, who served for 30 years from 1946 until 1976.
Dutchman Adriaan Paulen served for a relatively short period of time, 15 years, before he was ousted by the Italian Primo Nebiolo in 1981.
He died while still President in 1999 an was replaced by Senegal's Diack, the senior vice-president at the time.
The idea is a new addition to the plans he set out for the sport in his 20-page manifesto entitled Growing Athletics in a New Age that he launched here last November.
Coe has previously referred to his manifesto as "a 10-year vision for athletics and the IAAF" and "a road map to deliver growth and vibrancy".
The former Conservative politician claims to have covered nearly 200,000 kilometres, just short of three times around the globe, to promote his campaign since August and said he has garnered a much better understanding of how to deliver athletics in the modern age.
"The one thing that I now recognise is that our sport, for all its glory and diversity, it actually now demands a very, very different way of delivering the sport," said Coe.
"The days of being able to deliver from the centre just are a fast dating model.
"And the one thing that the [National] Federations are looking for is as much support as they can get, the ability to deliver on the ground.
"They look for partnership with an international federation and we have to be really alert to the fact that a one size fits all approach is not going to take our sport onto the next 50 years."
Bubka, the 1988 Olympic pole vault champion, has claimed his main motivation for running for Presidency is to put something back into the sport of athletics.
Coe refused to dismiss Bubka's notion, describing it as a "proper motivation" but maintained "there needs to be more" than just that.
Coe is seen as the overwhelming favourite in the Presidential race following his successful spell as the chairman of London 2012, an event regarded as the most successful Olympics and Paralympics in history, and said he thinks the next 10 years are going be "really critical" in what athletics looks like in the next 20 or 30 years.
"I wouldn't have probably put my hat in the ring for this had I not been through the London experience," added Coe.
"It's interesting, it was 10 years ago yesterday that the Evaluation Committee completed its work in London.
"Those 10 years for me have been a really important and formative part of what I think actually gives me more than a passing claim to shape the direction of the sport."


text:
Nothing Ventured, Nothing Gained: Overcoming Gender Stereotypes in the Tech World
by Tarryn Giebelmann
Mimecast Contributing Writer
With a rising skills gap in technology, girls need more female role models to understand what's achievable and what's possible.
(Phindi Mazibuko, left, and Nomso Kana, right)
South Africa recently celebrated Women's Month and throughout August we acknowledged women doing incredible things in the technology space. Two such women are Nomso Kana and Siphindokuhle "Phindi" Mazibuko. Nomso is a nuclear scientist, business owner and mentor to young girls. Phindi is a manager at Mimecast and inspires men and women alike in our Johannesburg office.
Given the major skills shortage – especially in the security space – it's becoming crucial to inspire more young women to join Nomso and Phindi and enter careers in technology. Globally, there will be an estimated 3.5 million unfilled information security positions by 2022* and encouraging young women to work in this sector will go a long way to fill this gap.
Nomso and Phindi, like most girls today, didn't grow up wanting to work in technology. Nomso wanted to be a policewoman and Phindi a social worker: two careers centered on helping others and making a difference.
If you had asked either what a technology career looked like, both women would have pointed to men in blue overalls setting up home and office networks. They never associated technology with powerful women working to change lives or helping businesses solve their most pressing challenges. That's because neither were exposed to these types of role models from a young age. Yet, today, that's exactly what they are and now they're determined to get more girls interested in technology as a career.
Phindi and Nomso were both good at math and fascinated by science at school. The more they exposed themselves to technology and its life-changing potential, their ideas about their futures and their career paths started to change.
Today, Nomso owns Sun 'n Shield 84 Technologies, a broadband infrastructure start-up. Phindi leads a team of IT support engineers as Senior Service Delivery Manager at Mimecast. Although drastically different from what they thought they would be, both women are still living their passions of helping others, only now, they're empowered by technology.
When passion and purpose collide
Nomso owes her love of technology to the Star Wars franchise, which sparked her obsession with understanding how technology worked, and was a big reason why she studied computer science. She also majored in chemistry, which would eventually lead to her practising nuclear and medical biology science.
Passionate about connecting people and, more importantly, connecting Africa, she launched Sun 'n Shield 84 Technologies when her plans of becoming a network engineer didn't pan out. It would be the best thing she has ever done.
"We once connected a small rural community to the Internet," she says. "To see their faces when they could make video calls was priceless." She now devotes her free time to developing rural VSAT connectivity and hopes to one day work on the undersea cable project that will link Africa to the EU and Asia.
"Africa has many challenges and we need more diversity in the technology industry to help solve those challenges," says Nomso. "We need to educate girls in technology so that they can bring solutions to the table and be innovative in their approaches."
Get comfortable with being uncomfortable
For Phindi, independence, hard work and belief in herself and her abilities have been her biggest lessons in success.
She recalls her mother falling asleep on top of a pile of medical textbooks, as she juggled a nursing career, running a household and studying towards her master's degree in nursing. "It was important to my mom that my sister and I were independent and could look after ourselves, and she was the perfect role model," Phindi says.
This sense of independence instilled in childhood would serve her well at university and in her working career. "Learning was fast-paced and there were no parents or teachers around to make sure I went to lectures and did the work," she says. "It was completely up to me. I learned not to lose sight of my goals and the valuable skills of putting myself out there and seeing things through."
She took every opportunity to learn something new. Often, this meant stepping outside her comfort zone. "That's where growth happens," she says.
Phindi loved biology at school and thought that studying biomedicine at university would be a natural progression. But, after being introduced to a PC for the first time when she got to university, she soon realised that her true passion was in computer science.
"I was so fascinated by every aspect of it. I wanted to know how what I was typing was being processed and stored and how data was being retrieved from the Internet," Phindi says. And she's never looked back – although she still dreams of exploring how nanotechnology and AI can improve medical care.
Nomso believes that an educated society will always thrive. She currently works with Taungana Africa, Technovation, and UN Women to expose girls to STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering and Math) careers and skills, and empowers them with the thinking they need to become tech entrepreneurs.
"It's important for me to pay it forward, helping to develop the next generation of scientists. What you give always comes back to you," says Nomso.
If there's one thing Phindi could tell young girls today, it's that they are enough. "We need to teach girls that STEM careers aren't only for boys," she says. "Girls are more than capable and we need their thinking and perspectives to help solve challenges in our communities.
"It takes hard work and hard lessons but, as long as they never lose faith in themselves, they can do anything. As teachers, parents and women in tech, we need to instil that sense of confidence in young girls so that we can attract much-needed diversity to the industry. Any young woman who enters a career in technology will be exposed to a world of opportunities."
Nomso's advice to girls who are interested in exploring science and technology is: "nothing ventured, nothing gained."
"Spark your curiosity by always asking how and why. Explore and find out where you fit in. Don't be scared to ask for help. Collaborate with others. And, most importantly, pay it forward and never stop learning."
* Center for Cyber Safety and Education 2018


