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En ciencias de la computación, una pila de llamadas (en inglés call stack) es una estructura dinámica de datos LIFO, (una pila), que almacena la información sobre las subrutinas activas de un programa de computadora. Esta clase de pila también es conocido como una pila de ejecución, pila de control, pila de función, o pila de tiempo de ejecución, y a menudo se describe en forma corta como "la pila".

Una pila de llamadas es de uso frecuente para varios propósitos relacionados, pero la principal razón de su uso, es seguir el curso del punto al cual cada subrutina activa debe retornar el control cuando termine de ejecutar. (Las subrutinas activas son las que se han llamado pero todavía no han completado su ejecución ni retornando al lugar siguiente desde donde han sido llamadas). Si, por ejemplo, una subrutina DibujaCuadrado llama a una subrutina DibujaLinea desde cuatro lugares diferentes, el código de DibujaLinea debe tener una manera de saber a dónde retornar. Esto es típicamente hecho por un código que, para cada llamada dentro de DibujaCuadrado, pone la dirección de la instrucción después de la sentencia de llamada particular (la "dirección de retorno") en la pila de llamadas.

Puesto que la pila de llamadas se organiza como una pila, el programa que llama (a la subrutina) empuja (push) la dirección de retorno en la pila (la dirección en la que el programa continuará después de volver de la subrutina), y la subrutina llamada, cuando finaliza, retira (pop) la dirección de retorno de la pila de llamadas y transfiere el control a esa dirección. Si una subrutina llamada, llama a otra subrutina, la primera empuja (push) su dirección de retorno en la pila de llamadas, y así sucesivamente, con la información de direcciones de retorno apilándose y desapilándose como el programa dicte. Si el empujar (push) consume todo el espacio asignado para la pila de llamadas, ocurre un error llamado desbordamiento de pila. Agregando una entrada de subrutina a la pila de llamadas es a veces llamado bobinando o enrollando (winding); inversamente, la eliminación de entradas es llamado desenbobinando o desenrollando (unwinding).

Usualmente hay exactamente una pila de llamadas asociado a un programa en ejecución (o más precisamente, con cada tarea o hilo de un proceso), aunque pilas adicionales pueden ser creados para el manejo de señales o la multitarea cooperativa (como con setcontext). Puesto que hay solamente una pila en este importante contexto, puede ser referido como la pila (implícito, "de la tarea").

En lenguajes de programación de alto nivel, las características específicas de la pila de llamadas usualmente son ocultadas al programador. Ellos solo tienen acceso a la lista de funciones, y no a la memoria de la pila en sí misma. La mayoría de los lenguajes ensambladores, por una parte, requieren que los programas sean invocados con manipulación explícita de la pila. En un lenguaje de programación, los detalles reales de la pila dependen del compilador, del sistema operativo, y del conjunto de instrucciones disponible.

Funciones de la pila de llamadas
Según lo observado arriba, el propósito primario de una pila de llamadas es:

 Almacenamiento de la dirección de retorno - Cuando una subrutina es llamada, la localización de la instrucción para retornar necesita ser guardada en alguna parte. Usando una pila para guardar la dirección de retorno tiene importantes ventajas sobre las otras alternativas. Una de ellas es que cada tarea tiene su propia pila, y así, la subrutina puede ser reentrante, es decir, puede estar activa simultáneamente para diferentes tareas que hacen diferentes cosas. Otro beneficio es que la recursividad es automáticamente soportada. Cuando una función se llama a sí misma recursivamente, un dirección de retorno necesita ser almacenada para cada activación de la función de tal manera de poderla usar posteriormente para retornar de la activación de la función. Esta capacidad es automática con una pila.

Una pila de llamadas puede servir para funciones adicionales, dependiendo del lenguaje, del sistema operativo, y del ambiente de la máquina. Entre ellos puede estar:

 Almacenamiento local de datos - Una subrutina frecuentemente necesita memoria para almacenar los valores de las variables locales, las variables que son conocidas solamente dentro de la subrutina activa y no conservan sus valores después de que la subrutina retorna. A menudo es conveniente asignar el espacio para las variables locales simplemente moviendo el tope de la pila lo suficiente para proporcionar el espacio necesario. Esto es muy rápido de hacer comparado con, por ejemplo, una asignación de memoria en el heap. Observe que cada activación separada de una subrutina toma su propio espacio separado en la pila para sus variables locales.

 Paso de parámetros - A menudo las subrutinas requieren que los valores para sus parámetros les sean suministrados por el código que las llama, y no es infrecuente que el espacio para estos parámetros descanse en la pila de llamadas. Generalmente si solamente hay algunos pequeños parámetros, los registros del procesador serán usados para pasar los valores, pero si hay más parámetros de los que se pueda manejar de esta manera, será necesario espacio de memoria. La pila de llamadas trabaja bien como un lugar para estos parámetros, especialmente ya que a cada llamada a una subrutina, la cual tendrá diferentes valores para los parámetros, le será dado un espacio separado en la pila de llamadas para esos valores.

 Pila de evaluación - Los operandos para las operaciones aritméticas o lógicas muy frecuentemente son puestas en un registro se hace la operación allí. Sin embargo, en algunas situaciones los operandos pueden ser apilados hasta una profundidad arbitraria, lo que significa que debe ser usado algo más que los registros. La pila de tales operandos, similar al de una calculadora RPN, se llama pila de evaluación, y puede ocupar espacio en la pila de llamadas.

 Puntero a la instancia actual - Algunos lenguajes orientados objeto (ej., C++), almacenan el puntero this junto con los argumentos de la función en la pila de llamadas cuando se están invocando los métodos. El puntero this señala la instancia del objeto asociado al método que se invocará. El puntero this es una parte esencial del contexto de ejecución en lenguajes orientadas objetos, puesto que proporciona el acceso a los datos del miembro y la V-Table del objeto actual. El puntero this enlaza las capas (layers) usadas en el diseño orientado a objetos con las capas (tipos de stack frames) de la pila de llamadas del tiempo de ejecución.

