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La biologia è un tema della narrativa particolarmente presente nell'ambito della fantascienza. La narrativa impiega sia aspetti reali della scienza come temi o dispositivi di trama, sia estensioni e applicazioni pseudoscientifiche come l'invenzione di organismi immaginari.

Tramite la biologia speculativa, autori con sufficiente abilità sono in grado di creare ciò che la critica letteraria Helen N. Parker chiama "parabole biologiche" che descrivono la condizione umana da un punto di vista alieno. D'altra parte, animali e piante alieni immaginari, in particolare umanoidi, sono stati spesso creati per semplice divertimento. Sam Levin e altri zoologi sostengono che, anche su altri pianeti, la selezione naturale potrebbe generare organismi alieni in qualche modo simili agli umani.

La fantascienza può sottendere un messaggio ottimista o pessimista: Parker afferma che, nella narrativa biologica, il pessimismo è di gran lunga la prospettiva dominante. Le prime opere di fantascienza - come i romanzi di HG Wells - esploravano le nefaste conseguenze dell'evoluzione darwiniana, della spietata concorrenza e del lato oscuro della natura umana. Il mondo nuovo (1932) di Aldous Huxley presenta un'altrettanto cupa analisi dell'ingegneria genetica.

La biologia immaginaria ha inoltre permesso ai maestri della fantascienza - tra i quali Stanley Weinbaum, Isaac Asimov, John Brunner e Ursula Le Guin - di creare "parabole biologiche", o verosimili rappresentazioni di mondi alieni in grado di descrivere, per analogia, la Terra e l'umanità.

Aspetti della biologia
Branche delle scienze biologiche comunemente impiegate nella narrativa includono la teoria dell'evoluzione, la patologia, la genetica, la fisiologia, il parassitismo e la simbiosi, l'etologia e l'ecologia.

Evoluzione
L'evoluzione, inclusa l'evoluzione speculativa, è stato un tema importante nella narrativa sin dalla fine del XIX secolo. L'utilizzo di tematiche riguardanti l'evoluzione ebbe tuttavia inizio ancora prima dell'epoca di Charles Darwin, riflettendo le teorie ortogenetiche e lamarckiane, come nel romanzo Lumen (1887) di Camille Flammarion. Aspetti della teoria dell'evoluzione darwiniana si ritrovano comunemente nella letteratura, che siano essi ottimistici (l'evoluzione dell'umanità verso la perfezione) o pessimistici (le terribili conseguenze dell'interazione tra la natura umana e la lotta per la sopravvivenza). L'evoluzione speculativa ipotizza inoltre come l'umanità potrà essere rimpiazzata da altre specie o da macchine intelligenti.

Patologia

La malattia, reale o fittizia, ricopre un ruolo significativo nella letteratura e specialmente nella fantascienza: per esempio la malattia di Huntington e la tubercolosi compaiono in molti libri e film, ma anche pandemie che minacciano l'intera umanità, come nel romanzo Andromeda di Michael Crichton (1969). La fantascienza immagina inoltre i possibili avanzamenti della medicina. Il settimanale The Economist ha suggerito una relazione tra il sentimento generale di "paura e disagio" misurato dall'orologio dell'apocalisse e il numero di romanzi apocalittici che descrivono minacce, inclusi virus mortali, che portano al "quasi annientamento o la totale estinzione della razza umana".

La tubercolosi era una malattia comune nel XIX secolo e, nella letteratura russa, appare in diverse importanti opere. Quello del nichilista tubercolotico è un tema che ricorre frequentemente nei romanzi di Fëdor Dostoevskij: per esempio nel personaggio di Katerina Ivanovna in Delitto e castigo (1866), Kirillov ne I demoni (1873), oltre a Ippolit e Marie ne L'idiota (1869). Anche Turgenev, in Padri e figli (1862), fa ammalare Bazarov di tubercolosi. Nella letteratura inglese vittoriana, tra i principali romanzi sulla tubercolosi vi sono Dombey e figlio (1848) di Charles Dickens, Nord e sud (1855) di Elizabeth Gaskell ed Eleanor (1900) di Mary Augusta Ward.

Genetica
La narrativa dal XIX secolo affronta aspetti della genetica, tra cui la mutazione e l'ibridazione, la clonazione (come ne Il mondo nuovo), l'ingegneria genetica, e l'eugenetica. La genetica è una scienza giovane, iniziata nel 1900 con il ritrovamento della ricerca di Gregor Mendel sull'eredità dei caratteri nelle piante di pisello. Durante il XX secolo si sono sviluppate nuove branche della scienza, come la biologia molecolare e l'ingegneria genetica, e tecniche, come il sequenziamento del DNA e la clonazione. Il movimento eugenetico ha messo in risalto le problematiche etiche legate alla modifica del genoma umano. Molti romanzi e film di fantascienza utilizzano due aspetti della genetica come meccanismi narrativi: un incidente genetico con conseguenze disastrose oppure la fattibilità e la desiderabilità dell'alterazione genetica deliberata. La narrativa spesso tratta questi argomenti scientifici in modo irregolare e irrealistico. Il film Gattaca (1997), pur tentando una rappresentazione realistica della scienza genetica, è stato criticato dagli scienziati. Nel romanzo  Jurassic Park (1990), Michael Crichton descrive la clonazione di interi genomi di dinosauri dai resti fossili di specie estinte milioni di anni fa e il loro uso per creare animali viventi. L'autore ha affermato di essersi ispirato a ciò che era al tempo noto sulla genetica e la biologia molecolare per creare una storia "divertente" e "stimolante".

Nonostante la genetica fosse nel XIX secolo una scienza ancora agli inizi, autori dell'epoca come Mary Shelley e H. G. Wells seppero creare opere di fantascienza come, rispettivamente, Frankenstein o il moderno Prometeo (Frankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus, 1818) e L'isola del dottor Moreau (The Island of Dr. Moreau, 1896), in cui si esplorano temi come esperimenti biologici, mutazione e ibridazione, oltre alle loro conseguenze disastrose, aprendo un'importante discussione filosofica riguardante la natura dell'umanità e le responsabilità per la scienza.

Fisiologia
Lo scienziato protagonista del film Frankenstein (1931) di James Whale utilizza l'elettricità per dare vita al mostro. A sua volta, Mary Shelley si era ispirata agli esperimenti di fisiologia di Luigi Galvani, che aveva utilizzato scariche elettriche per sollecitare contrazioni nei muscoli di una rana morta. Le scariche elettriche sono oggi utilizzate nei pacemaker per mantenere il ritmo cardiaco e nei defibrillatori per la rianimazione.

L'abilità di generare scariche elettriche è un elemento narrativo fondamentale nel romanzo fantascientifico Ragazze elettriche (The Power, 2016) di Naomi Alderman. Nel libro, le donne sviluppano la capacità di generare potenti scariche elettriche dalle dita con le quali sono in grado di stordire o uccidere le proprie vittime. Alcuni pesci, come l'anguilla elettrica (Electrophorus electricus), creano potenti campi elettrici utilizzando muscoli modificati allineati in serie come le celle di una batteria. Nel romanzo, l'autrice fa effettivamente riferimento a tali pesci e all'elettricità generata nei muscoli striati.

Parassitismo

Sin dai tempi antichi, e particolarmente nel XIX secolo, la narrativa ha frequentemente descritto creature parassitiche come per esempio Lilith, un demone che si nutre di sangue. Tra queste creature vi sono gli alieni mostruosi nei film di fantascienza, che però a volte risultano perfino meno raccapriccianti di ciò che esiste in natura. Autori e sceneggiatori si sono ampiamente ispirati alla biologia dei parassiti reali: parassitoidi, parassiti che influenzano il comportamento delle proprie vittime, parassiti di cova, castrazione parassitaria e le molte forme di vampirismo. Alcuni parassiti immaginari, come i letali parassitoidi xenomorfi in Alien, sono diventati estremamente famosi. La mostruosità ha un fascino innegabile: lo scrittore Matt Kaplan osserva che, nonostante osservare mostri induca sintomi di stress (come l'aumento del battito cardiaco e della sudorazione), il pubblico chiaramente gradisce le opere in cui appaiono queste creature. Kaplan paragona questo comportamento apparentemente masochista al piacere di gustare cibi molto piccanti, che provocano sensazioni di bruciore alla bocca, sudorazione e lacrimazione. Lo psicologo Paul Rozin suggerisce che si provi piacere nel percepire stress quando si sa di non essere veramente in pericolo.

Simbiosi
La simbiosi (mutualismo) è spesso utilizzata come elemento narrativo in particolare nella fantascienza. Si distingue dal parassitismo in quanto porta mutuo vantaggio agli organismi coinvolti, mentre il parassita infligge danno al suo ospite. I simbionti immaginari spesso conferiscono poteri speciali ai propri ospiti. A partire dalla seconda guerra mondiale, la fantascienza ha iniziato a descrivere relazioni più mutualistiche con le creature aliene, come per esempio nel romanzo Il dono di Farhome (By Furies Possessed, 1970) di Ted White.  Nell'episodio La minaccia fantasma della saga di Guerre stellari, Qui-Gon Jinn afferma che i personaggi dotati di più grandi quantità di simbionti microscopici chiamati "midiclorian" percepiscano e siano capaci di utilizzare la Forza.

Etologia

L'etologia - lo studio del comportamento degli animali - è uno dei temi del romanzo La ragazza della palude, pubblicato nel 2018 dalla studiosa di fauna selvatica Delia Owens. La protagonista, Kya, abbandonata dai suoi genitori all'età di sei anni, cresce da sola in una palude della Carolina del Nord, imparando dagli animali a mimetizzarsi e a cacciare. La "ragazza della palude", come viene chiamata dai locali, legge un articolo di etologia intitolato Sneaky Fuckers e utilizza queste conoscenze per sedurre i ragazzi locali. Kya paragona sé stessa a una lucciola femmina, che utilizza un segnale "ingannevole" per attirare e uccidere i maschi di altre specie, e a una mantide femmina, che inizia a mangiare la testa e il torace del suo compagno mentre il suo addome ancora copula con lei "in perfetta armonia": "Le femmine d'insetto, pensò Kya, sanno come trattare gli amanti."

