text:
The Cerrejón Formation is a geologic formation in Colombia dating back to the Middle-Late Paleocene. It is found in the El Cerrejón sub-basin of the Cesar-Ranchería Basin of La Guajira and Cesar. The formation consists of bituminous coal fields that are an important economic resource. Coal from the Cerrejón Formation is mined extensively from the Cerrejón open-pit coal mine, one of the largest in the world. The formation also bears fossils that are the earliest record of Neotropical rainforests.

Definition
The formation was first named Septarias Formation and in 1958 renamed to Cerrejón Formation by Thomas van der Hammen, probably based on an earlier report by Notestein.

Geology

The Cerrejón Formation, with an assigned total thickness of , is subdivided into lower, middle, and upper groups based on the thickness and distribution of coal beds. On average the coal beds are  thick, and range from  to  in thickness. The thickest beds are in the upper part of the formation. The Cerrejón Formation is laterally equivalent with the Los Cuervos and Bogotá Formations to the south; Llanos Orientales and Altiplano Cundiboyacense respectively. The formation is also time-equivalent with the Marcelina Formation of the Venezuelan Serranía del Perijá and the Catatumbo Formation of the southwestern Colombian part of the Maracaibo Basin, the Catatumbo Basin. The formation has also been described as laterally equivalent to the Mostrencos and Santa Cruz Formations of Venezuela.

Based on lithofacies associations and paleofloral composition, the depositional environment fluctuated from an estuarine-influenced coastal plain at the base of the formation to a fluvial-influenced coastal plain at the top.

In the geologically recent past, some coal in the formation has spontaneously and naturally combusted to form clinker, red and brick-looking burnt coal. These rocks outcrop irregularly and are up to  thick. Clinker is found near deformed zones such as faults or tight folds, and is older than the deformities themselves. They are thought to have combusted after the development of the Cerrejón thrust fault and alluvial fan.

Paleoenvironment

Fossils found from the Cerrejón Formation are the earliest record of Neotropical rainforests, with an abundance of plant macrofossils and palynomorphs. The Cerrejón Formation also records a riverine vertebrate fauna that includes lungfish, turtles, snakes, and crocodyliforms. Based on these fossils and the stratigraphy of the formation, the Cerrejón Formation was likely formed on a coastal plain, covered in a wet tropical rainforest and incised by a large river system.

The rainforest is estimated to have been around 5°N paleolatitude. During the Paleocene, equatorial temperatures were much higher than they are today. Based on the size of the giant boid Titanoboa, specimens of which have been found in the Cerrejón Formation, the mean annual temperature of Paleocene equatorial South America was between  and . This is the minimum annual temperature range that a poikilotherm as large as Titanoboa could live. It is consistent with Paleocene climate models which predict greenhouse temperatures and an atmospheric pCO2 concentration of around 2,000 parts per million. Paleotemperature estimates based on fossil leaf assemblages from the Cerrejón Formation predict the mean annual temperature to be  lower than other estimates. However, such temperature estimates based on riparian and wetland rainforest paleoflora have been considered underestimates.

Mean annual temperatures of  are considered to be too high for modern tropical forests, but the Cerrejón rainforest could have been maintained by increased atmospheric pCO2 levels and the high regional rainfall, which is estimated to have been around  per year.

Flora

The floral record of the Cerrejón Formation is well known, with many identifiable and well preserved plant microfossils having been found from the Cerrejón mine. The fossils are well preserved, and in some cases their cell structure is intact. In comparison to modern Neotropical rainforests, the diversity of plants is quite low. This may be an indication of the early stage of Neotropical diversification, or a delayed recovery period following the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event.

Many plants from the Cerrejón Formation belong to families that are still common today in modern Neotropical rainforests. There is a diverse variety of palms and legumes in the formation. In addition to palms and legumes, much of the biomass of the Paleocene forest consisted of laurales, malvales, menisperms, aroids, zingiberaleans, cocoa bean plants,banana plants, and avocado plants. Studies of fossil plants from Cretaceous-age sites indicate that the floral composition below the Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary (K–T boundary) was very different from that of the Paleocene. Legumes are absent from Cretaceous strata, and likely appeared or diversified during the Paleocene.

The presence of these types of flora in Paleocene strata shows that plants characteristic of modern Neotropical rainforests have existed for geologically long periods of time, being able to withstand climatic and geographic changes in South America. It has been suggested that today's Neotropical rainforests are the result of environmental changes brought about by Quaternary glacial cycles (i.e. the recent ice age). These cycles would have caused fluctuation in the diversity and extent of rainforests. If this was the case, the current diversity of the Amazon rainforest would be a recent speciation in a changing environment. However, the floral record from the Cerrejón Formation shows that the current diversity of the Amazon Rainforest can be traced back into the early Cenozoic.

Fauna

Feeding damage from insects is evident on some of the plant macrofossils from the Cerrejón Formation. One survey of plant macrofossils showed that around half of the studied specimens had been attacked by herbivorous insects. The insects that damaged the leaves were predominantly generalist feeders, unlike modern Neotropical insects that are mainly specialist herbivores. There is no evidence of the elevated insect-feeding diversity or host-specialized feeding associations that are seen in later Neotropical forests. The insect diversity in the Cerrejón Formation is low in comparison to the diversity of insects in Neotropical rainforests today, and it is likely that leaf damage was made by relatively few species.

Remains of the giant boid Titanoboa cerrejonensis have been found from a gray claystone layer underlying Coal Seam 90 in the Cerrejón mine. Titanoboa is the largest known snake to have ever existed, reaching an estimated length of . Eunectes, the anaconda, is likely to be a close living analogue of Titanoboa.

A dyrosaurid crocodylomorph called Cerrejonisuchus improcerus was described in 2010 from the Cerrejón Formation in the same layer as Titanoboa. It was a small dyrosaurid, and had the shortest snout length relative to its skull length of any dyrosaurid. Most dyrosaurids were marine, with long snouts adapted for catching fish. The short snout of Cerrejonisuchus is likely to have been an adaptation for a more generalized diet in a transitional aquatic environment. It is possible that Cerrejonisuchus was a food source for Titanoboa, as the two inhabited the same riverine environment. The anaconda has been documented consuming caimans, a feeding habit that is similar to the inferred habit of Titanoboa. A second dyrosaurid, Acherontisuchus, was named in 2011 from the formation. With a large body and long snout, it resembles most other dyrosaurids. A third dyrosaurid, Anthracosuchus, was named in 2014. Unlike other dyrosaurids, it had blunt teeth and a short skull. Anthracosuchus likely had massive jaw muscles allowing it to feed on large turtles, a behavior which is corroborated by predation marks found at the site.

Coal resources

The Cerrejón Formation contains extensive coal seams that are mined primarily at the Cerrejón mine. The coal is desirable for its low ash and sulfur content and for its resistance to caking. Cerrejón is Colombia's largest coal producing mine, with most of the production exported to Europe. It is the largest coal mining operation in Latin America, with an estimated 28.4 million tons mined in 2006.

Itaboraian correlations

References

Bibliography

Further reading

Geologic formations of Colombia
Formations
Paleogene Colombia
Paleocene Series of South America
Itaboraian
Peligran
Thanetian Stage
Coal in Colombia
Coal formations
Mudstone formations
Sandstone formations
Siltstone formations
Fluvial deposits
Reservoir rock formations
Source rock formations
Formations
Formations

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


More than 100 pupils in special educational needs schools and organisations across Nottingham are set to enjoy free group drumming workshops designed to support mindfulness and mental health, after a local charity secured a £5,000 funding boost.
The Liz Winwood Foundation, which delivers musical workshops to children aged five to 16, was awarded the money by financial services company OneFamily as part of its Foundation Community Grant scheme.
As well as funding 35 sessions for schools in the city, the money has allowed the charity to buy 20 new fibreglass drums, which are lightweight and can be used by wheelchair users without causing discomfort.
The activities are often delivered to help groups of children with physical disabilities or learning difficulties.
The charity ultimately aims to take its drumming to schools UK-wide by creating a travelling interactive musical theatre. It plans to use feedback from its upcoming sessions to help design the show.
The Liz Winwood Foundation was founded in 2016 by Jude Winwood in memory of her mum, a much-loved headteacher from Nottingham who dedicated her life to helping children from disadvantaged backgrounds and young people with learning difficulties.
Jude, also a teacher, left formal education two years ago to run the musical workshops full time.
She now provides the sessions every week for small groups of young people and with school assemblies of up to 300 children.
The charity was nominated for a community grant by Sarah Vearnals, whose son Luca attends the drumming workshops run by Jude. Sarah has a Child Trust Fund with OneFamily.
Jude said: "We're incredibly grateful to receive this funding from OneFamily and as a result, lots of children across Nottinghamshire are set to benefit.
"Drumming is an accessible activity for able and disabled-bodied young people, which can help them overcome anxiety and build resilience by taking part in group activities and new challenges.
Guy French, corporate and customer strategy director at OneFamily, said: "The Liz Winwood Foundation's workshops offer school children many benefits that help to encourage positive mental and physical health.
"We're really pleased to be supporting the charity, especially as it will help them to take the drumming UK-wide with its new show.
OneFamily customers can nominate local groups, projects and charities to receive up to £5,000 via its Foundation Community Grant scheme, with 30 projects benefiting in the last round of funding.