 Envolviendo el contexto de la subrutina - En algunos lenguajes de programación (ej. Pascal y Ada) soportan subrutinas anidadas, permitiendo a una rutina interna acceder al contexto de su rutina externa que la contiene, es decir, los parámetros y las variables locales dentro del alcance de la rutina externa. Tal anidamiento estático se puede repetir - una función, declarada dentro de una función, declarada dentro de una función,... La implementación debe proporcionar un medio por el cual una función llamada en cualquier nivel de anidado estático dado pueda referenciar al marco que envuelve a cada nivel de anidado envolvente. Comúnmente, esta referencia es implementada por un puntero al marco que lo envuelve (o abarca), llamado un "downstack link" o "static link", para distinguirlo del "dynamic link" que hace referencia al procedimiento llamador inmediato (que no necesita ser la función padre estática). Por ejemplo, los lenguajes a menudo permiten a las rutinas internas llamarse a sí mismas recursivamente, resultando en múltiples marcos de llamada para las invocaciones de la rutina interna, todos estos enlaces estáticos apuntan al mismo contexto externo de rutina. En vez de un enlace estático, las referencias a los marcos estáticos envolventes pueden ser recolectados en un arreglo de punteros conocido como display el cual es indexado para localizar un marco deseado. La Burroughs B6500 tenía dicho display en el hardware que soportaba hasta 32 niveles de anidado estático.

 Otro estado de retorno - Además de la dirección de retorno, en algunos ambientes puede haber otra máquina o estados de software que necesitan ser restaurados cuando una subrutina retorna. Esto pudo incluir cosas como el nivel de privilegio, información de manejo de excepciones, modos aritméticos, y así sucesivamente. Si fuera necesario, esto puede ser almacenado en la pila de llamadas justo como lo es la dirección de retorno.

La pila de llamadas típica es usada para la dirección de retorno, variables locales, y los parámetros (conocido como el call frame). En algunos ambientes puede haber más o menos funciones asignadas a la pila de llamadas. En el lenguaje de programación Forth, por ejemplo, solamente la dirección de retorno y las variables locales son almacenadas en la pila de llamadas (que en ese ambiente es llamado la pila de retorno); los parámetros son almacenados en una pila de datos separado. La mayoría de los Forth también tiene una tercera pila para los parámetros de punto flotante.

Estructura
Una pila de llamadas está compuesto de stack frames (marcos de pila) (a veces llamados registros de activación). Estos son estructuras de datos dependientes de la máquina que contienen la información de estado de la subrutina. Cada stack frame corresponde a una llamada a una subrutina que activa, es decir, que todavía no ha terminado con un retorno a quien la llamó. Por ejemplo, si una subrutina llamada DrawLine está corriendo actualmente, acabando de ser llamada por una subrutina DrawSquare, la parte superior de la pila de llamadas puede presentarse como esto (donde la pila está creciendo de abajo hacia arriba):

El stack frame en el tope de la pila (en verde) es para la rutina actualmente en ejecución (DrawLine). En el más común acercamiento para el stack frame e incluye:

 el espacio para las variables locales de la rutina,
 la dirección de retorno del que llama a la rutina, y
 los valores de los parámetros pasados a la rutina.

La pila es a menudo accedida vía un registro llamado el puntero de pila (ver registro de pila), que también sirve para indicar al tope actual de la pila. Alternativamente, la memoria dentro del frame (marco) puede ser accedida vía un registro separado, a menudo llamado el frame pointer (puntero del frame), que típicamente apunta a un cierto lugar fijo en la estructura del frame, tal como la localización de la dirección de retorno.

Los stack frames no son todos del mismo tamaño. Diferentes subrutinas tienen diferente número de parámetros, de modo que esa parte del stack frame será diferente para diversas subrutinas, aunque usualmente es fijo a través de todas las activaciones de una subrutina particular. Similarmente, la cantidad de espacio necesario para las variables locales será diferente para diversas subrutinas. De hecho, algunos lenguajes soportan asignaciones dinámicas de memoria para las variables locales en la pila, en este caso el tamaño del área para las variables locales varía de una a otra activación de una subrutina, y no es conocida cuando es compilada la subrutina. En el último caso, el acceso vía un puntero de frame, en vez de a través del puntero de pila, es usualmente necesario puesto que los desplazamientos relativos (offsets) desde el tope de la pila a valores tales como la dirección de retorno no serían conocidas en tiempo de compilación.

En muchos sistemas un stack frame tiene un campo para contener el valor anterior del registro del puntero del frame, es decir, el valor que tenía con el programa, que llamó a la subrutina, mientras estaba ejecutándose. Por ejemplo, en el diagrama de arriba, el stack frame de DrawLine (en verde) tendría una posición de memoria manteniendo el valor del puntero del frame que DrawSquare  (en azul) está utilizando. El valor es guardado al entrar en la subrutina y es restaurado pare el retorno. Tener tal campo en una localización conocida del stack frame permite que el código tenga acceso a cada frame sucesivamente por debajo el frame de la rutina actualmente en ejecución.

Los lenguajes de programación que soportan subrutinas anidadas tienen un campo en el frame de llamada que apunta al frame de llamada de la rutina externa que invocó la rutina (anidada) interna. Esto a veces llamado un display. Este apuntador proporciona a las rutinas internas (así como cualesquiera otras rutinas internas que pueda invocar) el acceso a los parámetros y las variables locales de la rutina externa (la que invoca). Algunos computadores, tales como los grandes sistemas de Burroughs, tienen "registros de display" especiales para soportar tales funciones anidadas.