Ecologia
L'ecologia - lo studio delle relazioni tra gli organismi e il loro ambiente - appare nella narrativa in romanzi come Dune (1965) di Frank Herbert, la Trilogia di Marte  (1992) di Kim Stanley Robinson e L'altro inizio (MaddAdam, 2013) di Margaret Atwood. L'ecologia è uno dei temi principali della saga di Dune, le cui forme di vita includono vermi delle sabbie giganti per i quali l'acqua è fatale e animali simili a topi in grado di sopravvivere nelle condizioni desertiche del pianeta. La saga di Dune ha fortemente influenzato il movimento ambientalista del periodo.

Negli anni settanta nasce l'"ecofiction", cioè la narrativa di fantasia che si ispira all'impatto dell'attività umana sull'ambiente, che include opere di svariati generi inclusi tra gli altri il realismo magico, il romanticismo e la narrativa speculativa. I due filoni principali dell'ecofiction sono le storie che riguardano l'impatto dell'uomo sulla natura e le storie sulla natura (piuttosto che sugli esseri umani). Un'antologia di ecofiction del 1978 include opere del XIX e XX secolo di autori come Ray Bradbury, John Steinbeck, Edgar Allan Poe, Daphne du Maurier, EB White, Kurt Vonnegut Jr., Frank Herbert, HH Munro, J. G. Ballard e Isaac Asimov.

Organismi immaginari

La narrativa, in particolare la fantascienza, ha creato un gran numero di specie immaginarie, sia aliene sia terrestri. In particolare, l'evoluzione (o biologia) speculativa, consiste nella progettazione, su basi scientifiche, di organismi immaginari con presupposti particolari.

Funzioni
La biologia narrativa ricopre un gran numero di funzioni nel cinema e nella letteratura, inclusa la progettazione di mostri terrificanti, l'espressione della visione del mondo di un autore, e la creazione di alieni con funzione di parabola biologica atta a descrivere la condizione umana. La biologia reale, come quella riguardante le malattie infettive, fornisce pure una varietà di spunti, sia personali sia altamente distopici, che trovano posto nella narrativa.

Mostri e alieni
La biologia immaginaria nella fantascienza è spesso utilizzata per descrivere specie aliene plausibili, a volte semplicemente allo scopo di provocare orrore e a volte per invitare una riflessione. Tra le specie aliene più famose si possono includere i marziani descritti da H. G. Wells nel suo romanzo La guerra dei mondi del 1898, ma anche i mostri dagli occhi d'insetto della fantascienza dell'inizio del XX secolo,  i terribili parassitoidi della serie cinematografica di Alien e gli insetti giganti dei film dell'inizio del XX secolo.

Gli alieni umanoidi sono comuni nella fantascienza poiché gli autori tendono a rifarsi agli unici esempi di vita intelligente di cui sono familiari: gli esseri umani. Lo zoologo Sam Levin afferma che gli alieni potrebbero effettivamente tendere ad assomigliare agli umani se evolutisi in ecosistemi guidati dalla selezione naturale. Luis Villazon nota che gli animali mobili devono necessariamente possedere parti posteriori e anteriori. Esattamente come avviene per gli animali bilateri sulla Terra, gli organi di senso degli animali extraterrestri tenderebbero a raccogliersi nella parte anteriore del corpo, formando una testa dove la maggior parte degli stimoli verrebbero ad accumularsi. Le gambe potrebbero rivelarsi utili per ridurre l'attrito e facilitare la coordinazione in creature dall'assetto corporeo simmetrico. Villazon teorizza anche che l'uso degli utensili possa essere una costante tra gli organismi senzienti, nel qual caso saranno dotati di mani e di almeno altri due arti su cui appoggiarsi. In breve, è probabile che eventuali forme di vita intelligenti avranno una forma generalmente umanoide, sebbene siano possibili anche corpi simili a polpi o stelle marine.

Molte piante immaginarie furono create nella narrativa del XX secolo. Tra queste, i trifidi, ovverosia piante semoventi, velenose e carnivore ideate da John Wyndham nel suo romanzo Il giorno dei trifidi del 1951. Samuel Butler, in Erewhon (1872), è forse il primo autore a immaginare piante, in questo caso patate, dotate di "bassa astuzia". Solo alla fine del XIX secolo le piante iniziano ad attaccare i viaggiatori incauti: tra i primi racconti vi sono The Man-Eating Tree, un romanzo del 1881 di Phil Robinson in cui si descrive una pianta carnivora in grado di catturare esseri umani con i suoi rami, poi The Devil Tree of El Dorado (1897) di Frank Aubrey e infine Il terrore purpureo (Purple Terror, 1899) di Fred White. Il racconto di Algernon Blackwood I salici (The Willows, 1907) riguarda alberi malvagi capaci di manipolare la mente delle persone.

Ottimismo e pessimismo

La fantascienza e la biologia speculativa portano messaggi ottimisti o pessimisti a seconda della visione del mondo dell'autore. Mentre le visioni ottimistiche del progresso tecnologico sono abbastanza comuni nella fantascienza hard, le visioni pessimistiche del futuro dell'umanità sono molto più comuni nella narrativa basata sulla biologia.

Il racconto The Last Judgment del biologo evoluzionista JBS Haldane, pubblicato nella raccolta del 1927 Possible Worlds, presenta una delle rare prospettive ottimistiche. Altri esempi di narrativa ottimista sono il romanzo Le guide del tramonto (1953) di Arthur C. Clarke e Galassie come granelli di sabbia (1959) di Brian W. Aldiss. In entrambi i romanzi, l'autore immagina che gli esseri umani del futuro evolveranno capacità mentali divine.

Sin dagli albori della fantascienza, altri autori invece hanno analizzato il lato più spietato dell'evoluzione darwiniana e del principio secondo il quale solo i più adatti potranno sopravvivere. Tra questi, uno dei più importanti è certamente H. G Wells e i suoi romanzi La macchina del tempo (1895), L'isola del dottor Moreau (1896) e La guerra dei mondi (1898), i quali descrivono pessimisticamente il lato più oscuro della natura umana nella lotta per la sopravvivenza. Il cupo romanzo Il mondo nuovo (1931) di Aldous Huxley illustra invece le opprimenti conseguenze dell'ingegneria genetica applicata alla riproduzione umana.

Parabole biologiche

La critica letteraria Helen N. Parker suggerisce che la biologia speculativa potrebbe servire come parabola biologica utile a descrivere la condizione umana, mettendo in contatto la natura umana con quella aliena e consentendo all'autore vedere l'umanità da una prospettiva aliena. Parker nota che questa è un'operazione complessa e conseguentemente solo pochi grandi autori, come per esempio Stanley G. Weinbaum, Isaac Asimov, John Brunner e Ursula K. Le Guin, si sono cimentati nell'impresa. A suo avviso, questi maestri della fantascienza hanno saputo offrire caratterizzazioni straordinariamente complete della vita extraterrestre. In particolare Weinbaum aveva creato un "bizzarro assortimento" di creature intelligenti. Nei romanzi di tutti e quattro gli scrittori - afferma Parker - la narrazione si sofferma sulle interazioni tra alieni e umani, creando profonde analogie tra i due tipi di vita, il che fornisce un'opportunità di osservare la natura umana presente e futura. Il romanzo Un'odissea marziana (1943) di Weinbaum pone domande sulle eventuali modalità di comunicazione tra alieni e umani, razze i cui processi mentali sono completamente diversi. Nel romanzo Neanche gli dei (1972) Asimov esplora le possibilità narrative offerte dalla presenza di universi paralleli e assegna agli alieni il ruolo di protagonisti. Il romanzo Eclissi totale di John Brunner del 1974 crea un intero mondo alieno ispirato alle minacce presenti sulla Terra.

Ne La mano sinistra delle tenebre (1969), Le Guin offre la visione di un universo di pianeti abitati da "uomini" discendenti dal pianeta Hain. Nel libro, l'ambasciatore Genly Ai dei mondi civilizzati dell'Ecumene visita il pianeta dei Gethen, che descrive come "involuti" e "introversi". Quando si ritrova in una situazione pericolosa, deve fuggire attraversando la calotta polare al seguito di una disperata ma ben programmata spedizione guidata da un Lord Cancelliere getheniano in esilio, Estraven. I getheniani sono creature ermafrodite di sesso variabile che attraversano periodi di estro, chiamati "kemmer". Durante il "kemmer", ogni getheniano assume temporaneamente un ruolo rispettivamente maschile o femminile, a seconda che incontri un partner sessuale femmina o maschio. Secondo Parker, questa biologia fittizia riflette ed esemplifica le dualità opposte ma unite del taoismo come luce e oscurità, mascolinità e femminilità, yin e yang. Esiste anche una simile opposizione tra i personaggi di Genly Ai, che redige rapporti accuratamente oggettivi, e di Estraven il/la quale tiene un diario altamente personale. In tal modo, l'avventura e la stranezza della fantascienza esemplificano la natura umana.

Struttura e temi

La biologia a volte fornisce struttura e temi per i romanzi moderni. Nel romanzo di Thomas Mann La morte a Venezia (1912) i sentimenti del protagonista seguono l'andamento di un'epidemia di colera, che finisce per ucciderlo. Il romanzo di Richard Flanagan  La vita sommersa di Gould (Gould's Book of Fish, 2001) utilizza, come titoli dei capitoli e come ispirazione per diversi personaggi, le ventisei illustrazioni di specie ittiche australiane presenti nell'opera dall'artista e galeotto William Buelow Gould.