We went 'live' literally today.
This is quite a rarity in its location as it has its own parking. If you know Sheringham you will know what I mean! Plenty of places to eat and drink within 5 mins walk as it is just off town centre.
As you can see it is let through an agent, but I can block weeks myself within reason so pm me if you are interested.
I've fond memories of a school holiday there back in the seventies. Nice flat you've got there.
I revisited Sherringham last year whilst staying in Wells next the sea. That stretch of coast is lovely, some great places to visit.
That rules out 90% of this parish, then.
The A17 is brilliant! I can get huge queues behind me very quickly if I try hard enough! Then watch them all try to commit suicide by overtaking in silly places! It's quite funny at times!
Might be a bit quiet..
The server at www.keysholidays.co.uk is taking too long to respond.
I realise the dog ban will reduce my potential customer base, but I have furnished the place with good quality items and unfortunately not all dog owners are responsible and would stick by any rules such as keeping them out of the bedroom. The cleaning company we are using backed this up. He reckons people would wash their dog in the shower after being on the beach and use my towels to dry them. No thanks! I know not all dog owners would do this, but it is a similar scenario with dog poop all over the place. I have never known a dog owner who doesn't dilligently clean up after their pooch. They can't all be telling the truth, can they.
If booked through myself, a full week between 2nd November and the end of March 2019 (excluding Xmas and New Year weeks) will be £270. Short breaks possible.
Xmas and New Year weeks available by negotiation, but it will be a good deal!
But some people don't like going to places that smell of dog. Personally, I look for places that do not accept animals. Each to their own.
It used to be so much more fun when we was only allowed to do 40 mph along there.
Sheringham is a lovely part of the world indeed however.... it's best avoided when the local Sons of Anarchy wannabees take over the town for weekend(Unless that's your thing). They block the town and the local roads as they do their group ride. There's usually over a hundred bikes riding in two's at about 40 mph. They ride from Sheringham to Wells and back all day holding everybody up looking cool(in their own heads) in their leather waistcoats and fingerless gloves. I managed to get ahead of them last year,rode into Sheringham on the RS to show the waiting crowds what a proper motorcycle looks like.


text:
NGC 1538 is een spiraalvormig sterrenstelsel in het sterrenbeeld Eridanus. Het hemelobject werd in 1886 ontdekt door de Amerikaanse astronoom Ormond Stone.

Synoniemen
 IC 2047
 PGC 941480
 NPM1G -13.0171

Zie ook
Lijst van NGC-objecten

Externe links
  NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database
  SIMBAD Astronomical Database
  SEDS

NGC-object in Eridanus
Sterrenstelsel in Eridanus


text:
Modal logic is a collection of formal systems developed to represent statements about necessity and possibility. It plays a major role in philosophy of language, epistemology, metaphysics, and natural language semantics. Modal logics extend other systems by adding unary operators  and , representing possibility and necessity respectively. For instance the modal formula  can be read as "possibly " while  can be read as "necessarily ". Modal logics can be used to represent different phenomena depending on what kind of necessity and possibility is under consideration. When  is used to represent epistemic necessity,  states that  is epistemically necessary, or in other words that it is known. When  is used to represent deontic necessity,  states that  is a moral or legal obligation.

In the standard relational semantics for modal logic, formulas are assigned truth values relative to a possible world. A formula's truth value at one possible world can depend on the truth values of other formulas at other accessible possible worlds. In particular,  is true at a world if  is true at some accessible possible world, while  is true at a world if  is true at every accessible possible world. A variety of proof systems exist which are sound and complete with respect to the semantics one gets by restricting the accessibility relation. For instance, the deontic modal logic D is sound and complete if one requires the accessibility relation to be serial.

While the intuition behind modal logic dates back to antiquity, the first modal axiomatic systems were developed by C. I. Lewis in 1912. The now-standard relational semantics emerged in the mid twentieth century from work by Arthur Prior, Jaakko Hintikka, and Saul Kripke. Recent developments include alternative topological semantics such as neighborhood semantics as well as applications of the relational semantics beyond its original philosophical motivation. Such applications include game theory, moral and legal theory, web design, multiverse-based set theory, and social epistemology.

Syntax of modal operators

Modal logic differs from other kinds of logic in that it uses modal operators such as  and . The former is conventionally read aloud as "necessarily", and can be used to represent notions such as moral or legal obligation, knowledge, historical inevitability, among others. The latter is typically read as "possibly" and can be used to represent notions including permission, ability, compatibility with evidence. While well formed formulas of modal logic include non-modal formulas such as , it also contains modal ones such as , , , and so on.

Thus, the language  of basic propositional logic can be defined recursively as follows.

If  is an atomic formula, then  is a formula of .
If  is a formula of , then  is too.
If  and  are formulas of , then  is too.
If  is a formula of , then  is too.
If  is a formula of , then  is too.

Modal operators can be added to other kinds of logic by introducing rules analogous to #4 and #5 above. Modal predicate logic is one widely used variant which includes formulas such as . In systems of modal logic where  and  are duals,  can be taken as an abbreviation for , thus eliminating the need for a separate syntactic rule to introduce it. However, separate syntactic rules are necessary in systems where the two operators are not interdefinable.

Common notational variants include symbols such as  and  in systems of modal logic used to represent knowledge and  and  in those used to represent belief. These notations are particularly common in systems which use multiple modal operators simultaneously. For instance, a combined epistemic-deontic logic could use the formula  read as "I know P is permitted". Systems of modal logic can include infinitely many modal operators distinguished by indices, i.e. , , , and so on.

Semantics

Relational semantics

Basic notions

The standard semantics for modal logic is called the relational semantics. In this approach, the truth of a formula is determined relative to a point which is often called a possible world. For a formula that contains a modal operator, its truth value can depend on what is true at other accessible worlds. Thus, the relational semantics interprets formulas of modal logic using models defined as follows.

 A relational model is a tuple  where:
  is a set of possible worlds
  is a binary relation on
  is a valuation function which assigns a truth value to each pair of an atomic formula and a world, (i.e.  where  is the set of atomic formulae)

The set  is often called the universe. The binary relation  is called an accessibility relation, and it controls which worlds can "see" each other for the sake of determining what is true. For example,  means that the  world  is accessible from world . That is to say, the state of affairs known as  is a live possibility for . Finally, the function  is known as a valuation function. It determines which atomic formulas are true at which worlds.

Then we recursively define the truth of a formula at a world  in a model :

  iff
  iff
  iff  and
  iff for every element  of , if  then
  iff for some element  of , it holds that  and

According to this semantics, a formula is necessary with respect to a world  if it holds at every world that is accessible from . It is possible if it holds at some world that is accessible from . Possibility thereby depends upon the accessibility relation , which allows us to express the relative nature of possibility. For example, we might say that given our laws of physics it is not possible for humans to travel faster than the speed of light, but that given other circumstances it could have been possible to do so. Using the accessibility relation we can translate this scenario as follows: At all of the worlds accessible to our own world, it is not the case that humans can travel faster than the speed of light, but at one of these accessible worlds there is another world accessible from those worlds but not accessible from our own at which humans can travel faster than the speed of light.

Frames and completeness

The choice of accessibility relation alone can sometimes be sufficient to guarantee the truth or falsity of a formula. For instance, consider a model  whose accessibility relation is reflexive. Because the relation is reflexive, we will have that  for any  regardless of which valuation function is used. For this reason, modal logicians sometimes talk about frames, which are the portion of a relational model excluding the valuation function.

 A relational frame is a pair  where  is a set of possible worlds,  is a binary relation on .

The different systems of modal logic are defined using frame conditions. A frame is called:

 reflexive if w R w, for every w in G
 symmetric if w R u implies u R w, for all w and u in G
 transitive if w R u and u R q together imply w R q, for all w, u, q in G.
 serial if, for every w in G there is some u in G such that w R u.
 Euclidean if, for every u, t, and w, w R u and w R t implies u R t (by symmetry, it also implies t R u, as well as t R t and u R u)

The logics that stem from these frame conditions are:
K := no conditions
D := serial
T := reflexive
B := reflexive and symmetric
S4 := reflexive and transitive
S5 := reflexive and Euclidean

The Euclidean property along with reflexivity yields symmetry and transitivity. (The Euclidean property can be obtained, as well, from symmetry and transitivity.) Hence if the accessibility relation R is reflexive and Euclidean, R is provably symmetric and transitive as well. Hence for models of S5, R is an equivalence relation, because R is reflexive, symmetric and transitive.

We can prove that these frames produce the same set of valid sentences as do the frames where all worlds can see all other worlds of W (i.e., where R is a "total" relation). This gives the corresponding modal graph which is total complete (i.e., no more edges (relations) can be added). For example, in any modal logic based on frame conditions:
  if and only if for some element u of G, it holds that  and w R u.

If we consider frames based on the total relation we can just say that
  if and only if for some element u of G, it holds that .
We can drop the accessibility clause from the latter stipulation because in such total frames it is trivially true of all w and u that w R u. But note that this does not have to be the case in all S5 frames, which can still consist of multiple parts that are fully connected among themselves but still disconnected from each other.

All of these logical systems can also be defined axiomatically, as is shown in the next section. For example, in S5, the axioms ,  and  (corresponding to symmetry, transitivity and reflexivity, respectively) hold, whereas at least one of these axioms does not hold in each of the other, weaker logics.

Topological semantics

Modal logic has also been interpreted using topological structures. For instance, the Interior Semantics interprets formulas of modal logic as follows.

A topological model is a tuple  where  is a topological space and  is a valuation function which maps each atomic formula to some subset of . The basic interior semantics interprets formulas of modal logic as follows:

  iff
  iff
  iff  and
  iff for some  we have both that  and also that  for all

Topological approaches subsume relational ones, allowing non-normal modal logics. The extra structure they provide also allows a transparent way of modeling certain concepts such as the evidence or justification one has for one's beliefs. Topological semantics is widely used in recent work in formal epistemology and has antecedents in earlier work such as David Lewis and Angelika Kratzer's logics for counterfactuals.