Para algunos propósitos, el stack frame de una subrutina y el de la rutina que la llama pueden ser considerados como un solapado (overlap), el solapado consiste en el área donde los parámetros son pasados desde la rutina que llama a la rutina que es llamada. En algunos ambientes, la rutina que llama, empuja (push) cada argumento sobre la pila, extendiendo así su stack frame; después invoca a la subrutina (la cual usará esos parámetros). En otros ambientes, la rutina que llama tiene un área preasignada en el tope de su stack frame para mantener los argumentos que suministra a otras subrutinas que llama. Esta área a veces son llamadas el área de argumentos salientes o el callout area. Bajo este acercamiento, el tamaño del área es calculado por el compilador para ser la más grande necesaria para cualquier subrutina llamada.

Manejo de la pila

Procesamiento en el sitio de llamada
La manipulación de la pila de llamadas que se necesita en el lugar donde se realiza la llamada a una subrutina es mínima (lo que es bueno puesto que pueden haber muchos lugares de donde se llama cada subrutina). Los valores para los argumentos reales son evaluados en el sitio de la llamada, puesto que son específicos para una particular llamada, y pueden ser o empujados (push) sobre la pila o colocados en los registros, según lo determinado por la convención de llamada utilizada. La instrucción de llamada real, tal como "Branch and link" es entonces típicamente ejecutada para transferir el control al código de la subrutina de destino.

Procesamiento dentro de la rutina llamada
En la subrutina que ha sido llamada, el primer código ejecutado es usualmente llamado el prólogo de la subrutina, puesto que hace el trabajo necesario antes de que comience el código para las sentencias de la rutina.

El prólogo comúnmente guardará la dirección de retorno, dejado en un registro por la instrucción de llamada, empujando (push) dicho valor sobre la pila de llamadas. Similarmente, los valores actuales del puntero de pila o del puntero del frame pueden ser empujados (push) a la pila. Alternativamente, algunas arquitecturas de conjunto de instrucciones, proporcionan automáticamente la funcionalidad comparable, como parte de la acción de la instrucción de llamada en sí misma, y en tal ambiente, el prólogo no necesita hacer esto.

Si están siendo usados los punteros de frame, el prólogo típicamente fijará el nuevo valor del registro del puntero de frame desde el puntero de pila. El espacio en la pila para las variables locales entonces puede ser asignado incrementalmente cambiando así al puntero de pila.

El lenguaje de programación Forth, permite el bobinado explícito de la pila de llamadas (llamada en Forth el «pila de retorno»). El lenguaje de programación del Scheme, permite el bobinado de frames especiales en la pila, a través de un «viento dinámico».

Procesamiento de retorno
Cuando una subrutina está lista para retornar, ejecuta un epílogo que deshace los pasos del prólogo. Esto típicamente restaurará los valores de registros previamente guardados (tales como el valor del puntero del frame) tomándolos desde el frame de la pila, descargará (pop) todo el frame de la pila cambiando el valor del puntero de pila, y finalmente bifurcará a la instrucción indicada en la dirección de retorno. Bajo muchas convenciones de llamada, entre los elementos eliminados (pop) de la pila por el epílogo, incluyen los valores originales de los argumentos con que fue llamada la rutina, en este caso, usualmente no hay otras manipulaciones de la pila que necesiten ser hechas por la subrutina que llama. Sin embargo, con algunas convenciones de llamada, es la responsabilidad de la rutina que llama quitar los argumentos de la pila después del retorno.

Desenrollado
El Retorno de la función llamada hará una remoción (pop) del frame en el tope de la pila, quizás dejando un valor de retorno.

Algunos lenguajes (como Pascal) permiten una sentencia goto global para transferir el control fuera de una función anidada y llevarlo hacia dentro de función externa previamente invocada. Esta operación requiere que la pila sea desenrolado, quitando tantos frames de pila como sea necesario para restaurar el contexto apropiado para transferir el control a la declaración de destino dentro de la función externa que la envuelve. Tales transferencias de control son generalmente usadas solo para el tratamiento de errores.

Otras lenguajes (tales como Object Pascal) proporcionan el manejo de excepciones, que también requiere desenrollar la pila. El stack frame de una función contiene una o más entradas que especifican manejadores de excepción. Cuando una excepción es lanzada, se desenrolla la pila hasta que es encontrado un manejador de excepción que esté preparado para manejar (catch) dicha excepción. El Common Lisp permite el control de lo qué sucede cuando la pila es desenrollada usando el operador especial unwind-protect.

Cuando se aplica una continuación, la pila es desenrollada y después rebobinado con la pila de la continuación. Esta no es la única manera de ejecutar continuaciones; por ejemplo, usando múltiples pilas explícitas, la aplicación de una continuación pueden simplemente activar su pila y enrollar un valor que será pasado.

Las pilas de llamadas y el software de pruebas
Una técnica recientemente divulgada usa las pilas de llamadas en una manera diferente que otras discutidas en esta página. Se utiliza las pilas de llamadas para la reducción del juego de pruebas. Brevemente, la reducción del juego de pruebas busca reducir el número de casos de pruebas en un juego de pruebas mientras que retiene un alto porcentaje de la efectividad de la detección de falla del juego original. Dos casos de pruebas son considerados equivalentes si generan el mismo conjunto de pilas de llamadas durante la ejecución. Para más detalles, ver ().

Análisis de desempeño
Tomando muestras en tiempos aleatorios de la pila de llamadas puede ser muy útil para optimizar el desempeño de los programas. La razón es que si una instrucción de llamada a subrutina aparece en la pila de llamadas en una cierta fracción del tiempo de ejecución, su posible remoción pudiera ahorrar esa cantidad de tiempo. Ver análisis de desempeño y muestreo profundo.

Seguridad
La mezcla de los datos del flujo de control que afectan la ejecución del código (direcciones de retorno, punteros de frame guardados) y datos simples del programa (parámetros, valores de retorno) en una pila de llamadas es un riesgo de seguridad, posiblemente explotable por medio del desbordamiento de búfer (en el artículo son explicados el riesgo y el exploit).