Realismo
Il genetista Dan Koboldt nota che la scienza nella fantascienza è spesso eccessivamente semplificata, fienendo così per rafforzare le scorrettezze scientifiche nell'immaginazione popolare. Per esempio, il film Gattaca (1997) rafforza l'idea, ormai sfatata, secondo la quale il destino di una persona è determinato dal proprio codice genetico, oltre a suggerire che i parenti di primo grado posseggano caratteristiche fisiche simili. Il colore degli occhi dei bambini, Koboldt spiega, cambia durante la crescita e infatti gli adulti con gli occhi verdi o marroni spesso avevano gli occhi azzurri da bambini. Inoltre i genitori con occhi marroni possono avere figli con gli occhi azzurri, "e viceversa". Il fenotipo che determina la quantità di melanina è controllato da circa 10 geni diversi e dunque i tratti ereditari possono essere meglio intesi come una gamma di variabilità genetica piuttosto che come una contrapposizione tra blu e marrone. Altri autori nella raccolta curata Putting the Science in Fiction descrivono un'ampia varietà di errori nella rappresentazione di altre scienze biologiche.

Note

Bibliografia
Fonti

Narrativa fantascientifica
Biologia


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South East and London
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25 years on: Propaganda – Dr. Mabuse and Bronski Beat – Smalltown Boy
by 5:4 August 30, 2009 • 00:12
written by 5:4 August 30, 2009 • 00:12
This year marks the 25th anniversary of two of the most striking songs of the 1980s—as well as being, in my opinion, among the best songs of all time.
The first is "Dr. Mabuse" by German synthpop outfit Propaganda, inspired by the character made famous by Fritz Lang. Released to a modicum of chart success in March 1984 (it reached No. 27 in the UK chart the following month), my first contact with the song was a few months later, on the compilation album Now That's What I Call Music 3. Propaganda spent much of their time in the shadow of mightier acts; they hailed from Dusseldorf, home to none other than Kraftwerk, and during their time on the renowned ZTT label—formed out of the perfect collision of Paul Morley and Trevor Horn—continuously played second fiddle to Frankie Goes To Hollywood, whose song "Relax", released a couple of months earlier, had taken the label into the stratosphere of success (aided in no small part by the BBC's laughable "ban"). This, together with their particularly European (i.e. non-British) sound—crowned by Claudia Brücken's sharply accented vocals—meant that Propaganda's popularity in the UK never lived up to their merits. Not that they were the most imaginative band in the world; they certainly weren't, but "Dr. Mabuse" is an outstanding song, surpassing everything they did after, and outclassing most other songs that year. A feature of the ZTT label—rarely an advantageous or helpful one—was that remixes of songs released as singles were made in abundance. Furthermore, the same version often ended up with a plethora of subtly different titles and accompanying verbiage, which may have been something to do with releases in different territories or even the label losing the plot (clearly the case on some occasions), but was most likely the influence of Paul Morley, someone not exactly known for restraint where words are concerned. "Dr. Mabuse" is no stranger to this melée of remixes and names, but thankfully not to the same extent as Frankie Goes To Hollywood; the number of versions is relatively low.
The definitive version of "Dr. Mabuse" is undoubtedly the one lasting approximately 10'17", known for the most part as "Das Testaments des Mabuse" (the apparently longer version on the A Secret Wish album simply has "Strength to Dream" segued into its conclusion*). This is, in essence, the complete rendition of the song; the shorter version, released as the 7-inch single, is simply the first five minutes of "Das Testaments des Mabuse", faded before the lengthy drum interlude. The song conjures all kinds of excitement in its introduction, with the sounds of coins coming to rest on metal overlaid by strangely sliding synths, before alighting on a chord that just won't sit still, and Brücken whispers/intones "Ma-bus-e… why does it hurt when my heart misses a beat?"—it's one of the great intros of modern pop. And then, with a crash, the song proper strikes up, smashing its industrial percussion left, right and centre, leading to the complete opposite of anything that could be described as a "verse". There's a fragment of melody, admittedly, a brief, portentous monologue, Brücken's trademark "Sell him your soul … Never look back" refrain, and a restless pounding bassline (perhaps related to, but so much more interesting than, the simple octaves established by New Order's "Blue Monday" the previous year), but quite which parts of this pertains to verse, chorus or what is entirely ambiguous. And so it goes on, interspersed with some glorious bridge passages peppered with unusual sounds; this is one of the great engaging facets of "Dr. Mabuse", its array of fascinating noises coupled to an incessant rhythmic drive. From the "middle 8" (only in the 7-inch version; in "Das Testaments des Mabuse" it's hard to know what to call it) synthetic strings are added to the fray; and after the hectic central percussion episode, which ends in fairly avant-garde mayhem, the song enters a lengthy and curiously four-square coda. It's extremely rare to find a song that plays so fast and loose with conventional structures, while sounding so tautly organised; simultaneously enthralling and unsettling, it's a brilliant achievement.
Of the unavoidable remixes and versions of this mighty number, most can be ignored as they fall short of "Das Testaments des Mabuse", both in duration and in quality. The album Outside World features no fewer than three. The lengthy "DJ Promo Version" is—despite being largely identical—a horrid fiasco, with hard-edged digital distortions that appear to be present by error rather than design. The "13th Life Mix" is a much better effort, effectively an instrumental remix; although it's marred by some poorly executed joins in the material (there's a 'cut and paste' feel throughout), and a pretty weird positioning of the fadeout, it does at least allow the disparate elements of the original—the muscular bassline in particular—to have some focus. However, one can't help feeling it's a mix put together in haste. And "The Lesson (Remix Of 'Dr. Mabuse')" goes through the motions, placing its assorted fragments into an entirely amorphous mould that bears no resemblance to the original. "(The ninth life of…) Dr. Mabuse" is found on pretty much all the 12-inch releases as well as the Japanese CD single, and is simply a mess, much of the music heard in reverse before pointlessly fading to a bolted-on coda. The one exception to this litany of bowdlerisations, though, is the first of Paul Morley's vocal-less revisions titled "Abuse" on the remix album Wishful Thinking (fans of the '80s movie Some Kind of Wonderful will immediately recognise this version as the music from the film's opening titles). It's a true instrumental version, as energetic and engaging as the original—just a shame it's only 3½ minutes long.
The second song to which i'd like to pay homage is Bronski Beat's "Smalltown Boy", released a few months later, in June 1984. "Smalltown Boy" may well be one of the most heartfelt debut singles by any act, recounting the tale of a boy cast out from his home for being gay, and the tribulations he faces in contemporary society for being open about his sexuality. As all three members of Bronski Beat were themselves openly gay, these lyrics were clearly close to their heart, given remarkable expression through singer Jimmy Somerville. Somerville's voice is one of the marvels of British pop, possessing the range and athleticism of a modern-day counter-tenor, at times soaring to simply astonishing heights—yet always sounding fundamentally masculine; the pop world had never heard anything like it. It's gratifying that such an understated track (for all its beats, it's a downcast, painful song) should reach No. 3 in the UK charts.
Equally gratifying, the number of versions of this song is very low and easy to negotiate. (Having said that, like all great songs, it's suffered at the hands of those—unscrupulous and incompetent in equal measure—wishing to cash in on its iconic stature. An execrable series of acoustic and trance versions were released in Spain and Italy (where else?) as well as Germany in 1994, but this egregious release should be consigned to oblivion). The original 7-inch clocked in at just under four minutes, but almost immediately this gave way to a longer, five-minute version (sometimes referred to, erroneously, as the 'extended mix') that includes a fairly lengthy middle 8; by the sounds of things, this is actually the original, as the shorter version sounds somewhat clunky in its transition from the second chorus back to the final verse. The song uses the New Order-esque octave bassline i alluded to above, but made simpler and, at first, positively quiet and restrained. Indeed, the 30-second intro is laden with melancholy, from the reticent melody, hesitantly picked out, to the plangent F minor9 suspension produced as Somerville sings "To your soul" the second time. Most striking, though, is when Somerville's voice, initially soft and low, launches upward for the word "cry", literally crying it out; it's a breathtaking and actually rather shocking moment. After which, the ubiquitous beats begin, but are noticeably less 'punchy' than one might have expected; this is no disco hit. In fact, the beats relent throughout the verses, yielding and giving marked emphasis to the plaintive lyrics; and the chorus, when it arrives (continuing the poignant dissonances from earlier), seems equally concerned with not detracting from the importance of the verses, being brief and minimalistic. The only moment of pure 'popiness' comes in the middle 8, although even this is tempered by the lyrics' repetitions of "Cry boy, cry".
Seven years later, in 1991, Stephen Hague remixed the song for a re-release in aid of the homeless charity Shelter. Hague clearly recognised the power of the simplicity found in the original, and his remix is little more than a slightly polished version, essentially retaining the sounds and timbres of the original (although with an ever-so-slightly better rendition of the intro). Another version was made by Harvey Goldberg for the remix album Hundreds and Thousands, and while it emphasises the rather nice synthetic sax countermelody, makes changes to the original purely for change's sake; ultimately more irritating than interesting. The definitive version must be the "Extended Version" found on the original 1984 12-inch release. Clocking in at exactly nine minutes, the Extended Version features the entire song sung twice, the latter of which is the same as the 7-inch version. The first sing-through, though, is a revelation: stripped down and sparse, with little more than an ominous bass glowering beneath—not a beat in sight. Furthermore, the vocal is entirely different, sung in more improvisatory manner, Somerville's voice exquisitely passionate and fragile. It gradually segues into the familiar version, but taking its time, with no sense of impatience; in that sense, it's not a "club mix" in the slightest, but rather an opportunity to savour what is a simply amazing song. i've never found the Extended Version on any CDs, so if anyone knows of this version on CD somewhere, i'd be very pleased to find that out!
Bronski BeatGermanypopPropagandaUK
Per Christian Frankplads August 6, 2010 • 22:06 - 22:06
Great analysis of both songs. It's nice that someone delves into something a lot of people (like myself) have a strong relationship with, yet is buried so deep in pop history.
Anonymous March 17, 2012 • 12:27 - 12:27
Really appreciate this Propaganda – info and d/l.
Loads of good 12" around in those days from the more enlightened who saw the chance to 'expand and enhance' as opposed to filling the vinyl with repetition.
Bronkski album was a real goody in its day.
Bookmarked your site.
Anonymous June 10, 2012 • 20:02 - 20:02
Is the Das Testament Des Mabuse a vinyl rip?
Or is it from the 1980s Japanese CD single?
Thanks as ever for the illuminating info!
5:4 June 10, 2012 • 20:04 - 20:04
Mike – it's from the CD; thanks for the comment!
Per Christian Frankplads October 8, 2013 • 12:06 - 12:06
The extended 9m00s version of "Smalltown Boy" is on many compilations, I think? One place is on the 3xCD compilation "so80s Volume 2 – Presented By Blank & Jones".
Anti-Spam Quiz: Five against what?
© 2008-2020 Simon Cummings