Axiomatic systems

The first formalizations of modal logic were axiomatic. Numerous variations with very different properties have been proposed since C. I. Lewis began working in the area in 1912. Hughes and Cresswell (1996), for example, describe 42 normal and 25 non-normal modal logics. Zeman (1973) describes some systems Hughes and Cresswell omit.

Modern treatments of modal logic begin by augmenting the propositional calculus with two unary operations, one denoting "necessity" and the other "possibility". The notation of C. I. Lewis, much employed since, denotes "necessarily p" by a prefixed "box" (□p) whose scope is established by parentheses. Likewise, a prefixed "diamond" (◇p) denotes "possibly p". Similar to the quantifiers in first-order logic, "necessarily p" (□p) does not assume the range of quantification (the set of accessible possible worlds in Kripke semantics) to be non-empty, whereas "possibly p" (◇p) often implicitly assumes  (viz. the set of accessible possible worlds is non-empty). Regardless of notation, each of these operators is definable in terms of the other in classical modal logic:
 □p (necessarily p) is equivalent to  ("not possible that not-p")
 ◇p (possibly p) is equivalent to  ("not necessarily not-p")
Hence □ and ◇ form a dual pair of operators.

In many modal logics, the necessity and possibility operators satisfy the following analogues of de Morgan's laws from Boolean algebra:

"It is not necessary that X" is logically equivalent to "It is possible that not X".
"It is not possible that X" is logically equivalent to "It is necessary that not X".

Precisely what axioms and rules must be added to the propositional calculus to create a usable system of modal logic is a matter of philosophical opinion, often driven by the theorems one wishes to prove; or, in computer science, it is a matter of what sort of computational or deductive system one wishes to model.  Many modal logics, known collectively as normal modal logics, include the following rule and axiom:
 N, Necessitation Rule: If p is a theorem/tautology (of any system/model invoking N), then □p is likewise a theorem (i.e. ).
 K, Distribution Axiom:

The weakest normal modal logic, named "K" in honor of Saul Kripke, is simply the propositional calculus augmented by □, the rule N, and the axiom K. K is weak in that it fails to determine whether a proposition can be necessary but only contingently necessary. That is, it is not a theorem of K that if □p is true then □□p is true, i.e., that necessary truths are "necessarily necessary". If such perplexities are deemed forced and artificial, this defect of K is not a great one. In any case, different answers to such questions yield different systems of modal logic.

Adding axioms to K gives rise to other well-known modal systems. One cannot prove in K that if "p is necessary" then p is true. The axiom T remedies this defect:
T, Reflexivity Axiom:  (If p is necessary, then p is the case.)
T holds in most but not all modal logics. Zeman (1973) describes a few exceptions, such as S10.

Other well-known elementary axioms are:
4:
B:
D:
5:

These yield the systems (axioms in bold, systems in italics):
K := K + N
T := K + T
S4 := T + 4
S5 :=  T + 5
D := K + D.
K through S5 form a nested hierarchy of systems, making up the core of normal modal logic. But specific rules or sets of rules may be appropriate for specific systems. For example, in deontic logic,  (If it ought to be that p, then it is permitted that p) seems appropriate, but we should probably not include that . In fact, to do so is to commit the naturalistic fallacy (i.e. to state that what is natural is also good, by saying that if p is the case, p ought to be permitted).

The commonly employed system S5 simply makes all modal truths necessary. For example, if p is possible, then it is "necessary" that p is possible. Also, if p is necessary, then it is necessary that p is necessary. Other systems of modal logic have been formulated, in part because S5 does not describe every kind of modality of interest.

Structural proof theory
Sequent calculi and systems of natural deduction have been developed for several modal logics, but it has proven hard to combine generality with other features expected of good structural proof theories, such as purity (the proof theory does not introduce extra-logical notions such as labels) and analyticity (the logical rules support a clean notion of analytic proof).  More complex calculi have been applied to modal logic to achieve generality.

Decision methods
Analytic tableaux provide the most popular decision method for modal logics.

Modal logics in philosophy

Alethic logic

Modalities of necessity and possibility are called alethic modalities. They are also sometimes called special modalities, from the Latin species. Modal logic was first developed to deal with these concepts, and only afterward was extended to others.  For this reason, or perhaps for their familiarity and simplicity, necessity and possibility are often casually treated as the subject matter of modal logic. Moreover, it is easier to make sense of relativizing necessity, e.g. to legal, physical, nomological, epistemic, and so on, than it is to make sense of relativizing other notions.

In classical modal logic, a proposition is said to be
possible if it is not necessarily false (regardless of whether it is actually true or actually false);
necessary if it is not possibly false (i.e. true and necessarily true);
contingent if it is not necessarily false and not necessarily true (i.e. possible but not necessarily true);
impossible if it is not possibly true (i.e. false and necessarily false).

In classical modal logic, therefore, the notion of either possibility or necessity may be taken to be basic, where these other notions are defined in terms of it in the manner of De Morgan duality. Intuitionistic modal logic treats possibility and necessity as not perfectly symmetric.

For example, suppose that while walking to the convenience store we pass Friedrich's house, and observe that the lights are off. On the way back, we observe that they have been turned on.
 "Somebody or something turned the lights on" is necessary.
 "Friedrich turned the lights on", "Friedrich's roommate Max turned the lights on" and "A burglar named Adolf broke into Friedrich's house and turned the lights on" are contingent.
 All of the above statements are possible.
 It is impossible that Socrates (who has been dead for over two thousand years) turned the lights on.
(Of course, this analogy does not apply alethic modality in a truly rigorous fashion; for it to do so, it would have to axiomatically make such statements as "human beings cannot rise from the dead", "Socrates was a human being and not an immortal vampire", and "we did not take hallucinogenic drugs which caused us to falsely believe the lights were on", ad infinitum. Absolute certainty of truth or falsehood exists only in the sense of logically constructed abstract concepts such as "it is impossible to draw a triangle with four sides" and "all bachelors are unmarried".)

For those having difficulty with the concept of something being possible but not true, the meaning of these terms may be made more comprehensible by thinking of multiple "possible worlds" (in the sense of Leibniz) or "alternate universes"; something "necessary" is true in all possible worlds, something "possible" is true in at least one possible world.  These "possible world semantics" are formalized with Kripke semantics.

Physical possibility
Something is physically, or nomically, possible if it is permitted by the laws of physics. For example, current theory is thought to allow for there to be an atom with an atomic number of 126, even if there are no such atoms in existence.  In contrast, while it is logically possible to accelerate beyond the speed of light, modern science stipulates that it is not physically possible for material particles or information.

Metaphysical possibility

Philosophers debate if objects have properties independent of those dictated by scientific laws. For example, it might be metaphysically necessary, as some who advocate physicalism have thought, that all thinking beings have bodies and can experience the passage of time. Saul Kripke has argued that every person necessarily has the parents they do have: anyone with different parents would not be the same person.

Metaphysical possibility has been thought to be more restricting than bare logical possibility (i.e., fewer things are metaphysically possible than are logically possible). However, its exact relation (if any) to logical possibility or to physical possibility is a matter of dispute. Philosophers also disagree over whether metaphysical truths are necessary merely "by definition", or whether they reflect some underlying deep facts about the world, or something else entirely.

Epistemic logic

Epistemic modalities (from the Greek episteme, knowledge), deal with the certainty of sentences.  The □ operator is translated as  "x knows that…", and the ◇ operator is translated as "For all x knows, it may be true that…"  In ordinary speech both metaphysical and epistemic modalities are often expressed in similar words; the following contrasts may help:

A person, Jones, might reasonably say both: (1) "No, it is not possible that Bigfoot exists; I am quite certain of that"; and, (2) "Sure, it's possible that Bigfoots could exist". What Jones means by (1) is that, given all the available information, there is no question remaining as to whether Bigfoot exists. This is an epistemic claim. By (2) he makes the metaphysical claim that it is possible for Bigfoot to exist, even though he does not: there is no physical or biological reason that large, featherless, bipedal creatures with thick hair could not exist in the forests of North America (regardless of whether or not they do). Similarly, "it is possible for the person reading this sentence to be fourteen feet tall and named Chad" is metaphysically true (such a person would not somehow be prevented from doing so on account of their height and name), but not alethically true unless you match that description, and not epistemically true if it's known that fourteen-foot-tall human beings have never existed.

From the other direction, Jones might say, (3) "It is possible that Goldbach's conjecture is true; but also possible that it is false", and also (4) "if it is true, then it is necessarily true, and not possibly false". Here Jones means that it is epistemically possible that it is true or false, for all he knows (Goldbach's conjecture has not been proven either true or false), but if there is a proof (heretofore undiscovered), then it would show that it is not logically possible for Goldbach's conjecture to be false—there could be no set of numbers that violated it. Logical possibility is a form of alethic possibility; (4) makes a claim about whether it is possible (i.e., logically speaking) that a mathematical truth to have been false, but (3) only makes a claim about whether it is possible, for all Jones knows, (i.e., speaking of certitude) that the mathematical claim is specifically either true or false, and so again Jones does not contradict himself.  It is worthwhile to observe that Jones is not necessarily correct: It is possible (epistemically) that Goldbach's conjecture is both true and unprovable.