Referencias

Véase también
 Desbordamiento de pila
 Pila
 Registro de pila
 Máquina de pila
 Lenguaje de programación orientado a pila

Enlaces externos
 Stack Frame Allocation on MSDN
 Function Calling and Frame Pointer Operations in 68000

Estructuras de control
Estructura de datos
Subrutinas
Gestión de memoria


In the end I went for this absolutely beastly set-up with a custom made laptop. Hopefully it will last a long time at just over £2k. My last laptop lasted 4 and a half years and still works fine (donating it to a family member), so I look after them pretty well. My old i7-3630QM 2,4GHz ran 10 leagues reasonably well with 8GB ram so can't wait to see how this runs.
Can't wait for FM18. Finally buying a new laptop this week. @Smurf will that be good?
Hi Smuft, I must ask again as I have been reading some other FM-sites and most people says the FM-perfomance of a laptop comes down to the processor and not that much the graphics. And by that many claims that buying a full gaming laptop is kind of a waste , at least if you dont pay that much attention to the match days and 3d match engine. You said that HQ, or likewise, processors are preferred for gaming and given that there are not many laptops out there with those so I have to ask. If I set graphic settings to low and not focus that much about the matches itself (exclude of from the comparison), what would you say is the difference between, for example the HP Spectre and the HP Pavilion Power (linkes bellow), as they have pretty much the same spec except for the graphics. The same processor speed (2,5GHz), but the Pavilion has a HQ and the Spectre has a U processor. It seems like most people say that if you buy a laptop with a processor that is significantly faster the the requirements of the game (in this case 2,5GHz>2,2GHz) it would run pretty good for general FM-use (like top 5 nations in Europe+some south american leagues).
You said that HQ, or likewise, processors are preferred for gaming and given that there are not many laptops out there with those so I have to ask.
I'm not sure that's exactly what I said, and if it is what I said, then I am sorry, some things get mixed up in the heat of posting, or replying quickly, etc.
What I mean is that a lot of budget laptops fall into the the U processor and the HQ processor - in these terms then the HQ is preferred for FM. If it was for another game I wouldn't be too hung up on the U vs HQ - but FM is an intensive processing game - so having a "U" processor is just not suited for FM.
The 2 you post have different needs - one is 13 inch, ultraportable, that's why 13 inch laptops come mostly with U processors as off the plugged in it helps to preserve the battery when not plugged in. They're designed to use less power, to save on the battery, which in turn makes them less than desirable for FM. Any other use would be fine. I'm yet to find a 13 inch laptop that has a HQ or a K processor - I just don't think makers of portable 13 inch or smaller laptops would consider putting a battery draining processor into a computer where it's designed to be ultraportable.
The 15 inch one is much better for FM - however, it's larger and possibly not suited for travel, or portability.
I'm not a world authority on laptops/processor/computer parts or requirements for FM - I can only tell you what I know to be true in regards to what is better suited for Laptops for FM.
If someone is posting a laptop that's not great for FM - I will actively look in the same price bracket for something better.
The user then spends the amount they originally were going to spend - but gets a better computer for FM.
Hehe, thank you so much for your time. It helps me a lot! I understand. The thing is that I've looked everywhere for a utraporable, but as you said it seems like they just dont make it. Thats why I've looked at some larger laptops that still seems "ok" to travel with.
On the other hand. Is it possible to buy a cheap desktop that will outperform most of the £700-£1200 laptops? Or how much do I have to put into a ok desktop if I dont want to build it myself?
I wouldn't be too confident of it's performance.
Hi, this thread looks exactly like what I need.
I thought with 8GB RAM and an i3 processor it would run the game fairly well. As the Beta isn't out yet for FM18 I decided to load up FM17 to see how the game runs. It said essentially if I loaded only the English leagues it would run at half a star speed. So I put it through CanYouRunIt I've got 128MB or Dedicated Video RAM whereas FM requires 256MB. Having looked at a few other forums people seemed to be saying it would limit the graphics would be poor with not enough Video RAM but in the Preferences section of FM17 it says it'll be 4 star.
Is this laptop going to be able to properly play FM, and get 20 seasons deep or will it not? I loaded up a game quickly on it and it all seemed to work at a quick speed. I'd rather not return the laptop but I can if FM wont play at a reasonable speed.
Thanks for the clear and concise reply. Any tips as to what I should look for in a laptop to have FM run quickly?
Post any you find and I'll take a look.
I presume you went for this one?
my tablet has decided it doesn't want to hold its charge anymore. So I am looking to get a laptop.
The things is I want to go back to FM15 but don't know where to start looking. I have around £300 max to spend. Unless I can get on that can run FM17 not interested in 3D so don't need powerful graphics.
this is my current laptop. runs fm17 perfectly well even though star rating shows only 1 or 2 stars with 14 nations and 40 leagues. my concern is are the graphic good enough for fm18. currently have graphics set to medium quality on fm17 without ever changing setting.
The demo will be out shortly - can you wait? As nobody has access to the game to possibly know what the graphics would be like.
sorry i have maybe not made clear what i was trying to ask. i was trying to ask if those graphics compare to any that are suggested for minimum requirements. not tech savvy when comes to graphics cards so wasn't understanding any of the attempted internet searches i tried.
Hi Smurf, how would this do?
It's within the specs for the game - so it should work.
Again though - nobody really knows until it's released.
How's this for FM ?
I thought i7 was one of the best?
Its a U processor though so low power.
No - that's not necssarily true - there's several types of i7 processors.
There's not a huge difference performance wise from a i5 7300HQ and an i7 7700 HQ.
Plus the one I linked to has a SSD.
Do we need optical drives anymore? I can't remember the last time I inserted a DVD?
I am looking at spending upto £850 for a new laptop.
I currently have an ASUS ROG G551JM, however in 3d games it stutters a bit (Geforce GTX 860M).
I've recently purchased an iMac (21.5inch screen) for work reasons and I'll probably play fm18 on it.
can anyone share their experiences (good or bad) of playing FM on an iMac? Does it run ok, any issues with over-heating, etc. I'd like to run multiple leagues with a large database if possible. Also how have people found FM on a larger screen?! I've only ever played it on Windows laptops so would be interested to hear.
Since Fm 2017 you can play the game on macs in 64 bit, which makes it faster and you can run more leagues on a good speed. I have a iMac 27 inch retina and tested it with loading ALL leagues. It worked, but with some lags during the weekends, when 90% of all matches are played.
Hi, broke my old laptop a few months ago (definitely not because of FM) and now realised I desperately need a new one. Can only really afford one under £300.
I know it's not going to get me much so just after one which can run two or three countries pretty quickly, not fussed at all about 3D matches.
As far as I can tell this once seems like it fits the bill..
I can upgrade it to 8GB of Ram and £120GB SSD for around £250.
Anyone know if it'll be fine to run it, or is there something obvious I've missed?
Edited October 27, 2017 by RandomGuy.
Completely depends on the spec of the Mac and how many leagues, divisions, and etc.
Macs are severely underpowered for what you pay for - but if it's for work reasons - then I completely understand.
I'm finding it next to impossible to find any information on the model number of the processor in the iMac 21.5 inch.
On that basis go for the most expensive one with a graphics - if work are paying for it.
Impossible to tell - as above, it doesn't specify what type of i5 processor it is.
I couldn't find a more indepth analysis of the processor at all, that makes me very wary of that site tbh.
Been recommended this one by a friend..
If your budget is only £300 the I don't think you'll find much better.
Cheers, can get Windows 10 on that first one for £220 it seems, so might just stay with that one to save a few pennies, unless the one you've linked has a large advantage over it?
Yeh but it's a slightly older processor - the one I linked to has a 3rd generation processor (we're on gen 8 now) the one you linked to was a gen 2.