I haven't read any of Marissa Meyer books so I am not familiar with her writing style and I have to say I'd happily add her to my list of authors after having read Heartless.
So being a fan of retellings and Alice in Wonderland, it was a wonderful surprise to be receiving it in and owlcrate box.
Before Catherine was Queen of Hearts, she was just a girl who wanted to fall in love and open up her own bakery. We cannot always get what we wish for.
It was heartbreaking to read though all the events that made her stronger and have reality hit her in the face.
An epic read that I would totally recommend. Flawless creative writing and it was hard not to get attached to all those amazing characters and not fall in love with Catherine herself.


text:
Q: XmlDoucment how to get bottom xmlnodes? In xml document, I want to get the Bottom xml node, how can I get the last xml nodes
<Books>
  <book>
    <author> sasi </author>
    <pdate>2013-01-02</pdate>
  </book>
  <book>
    <author> surya</author>
    <pdate> 2013-02-02</pdate>
  </book>
  <book>
    <author>dolly</author>
    <pdate> 2013-04-01</pdate>
  </book>
</Books>

from the above I want get the last <book> node in the xml document.

A: Try this:
var xml = @"<Books>
                <book>
                  <author> sasi </author>
                  <pdate>2013-01-02</pdate>
                </book>
                <book>
                  <author> surya</author>
                  <pdate> 2013-02-02</pdate>
                </book>
                <book>
                  <author>dolly</author>
                  <pdate> 2013-04-01</pdate>
                </book>
            </Books>";
var doc = new XmlDocument();
doc.LoadXml(xml);
var node = doc.FirstChild.LastChild;
Console.WriteLine(node.OuterXml);

Outputs:
<book><author>dolly</author><pdate> 2013-04-01</pdate></book>

Alternatively, you may select the last book child under the Books element:
doc.SelectSingleNode("Books/book[last()]")

or the last book element no matter where they are in the document:
doc.SelectSingleNode("//book[last()]");

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaStackExchange


text:
Home > Products > Army Aviator Badges
SKU: 1106 AVIAT-NK
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United States Army Aviator Badge
The Army Aviator Badge is awarded to soldiers who have completed the necessary training and proficiency tests conducted by the U.S. Army Aviation Center. In the modern military, Army and Air Force Aviator Badges are issued in three degrees: Basic, Senior, and Command/Master/Chief. The higher degrees are denoted by a star or star with wreath above the badge. For advanced versions of the badge, Senior Aviator Badge recipients require 1,500 flying hours in aircraft or seven years from basic rating date while Master Aviator Badge recipients need 3,000 hours in aircraft or 15 years from basic rating date. The basic version, is simply called the Aviator Badge and is awarded to soldiers who have passed the appropriate Army schools and testings.
Abbreviation: ARAVBAD


text:
The National Film and Television School (NFTS) is a film, television and games school established in 1971 and based at Beaconsfield Studios in Beaconsfield, Buckinghamshire, England. It is featured in the 2021 ranking by The Hollywood Reporter of the top 15 International film schools.

Its community of students makes around a hundred and fifty films a year on courses that are over 90% practical and unlike courses offered at other UK film schools. As of 2021 it had over 500 students and about a fifteen hundred a year on its short courses delivered in Beaconsfield and at its hubs in Glasgow, Leeds and Cardiff. Beaconsfield Studios consists of film and television stages; animation and production design studios; edit suites; sound post-production facilities; a music recording studio and four dubbing theatres. The school completed an expansion and modernisation programme in early 2017 with new teaching facilities, a third cinema and a new 4K Television Studio.

The BBC stated that the NFTS was the "leading centre of excellence for education in film and television programme making", and noted that it was "relevant to the industry's present and future needs." British Film Magazine once described the NFTS as being one of the few schools to come "very, very close" to guaranteeing a job in the film industry, and named its leader (Powell) a "maverick"; Filmmaking.net named it one of two films schools outside the US which had such a high international reputation.

NFTS student films have been nominated for an Oscar three times in the last six years. Additionally, in 2017 NFTS graduation film, A Love Story, directed and co-written by Anushka Naanayakkara, won the British Short Animation BAFTA at the EE British Academy Film Awards, making it the fourth year in a row that NFTS students have picked up this accolade. This is the second consecutive year that two of NFTS students' graduation films competed for the same prize, with A Love Story up against The Alan Dimension directed and co-written by Jac Clinch. NFTS student films are regularly selected for the top film festivals around the world. In 2016–17 highlights included selections at Cannes and Annecy Animation Festival and top prizes in nearly all the Royal Television Society categories for which they are eligible.

In 2018, the school was the recipient of the "BAFTA Outstanding British Contribution to Cinema Award" at the 71st British Academy Film Awards.

History

The National Film School opened in 1971, the work of four years of planning to create an institution to train personnel for the British film industry. Department of Education and Science had in 1967 recommended the creation of a national film school for the UK, and in 1969 an inquiry led by Lord Lloyd of Hampstead began to develop plans. Colin Young CBE became the founding director in 1971, a post he held for more than 2 decades, at a time when the school produced alumni including Bill Forsyth, Terence Davies, Julien Temple, Beeban Kidron, and Nick Park.

In 2016, the NFTS announced it had received funding to increase the capacity of its site in Beaconsfield including a '4K Digital Content Production Training Studio' (a refit of the 1960s TV studio) and the addition of a number of new MA and diploma courses including Directing & Producing Natural History & Science; Production Technology; Marketing for Film, TV & Games; Graphics & Titles for Television & Film and Creative Business for Entrepreneurs & Executives. In April 2017, it was announced that Nik Powell was to step down as Director of the school, with Jon Wardle succeeding him in the role.

The NFTS holds yearly graduation shows at the Picturehouse Central in Soho, and they were previously held at the BFI Southbank (formerly known as the National Film Theatre). These are highly selective and invite-only events which showcase the students' projects to scouts and industry professionals, ensuring that the students receive maximum exposure.

Awards and nominations

Alumni of the National Film and Television School have gone on to win Oscars, BAFTAs and Emmys as well as film festival prizes from around the world. In the last 6 years student films The Confession (2011), Head Over Heels (2013), The Bigger Picture (2015) have gone on to be nominated for three Oscars, and the graduation film A Love Story won the 2017 BAFTA for Best Short Animation, the fourth year in a row an NFTS animation has won the category.

In 2013 the NFTS graduation film "Miss Todd" won the Student Academy Award for Best Foreign Film presented by Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences. This marked the sixth time the NFTS had won in this category, more than any other Film School outside of the United States. In 2016, The National Film and Television School once again affirmed its place as the number one international film school by winning accolades in all three categories in the CILECT Prize, the global film school awards. The NFTS won "Best Documentary" for The Archipelago, "Best Animation" for Edmond and was awarded second prize in the "Fiction" category for Patriot.

Facilities

The school's facilities were expanded in 2008 with the addition of new teaching spaces, public spaces and a new cinema, designed by Glenn Howells Architects. Upon its completion in 2008, the strikingly modern three-story building (see photo above) won a coveted RIBA prize. In June 2009 it was formally named The Oswald Morris Building in honour of veteran cinematographer Ossie Morris.

Two new buildings and one refurbished building opened in January 2017. This included the refurbishment of the 4K Digital Content Production Training Studio, located in the original 1960s TV studio which was completely refurbished with state-of-the-art equipment. In July 2017 this building was named the "Sky Studios at the NFTS" building, with the Production Galleries named "The Sony Gallery". This studio is primarily used by the Camera, Sound & Vision Mixing for Television Production diploma course and the Directing and Producing Television Entertainment MA course.

Inside the "Channel 4 Rose Building", there are new facilities for the Games Design and Development and Digital Effects MA courses, as well as an extra cinema, café and incubation space to enable graduates to start new businesses and accommodate new ground-breaking courses, enhancing the NFTS' already diverse programme.

A new teaching block on the north of the site houses a new studio, edit suites, dedicated suites for the Sound Design MA and Graphics and Titles for Film and Television diploma courses, as well as multi-purpose teaching spaces.

There are four dedicated stages on site:
 Stage 1 (Main Stage) –  (approx.) – traditional wooden floor film stage with permanent scenic cloth
 Studio 2 (TV Studio) –  (approx.) – concrete resin floor television studio
 Stage 3 (Rehearsal Stage) –  (approx.) – traditional wooden floor film stage
 Stage 4 (Teaching Block Stage) –  (approx.) – resin floor multi-purpose stage

There are also a number of dedicated spaces for animation and music recording.

Funding

Until its repeal in 1986, the school was funded partly through a tax on cinema ticket sales known as the Eady Levy, named after then UK Treasury official Sir Wilfred Eady. The NFTS has since been funded by the UK Government, via (today) the Department for Culture, Media and Sport, and the television and film industries.