Epistemic possibilities also bear on the actual world in a way that metaphysical possibilities do not. Metaphysical possibilities bear on ways the world might have been, but epistemic possibilities bear on the way the world may be (for all we know). Suppose, for example, that I want to know whether or not to take an umbrella before I leave. If you tell me "it is possible that it is raining outside" – in the sense of epistemic possibility – then that would weigh on whether or not I take the umbrella. But if you just tell me that "it is possible for it to rain outside" – in the sense of metaphysical possibility – then I am no better off for this bit of modal enlightenment.

Some features of epistemic modal logic are in debate. For example, if x knows that p, does x know that it knows that p? That is to say, should □P → □□P be an axiom in these systems? While the answer to this question is unclear, there is at least one axiom that is generally included in epistemic modal logic, because it is minimally true of all normal modal logics (see the section on axiomatic systems):
 K, Distribution Axiom: .

It has been questioned whether the epistemic and alethic modalities should be considered distinct from each other. The criticism states that there is no real difference between "the truth in the world" (alethic) and "the truth in an individual's mind" (epistemic). An investigation has not found a single language in which alethic and epistemic modalities are formally distinguished, as by the means of a grammatical mood.

Temporal logic

Temporal logic is an approach to the semantics of expressions with tense, that is, expressions with qualifications of when.  Some expressions, such as  '2 + 2 = 4', are true at all times, while tensed expressions such as 'John is happy' are only true sometimes.

In temporal logic, tense constructions are treated in terms of modalities, where a standard method for formalizing talk of time is to use two pairs of operators, one for the past and one for the future (P will just mean 'it is presently the case that P'). For example:

FP : It will sometimes be the case that P
GP : It will always be the case that P
PP : It was sometime the case that P
HP : It has always been the case that P

There are then at least three modal logics that we can develop. For example, we can stipulate that,

 = P is the case at some time t
 = P is the case at every time t

Or we can trade these operators to deal only with the future (or past). For example,

 = FP
 = GP

or,

 = P and/or FP
 = P and GP

The operators F and G may seem initially foreign, but they create normal modal systems. Note that FP is the same as ¬G¬P. We can combine the above operators to form complex statements. For example, PP → □PP says (effectively), Everything that is past and true is necessary.

It seems reasonable to say that possibly it will rain tomorrow, and possibly it won't; on the other hand, since we can't change the past, if it is true that it rained yesterday, it cannot be true that it may not have rained yesterday. It seems the past is "fixed", or necessary, in a way the future is not. This is sometimes referred to as accidental necessity. But if the past is "fixed", and everything that is in the future will eventually be in the past, then it seems plausible to say that future events are necessary too.

Similarly, the problem of future contingents considers the semantics of assertions about the future: is either of the propositions 'There will be a sea battle tomorrow', or 'There will not be a sea battle tomorrow' now true?  Considering this thesis led Aristotle to reject the principle of bivalence for assertions concerning the future.

Additional binary operators are also relevant to temporal logics (see Linear temporal logic).

Versions of temporal logic can be used in computer science to model computer operations and prove theorems about them. In one version, ◇P means "at a future time in the computation it is possible that the computer state will be such that P is true"; □P means "at all future times in the computation P will be true". In another version, ◇P means "at the immediate next state of the computation, P might be true"; □P means "at the immediate next state of the computation, P will be true". These differ in the choice of Accessibility relation. (P always means "P is true at the current computer state".) These two examples involve nondeterministic or not-fully-understood computations; there are many other modal logics specialized to different types of program analysis. Each one naturally leads to slightly different axioms.

Deontic logic

Likewise talk of morality, or of obligation and norms generally, seems to have a modal structure.  The difference between "You must do this" and "You may do this" looks a lot like the difference between "This is necessary" and "This is possible".  Such logics are called deontic, from the Greek for "duty".

Deontic logics commonly lack the axiom T semantically corresponding to the reflexivity of the accessibility relation in Kripke semantics: in symbols, . Interpreting □ as "it is obligatory that", T informally says that every obligation is true. For example, if it is obligatory not to kill others (i.e. killing is morally forbidden), then T implies that people actually do not kill others. The consequent is obviously false.

Instead, using Kripke semantics, we say that though our own world does not realize all obligations, the worlds accessible to it do (i.e., T holds at these worlds). These worlds are called idealized worlds. P is obligatory with respect to our own world if at all idealized worlds accessible to our world, P holds. Though this was one of the first interpretations of the formal semantics, it has recently come under criticism.

One other principle that is often (at least traditionally) accepted as a deontic principle is D, , which corresponds to the seriality (or extendability or unboundedness) of the accessibility relation. It is an embodiment of the Kantian idea that "ought implies can". (Clearly the "can" can be interpreted in various senses, e.g. in a moral or alethic sense.)

Intuitive problems with deontic logic
When we try to formalize ethics with standard modal logic, we run into some problems. Suppose that we have a proposition K: you have stolen some money, and another, Q: you have stolen a small amount of money. Now suppose we want to express the thought that "if you have stolen some money, it ought to be a small amount of money". There are two likely candidates,
 (1)
 (2)

But (1) and K together entail □Q, which says that it ought to be the case that you have stolen a small amount of money. This surely isn't right, because you ought not to have stolen anything at all. And (2) doesn't work either: If the right representation of "if you have stolen some money it ought to be a small amount" is (2), then the right representation of (3) "if you have stolen some money then it ought to be a large amount" is . Now suppose (as seems reasonable) that you ought not to steal anything, or . But then we can deduce  via  and  (the contrapositive of ); so sentence (3) follows from our hypothesis (of course the same logic shows sentence (2)). But that can't be right, and is not right when we use natural language. Telling someone they should not steal certainly does not imply that they should steal large amounts of money if they do engage in theft.

Doxastic logic

Doxastic logic concerns the logic of belief (of some set of agents). The term doxastic is derived from the ancient Greek doxa which means "belief". Typically, a doxastic logic uses □, often written "B", to mean "It is believed that", or when relativized to a particular agent s, "It is believed by s that".

Metaphysical questions

In the most common interpretation of modal logic, one considers "logically possible worlds". If a statement is true in all possible worlds, then it is a necessary truth. If a statement happens to be true in our world, but is not true in all possible worlds, then it is a contingent truth. A statement that is true in some possible world (not necessarily our own) is called a possible truth.

Under this "possible worlds idiom," to maintain that Bigfoot's existence is possible but not actual, one says, "There is some possible world in which Bigfoot exists; but in the actual world, Bigfoot does not exist". However, it is unclear what this claim commits us to. Are we really alleging the existence of possible worlds, every bit as real as our actual world, just not actual? Saul Kripke believes that 'possible world' is something of a misnomer – that the term 'possible world' is just a useful way of visualizing the concept of possibility. For him, the sentences "you could have rolled a 4 instead of a 6" and "there is a possible world where you rolled a 4, but you rolled a 6 in the actual world" are not significantly different statements, and neither commit us to the existence of a possible world. David Lewis, on the other hand, made himself notorious by biting the bullet, asserting that all merely possible worlds are as real as our own, and that what distinguishes our world as actual is simply that it is indeed our world – this world. That position is a major tenet of "modal realism". Some philosophers decline to endorse any version of modal realism, considering it ontologically extravagant, and prefer to seek various ways to paraphrase away these ontological commitments. Robert Adams holds that 'possible worlds' are better thought of as 'world-stories', or consistent sets of propositions. Thus, it is possible that you rolled a 4 if such a state of affairs can be described coherently.

Computer scientists will generally pick a highly specific interpretation of the modal operators specialized to the particular sort of computation being analysed.  In place of "all worlds", you may have "all possible next states of the computer", or "all possible future states of the computer".

Further applications
Modal logics have begun to be used in areas of the humanities such as literature, poetry, art and history.

History
The basic ideas of modal logic date back to antiquity. Aristotle developed a modal syllogistic in Book I of his Prior Analytics (ch. 8–22), which Theophrastus attempted to improve. There are also passages in Aristotle's work, such as the famous sea-battle argument in De Interpretatione §9, that are now seen as anticipations of the connection of modal logic with potentiality and time. In the Hellenistic period, the logicians Diodorus Cronus, Philo the Dialectician and the Stoic Chrysippus each developed a modal system that accounted for the interdefinability of possibility and necessity, accepted axiom T (see below), and combined elements of modal logic and temporal logic in attempts to solve the notorious Master Argument. The earliest formal system of modal logic was developed by Avicenna, who ultimately developed a theory of "temporally modal" syllogistic. Modal logic as a self-aware subject owes much to the writings of the Scholastics, in particular William of Ockham and John Duns Scotus, who reasoned informally in a modal manner, mainly to analyze statements about essence and accident.

In the 19th century, Hugh MacColl made innovative contributions to modal logic, but did not find much acknowledgment. C. I. Lewis founded modern modal logic in a series of scholarly articles beginning in 1912 with "Implication and the Algebra of Logic". Lewis was led to invent modal logic, and specifically strict implication, on the grounds that classical logic grants paradoxes of material implication such as the principle that a falsehood implies any proposition. This work culminated in his 1932 book Symbolic Logic (with C. H. Langford), which introduced the five systems S1 through S5.

After Lewis, modal logic received little attention for several decades. Nicholas Rescher has argued that this was because Bertrand Russell rejected it. However, Jan Dejnozka has argued against this view, stating that a modal system which Dejnozka calls "MDL" is described in Russell's works, although Russell did believe the concept of modality to "come from confusing propositions with propositional functions," as he wrote in The Analysis of Matter.

Ruth C. Barcan (later Ruth Barcan Marcus) developed the first axiomatic systems of quantified modal logic — first and second order extensions of Lewis' S2, S4, and S5. Arthur Norman Prior warned her to prepare well in the debates concerning quantified modal logic with Willard Van Orman Quine, because of bias against modal logic.