Currently we are looking for a bilingual interior designer (NL/FR) to be part of our Hasselt design team. You will be responsible for the creative input, be it on one large or on several smaller consecutive projects. You will work together with our project management and commercial team, reporting and putting together timelines with the rest of the team.


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The insignia of the Fraternity are symbols of great meaning. They are a heritage from the past, significant because of what Zeta Tau Alphas believe.
(Listed alphabetically)
Badge – The badge of the Fraternity is a small, black, enameled shield super-imposed upon a gold shield, bearing a five pointed crown with the letters ZTA arranged around it, and below it the word "Themis" in Greek.
Banner – The banner of the Fraternity is rectangular and made of turquoise and gray satin. It bears the letter "A," the word "Themis" in Greek, and a burning torch. The meaning of the banner is secret, but it may be hung in a place that is visible to anyone entering a chapter house, lodge, suite or chapter room.
Chain of Chapters – A gold link inscribed "Alpha" begins Zeta Tau Alpha's Chain of Chapters. Each time a new collegiate chapter is installed, a silver link, etched with the chapter's Greek name, is added to the chain.
Colors – The colors of Zeta Tau Alpha are turquoise blue and steel gray. The significance of these colors is explained in the Initiation Service.
Coat of Arms (Crest) – Only initiated members may use wear or use the crest. The ritualistic meaning of the Coat of Arms is secret and is revealed to each member at the time of her initiation.
Corporate Logo – Zeta Tau Alpha's current logo was unveiled at Convention 2014. This important piece of the ZTA brand makes the crown the prominent, identifying symbol of the Fraternity.
Crown – The five-pointed Crown is an official symbol of the Fraternity. The significance of the five points is revealed to each member upon her Initiation. It is asked that members use the crown from the official logo or the one to the left, which is found atop the ZTA Coat of Arms
Flag, Fraternity – The official flag of the Fraternity was adopted at the 1950 Convention and is in the Fraternity colors with a Coat of Arms surrounded by the words "ZETA TAU ALPHA."
Flag, Chapter – In honor of ZTA's Centennial (1998), a flag was produced to honor each Chapter. The flags are gray and turquoise with the Chapter name in Greek letters. A flag will be made for each successive chapter upon its Installation. The flags are housed at International Office.
Flower – The flower of the Fraternity, chosen by Founder Ruby Leigh Orgain, is the white violet. Its symbolic meaning is explained in the Initiation Service.
Honor Ring – Adopted at the 1915 Convention, it is silver with the Coat of Arms upon a turquoise stone, flanked by an open Bible and the crown. It is the highest individual honor granted by the Fraternity. Upon approval of National Council, alumnae may receive the Honor Ring for outstanding and sustained service to the Fraternity. Presentation of the Honor Ring is based upon a point system for service on the local and national level.
Mother's Pin – A turquoise and silver crown with a white violet embossed upon it, this pin may be presented to mothers of initiated members and to Zeta house directors.
Official Seal – The official seal of the Fraternity is circular with fluted edges bearing the name of the Fraternity and the date and place of founding. It is used on official documents of the national Fraternity. Replicas of the official seal may be used for decorative purposes.
Patron Goddess – The Founders chose Themis to represent the Fraternity. In Greek mythology, Themis is one of the Titans, daughter of Gaea (Earth) and Uranus (Heaven), and the mother of the three Fates and the Seasons. The goddess of divine justice and law, Themis was the constant companion of the god Zeus and sat beside him on Olympus. In ancient art she is represented holding aloft a pair of scales on which she weighs the claims of opposing parties.
Pledge Pin – This pin is a silver carpenter's square enameled in turquoise, to be worn by all duly pledged new members of the Fraternity.
The Purple of the Fraternity – The purple of the Fraternity is the purple regalia, adorned with the torch and Coat of Arms, worn by the National President as a symbol of her office. It is worn at all official Zeta Tau Alpha functions such as Convention Business Meetings and chapter Installations.
Recognition Pins – The ZTA recognition pins may be worn by new and initiated members. The crown pin may be worn by initiated members only.
Strawberry – An admirer of one of ZTA's Founders, Mary Campbell Jones (Batte), sent her a gift of strawberries. The delicious present prompted the group of nine friends to host their first purely social gathering and to become officially recognized as a campus organization.
White Violet Pin (50 year pin) – Only those who have been members of the Fraternity for 50 or more years and thus are recipients of the Order of the Shield may wear this pin, in the shape of the white violet. It may be worn as a recognition pin or as a guard to the badge.
White Violet Charm (75 year charm) – Those members who have been a member for 75 years receive this charm which is in the shape of the white violet with 75 superimposed upon it.
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redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


[FFmpeg-cvslog] Move PS2 MMI code below the mips subdirectory,	where it belongs.
Previous message: [FFmpeg-cvslog] mips: Move MMI function declarations to a header.
Next message: [FFmpeg-cvslog] swscale: fix invalid memory accesses in	yuvpacked1() functions.
it is not PS2-specific, as the name currently suggests.