Key Partner Sponsors include the Film Distributors' Association and the UK Cinema Association in addition to the main UK terrestrial and satellite broadcasting companies BBC, Channel 4, Sky, and ITV. In addition, a large number of public and private donors fund scholarships to assist British students.

Postgraduate students from the UK can now apply for a loan to help with their studies at any UK university including the NFTS via the Student Loans Company.

Courses of studies

Full-time MA courses
validated by the Royal College of Art:
Cinematography
Composing for Film and television
Creative Business for Entrepreneurs and Executives
Digital Effects
Directing Animation
Directing Documentary
Directing Fiction
Directing and Producing Science and Natural History
Directing and Producing Television Entertainment
Editing
Film Studies, Programming and Curation
Games Design and Development
Marketing, Distribution, Sales and Exhibition
Producing
Production Design
Production Technology
Screenwriting
Sound Design for Film and television

Diploma courses
Assistant Directing and Floor Managing
Assistant Camera (Focus Pulling and Loading)
Camera, Sound & Vision Mixing for Television Production
Creative Digital Producing
Directing Commercials and Promos
Factual Development and Production
Graphics and Titles for Film and television
Model Making for Animation
Production Accounting
Production Management for Film and television
Location Sound Recording for Film and Television
Script Development
Sports Production
Writing and Producing Comedy

Certificate courses
Filmmaking
Character Animation
Virtual Production
Casting
Producing Your First Feature
Script Supervision and Continuity
Screenwriting: Finding Your Voice
Location Management for Film & TV

Short courses
Shortcourses@NFTS regularly run short courses for professionals working in the film and television industries – covering the following areas:
Factual
Drama
Business Skills
Camera & Sound
Editing
Craft & Technical
Multiplatform

Members
The school has around 110 full-time staff as well as many top tutors from within the industry.

Board
President: Lord Puttnam CBE
Chairman: Patrick McKenna
Director: Dr Jon Wardle
Governors:
Professor Geoffrey Crossick, University of London
Patrick Fueller
Sara Geater, All3Media
Caroline Hollick, Channel 4
Oli Hyatt, Blue-Zoo Productions
Ian Lewis, Sky Cinema
Andrew McDonald, DNA Films
Steve Mertz, Warner Bros.
Pukar Mehta, ITV Studios
Adil Ray OBE
Laurent Samara, Google, UK
Bal Samra
Rose Garnatt, BBC
Sue Vertue, Hartswood Films
Joe Bradbury-Walters, NFTS Staff governor

Partners
Platinum Partner Sponsor
Channel 4
Key Partner Sponsors
British Broadcasting Corporation
Film Distributors' Association
ITV
Sky
Key Partner Funders
Department for Digital, Culture, Media and Sport
HEFCE

Key tutors
Alex Garland – Associate Director
Brian Gilbert – Co-Head of Fiction
Lesley Manning – Co-Head of Fiction
Ian Sellar – Co-Head of Fiction
Peter Dale – Head of Documentary
Robert Bradbrook – Head of Animation
Brian Ward – Head of Screenwriting
Stuart Harris BSC – Co-Head of Cinematography
Oliver Stapleton BSC – Co-Head of Cinematography
Sandra Hebron – Head of Screen Arts
Bex Hopkins – Head of Production Management
John Keane – Head of Composing
John Lee – Head of Model Making
John Rowe – Head of Digital Effects
Richard Cox – Head of Editing
Alan Thorn – Head of Games Design and Development
Chris Auty – Head of Producing
Caroline Amies – Head of Production Design
David G. Croft – Head of Television Entertainment
Simon Clark – Head of Location Sound Recording
Chris Pow – Head of Sound Design
John Rowe – Head of Digital Effects
Clare Crean – Head of Marketing, Distribution, Sales and Exhibition
Alan Thorn – Head of Games

Chairs
Stephen Frears – David Lean Chair in Fiction Direction
Simon Beaufoy – Visiting Chair in Screenwriting
Brian Tufano – Visiting Chair in Cinematography

Honorary Fellows
The National Film and Television School has named more than 30 honorary fellows. The programme was founded in 1981, and ceremonies take place at the NTFS graduation ceremony each year. Honorary Fellows are recognised for their "outstanding contribution to the British film and television industry."

Honorary Fellows

The following are the Fellows, as of March 2020, where alumni of the NTFS are indicated by an asterisk (*):

Lord Attenborough, CBE
Amma Asante
Mark Baker
Sir Peter Bazalgette
Tim Bevan
Malorie Blackman, OBE*
Barbara Broccoli
Sir Michael Caine, CBE
Terence Davies*
Sir Roger Deakins, CBE*
Molly Dineen*
Greg Dyke
Eric Fellner
Paul Greengrass
Asif Kapadia
Duncan H. Kenworthy, OBE
Baroness Kidron, OBE*
Michael Kuhn
Sir David Lean, CBE
Ken Loach
Kim Longinotto*
Ossie Morris, CBE
Steve Morrison*
Nick Park, CBE*
Sir Alan Parker, CBE
Ashley Pharoah*
Lord Puttnam of Queensgate, CBE
Michael Radford*
Lynne Ramsay*
Jonathan Ross
Tessa Ross, CBE
Jack Valenti
Sally Wainwright
David Yates*
Colin Young

Other past fellow have included Lord Birkett, who died in April 2015.

Notable alumni (selection)

Animation
 Nick Park (Chicken Run, Wallace and Gromit)
 Mark Baker (Peppa Pig, Ben and Holly's Little Kingdom)
 Alison Snowden and David Fine (Bob and Margaret, Bob's Birthday)
 Tony Collingwood, Collingwood O'Hare Ltd, (Dennis the Menace, Yoko! Jakamoko! Toto!)
 Joan Ashworth (The Web, How Mermaids Breed, Seedfold Films, 3 Peach Animation, Professor of Animation Royal College of Art 1994 to 2015)

Cinematography
 Roger Deakins (Jarhead, A Beautiful Mind, Fargo)
 David Tattersall (Die Another Day,  Star Wars – Episodes I, II and III)
 Andrzej Sekuła (Pulp Fiction, American Psycho, Reservoir Dogs)
 Alwin H. Küchler (Code 46, The Mother, Ratcatcher, Morvern Callar)
 Eduard Grau (A Single Man, Buried, Suffragette, Boy Erased)

Directing (film)
 Mark Herman (Little Voice, Brassed Off)
 Michael Caton-Jones (Memphis Belle, This Boy's Life)
 Terence Davies (Distant Voices, Still Lives, The Neon Bible)
 Michael Radford (Il Postino, The Merchant of Venice)
 Lynne Ramsay (Ratcatcher, Morvern Callar)
 Julien Temple
 Joanna Hogg
 David Yates (Harry Potter)
 Beeban Kidron (Bridget Jones: The Edge of Reason, Hippie Hippie Shake)
 Anthony Waller (An American Werewolf in Paris, Mute Witness)
 Michael Lennox (A Patch of Fog, Boogaloo and Graham, Hives)
 Georgis Grigorakis (Digger)

Directing (television)
 Charles McDougall (Desperate Housewives, Queer As Folk, Hillsborough)
 David Yates (State of Play, Sex Traffic, The Girl in the Café)
 Toby Haynes (Doctor Who, Sherlock, Wallander)

Composing for film and television
 Natalie Ann Holt (Great Expectations,  The Honourable Woman, Paddington)
 Trevor Jones (Richard III, Brassed Off)
 Julian Nott (Wallace & Gromit: The Curse of the Were-Rabbit, The Wrong Trousers, A Grand Day Out)
 Dario Marianelli (The Brothers Grimm, V for Vendetta, Pride and Prejudice, Atonement, Anna Karenina)

Documentary
 Nick Broomfield (Kurt and Courtney, Aileen: Life and Death of a Serial Killer)
 John Burgan (Memory of Berlin)
 Molly Dineen (Home from the Hill, Heart of the Angel, Geri, The Ark)
 Kim Longinotto (Divorce Iranian Style, The Day I Will Never Forget, Sisters in Law, Hold Me Tight Let Me Go) (Rough Aunties)
 Sean McAllister (The Minders, Settlers, The Liberace of Baghdad)
 Sandhya Suri (I is for India)

Film editing
 Valerio Bonelli (Hannibal Rising, Cemetery Junction)
 Nicolas Chaudeurge (Red Road, Fish Tank, Wuthering Heights)
 Hoping Chen (Ilo Ilo)
 Bill Diver (Twenty Four Seven, Distant Voices, Still Lives)
 Nick Fenton (Nathan Barley, The Arbor, Submarine)
 David Freeman (The Full Monty, Clash of the Titans, Ill Manors)
 Daniel Greenway (Southcliffe, Call the Midwife)
 Peter Lambert (The Twilight Saga: New Moon)
 Helle le Fevre (Archipelago, Exhibition)
 Ewa J Lind (Far North, The Warrior)
 Alex Mackie (Downton Abbey, Judge Dredd, Wallander)
 Jamie McCoan (Doctor Who, Lewis, Kavanagh QC, Agatha Christie's Poirot, Goodnight Mister Tom)
 Úna Ní Dhonghaíle (Ripper Street, Vera, Doctor Who, Wallander, Quirke, Upstairs, Downstairs)
 Lucia Zucchetti (The Queen, Ratcatcher, The Merchant of Venice)

Producing
Michele Camarda (Wonderland, This Year's Love, Photographing Fairies)
Sebastian Cody (After Dark, The Secret Cabaret and other Open Media productions)
Ben Lock (Purple and Brown, Tiny Planets)
Rebekah Gilbertson (The Edge of Love, Patagonia)
Steve Morrison (My Left Foot, The Field, Jack and Sarah, co-founder All3Media

Screenwriting
András Gerevich  (Synchronoff)
Ashley Pharoah (Life on Mars)
Krysty Wilson-Cairns (1917, Last Night in Soho)