The contemporary era in modal semantics began in 1959, when Saul Kripke (then only a 18-year-old Harvard University undergraduate) introduced the now-standard Kripke semantics for modal logics. These are commonly referred to as "possible worlds" semantics. Kripke and A. N. Prior had previously corresponded at some length. Kripke semantics is basically simple, but proofs are eased using semantic-tableaux or analytic tableaux, as explained by E. W. Beth.

A. N. Prior created modern temporal logic, closely related to modal logic, in 1957 by adding modal operators [F] and [P] meaning "eventually" and "previously". Vaughan Pratt introduced dynamic logic in 1976. In 1977, Amir Pnueli proposed using temporal logic to formalise the behaviour of continually operating concurrent programs. Flavors of temporal logic include propositional dynamic logic (PDL), (propositional) linear temporal logic (LTL), computation tree logic (CTL), Hennessy–Milner logic, and T.

The mathematical structure of modal logic, namely Boolean algebras augmented with unary operations (often called modal algebras), began to emerge with J. C. C. McKinsey's 1941 proof that S2 and S4 are decidable, and reached full flower in the work of Alfred Tarski and his student Bjarni Jónsson (Jónsson and Tarski 1951–52). This work revealed that S4 and S5 are models of interior algebra, a proper extension of Boolean algebra originally designed to capture the properties of the interior and closure operators of topology. Texts on modal logic typically do little more than mention its connections with the study of Boolean algebras and topology. For a thorough survey of the history of formal modal logic and of the associated mathematics, see Robert Goldblatt (2006).

See also

 Accessibility relation
 Conceptual necessity
 Counterpart theory
 David Kellogg Lewis
 De dicto and de re
 Description logic
 Doxastic logic
 Dynamic logic
 Enthymeme
 Free choice inference
 Hybrid logic
 Interior algebra
 Interpretability logic
 Kripke semantics
 Metaphysical necessity
 Modal verb
 Multimodal logic
 Multi-valued logic
 Neighborhood semantics
 Provability logic
 Regular modal logic
 Relevance logic
 Strict conditional
 Two-dimensionalism

Notes

References
 This article includes material from the Free On-line Dictionary of Computing, used with permission under the GFDL.
 Barcan-Marcus, Ruth JSL 11 (1946) and JSL 112 (1947) and "Modalities", OUP, 1993, 1995.
 Beth, Evert W., 1955. "Semantic entailment and formal derivability", Mededlingen van de Koninklijke Nederlandse Akademie van Wetenschappen, Afdeling Letterkunde, N.R. Vol 18, no 13, 1955, pp 309–42. Reprinted in Jaakko Intikka (ed.) The Philosophy of Mathematics, Oxford University Press, 1969 (Semantic Tableaux proof methods).
 Beth, Evert W., "Formal Methods: An Introduction to Symbolic Logic and to the Study of Effective Operations in Arithmetic and Logic", D. Reidel, 1962 (Semantic Tableaux proof methods).
 Blackburn, P.; van Benthem, J.; and Wolter, Frank; Eds. (2006) Handbook of Modal Logic. North Holland.
 Blackburn, Patrick; de Rijke, Maarten; and Venema, Yde (2001) Modal Logic. Cambridge University Press.
 Chagrov, Aleksandr; and Zakharyaschev, Michael (1997) Modal Logic. Oxford University Press.
 Chellas, B. F. (1980) Modal Logic: An Introduction. Cambridge University Press.
 Cresswell, M. J. (2001) "Modal Logic" in Goble, Lou; Ed., The Blackwell Guide to Philosophical Logic. Basil Blackwell: 136–58.
 Fitting, Melvin; and Mendelsohn, R. L. (1998) First Order Modal Logic. Kluwer.
 James Garson (2006) Modal Logic for Philosophers. Cambridge University Press. . A thorough introduction to modal logic, with coverage of various derivation systems and a distinctive approach to the use of diagrams in aiding comprehension.
 Girle, Rod (2000) Modal Logics and Philosophy. Acumen (UK). . Proof by refutation trees. A good introduction to the varied interpretations of modal logic.
 Goldblatt, Robert (1992) "Logics of Time and Computation", 2nd ed., CSLI Lecture Notes No. 7. University of Chicago Press.
 —— (1993) Mathematics of Modality, CSLI Lecture Notes No. 43. University of Chicago Press.
 —— (2006) "Mathematical Modal Logic: a View of its Evolution", in Gabbay, D. M.; and Woods, John; Eds., Handbook of the History of Logic, Vol. 6. Elsevier BV.
 Goré, Rajeev (1999) "Tableau Methods for Modal and Temporal Logics" in D'Agostino, M.; Gabbay, D.; Haehnle, R.; and Posegga, J.; Eds., Handbook of Tableau Methods. Kluwer: 297–396.
 Hughes, G. E., and Cresswell, M. J. (1996) A New Introduction to Modal Logic. Routledge.
 Jónsson, B. and Tarski, A., 1951–52, "Boolean Algebra with Operators I and II", American Journal of Mathematics 73: 891–939 and 74: 129–62.
 Kracht, Marcus (1999) Tools and Techniques in Modal Logic, Studies in Logic and the Foundations of Mathematics No. 142. North Holland.
 Lemmon, E. J. (with Scott, D.) (1977) An Introduction to Modal Logic, American Philosophical Quarterly Monograph Series, no. 11 (Krister Segerberg, series ed.). Basil Blackwell.
 Lewis, C. I. (with Langford, C. H.) (1932). Symbolic Logic. Dover reprint, 1959.
 Prior, A. N. (1957) Time and Modality. Oxford University Press.
 Snyder, D. Paul "Modal Logic and its applications", Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, 1971 (proof tree methods).
 Zeman, J. J. (1973) Modal Logic. Reidel. Employs Polish notation.
 "History of logic", Britannica Online.

Further reading
 Ruth Barcan Marcus, Modalities, Oxford University Press, 1993.
 D. M. Gabbay, A. Kurucz, F. Wolter and M. Zakharyaschev, Many-Dimensional Modal Logics: Theory and Applications, Elsevier, Studies in Logic and the Foundations of Mathematics, volume 148, 2003, . [Covers many varieties of modal logics, e.g. temporal, epistemic, dynamic, description, spatial from a unified perspective with emphasis on computer science aspects, e.g. decidability and complexity.]
 Andrea Borghini, A Critical Introduction to the Metaphysics of Modality, New York: Bloomsbury, 2016.

External links
 Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy:
 "Modal Logic: A Contemporary View" – by Johan van Benthem.
 "Rudolf Carnap's Modal Logic" – by MJ Cresswell.
 Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy:
 "Modal Logic" – by James Garson.
 "Modern Origins of Modal Logic" – by Roberta Ballarin.
 "Provability Logic" – by Rineke Verbrugge.
 Edward N. Zalta, 1995, "Basic Concepts in Modal Logic."
 John McCarthy, 1996, "Modal Logic."
 Molle a Java prover for experimenting with modal logics
 Suber, Peter, 2002, "Bibliography of Modal Logic."
 List of Logic Systems List of many modal logics with sources, by John Halleck.
 Advances in Modal Logic. Biannual international conference and book series in modal logic.
 S4prover A tableaux prover for S4 logic
 "Some Remarks on Logic and Topology" – by Richard Moot; exposits a topological semantics for the modal logic S4.
 LoTREC The most generic prover for modal logics  from IRIT/Toulouse University