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I have an problem with resuming from encrypted swap. I set uswsusp to encrypt an image, entered the password, (rebooted), hibernated.
Everything seemed to go fine, until I was asked to enter the password. (I didn't use splash screen.) At this moment, the system stopped to interact - after I entered the password and pressed Enter there was no response, not even moving the cursor to next line. Anyway, the system was still responsible - pressing Alt-F2 switched me to next vty, which was blank at this stage of booting, anyway.
Having this same issue with 10.04 32-bit. I believe it is an issue with the Plymouth splash screen--It apparently has a special way of requesting input from the user, which the uswsusp process has not yet been updated to use. Even if you disable splash Plymouth is still active to some degree (I think it manages the framebuffer), and you can't enter text.
There is some progress with Natty and kernel 2.6.39-rc5 (kernel ppa builds). With radeon and its framebuffer I am able to switch to tty2 and back to tty1 and then I am able to enter the password. I am not sure if this workaround works also with mainline Natty kernel because I had some unrelated issue with that version, but I think it should work too. Unfortunately, I haven't tested another framebuffer drivers and/or different configuration.
I am using 12.04. Can't type anything into the passphrase prompt. Alt-F2 just shows a blank screen.
And as soon as I pres Alt-F? keys the password prompt disappears and I can't get it back again.
To get the password prompt I have to remove "splash quiet" from the boot config.
I can confirm this happens and I have a workaround: Switch to another vty ( ALT-F1,2,3 etc ), type the password, press enter and go back to the vty with your desktop. Your password will be entered and uswsusp will now resume from hibernation.
Also this is my first post on launchpad.