See also

 Film
 Glossary of motion picture terms

References

External links

 NFTS Animation Department website
 Exploring the potential of NFTs in the music industry
 Department for Culture, Media and Sport
 Quotas and Levies – explanation of various national film levies, including the Eady Levy

Film schools in England
Education in Buckinghamshire
Further education colleges in Buckinghamshire
1971 establishments in England
Educational institutions established in 1971
Beaconsfield
BAFTA Outstanding British Contribution to Cinema Award

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text:
Differences between 3G and...
Differences between 3G and 4G,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,... 1 answer below »
Week 5: Link Layer and LANs
We have learned that Transport Layer has the responsibility to move data between one
application (process) running on one computer and another running on a remote computer;
the network layer helps delivering and routing the transport layer's segments from the
source host to the destination host. In this seminar, we will learn how the link layer helps the
network layer to move datagrams from each node (host) to the next node on the route from
source to destination.
The Link layer receives datagrams from the network layer, encapsulates them into frames,
and transmits them onto the link. The data link frames include a header and trailer for the
purpose of: addressing and error checking.
Error Detection and Correction
1. The easiest error detection method is to add a bit that forces the number of bits in a sent
message either to be even (even parity), or odd (odd parity). Thus, the sender computes
the number of 1's in a sent frame, including addresses and headers; it adds a 1 bit to
make the total number of bits even or odd as agreed on with the receiver. Hence, the
receiver can tell whether one, or any odd number of bits have been corrupted during
transmission in a link. Why is the situation of an even number of toggled bits not
detected? What is the percentage of errors that can pass undetected?
2. A more elaborate parity error detection (and correction) method is done through dividing
a stream of bits into rows of a 2D matrix. A parity bit is added to every row and every
column. It is claimed that this method can detect and correct a number of errors. Have a
look at the example in the text. How many parity bits are added, in general? What is the
percentage of errors detected by this method? This method does not locate all cases of
bit errors; can you construct an example to show a case where this method fails to
detect an error?
3. It was observed that errors in data links take place in bursts. A group of adjacent bits
usually gets corrupted in a case of (electromagnetic) noise. An error detection algorithm
was devised for this kind of bit corruption. This error detection method can detect any
arbitrary burst of error in any arbitrary stream of length r. The algorithm works as follows:
receiving and sending nodes agree on a bit pattern called the generator. The sending
nodes, divides a stream of bits by the generator, and finds the division remainder (r
bits). The remainder is attached to the end of the data stream and sent along with it. The
receiver does the same calculation, by dividing the received stream by the agreed upon
generator, and finding the remainder. We will not prove that this algorithm does indeed
detect bursts of errors of size r. However, interested students can find this proof in the
Multiple Access Protocols and LANs
We have already noted that links between hosts are made differently (shared buses,
token rings, slotted rings, etc). In this section, we will learn about shared links, that is,
links that are shared by many nodes (either concurrently used or in turns). These days,
the number of nodes sharing the same link can amount to thousands. The main issue to
deal with in shared links is to provide fairness and maximum possible bandwidth.
1. Channel Partitioning Protocols: a channel (link) with bandwidth R is shared between
N nodes through dividing this channel into smaller sub-channels each with (R/N)
bandwidth. A problem with this protocol can be observed whenever there is only one
node that desires to send frames at some time. This node can only make use of a
fraction of the channel bandwidth; the rest of the bandwidth is wasted. There are two
ways to do this division:
a. Time Division Multiplexing (TDM): Time is divided into slots; each slot is used by one node,
that is, a node can transmit a data frame onto the channel only during its designated time
slot. If a node, that shares the channel with N other nodes, has more than one frame to
send, then it can send only one frame every Nth time slot.
b. Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM): Every channel has a range of frequencies on which
data can be transmitted. For example, voice grade links (telephone lines), use a 20Hz-
20KHz frequency range. If we want to share a channel among N nodes, then the frequency
bandwidth of this channel is divided into N sub-channels each with a sub-range of the
original channel's frequency bandwidth. Every node is designated one of these subchannels
and has to transmit data in the given frequency range. Modems are used to shift
data into the desired frequency.
c. Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA): Each node is assigned a unique code, which it
uses to mix with the transmitted data. Receivers can extract the original data, using the
same code, even if this data has been entangled with data transmitted by other nodes using
different codes.
2. Random Access protocols: A major drawback of the channel partitioning protocols is
that a single node can only use R/N of the channel bandwidth even if it is the only
active node in the network. Random access protocols solve this problem by
providing a node with full bandwidth as long as it is the only one active. However, if
there are more than one active node, then each might get less than (R/N), as we will
discuss next.
a. Pure Aloha Protocol: a node that has a frame to send over the shared channel
transmits this frame at full bandwidth. The node then checks to find out whether the
frame has been successfully sent (did not collide with any concurrently sent frames).
If not successful, then the node waits for a random period of time before retrying.
Other nodes whose frames collided with this node's frame do the same, hoping that
individually selected random periods of waiting time are different, and hoping that
collision will not repeat. The same cycle is repeated with every collision until all
frames are successfully through. (Is there a chance for a frame to suffer an infinite
number of collisions?). It was found that the maximum throughput achieved by this
protocol for large numbers of nodes (N -> 8) is (1/2e) = 0.185 R. Of course this is too
small, but remember at the same time, that we are assuming an infinite number of
b. Slotted Aloha. A little modification to the pure aloha protocol improved the maximum
throughput by a factor of 2. Channel time is divided into equal time slots. Each time
slot is equal to one frame time. Unlike Pure Aloha Protocol, nodes are allowed to
send frames only at the beginning of a time slot (at full bandwidth). If a collision
occurs, then each collided node might use a subsequent time slot with certain
probability. In other words, a node might or might not use a next (and following) time
slots depending on the outcome of a random event that takes place with certain
probability (like tossing a coin in order to use or not to use a slot). A frame might
suffer several collisions before it is through. It was found that for large N, slotted
aloha protocol could achieve 0.37 R.
c. Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA): unlike Aloha Protocols, CSMA does not start
sending before making sure that the channel is not in use. The idea is simple: keep
listening to the channel, until no transmission is heard. This approach will clearly
reduce number of collisions (to zero?). In fact, collisions will continue to happen
because, even if a node finds the channel to be free, another node could be doing
the same and start sending at the same (or almost the same) time. A collided frame
is lost, and thus the sending node retries to transmit after a random period of time.
All other nodes do the same, with the hope that a randomly waited-for period of time
selected by a certain node is different from the time waited by others. A subsequent
collision tells a node to backoff for a longer period of time (still selected at random).
In the Ethernet protocol that follows in the next section, the newly selected backoff
period is made twice the one that resulted in a collision (exponential backoff = 2n x
initial period. Where n is the number of unsuccessful retransmissions).
d. CSMA with collision detection (CSMA/CD) is just one step beyond CSMA, that is, it
stops sending a frame as soon as a collision is detected. Consequently, the channel
is clear in a shorter time. Therefore, if only one node is active, it has a full R
bandwidth; if however N nodes are active then each has close to R/N bandwidth
(believe it or not!). The fact is that CSMA/CD is the most widely used protocol to
solve channel contention in networks today.
3. Taking-Turns Protocols: Shared channel usage is regulated with a token. A token is a
special message that authorizes a node to use the channel to send a defined maximum
number of frames at a full bandwidth before passing the token on to a neighbor. Only
the node that is in possession of the token can use the shared channel. Clearly, no
collisions could happen. Token regulation of shared channels is a complex protocol.
There is a complex process to create a single token in the network, recover a lost token,
define the maximum number of frames a node is authorized to send, defining priorities,
and so on. Token-based protocols are used only in a small portion of computer networks
therefore it is not worth studying all their complexities.
LAN Addresses
Every node in a LAN has a network adapter (Ethernet card, for example) that enables
the node access to a shared broadcast channel. It is on this card where the link layer
and part of the physical layer reside. Every node adapter is assigned, by the
manufacturer, a unique LAN address. There are no two node-adapters with the same
LAN address worldwide. LAN address assignments to node adapters are regulated by
the IEEE organization. LAN addresses are made of 48-bit (6 bytes) flat numbers (unlike
the IP address structure, where a meaning is applied to the binary octets, specifying
which one(s) are the domain and which are the specific machine).
An example LAN address is 1A-23-F9-CD-06-9B, where the IEEE allocates the first 24
bits to the manufacturer, and the rest are assigned by the manufacturer to each card.
(How many manufacturers can the IEEE provide with sets of addresses? How many
cards can each manufacturer produce?)
LAN addresses are not changed because they are burned in the network card's
hardware. A host has the same LAN address even if it is unplugged from one network
and plugged into another. (Do you need to change the IP address, however, if you move
your computer from one network to another?) The hardware address cannot be
changed but is it possible to change a LAN address with software, even temporarily?
A datagram that is received by the Link Layer from the Network Layer already has an IP
address identifying the destination machine. The link layer maps this IP address onto a
LAN address, only if the node identified by the IP address is a member of the same
LAN. If, however, the destination IP address does not belong to a node that is a member
of the same LAN, then a router is chosen to forward this datagram to some other router
or LAN. Routers' interfaces have LAN addresses just like any other node in a LAN.
For the Internet, mapping of an IP address onto a LAN address is done with the aid of
Address Resolution Protocol (ARP). Every Internet host and router on a LAN has an
ARP module. ARP uses tables (Figure 5.18) to map IP addresses onto LAN addresses.
Notice that every line in the table has a time-to-live field, TTL. TTL field indicates how
long this mapping can continue to be valid. (Why do you think that there should be an
expiry time for these mappings?) If a datagram carries an IP address that does not have
an entry in the table, ARP broadcasts a query packet addressed to all nodes in the LAN
(the broadcast address is FF-FF-FF-FF-FF-FF). Although all nodes receive this query,
only the node that has the queried IP responds to this request. This node answers the
query with a regular packet (addressed only to the enquiring node) telling its LAN
address. Accordingly, ARP updates its table with the missing mapping line. (What do
you suggest should be done if there is no answer from any node to this query?)
Ethernet is the most widely used LAN protocol today. There have been some challenges
to Ethernet by other protocols such as FDDI and ATM, but Ethernet managed to survive
and grow. FDDI and ATM have however been used mainly in the backbone networks.
The main reasons behind Ethernet success are its simplicity, economy, and fast
development. Ethernet implements the CSMA/CD medium access protocol, which is the
simplest among other protocols. Ethernet, also, uses cheap cabling and cheap
hardware (as opposed to FDDI that uses fiber cabling and needs expensive
transmitters). Finally, Ethernet started with 10 Mbps links; then moved to 100 Mbps;
now, 1 Gbps Ethernet rate is available.
Ethernet envelops network datagram in a frame with the following fields (Figure 5.22):
1. Data Field that carries the IP datagram. There is a minimum and maximum length to
this field. If the datagram size exceeds the maximum allowable length, then this
datagram has to be fragmented, as we explained in an earlier seminar. If however,
the network layer datagram is smaller than the minimum Ethernet data filed, then it is
appended with filling bits. Network layer at the receiving station is responsible for
piecing together fragments that belong to one datagram, and chopping off filling bits.
2. Destination address. (LAN address of course)
3. Type field, selects among network layer protocols (Novell, AppleTalk, etc). This
property makes Ethernet a universal protocol.
4. Cyclic Redundancy Check, which is an error detection field. The receiving Ethernet
can (sometimes) tell if the received frame is in error. Ethernet only discards bad
frames; it never informs the sender (an unreliable connectionless service). Lost