Logic

Philosophical logic
Mathematical logic
Semantics


JNN 14 Mar 2014 Islamabad : At least ten people, including children and one woman, were killed and 31 sustained injuries in a bomb blast in front of the Science College at Jinnah Road, downtown of the Quetta, on Friday. While another Suicide blast took place in a bazaar in Peshawar on Friday leaving at least eight people dead and injuring 32 others, Press reported.
Peshawar City superintendent police, speaking to the media, stated that it was a suicide attack and the target of the attack was an armoured personnel vehicle (APV). Some policemen sustained injuries but none were killed in the attack.
The explosion took place in the Sarband area of the city near a petrol pump.
Police, Rangers personnel and rescue teams reached the area. Bomb disposal squad was also called in and a search operation is underway.
The injured were taken to a local hospital for medical assistance.
According to a police official, initial investigation has revealed that the suicide jacket carried more explosives than usual – at least 14 kilograms.
After the blast, firing could be heard for about an hour, possibly by the police to keep people away from the scene in case of a second explosion.
The number of children who died or got injured could not be specified till the time this report was received.
The Capital City Police Officer Quetta (CCPO) Abdul Razzaq Cheema confirmed that ten people were killed and 31 others wounded. "Most of the people on board a passenger bus have become the victims. Four vehicles were also destroyed in the blast," he told The Express Tribune.
Jinnah Road is located in the heart of the city and there was dense traffic when the blast occurred. The dead and the injured were lying in a pool of blood when rescue workers and police reached the spot.
The blast was heard up to five kilometers from the scene of the blast. The window panes of several shops and buildings, including the Science College, were shattered due to the impact of the blast.
According to the Bomb Disposal Squad, more than five kilograms of explosive material was used in the blast.
"The floor shuddered with the impact of the blast and we ran amok. Near Science College, we saw people wailing and crying. They lying in a pool of blood," said Mohammed Shahid, a passerby, adding that public and rescue workers shifted the bodies to Provincial Sandeman Hospital.
A state of emergency was imposed at the hospital. "We received ten dead and more than 25 injured," hospital sources said.
A rickshaw, a bus and two cars were destroyed in the blast.
Police investigators said it is yet to be known whether the bomb was planted in the bus or fitted to a bicycle as the Bomb Disposal Squad is still collecting evidence.
Another official said it seemed the target could be an FC vehicle which had passed the spot a few minutes ago. However, the same official said that there was a congregation of the Ahle Sunnat Wal Jamaat (ASWJ) in the Hockey Stadium which is situated half a kilometer from the spot. Analyst are of the view that the participants of the Congregation have taken the cover of the Situation and as all the security was focused on Providing the security to the Congregation,so the same People who are Known to have association with the Taliban and the Banned Lashkar e Jhangvi , have taken advantage of the scenario , and have Planted a Bomb In the area Near By.
The Quetta CCPO said all the victims were civilians and investigations are under way.
Jinnah Road is business hub of the provincial capital where offices, shopping centres, commercial establishments, restaurants and markets are located.
Tehreek-e-Taliban Pakistan (TTP) spokesperson Shahidullah Shahid have disassociated themselves from the attacks and said his group will abide by the month-long ceasefire announced earlier.
But the Question here arises that if we take their word , that they are not doing the Suicide Attacks and Planted attacks , then why is the PML – N Government in collaboration with the supporters of Taliban , Pakistan Tehreek e Insaaf ( PTI ) , Jamaat e Islami ( JI ) , Jamiat e Ulema e Islam – Sami Ul Haq ( JUI – S ) , Sipah e Sahaba Pakistan (SSP / ASWJ ) , have initiated a Dialogue with them , as if the Government is bound to give concessions to them in the name of Peace in the country , while the country is still under attacks , and the Innocent Pakistanis are still being Killed in By Suicide Attacks , and on the Other Hands the Armed forces are being ordered not to take any action against the perpetrators , as all the terrorist who have their Hide Outs in the North Waziristan .
But the Dangerous Scenario is that the PML – N Government which is sponsored by the Saudi Government , and at the same time Sponsors of Taliban Terrorist, and Now as the Defenders of Pakistan , have started to take some action against the terrorist of North Waziristan , and have done some surgical strikes to counter the threat.
So as these terrorist thought they can even be Killed , so they have begged to their Saudi Sponsors that their Lives should be spared , as they are there only to Kill Innocent Pakistanis , while No action should be taken against them either by the LEAs or the Judiciary , which is also very evident from the Past Practices of the Government , and also by the No Action Plan by the Armed forces of Pakistan .
As the Government is trying to prove that these terrorist are Mightier than the Armed forces of Pakistan , and if Amnesty is not declared to these Terrorist , in the Name of Peace then they Might Kill all the Armed forces of Pakistan and Might take Over Pakistan , which is a very Treasonous thought being imposed by the Present Rulers and the supporters of these Taliban Terrorist .
So as now even it is learned that the Saudi Government and the UAE Govt , has tried to Buy back the Loyalty of the Loyal Pakistani Armed Forces by Giving a Loan of around USD1.5 Billion , to make sure NO Action is taken against the Enemies of Pakistan , and the Terrorist Loyal to Saudi and UAE Governments .
And the History is once again at the same Cross Roads , when in 1970 the Great Bhutto raised a Slogan " You there , We Here " , which was the Break Point and We have to Loose Half of the Nation .
As the Taliban who Out rightly did not Honor the Constitution of Pakistan , and even the Government of Pakistan , will be given the authority to Rule , which is the same Plan , which has been Planned by CIA decades earlier , as Disintegrating Our Homeland into smaller Divisions in the name of Sects and ethnicity. So the CIA can have its Strong Foot Prints on the Ground , which can facilitate them in keeping Their Strong Presence in the Region.
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Aquaculture, the farming of fish and other aquatic organisms, is becoming a major industry in the Garden State with resources and funding from Rutgers.
Rutgers has been a key player in the development and expansion of aquaculture throughout New Jersey.
The Haskin Shellfish Research Laboratory (HSRL) is a New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station and a field station for the Institute of Marine and Coastal Sciences both located at the School of Environmental and Biological Science in Rutgers University.
Aquaculture is not yet a large industry in New Jersey, but the climate and water conditions are conducive to aquaculture, said David Bushek, a director and associate professor of Shellfish Ecology and Pathology at the Rutgers New Jersey AIC.
"New Jersey is poised for aquaculture expansion because the industry is demanding it," said Amanda Wenczel, aquaculture specialist at the New Jersey Aquaculture Innovation Center (AIC) at Rutgers.
The products of New Jersey aquatic farmers fit the needs, demands and market openings, Wenczel said.
"Most of the aquaculture operations within New Jersey are small, family owned businesses with on-farm growth leading to a direct positive impact within the local economy," she said.
"There are limitations on productions that can be obtained from fisheries," Bushek said.
Shellfish are the most dominant aquatic crop produced in the state of New Jersey. Hard clams and oysters encompass more than three-quarters of the production in the state industry, Wenzcel said.
Previously, industry regulations posed difficulties for farmers. New legislation, currently being passed, should further increase fish farming in the state, Bushek said.
The two state bills passed are not merely aimed at the domestication of a specific aquatic species, but to help promote the growth of all aquatic species within the state, Wenczel said.
"It may take a little more to achieve what is required in the bills for any potential finfish operation or aquatic plant farm as they can be quite varied and the requirements for permitting farm-specific," she said.
Farmers from the southern coast of the state, including Ocean, Atlantic and Cape May counties, are more likely to benefit from the increase in fish farming as the greater quantity of growing areas are in those counties, Bushek said.
The need for support services such as shipping, processing and marketing would provide a ripple effect of positive economic benefits for all those involved, Wenczel said. The total economic impact of aquaculture to New Jersey as high as $36 million, according to the AIC website.
In addition to economical benefits, the presence of aquaculture, a highly sustainable industry, yields an environmental benefit, Wenczel said.
"The impacts from this industry are wide spread and yield a stabilizing factor for many areas as the crops produced continue to be desired by consumers throughout the northeast," Wenczel said.
Samil Tabani is a Rutgers Business School first-year student. He is a contributing writer for The Daily Targum.


text:
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Interview: Metroid: Other M producer Yoshio Sakamoto
Christopher Grant, @http://twitter.com/chrisgrant
After delivering a GDC panel on his cinematic inspiration, we met with Metroid: Other M producer Yoshio Sakamoto to ask him about everything from collaborating with Team Ninja, lessons learned from Metroid Prime, the newfound focus on story in the Metroid universe, and whether or not he played Chair's Super Metroid love letter, Shadow Complex. Read on!
Can you tell us about the process of working with Team Ninja. Who does what design-wise and technology-wise?
Yoshio Sakamoto: The original design concept came from me, but then we went and assembled a team that could pull this off. And in this case it was people from Team Ninja, who we really thought was the best fit. But they've also provided a lot of core ideas that have influenced the direction of the game, particularly the director, Mr. Hayashi. So, as I mentioned in the speech today, it's not so much that we're dividing up tasks but collaborating as equals.
After E3 and the initial announcement a lot of people were making comments like, "Oh, it seems like they've dumped Retro for this series and they want to go with another developer," as if it was a big switch-off. But, in actuality, that is far from the case; rather, we just wanted to put together the best team that we could to make this project, which turns out to be Project M.
Gallery: Metroid: Other M | 16 Photos
Retro obviously produced the Metroid Prime series; very successful, very influential. Do you consider this a reboot of the series after Metroid Prime? Is this the direction for future Metroids or just another direction?
The games that I've been involved with in the Metroid series have been on the NES, GameBoy, Super NES and the GBA. I actually didn't have a lot of input on the Prime series. But when they're doing with Other M here, it's not so much a different universe, it's just a different part of the story. You can't say that there's no relation here; it's probably best to think of them as being in parallel in this world.
What, if anything, has the team learned from Prime?
I've been working on 2D Metroid games all the way up until now, so when we had a chance to see the Prime games, which suddenly take the series to the 3D space, we realized people found it to have a really good visual impact, and they really did want that kind of enhanced visual experience. And so, I have to say I'm certainly influenced by people's desires in that direction.
There are some points in Other M that are going to feel a bit like the Prime series in terms of the visual experience they offer. But what we're really trying to do is bring the ease of play you found in the 2D series forward. But certainly Prime was a very cool series and we've taken some notes there.
Seeing as how Prime had a very Western focus,
Other M is "a really good intro" to the Metroid universe.
is Other M intended to revitalize the Metroid franchise in Japan?
I have to say we're definitely thinking globally. We want to drive the elements that people have really attached fondness to in the Metroid series. And so we're actively working to find out what people want, but we're not just thinking about the ideas of gamers in Japan. We're definitley thinking about everyone.
Will there be any online component to Other M? And, if not, why isn't online a priority?
There's no online functionality in this title, and the reason for that is that Other M does not rely on that as one of the core design ideas. They're thinking more about the single-player style that you've seen in all Metroid games up until this point. And one of the specific goals here is to convey the charm of Samus as a character and to bring forth several perspectives on what kind of personality she has and how she reacts to situations. So online wouldn't really factor into that kind of character development as a core idea. If they were going to design a Metroid game with an online functionality it really would've had to have come in at the ground floor, when they come up with the design of the game.
The understanding of the Metroid world is not something you can really take for granted among every single gamer out there. There are some people who are new to this series and some people who've been with it for a long time. So one of the first tasks is to bring everyone up to the same level of understanding in the Metroid universe. And this game focuses as a really good intro, as well as a really good new challenge to that world. Once you raise the level of awareness of what the Metroid universe is like, then you can start to think about bringing completely new gameplay ideas that haven't been present before.
This is the first Metroid game that really has a robust story, outside of scanning in Metroid Prime. Why such an emphasis on storyline in this game, especially with the collaboration of Team Ninja, which is better known for action than story?
The main reason for the story emphasis, as I noted earlier, is that one of our big goals here is to educate the audience about the Metroid universe -- and Samus in particular. So you need to get into quite a bit of detailed storyline to be able to do that.
And of course, this game does have a deep, long storyline. But we wanted to put a lot of effort into the action sequences as well.
One of the reasons for having this game be mostly two-dimensional is because people are more comfortable with 2D play overall across the entire audience; you don't have the same distractions when you want to give them story sequences, as well. So, you can give those story elements a lot more impact, and that's really where the design emphasis came from.
And then a lot of the core Metroid series team at Nintendo, they've been working most recently on the GBA Metroid series. These are all handheld. So it's a very different kind of feel when you're developing for a console. And they wanted to make sure they brought in some people who had more recent experience on console action games. Having that 2D environment that's comfortable to play means they had a lot easier time connecting up the storyline and driving home those storyline points for impact.
Team Ninja were a very good fit here because they're so well-versed in action and had some more recent console experience than the core Metroid team at Nintendo.
I definitely had a really good experience with Team Ninja. They absolutely know how to make an action game that's easy to play. Every step along the way they would question the most basic design concepts, thinking about whether an idea would stand or whether they should challenge themselves to go in a new direction. And having that sort of active presence in the design and construction of a game going forward; finding them challenging themselves constantly felt really good to be a part of. So this entire collaboration has been a very positive experience.
Speaking of the core Metroid development team that last worked on the GBA games: There have been rumors of a game known as 'Metroid Dread' -- purportedly a 2D Metroid game for DS. Was 'Dread' a real project?
It seems we get a lot of questions about Metroid Dread, especially at interviews following E3 for example. But nothing's ever been announced about this game; it's all just been rumors so far, so we never know exactly how to respond to questions like this.
[Metroid Fusion; GBA]
Then where does 2D Metroid development stand on DS?
While there actually was a point where some teams were meeting to discuss if it was possible to create a 2D Metroid for DS using a relatively small team size, it's not something that we ever really announced or thought of as "Metroid Dread." But whenever people bring out that idea, we recognize that the basic concept is something that we can't say never existed. But at the same time, we can't of course make any official comment about a Metroid Dread–like project coming out.
Our main goal here is to, as I said earlier, first raise knowledge about the Metroid universe, and the Samus character, before we start to introduce different elements like online, or even going back to another handheld game for the next in the series. So there's nothing coming immediately. We want to think about these new challenges first.
But, of course, we never say never.
Last year there was a "Metroidvania" game called Shadow Complex for Xbox Live Arcade that was very popular. Many people saw it as a surrogate for a new 2D Metroid game. Have you had a chance to play it, and, if so, what do you think about it?
I haven't had a chance to play it, but I have seen movies of it and think they certainly do share a lot of similar features.
There certainly were some Metroid staff members that early on told me that there was a similar game out there, but once I started to look at it ,I realized there were similarities, but this is not really something we created. It's not quite an equal in our eyes. But the idea of having 3D visuals with a 2D play-style is certainly very attractive. And if people really want some more 2D Metroid, then I would love to suggest that they play Other M.
In this article: GDC-2010, interview, Metroid, Metroid-Other-M, Nintendo, Wii, Yoshio-Sakamoto
By G. Torbet, 7m ago