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Wax adapts Salinger and wonders if he'll block screening; Eco on translation
by Maud | November 1st, 2003
If he catches wind of it, J.D. Salinger may sue to prevent Ruby Wax's brief and apparently not very faithful adaptation of part of The Catcher in the Rye from airing at an event related to The Big Read this weekend. Wax talks about her past and the deep meaning the novel has for her:
"I was 13 when I read it and was pretty rebellious, too; The Catcher in the Rye had a real call-to-arms feel about it," says Wax. "This wasn't a book for pert, happy kids who were cheerleaders; it was a book for people like me, who weren't academic, but who had an undercurrent of intelligence, who understood irony."
As my grandmother would have said, "Don't think much of herself, does she?"
An excerpt from Umberto Eco's forthcoming Mouse or Rat? Translation as Negotiation appears in the Guardian. In it, Eco discusses the problem of translation, arguing that "only by being literally unfaithful can a translator succeed in being truly faithful to the source text."


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Q: android data binding encoding issue I am trying MVVM architecture in android for the first time.I am trying to use data binding. But I am facing an issue here.
Whenever I am compiling it during building its giving me -1 error or sometimes ArrayIndexOutOfBound exception.
 I've added all gradle stuffs that needed for data binding. I previously had similar problem with another activity layout file then one of my senior android pull it and run it solved the error and that actvity now running smoothly. I asked him what was the issue ...told me encoding issue of first line of xml layout.Space problem. Then i tried many ways in my windows machine the problem persisted with another layout file. Then i saw somewhere someone telling this data binding encoding issue only occurs in windows machine. The same project running on mac or ubuntu ..runs smoothly without any error.
Note: My colleague then confirmed he has ubuntu OS. From then on I am thinking isn't there anyway to solve this encoding issue which occurs in windows machine??
Alas!! My post here in stackoverflow in hope that someone somewhere might have solution for this.

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaStackExchange


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Britain's Big Gamble and the End of the European Dream
Antoine Steen
and Geen categorie
and Political Economics
eatsmilesleep
On June 23rd the British public will make a decision that could alter the fate of Europe in a referendum on whether the UK should leave the EU. Despite returning from Brussels negotiations having secured Britain a 'special status' in the union, including an emergency brake on welfare payments to EU migrants, protections from eurozone regulations for the City and an exemption from the EU's ideal of an 'ever closer union', Prime Minister David Cameron has a fight on his hands, with several of his cabinet ministers actively campaigning for an EU exit.
The decision to hold a referendum is the governing Conservative Party's response to the rise of the UK Independence Party (UKIP), a Eurosceptic party that went from being a fringe party to being a political force, winning the most votes in the European elections and becoming the third biggest party in the most recent general election.
The ballot is expected to be tight. And how Britain votes could ultimately come down to the irrational impulses of the day. With the vote scheduled just days after the Euro 2016 football tournament group stages, it has been speculated that the future of Europe could come down to whether the England football team put in a performance against Wales, Russia and Slovakia – research has found that a local sports team victory in the days leading up to an election boosts the incumbent vote share by a significant margin. It could be that a strong performance from England increases the country's hopes for the future and the spectacle of European countries engaging in friendly competition fosters a greater appreciation for European culture and values – a shared sense of European-ness. A poor performance, however, could inspire soul searching and a questioning of England's position in the status quo.
A decade ago the idea that a country might decide to leave the EU would have been considered absurd. But since then, two developments have come to the fore and will dominate the referendum debate in the months to come – the eurozone crisis and the ongoing refugee crisis.
The Eurozone Crisis
Paul Krugman is not alone among economists in arguing that it has been obvious for some time that the creation of the euro was a terrible mistake. Economists argue that Europe has never had the preconditions for a successful single currency. And yet the single currency was introduced anyway.
Under the Stability and Growth Pact, which was engineered to enhance fiscal discipline, eurozone countries had been obliged to keep sound fiscal policies, with annual deficits limited to 3% of GDP and debt limited to 60% of GDP, and yet these rules were completely ignored in the absence of any political will to enforce them. After the credit crunch took hold, attention turned towards excessive government borrowing in peripheral euro area countries, leading to spikes in interest rates on government bonds. Of all the eurozone economies, Greece was by far the worst-hit. Without the ability to devalue its currency Greece has been subjected to one of the deepest and longest-lasting recessions on record, and even after years of crisis, Greece – and the rest of the eurozone – faces sclerotic growth for the foreseeable future. Meanwhile, GDP growth in advanced European economies outside the eurozone has been relatively robust.
The failures of the euro have led people to wonder if the Eurosceptics were right. To them it seems obvious that if the EU is capable of making such a colossal mistake on a matter as important as a currency, it shouldn't be trusted with anything at all.
Cameron's "no ifs, no buts" promise to reduce net migration from over 200,000 to the tens of thousands lies in tatters – net migration instead climbed to 323,000 in the year to September. And where does most of that immigration come from? The EU, of course. In the two years leading up to December 2014, EU immigration increased from 158,000 a year to 268,000 a year. Cameron's promise is literally impossible to fulfil with the freedom of movement enshrined in EU law, and his 'special status' deal will do little to deter EU migrants, the vast majority of whom are not benefit recipients – less than 5% of EU migrants are claiming jobseekers allowance.
The British electorate's opposition to migration extends to refugees, and 'Leave' campaigners have seized on reports that the UK may have to take more refugees in future, with polls showing that support for Brexit increases in response to images of the refugee crisis.
With Germany receiving 1.1m refugees in 2015 – a level of migration unthinkable to the British electorate – the current refugee crisis has very much been seen as a European problem from which the UK is relatively isolated. But there are fears that Britain could see similar numbers of refugees if the so-called Dublin regulation collapses. Under the Dublin regulation, refugees are obliged to seek asylum in the first country in which they arrive. The system, which had been under strain for years, was, in effect, finished off, after German Chancellor Angela Merkel said that all Syrian refugees would be eligible to seek shelter in Germany. With the rules due to be scrapped, perhaps in favour of a relocation quota system, voters are concerned that the UK could face a refugee crisis on a similar scale to Germany.
As an island nation, the UK has had the privilege of being able to reject refugees without risking appearing inhumane, however, dehumanisation has recently entered the political vernacular, with Cameron describing migrants attempting to reach Britain through Calais as a swarm. Interestingly, French authorities have recently moved to destroy the site near Calais where thousands of migrants live while attempting to enter Britain illegally, in a development which should go some way to reducing the number of tabloid front pages dedicated to the issue. Ultimately, if the union is to remain united, more must be done to show British voters that the EU has a viable solution to the migrant crisis that doesn't involve mass immigration to the UK.
The End of the European Dream
The eurozone crisis and the migrant crisis are leading Britons to seriously consider whether the EU is a club they want to be a part of. People find it hard to say what the EU does for them. Tabloids publish headlines touting how much Britain puts into the EU compared with how much it receives and sensationalise regulations in such a way that the purpose of EU institutions is deemed trivial at best, meddling and wasteful at worst. 'The EU is to ban selling eggs by the dozen' is just one such example.
The strongest arguments in favour of the EU are the most subtle. Through its gradual enlargement, the EU has enhanced democracy and fundamental freedoms, increased cooperation and created a huge single market across the continent. The referendum isn't just a vote for Britain's exit. It is a vote for the future of the union itself. For accession states, seeing Britain leave the union will be like turning up to a nightclub and seeing people exit as you queue to get in. Never a good sign. Voters in accession countries will see Britain leaving the party and wonder whether it's any good. Assuming Brexit becomes a reality, the likes of Serbia, Kosovo and Turkey may end up drifting from their democratic roadmaps.
JP Morgan economists estimate that credit markets are pricing in a 52% chance of Brexit. I suspect the odds of a UK exit are somewhat lower than that. I think voters will not want to venture into the wilderness that Brexit offers. The EU is far from perfect, but without Britain, Europe would be weakened in its ability to tackle the world's biggest issues: climate change, interstate conflict and terrorism, to name a few. 'Remain' campaigners would do well to emphasise these arguments in the run-up to the referendum.
"That one time, while I was on Erasmus…" Previous
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Antoine Steen is an editor of Rostra Economica and third-year student of the BSC Economics and Business programme at the University of Amsterdam. He has a particular interest in the interplay between economics and international relations. Antoine's LinkedIn