frames are left to upper layers (TCP) to detect.
5. Preamble Field, used to synchronize the hardware clocks of sender and receiver. In
other words, it offers the receiver's hardware an opportunity to get ready to receive
an incoming frame.
Ethernet allows a node to use the link at full bandwidth whenever the link is available.
Transmission of data onto the channel takes place in digital form using full bandwidth,
which we call a baseband transmission. To help the receiving electronic circuitry to stay
in sync with received data, Ethernet encodes data such that there is frequent change in
the channel's energy (Manchester Encoding). See Figure 5.23, how a slow changing
signal is turned into frequently changing one when encoded using Manchester
Encoding.
Ethernet uses different media. The most widely used cables are coaxial cables (TV
antenna-like cables) working at 10 Mbps at a distance of 200m (10Base2), and twisted
pair (telephone-like) lines operating at 10, 100, and 1000 Mbps (10BaseT, 100BaseT,
and Gigabit Ethernet respectively). All of these standards work at limited distances. To
extend the coverage of these standards over wider areas, repeaters are used to refresh
electronic signals that might fade away over distance.
Hubs, Bridges and Switches
A LAN can start as a small network made of a few computers serving a particular
department. With time, a need arises to extend a small LAN and integrate it with other
existing LANs. There are different tools: cheap and simple or complex and expensive to
integrate smaller LANs into a larger one:
1. Hubs: This is the most widely (and cheapest) way to build networks. The hub is
made of electronic circuitry that does simple things such as repeating a signal
received at one interface onto all other interfaces (a physical layer device). Hubs
connect hosts in a star topology (Figure 5.21). However, hubs continue to broadcast
data on all interfaces, thus it is in fact a bus topology. It is possible to integrate small
LANs (Also called LAN segments) into a larger LAN using a hierarchy of hubs
(Figure 5.26). Connecting LAN segments in this way increases the collision domain,
which causes a node to compete with a larger number of nodes to use the common
bus. Consequently, numbers of collisions and frame retransmissions increases
leading to a dropped bus bandwidth.
2. Bridges are similar to hubs and are used almost in the same way (Figure 5.26).
However, bridges have a link layer, and thus can distinguish between frames internal
to one LAN segment and inter-segment frames. Thus, bridges do not repeat every
frame onto all interfaces. So LAN segments can concurrently exchange frames
without disturbing each other. Bridges use tables to decide whether to forward a
frame to one segment or filter it out. These tables are built on the run using selflearning
or spanning tree algorithms. Building these tables is similar in concept
(although different) to building ARP tables that we studied earlier. Bridges have two
layers: physical and link layers. Hence bridges use LAN addresses to decide
whether to forward or to filter a frame. (Unlike bridges, routers have three layers
(Network, Link and Physical). Hence, routers work on IP-level addresses. Clearly,
routers are more expensive and can do more work than bridges. They can of course
replace bridges, if desired.)
3. Switches are advanced forms of bridges that have a large number of interfaces, with
various media and speed (Figure 5.26). Unlike bridges, switches allow more than
two interfaces to exchange data at the same time (Figure 5.24). Also unlike bridges,
switches do not wait for the whole packet to arrive before forwarding it (cut-through
switching). This feature can be shown to save lots of frame passing time. Finally,
switches allow full-duplex exchange of data between two stations.
Note: In the textbook only the description of Switches is given. As we have already
stated above that "Switches are advanced forms of bridges". So, the description of
bridges provided here is also valid for Switches.
Wireless LANs (IEEE 802.11)
Wireless LANs have two forms:
. Computers are grouped in cells with a base station, also called an Access Point
(AP), in the middle. Computers and the AP communicate between themselves using a
wireless protocol that we will study next. Access Points of different cells are joined together
using any wired LAN (Figure 6.7).
. Ad hoc networks are small groups of computers that happen to be in the same
proximity and want to inter-communicate (Figure 6.8). There is no base station for this
configuration and no communication with the outside world.
Because the communication medium is different (than wired LANs), this form of LAN
uses a different medium access method, namely Carrier Sense Multiple Access with
Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA) (as opposed to Collision Detection used by wired
Ethernet). Collision is more expensive to detect in wireless LANs, and there is no way to
be sure that a collision did not happen (see the hidden terminal problem Figure 6.11).
To avoid collision, a sending node sends a tiny frame, with a request to send message
(RTS), to the receiver. This RTS, (if not collided with) is heard by all stations in the
sender's vicinity. The receiver then sends back a clear to send (CTS) frame. This frame
is heard clearly by computers located near the receiver. Computers that hear RTS or
CTS refrain from sending anything until the frame from the sender to the receiver is
completely through. The receiver always acknowledges a frame that is received, to
assure no collisions.
PPP: The Point-to-Point Protocol
As the name implies, this protocols connects only two computers together. This protocol
is most widely used to connect home computers with ISPs. The textbook lists 8
requirements placed by IETF on the design of PPP, which are in brief:
1. Packet framing: Enveloping network layer packets in PPP frames.
2. Transparency: Network layer is not to be bothered by PPP requirements on data shape.
3. Multiple network layer protocol: PPP passes received packets to the network layer (after
extracting packets from frames). PPP is able to serve more than one network layer type,
for example IP and DECnet.
4. Multiple types of links: serial, parallel, synchronous, asynchronous, etc.
5. Error detection (as we have discussed
6. Connection liveness, to detect loss of line carrier for example.
7. Network-layer address negotiation (as we have discussed).
8. Simplicity!
PPP is NOT to do the followings:
1. Error correction. (Does any other Link layer protocol do error correction?)
2. Flow control. (Who does that instead?)
3. Sequencing. (Interesting! How can frames arrive in random order while we have only
one point-to-point link?)
4. Multipoint link. (It is point-to-point after all)
PPP Data framing: PPP envelops network layer in frames. It is interesting to note that
PPP is designed with future needs in mind. Watch that four fields are fixed. Well, the
start and end fields (the flags) are needed to get the receiver ready and to identify when
the frame will end. However, the address and control fields are not necessary, at least
these days. The text also shows how extra escape bits are added to make the receiver
aware if any flag happened to be (by accident) in the middle of a data frame.
PPP Link Control Protocol: PPP goes through a complex handshaking procedure to
establish the start of connection. The PPP starts in the dead state. If a carrier is
detected, then it goes into link establishment state. While in link establishment state,
PPP negotiates with the other end the network-layer IP address and other configuration
information. After this stage, datagrams can be exchanged by both ends until
termination of connection (by link protocol packet LPC).
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)
ATM is a high speed networking technology (terabits per second), that is being used in
the backbone of telephone networks and the Internet. Find in the text why ATM was not
successful in replacing existing TCP/IP!
The textbook lists seven ATM characteristics; we will go over some of them here:
1. ATM defines a full suite of communication protocols. In other words, it is a stand-alone
networking system. However, ATM is most commonly used as a link layer for TCP/IP.
2. ATM provides several services: constant bit rate, variable bit rate, available bit rate, and
unspecified bit rate (go back to chapter 1).
3. ATM uses fixed packets!
4. ATM uses virtual circuits!
5. Between switches, there are no retransmissions even if errors are detected.
1. ATM provides congestion control for some services. (Which service(s)?)
2. ATM uses any physical medium (often fiber optics medium).
Read the Chapter 5 and 6.3-6.3.2 from Chapter 6
CPCOMM-week5-....pdf
Apr 04 2012 02:21 PM
Mandeep kaur Khanna answered 8 years ago
506 answers so far
Introduction The main purpose of this document is to discuss the differences between 3G and 4G. 'G' stands for generation of mobile technology. 3G stands for third generation mobile technology and 4G stands for fourth generation mobile technology. The main difference between these two networks is what technology and techniques are used. Now days 3G technologies are using more and use widespread whereas 4G compliant technologies are still in the horizon...
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Nova Southeastern University College of Engineering and Computing...
Nova Southeastern University College of Engineering and Computing Winter 2016 - Master level Course Term Code: 201630 – CRN: 31400 Dates: 16 weeks: 01/04/16-04/24/16 - On-Line CISC 650 Computer Networks (3 Credits) Assignment 3 –Check Calendar for...
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Jared Unzipped: Wesley and Walter.
In the blustery cold of the North Pole, there once lived two gingerbread men named Wesley and Walter. They both entered Santa's Civil Service fresh out of the oven. At first, they worked as street sweepers moving crushed peppermints off the road for the elves and reindeer to travel around safely. Before long, they were promoted to snow globe duty. Wesley and Walter would follow behind the clouds in a hot air balloon and catch the falling snow in giant baskets, then pack the flakes into globes for little boys and girls to wish upon. As time went on, the two gingerbread men continued to gain more responsibility. Along with that came more pay. By the time Wesley and Walter were personal stable guards for Comet the Reindeer, they were earning over forty gumdrops per week!
While both gingerbread men were cut from the same batch of cookies, they couldn't have been more different in personality. Whereas Wesley was thoughtful, patient and saved his gumdrops, Walter was impulsive and spent his riches on his friends. Every day after work, Walter would catch a carriage ride down to Jack Frost's Saloon. He'd lavish himself and his friends with endless rounds of egg nog and orange creme whips. Sometimes, he'd drink with his friends into the wee hours of the morning and get very little sleep. All the while, Wesley would typically stop at the grocery on his way home from work. He'd pick up a few licorice sticks and chocolate covered cherries for dinner, then read a book before going to bed at a reasonable hour.
One frigid morning, Wesley and Walter were due to report to Comet's stable for guard duty. Whereas Wesley arrived five minutes early just for good measure, Walter failed to show up on time. Unfortunately, he'd drunk way too much the night before with his friends and slept through his jingle bell alarm. By the time Walter made it to the stable, he was four hours late! Stable manager Frosty was so disappointed in Walter, whom had showed up late numerous times before, that he fired him on the spot. Irresponsible Walter was forced to return to sweeping the streets, only now he couldn't support the posh lifestyle he'd grown accustomed to. Even worse, all of his supposed friends suddenly stopped speaking to him when he couldn't afford drinks at the saloon any longer!
Wesley felt bad for his friend Walter, but understand why things had unfolded as they did. Much to his own detriment, Walter was careless with his finances and failed to take his responsibilities seriously. Looking back on his time with Walter, Wesley realized a valuable lesson -- hard work and correctly managing your money does pay off in the long run!
Frosty thanked Wesley for being such a dedicated worker and recommended he visit with his personal accountant, Dudley. You see, Wesley had slowly earned a fortune over time. Saving every gumdrop he could for years on end, Wesley had amassed a mountain of candy literally spilling out of his gingerbread house. Finally realizing that he had more gumdrops than he could ever use, Wesley wisely invested in Santa Claus' lucrative toy development division. As toy technology became increasingly powerful over time, Wesley's investment proved more and more profitable. After only a few years as an investor, he was suddenly asked to join the North Pole Board of Directors by none other than the jolly big man himself! Wesley had proven himself to be a wise resident of the North Pole.
Late one evening many years later, upon traveling home to his gingerbread mansion after meeting with Santa Claus, Wesley passed Walter in the street. There Walter was, forced to walk behind the insidious Belsnickel and carry his disgusting tongue. The two gingerbread men recognized each other and waved, but it was readily apparent that Walter had lost the sugary, glazed-over gleam in his beady eyes. His repeated mistakes had left him financially and spiritually broken. More so, Walter knew full and well how successful Wesley had become because he was a responsible gingerbread man. On a whim, Wesley turned around and dashed back to speak with Walter. He asked if they could have a drink sometime at Jack Frost's Saloon and catch up. Taking pity on Walter, Wesley decided that he would try to help his former coworker get on the right track... but only if Walter was willing to help himself. Thankfully, after years of living gumdrop to gumdrop, Walter finally understood the value of being responsible.
Two gingerbread men sat and had drinks that evening, not just as friends, but as equals. Each had taught the other a valuable lesson in life. Wesley inspired Walter to work harder, which eventually earned him the prestigious position as snow globe balloon commander. In return, Walter became Wesley's most trusted and loyal friend.
as well as a lesson to learn in return.