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


text:
use Renderable;
use context::Context;
use template::Template;
use LiquidOptions;
use token::Token::{self, Comparison};
use token::ComparisonOperator::{self, Equals, NotEquals, LessThan, GreaterThan, LessThanEquals,
                                GreaterThanEquals, Contains};
use parser::{parse, split_block, consume_value_token};
use lexer::Element;
use error::{Error, Result};

struct Condition {
    lh: Token,
    comparison: ComparisonOperator,
    rh: Token
}

struct Conditional {
    condition: Condition,
    mode: bool,
    if_true: Template,
    if_false: Option<Template>,
}

impl Conditional {
    fn compare(&self, context: &Context) -> Result<bool> {
        let a = try!(context.evaluate(&self.condition.lh));
        let b = try!(context.evaluate(&self.condition.rh));

        if a == None || b == None {
            return Ok(false);
        }

        let result = match self.condition.comparison {
            Equals => a == b,
            NotEquals => a != b,
            LessThan => a < b,
            GreaterThan => a > b,
            LessThanEquals => a <= b,
            GreaterThanEquals => a >= b,
            Contains => false, // TODO!!!
        };

        Ok(result == self.mode)
    }
}

impl Renderable for Conditional {
    fn render(&self, context: &mut Context) -> Result<Option<String>> {
        if try!(self.compare(context)) {
            self.if_true.render(context)
        } else {
            match self.if_false {
                Some(ref template) => template.render(context),
                _ => Ok(None),
            }
        }
    }
}

/// Common parsing for "if" and "unless" condition
fn condition(arguments: &[Token]) -> Result<Condition> {
    let mut args = arguments.iter();

    let lh = try!(consume_value_token(&mut args));

    let (comp, rh) = match args.next() {
        Some(&Comparison(ref x)) => {
            let rhs = try!(consume_value_token(&mut args));
            (x.clone(), rhs)
        },
        None => {
            // no trailing operator or RHS value implies "== true"
            (ComparisonOperator::Equals, Token::BooleanLiteral(true))
        },
        x @ Some(_) => return Error::parser("comparison operator", x)
    };

    Ok(Condition {lh: lh, comparison: comp, rh: rh})
}

pub fn unless_block(_tag_name: &str,
                    arguments: &[Token],
                    tokens: Vec<Element>,
                    options: &LiquidOptions)
                            -> Result<Box<Renderable>> {
    let cond = try!(condition(arguments));
    Ok(Box::new(Conditional {
        condition: cond,
        mode: false,
        if_true: Template::new(try!(parse(&tokens[..], options))),
        if_false: None,
    }))
}

pub fn if_block(_tag_name: &str,
                arguments: &[Token],
                tokens: Vec<Element>,
                options: &LiquidOptions)
                            -> Result<Box<Renderable>> {
    let cond = try!(condition(arguments));

    let (leading_tokens, trailing_tokens) = split_block(&tokens[..],
                                                        &["else", "elsif"],
                                                        options);
    let if_false = match trailing_tokens {
        None => None,

        Some(ref split) if split.delimiter == "else" => {
            let parsed = try!(parse(&split.trailing[1..], options));
            Some(Template::new(parsed))
        },

        Some(ref split) if split.delimiter == "elsif" => {
            let child_tokens : Vec<Element> = split.trailing.iter()
                                                            .skip(1)
                                                            .cloned()
                                                            .collect();
            let parsed = try!(if_block("if", &split.args[1..], child_tokens, options));
            Some(Template::new(vec!(parsed)))
        },

        Some(split) => panic!("Unexpected delimiter: {:?}", split.delimiter)
    };

    let if_true = Template::new(try!(parse(leading_tokens, options)));

    Ok(Box::new(Conditional {
        condition: cond,
        mode: true,
        if_true: if_true,
        if_false: if_false,
    }))
}

#[cfg(test)]
mod test {
    use LiquidOptions;
    use Renderable;
    use context::Context;
    use std::default::Default;
    use parse;

    #[test]
    fn number_comparison() {
        let a = parse("{% if 6 < 7  %}if true{% endif %}",
                      LiquidOptions::default()).unwrap()
                                               .render(&mut Context::new());
        assert_eq!(a.unwrap(), Some("if true".to_owned()));

        let b = parse("{% if 7 < 6  %}if true{% else %}if false{% endif %}",
                      LiquidOptions::default()).unwrap()
                                               .render(&mut Context::new());
        assert_eq!(b.unwrap(), Some("if false".to_owned()));
    }

    #[test]
    fn string_comparison() {
        // "one" == "one" then "if true" else "if false"
        let a = parse("{% if \"one\" == \"one\" %}if true{% endif %}",
                      LiquidOptions::default()).unwrap()
                                               .render(&mut Context::new());
        assert_eq!(a.unwrap(), Some("if true".to_owned()));

        // "one" == "two"
        let b = parse("{% if \"one\" == \"two\" %}if true{% endif %}",
                      LiquidOptions::default()).unwrap()
                                               .render(&mut Context::new());
        assert_eq!(b.unwrap(), Some("".to_owned()));
    }

    #[test]
    fn implicit_comparison() {
        use context::Context;
        use parse;
        use LiquidOptions;
        use Renderable;
        use value::Value;

        let text = concat!(
            "{% if truthy %}",
            "yep",
            "{% else %}",
            "nope",
            "{% endif %}");

        let template = parse(text, LiquidOptions::default()).unwrap();
        let mut context = Context::new();

        // first pass, "truthy" == false
        context.set_val("truthy", Value::Bool(false));
        let output = template.render(&mut context);
        assert_eq!(output.unwrap(), Some("nope".to_string()));

        // second pass, "truthy" == true
        context.set_val("truthy", Value::Bool(true));
        let output = template.render(&mut context);
        assert_eq!(output.unwrap(), Some("yep".to_string()));
    }

    #[test]
    fn unless() {
        use value::Value;
        let text = concat!(
            "{% unless some_value == 1 %}",
                "unless body",
            "{% endunless %}");
        let template = parse(text, LiquidOptions::default()).unwrap();
        let mut context = Context::new();

        context.set_val("some_value", Value::Num(1f32));
        assert_eq!(template.render(&mut context).unwrap(),
                   Some("".to_string()));

        context.set_val("some_value", Value::Num(42f32));
        assert_eq!(template.render(&mut context).unwrap(),
                   Some("unless body".to_string()));
    }