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Mark Wright reveals what Kim Kardashian is really like when cameras aren't rolling — EXCLUSIVE
Mark Wright interviewed Kim Kardashian during his time as host on American show Extra.
Mark Wright has opened up on working with Kim Kardashian during his time as a presenter in Los Angeles.
The 32 year old worked as a host on entertainment show Extra for almost two years, before returning home at the end of 2018.
During his time in the role, former The Only Way Is Essex star Mark interviewed Kim, 39, a number of times, and has now revealed what she's like before cameras start rolling.
Mark Wright has opened up on what Kim Kardashian is like when the cameras are switched off (Image: Instagram/Mark Wright)
When asked who was the most down to earth A-list star he met, Mark exclusively told OK! magazine: "So many of them were lovely.
"The Kardashians are all great. I knew they'd be nice people but they were so normal and really polite.
"I interviewed Kim once and she arrived on set before we were ready for her.
Michelle Keegan and Mark Wright disagree in hilarious Instagram exchange during Dubai holiday
"We apologised and said it would be another five minutes and she said: 'Okay, I'll just sit with you guys while you get set up.'
"Then she sat down next to me and we just chatted about life. She was lovely to every single person on set."
However, the hunk admitted he is much happier back home with wife Michelle Keegan and won't permanently be returning to America any time soon.
Inside Michelle Keegan and husband Mark Wright's romantic Ibiza holiday
He continued: "You cannot be richer than the love your family give you. Money just doesn't compare.
"Living in LA was always something I wanted to do and I had chased the dream for so long but it didn't warrant being away from my friends and family for so long.
"It's the little things you miss. You might think, Oh, I can go without Shepherd's Pie because I'm going to LA, so who cares?
Mark hosted American entertainment show Extra for almost two years (Image: Getty)
"But going over to your nan and grandad's house for food is one of the things you miss."
Mark also discussed how he plans to spend the upcoming Christmas season with Michelle, adding: "Michelle and I do one Christmas with her family in the north and one Christmas with mine in Essex and this year is my turn.
"We'll go to my mum's on Boxing Day for a big party. It's a big time for family. And I always go to Winter Wonderland in London with my mates for a knees up. It gets messy every year!"
Michelle Keegan and Mark Wright
Mark Wright reveals uncle, who is co...
Mark Wright says his dad is 'mentall...
Michelle Keegan candidly admits she'...
Michelle Keegan and Mark Wright's £1...
Mark and Michelle recently enjoyed a luxurious romantic getaway to Dubai, but had a hilarious disagreement on Instagram.
Mark shared a hilarious video of himself jumping out of the pool, giving his attempt at the Avengers: Endgame viral video trend.
Showing off his impressive physique, a topless Mark is seen making a splash as he jumps out of the pool and cleanly lands poolside, giving his best superhero impression.
Michelle Keegan shares stunning bikini snap while on romantic Dubai trip with husband Mark Wright
He captioned the video, which was posted to his 1.6million Instagram followers: "Flying into Monday like a F***ing Superhero."
Displaying their hilarious husband and wife banter, Michelle commented underneath the post to announce that the filming of the video didn't go as smoothly as it seems.
She wrote: An hour and 341 videos later!!! and in the end we went with the original ... we actually lost the bloody light!!!," with Mark responding: "chat s**t. 1 take wonder [sic] "
For Mark's full interview, pick up a copy of this week's OK! magazine — available nationwide on Tuesday.