Ilario Alicante is considered as one of the major new talents of electronic club music. He was born in 1988 in Livorno, Italy. Already as a child he has developed an incredible passion for music. After some time Ilario became familiar with the club world and gained first experiences with mixing and DJing.
His early club residencies in Italy - in legendary "Cameretta" and "Pachamama Club" - helped Ilario to improve his musical skills and unique mixing technique. Here, Ilario's career as a DJ started and in a short period of time he became a famous newcomer DJ in Italy. His DJ-sets reached new levels of clubbing experiences. With his early gigs at Circoloco and Tenax Ilario's reputation started to rise outside of Italy. Today he performs in many major clubs in Germany, UK, Spain and Netherlands. But also in South America he is famous for his unique combination of house music and Latin American rhythms.
As a producer he possesses this burning passion as well. At the age of 16 Ilario started to produce music and to develop his very own vision of contemporary electronic dance music by integrating various influences and genres to create his unique sound. Up to now Ilario has released 10 releases - one of the most successful EPs was "Living Near Africa", released in 2008 on Cecille Records. Many of his records can be found in the record bags of artists like Sven Väth, Ricardo Villalobos, Marco Carola, Luciano, Nick Curly, and many more.
Since then Ilario has developed an unparallel artistic perfrormance as DJ and live performer which made him a welcome frequent guest in some of the best clubs around the globe - from Columbia to Portugal and Italy to UK. So watch out for a venue near you - you will experience a very distinctive musical expression - driving and deep at the same moment!


A recent post of the above fabulous Balenciaga Aviator boots by Jack & Jill reminds me of how much I was in love with Balenciaga's Fall/Winter 2004 collection. When it's done right, it transcends time. And Balenciaga is almost always done very right!


Written while looking too cute. See pictures below.
Hello, everyone! Today I am going to be showing you how to make your very own Glamglow Supermud mask at home. I came across a recipe on Pinterest and loved the idea of creating something that is 100% natural and without the out of this world price tag.
I am trying this guy out on my face right now and let me just tell you…I feel firm af.
Sidetone: I am also using the Tony Moly My Little Pet Eye Patch.
Everything for this mask is available at the Vitamin Shoppe except for the clay, I ordered that on Amazon, and the coconut oil because I already had some at home.
4oz Green Tea (seeped strong) – Add slowly to make sure your mask isn't too watery. I added about 3 oz.
I mixed everything together in a large glass bowl starting with all the dry ingredients. You want to open the charcoal capsules but twisting and pulling apart. I chose to melt my coconut oil in the microwave but it might also work if you don't.
Let sit for about 5 minutes to cool and bottled it up in a jar. It's that easy.
Here is a list of the ingredients and the exact sizes and prices that I got.
After doing some fancy math equations there are the prices differences.
Apply a thin layer to the whole face or just sections that need the most help. Let dry completely, depending on your mixture that could be more than the 25 minutes it took for mine to dry or less. Take off with a warm damp cloth gently massaging off the skin. Do not rub too hard or you will irritate your skin. If the mask is being a little stubborn add more water on the cloth and let sit on the face for a few moments.
Rinse face completely, follow up with some witch hazel if you fancy, and apply a lotion.
I hope you enjoyed this post and give this mask a try! If you do, let me know in the comments!! Have a wonderful week!
How did your skin feel after you washed it off? It looks awesome!
Thank you! Very very clean and tight. I've used it twice since this post and even use it to spot treat breakouts.
looks nice! is it designed to treat a specific issue like acne or dryness?


MOUNT PLEASANT — By handing down a 50-year minimum and 75-year maximum sentence Monday, Isabella County Judge William Rush all but ensured 38-year-old Thomas Babb will spend the rest of his life in prison for the murder of his estranged wife, Mary Babb.
"I think what the judge gave him was the right sentence. We had been in agreement and it's what we had hoped for," the victim's father, Roger Anderson, said outside of the Isabella County Trial courtroom Monday. His comments came after Rush sentenced Babb to the lengthy prison term for the Jan. 9 shooting death of Mary Babb in the Morning Sun newspaper parking lot where she worked.
Prior to pronouncing sentence on Babb's no-contest plea to second-degree murder, Rush asked the Gaylord/Evart man if he had anything to say.
"I love my family; I never stopped loving them. I can't believe I'm here," Babb responded quietly amid tight security. One side of the courtroom held an estimated 50 family members and friends of Mary Babb, while a couple of dozen appeared on the defendant's side of the courtroom.
Shackled at the hands and feet and wearing prison orange, an emotionless Babb, his lower lip jutting out slightly, sat through the 90-minute proceeding, listening to victim impact statements. They came from Mary Babb's parents, her brother, a cousin and an aunt.
The Andersons have guardianship of the Babb's 4-year-old son, Sam.
Mary's father chose to read for the court excerpts from her diary which detailed the alleged assaults she suffered at the hands of her husband in Otsego County in August 2006. Babb, who pleaded no-contest to those charges, is scheduled for sentencing Nov. 8 at 9 a.m. in Gaylord.
Babb's attorney, Jeffrey Clothier, offered his condolences to the Babbs and thanked them for their professionalism during the judicial proceedings, adding it made a difficult matter easier.
Burdick said that witnesses at the scene saw Thomas Babb ram Mary's SUV as she attempted to escape from the newspaper's parking lot just prior to the shooting.
Burdick portrayed Babb as being angry from a 2002 assault and battery charge against him. He described him as being controlling of Mary.
In addition to the second-degree murder sentence, Babb received two years for felony firearm. That sentence must be served prior to the murder sentence. Babb also was sentenced to four to six years for habitual offender status and five to seven years for stalking. Those two sentences will be served concurrently with the murder sentence.
Further, Babb was also ordered to pay restitution in the amount of $2,649 to Roger and Janie Anderson.
According to Burdick, Babb was transported Tuesday to the state prison in Jackson for intake with the Michigan Department of Corrections. He will be returned to Gaylord Nov. 9 for sentencing in Otsego County for his no-contest plea to assault with a dangerous weapon and habitual offender.