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CNN's Erin Burnett rips into Elizabeth Warren: the story was leaked by her team
CNN host Erin Burnett slammed Senator Elizabeth Warren for her abrupt reversal after her camp attacked Sanders as a sexist who supposedly said a woman could not win in 2020. Erin Burnett said:
"Just 24 hours ago, she owned the story, saying, 'I thought a woman could win; he disagreed.' Pretty black-and-white. Warren had no problem with this story yesterday. It was clearly leaked by her team to CNN. It came out more than a year after the meeting. It came out on the eve of a debate. It's pretty clear she knew about this. She sanctioned everything around it. Why is she pumping the brakes now, indicating that she doesn't want to talk about this anymore?"
www.bizpacreview.com


text:
GAO discovers abundance of wireless security holes
By Alice Lipowicz
Security holes and unauthorized activity are common on federal agency wireless IT networks, the Government Accountability Office said in a report released today.
The GAO said it found security leaks at wireless networks set up by six federal agency headquarters in Washington, D.C. For security reasons, the GAO does not name the agencies.
"Specifically, we were able to detect wireless networks at each of the agencies from outside of their facilities. Wireless-enabled devices were operating with insecure configurations at all six of the agencies," including 90 laptop computers with improper configurations at one agency, the GAO said.
And the GAO apparently discovered hackers. "Finally, there was unauthorized wireless activity at all of the agencies that had not been detected by their monitoring programs," the report said.
In some cases, the unauthorized activity may be the result of outside links to wireless access points within the agency's traditional wired network environment without the knowledge of the agency's CIO.
"Agency information security officials might be unaware that wireless networks are being used and would therefore be unable to take the appropriate mitigating actions," the GAO said.
Furthermore, federal IT executives may be buying wireless-enabled IT devices without realizing it. "An agency may inadvertently procure wireless network components that could pose risks to its enterprise," the GAO said.
Wireless networks have become popular at federal agencies because of their flexibility and ease of installation. But many agencies are not deploying effective security controls, resulting in a potential of data loss, modification or disclosure, the GAO said.
Despite the need for controls, nine out of 24 federal agencies contacted by the GAO reported they have not issued policies on wireless networks, and 13 agencies reported they have not established requirements for configuring or setting up wireless networks in a secure manner.
"Further, the majority of federal agencies lack wireless network monitoring to ensure compliance with agency policies, prevent signal leakage and detect unauthorized wireless devices," the GAO said.
In addition, 18 federal agencies do not provide training programs on wireless security for their employees or for contractors.
The GAO said it is recommending that the director of the Office of Management and Budget instruct agencies to include wireless networks in their information security programs.
Alice Lipowicz is a staff writer covering government 2.0, homeland security and other IT policies for Federal Computer Week.


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A COUNCILLOR has suggested putting up gates at the entrance to one of Wick's impressive buildings, the town hall, to deny loitering youths from getting access.
The fortification proposal for the one-time civic centre, by Councillor Graeme Smith, is a measure of the concern being felt, locally, about groups of youths making a nuisance of themselves in the town centre and commandeering the pavements, to such an extent, that citizens have to step onto the road to get past, and feel intimidated. He floated the gates sanction at the monthly meeting the Royal Burgh of Wick Community Council, this week, but no decision was taken on it.
There are five entry points at the front of the town hall and it's one of the groups' regular haunts. Mr Smith, who is Highland councillor as well as a member of the community council, said the gates when locked, would keep the youths out of the town hall forecourt which he claimed was being used as a toilet, at times. "Respect seems to have gone by the board" he added.
Councillor Wendy Campbell said that the loitering youths were causing "a lot of hassle" in the town centre.
She continued: "Stepping onto the road is the only way for local people to get by, and that's not safe. All we are asking is a little bit of respect." Mrs Campbell added that it wasn't unknown for some women to have to plan a longer route home, in order to avoid the groups.
Acting police sergeant, James McConnachie sympathised with members in a problem that warranted "a robust approach". However, he said that while they moved the youths on, it either resulted in the problem going to another part of the town, or they returned to their original stance once the police had left, using their mobiles to keep each other up-to-date, and returning when the coast was clear. Police action was limited as the youths were not committing an offence.
Sgt McConnachie said that the talk was an idea worth considering along with other possible measures. Replying to another concern about youths drinking in the street, he said that officers had confiscated alcohol on occasions and would continue to do so.
He instanced cases where offenders were taken into the police station and their parents summoned.
However, Mr Smith made the point that, sometimes, the parents could not be contacted because they were out drinking.
"We are living in a drink culture", he added.
councils concerns to the area commander, Chief Inspector Matthew Reiss.
IT appears that the Gaelic signs controversy is set to flare up again. Mr Smith also warned that following the success of the National Mod in Caithness, the vexed question of Gaelic signs was to be "revisited" by the authority's Gaelic Committee with a view to imposing the bi-lingual sineage on the Highlands.
Replying to an inquiry about the timescale on the proposed new council offices in Market Square, Wick, area ward manager, David Sutherland, said that they expected to get the go-ahead in the capital budget in May or June, and given another year for planning it would probably be a year to 18 months before work started. The contract will involve the demolition of the present county buildings.


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