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Utilization of Corticosteroid Delivery Systems for Treatment of Nasal Polyposis - Episode 17
Emerging Treatment Options for Nasal Polyposis
Anju Peters, MD, Naveen Bhandarkar, MD, Andrew White, MD, Dareen Siri, MD, FAAAAI, FACAAI
A multidisciplinary panel reviews emerging treatment options for nasal polyposis, including EDS-FLU, Tezepelumab, and Rimegepant.
EP. 1: Overview of Nasal Polyposis
EP. 2: Comorbidities with Chronic Rhinosinusitis
EP. 3: Role of Various Specialists in Diagnosis and Management of Nasal Polyposis
EP. 4: Guidelines for Diagnosis and Treatment of Nasal Polyposis
EP. 5: Treatment Options for Chronic Rhinosinusitis with Nasal Polyps (CRSwNP)
EP. 6: Small Volume Corticosteroid Delivery Systems for Nasal Polyposis
EP. 7: Large Volume Corticosteroid Delivery System for Nasal Polyposis
EP. 8: Bioabsorbable Sinus Implants for Nasal Polyposis
EP. 9: Use of Steroid Eluting Stents in Treatment of Chronic Rhinosinusitis with Nasal Polyps (CRSwNP)
EP. 10: EDS-PLU Studies for Treatment of Nasal Polyposis
EP. 11: Use of Steroids After Surgery in Nasal Polyposis
EP. 12: Role of EDS-FLU in Clinical Practice in Nasal Polyposis
EP. 13: Changing Treatment for Patients with Nasal Polyps
EP. 14: Biologics for Treatment of Chronic Rhinosinusitis with Nasal Polyps (CRSwNP)
EP. 15: Challenges in the Use of Biologics for Chronic Rhinosinusitis with Nasal Polyps (CRSwNP)
EP. 16: Use of Clinical Trials for Patients with Nasal Polyps
EP. 17: Emerging Treatment Options for Nasal Polyposis
EP. 18: Unmet Needs in Nasal Polyposis
EP. 19: Final Thoughts on Management of Nasal Polyposis
Anju Peters, MD: What are you guys most excited about in terms of new medication options for patients, nasal polyps, new mechanism of actions, or any new ongoing trials for with polyps, but also for without polyps?
Andrew White, MD: It's crazy how many options have emerged in the last couple of years. I mean, it's hard for us to even keep track of the new therapies that are getting approved. And then, you know, thinking about if this is therapies approved for asthma, would we think it would work for polyps. That's been exciting. And probably over the next few years, we will just sort of stumble upon some other treatments that are going to work amazing, and at the same time probably teach us a lot about polyp disease in general. Because we will probably learn that something works well that we didn't anticipate. One of the things I'm excited about is tezepelumab. Tezepelumab is a monoclonal that's currently approved for asthma. It works at a very high level, sort of at the beginning of where a lot of this inflammation may happen in the mucosa. The target is something that's important, we know in AERD, which is a severe form of polyps that I've been very interested in. It has a lot of promise. I'm particularly excited about that. You know, I think there's a lot of other targets that are interesting. There's anti-siglec-8, which is on mast cells and eosinophils. And there's potential, you know, therapies in development that may target both of those cells. And I'm pretty interested in things that can do both, do double duty on eosinophils and mast cells.
Anju Peters, MD: Naveen, would you like to add anything else?
Naveen Bhandarkar, MD: Yes. The EDS-fluticasone that we have been talking about, which has a current FDA approved indication for polyps. As I think we mentioned earlier has gone through a trial, which met primary endpoints for treatment of chronic sinusitis, which in the FDA view is a separate disease state for whatever it's worth. And I'm excited to see what comes out of that. If approved, it would be the first FDA approved therapy we have for chronic sinusitis. That's very exciting. The second that is ongoing right now is use of a mometasone-eluting implant that can be used prior to surgery and is placed in a specific location in the middle meatus. That's going through trials right now, which may not be available for several months, but is another very exciting thing on the horizon.
Anju Peters, MD: How about you, Dareen? Anything you are excited about in terms of new treatment?
Dareen Siri, MD, FAAAAI, FACAAI: As you discussed at the very beginning, there's this, you know, huge section of patients. The majority who do not have nasal polyps, or perhaps they have nasal polyps and evolution. We just haven't quite recognized them, because they don't have free nasal polyps hanging in their nose. That, to me is the most exciting. Because right now, you know, I'm trying to have to, again, negotiate different medications that will help these patients without an FDA approval. And that that is the number one most exciting part is that now I'll have something that I can treat in the majority of my patients with, and something that is easily accessible, easy to prescribe, those kinds of things. And certainly, there are a lot of other cool medications coming down the pipeline. And in fact, some of the other research, not necessarily about therapies, but just, you know, phenotyping, and endotyping the patients. Kind of like, when you have with asthma and other diseases to see which drugs might work the best for them? Which therapies? Which interventions? And as we understand a bit more about, you know, this age of the sinuses, I think that that's the best part.
Utilization of Corticosteroid Delivery Systems for Treatment of Nasal PolyposisPeer Exchange
Switching Treatment vs Augmenting Strategies in MDD
Monitoring Recommendations in MDD
Advice for Managing Patients With PN