    #[test]
    fn nested_if_else() {
        use value::Value;
        let text = concat!(
            "{% if truthy %}",
                "yep, ",
                "{% if also_truthy %}",
                    "also truthy",
                "{% else %}",
                    "not also truthy",
                "{% endif %}",
            "{% else %}",
            "nope",
            "{% endif %}");
        let template = parse(text, LiquidOptions::default()).unwrap();
        let mut context = Context::new();
        context.set_val("truthy", Value::Bool(true));
        context.set_val("also_truthy", Value::Bool(false));

        let output = template.render(&mut context);
        assert_eq!(output.unwrap(), Some("yep, not also truthy".to_string()));
    }

    #[test]
    fn multiple_elif_blocks() {
        use value::Value;
        let text = concat!(
            "{% if a == 1 %}",
            "first",
            "{% elsif a == 2 %}",
            "second",
            "{% elsif a == 3 %}",
            "third",
            "{% else %}",
            "fourth",
            "{% endif %}");
        let template = parse(text, LiquidOptions::default()).unwrap();
        let mut context = Context::new();

        context.set_val("a", Value::Num(1f32));
        assert_eq!(template.render(&mut context).unwrap(),
                   Some("first".to_string()));

        context.set_val("a", Value::Num(2f32));
        assert_eq!(template.render(&mut context).unwrap(),
                   Some("second".to_string()));

        context.set_val("a", Value::Num(3f32));
        assert_eq!(template.render(&mut context).unwrap(),
                   Some("third".to_string()));

        context.set_val("a", Value::str("else"));
        assert_eq!(template.render(&mut context).unwrap(),
                   Some("fourth".to_string()));
    }
}

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaGithub


Garmin Approach S20 Preloaded Golf GPS Watch Refurbished - Choose Color! Comes manual, but DOES NOT come with a charging cable. The unit is in Mint Condition. The Garmin Approach S20 GPS golf watch is the ideal golfing partner that doubles as your everyday watch. Stylish, convenient and lightweight, Approach S20 comes pre-loaded with more than 40,000 courses around the world plus automatic map updates, daily activity tracking and smart notifications to keep you connected on the go. Whether youre leisurely playing with friends on your favorite local course or teeing up on that amazing resort course youve always wanted to play, Approach S20 knows where you are and how far you are from the next pin. The watchs high-sensitivity GPS receiver gives you the distance data you need to fire away with confidence. On the high-resolution display, youll see distances to the front, back and middle of the green, as well as hazards, doglegs and layups. You can also measure yardages for shots played from anywhere on the course. AutoShot Round Analyzer On the course, the Approach S20s AutoShot round analyzer tracks shots, measures distance and auto-records shot locations for pos-round analysis on Garmin Connect.	Green View Display The Green View feature on your Approach S20 shows you the true shape and layout of the green, even if youre behind it. You can manually reposition the pin to that days location for accurate shot selection. Keep a Digital Scorecard - Approach S20 golf watch easily keeps track of your score throughout the round and also allows you to upload and save your score to Garmin Connect. Smartphone Notifications - Approach S20 acts as a wireless extension of your compatible smart device, displaying smart notifications, right on your watch. Extra-Long Battery Life - Your Approach S20 features a long-running lithium-ion battery to carry you through long rounds or those extra holes. You can easily get in a whole weekend of golf with up to 15 hours in full GPS mode before the battery needs to be recharged.
See our feedback for the thousands of satisfied customers. Fairway / Hybrid / Utility. We offer great savings when purchasing multiple items. Please use the map below to estimate time in transit. An unpaid item case will be opened after 7 days of nonpayment. We do our best to deliver your item as described, and in a timely manner. 6.2% on Illinois orders. 7.0% on Indiana orders.	6.0% on Michigan orders. 7.0% on Ohio orders. These charges are beyond our control and vary by country. We do not mark packages as gifts or lower values. We do NOT mark packages as gifts or lower values. We stand behind everything that we sell and will do everything we can to assure that you're satisfied. In the event that your merchandise is damaged through defect or otherwise, we'll be happy to facilitate replacement or repair for you. Maple Hill Golf Course 5555 Ivanrest Ave Grandville, MI 49418. Most of our products are automatically set up with combined rates. If you dont see what you are looking for send us a message. Do you have any other styles?
No, everything we currently have in stock is listed. Please check back every couple days. Our items are always changing.
Is the picture the actual item? Yes, if it is a USED item we always take a picture of the actual item. If it is brand new than we typically use stock photos (unless otherwise noted).
Please wait at least 1 day before you ask for tracking. We have no idea what these are or how they are calculated.
Do you have other pictures? All the pictures we have are in the listings.
Everything we sell is guaranteed to be authentic. We do not deal in fakes or forgeries. How long until I receive an International item? The item "Garmin Approach S20 Preloaded Golf GPS Watch Refurbished Choose Color" is in sale since Tuesday, June 19, 2018.
This item is in the category "Sporting Goods\Golf\Golf Accessories\Rangefinders & Scopes". The seller is "maplehillgolf" and is located in Grandville, Michigan. This item can be shipped worldwide.


ISTANBUL—Large crowds flocked to the former address of Turkish-Armenian weekly newspaper Agos in Istanbul on Friday to commemorate the late journalist Hrant Dink on the 11th anniversary of his assassination, reported the Hurriyet Daily Newspaper.
Dink was shot dead with three bullets on Jan. 19, 2007, at around 3 p.m. in front Agos' then-headquarters.
On Thursday, Garo Paylan, an Armenian member of the Turkish Parliament representing the opposition People's Democratic Party (HDP,) submitted a written proposal to the Turkish parliament calling for an investigating of the developments following Dink's murder and preventing similar such acts.
He stressed that Hrant Dink was making efforts toward Turkey's democratization as well as peoples' solidarity and peace, according to information published on the HDP's official website.
Every year since the assassination, mourners have attended a commemoration ceremony for him, laying carnations at the spot where he was killed. This year placards reading "Justice for Hrant" were attached to the former newspaper building.
"….little progress has been made"?? more like Turkey is being driven in reverse gear!


A Civil War soldier's ring has finally made the long march home.
Relic hunter John Blue this week reunited the artifact he discovered in Fredericksburg, Va., in 2005 with distant cousins of the ring's owner in Reading, Pa. — 200 miles and almost 150 years later.
"This is truly a hero's journey," Ernie Schlegel, a relative of Union soldier Levi Schlegel, told the Reading Eagle newspaper.
Blue presented the jewelry to Ernie Schlegel at a ceremony at Levi Schlegel's gravesite in Reading.
While getting to that point wasn't easy, it sure seemed like kismet, Blue told the Daily News on Thursday.
"A lot of times you run into dead ends," said Blue, of Manassas, Va. "But this really was fate."
Blue found the ring while hunting at a construction site with a metal detector — an activity he's been doing for about 30 years.
As a Civil War enthusiast, he normally finds bullets and buckles. Rings are a rarer find.
But this glinting token caught his eye.
It appeared to be silver, and on the outside of the band was a name: Levi Schlegel. The soldier's unit was also engraved — "Co. G., 198th P.V.," for Pennsylvania Volunteers — although one of the numbers was faded.
"I was overwhelmed really. I didn't know what it was at first, but after cleaning it off and seeing that it had a name on it — that was an awesome feeling," Blue said.
He was able to confirm Levi Schlegel's identity in a database.
But unsure of how to track down his descendants, Blue tucked the ring away. The story could have ended there, but the history behind the band continued to haunt him several years later.
Recently, with the help of a genealogist, Blue traced Levi Schlegel's origins to Berks County, Pa., where the unit recruited soldiers. The local library was the obvious place for info — and it turned out Ernie Schlegel sat on the library's Board of Trustees.
He also studied his family's lineage, and discovered that he is related to a Levi Schlegel — his sixth cousin, four times removed.
Levi Schlegel was first drafted in November 1862 in Pennsylvania, and joined the G Company headed for Petersburg, Va., two years later, Ernie Schlegel told the Reading Eagle. He was there when Gen. Robert E. Lee surrendered on April 9, 1865 at Appomattox Court House, Va.
With the war over, Levi Schlegel, a carpenter, had 11 children with his wife. He died at the age of 91 in 1932.
It's likely he simply dropped the ring while he was camped in Virginia.
The band finally passed hands from Blue to Levi Schlegel's living descendants on Tuesday.
"As a veteran, I know the importance of fighting for freedom, and I'm proud to know the Schlegel family did its part," relative James Schlegel told the Reading Eagle.
Blue said the identification ring is probably worth about $1,500 and is in much better condition than other similar ones.
The ID rings range in price depending on what the soldier did, Blue added. Jewelry of more prominent Civil War fighters can be worth as much as $3,500.
In his career searching for artifacts, Blue has come across tens of thousands of items. But identifying their owners is usually next to impossible.
"What amazes me is that we actually found the family," Blue said. "This one tells a real story."


text:
BUSH CAMP PUSHES THEME OF CHANGE
By Ronald Brownstein and Los Angeles Times
WASHINGTON -- After nearly four years in office, President Bush has settled on a surprising new identity for his campaign's stretch run: He is selling himself as the candidate of change.
On issues from social security and health care to national defense, Bush now presents his agenda as a response to "changing times" and a "changed world."
Bush also accuses his Democratic rival, Sen. John Kerry, of pursuing "the policies of the past."
Bush is relying more on this argument even as Kerry amplifies his efforts to portray the president's proposed second-term agenda as "more of the same" and his own proposals as a sharp change in the country's direction.
These pointed disputes illustrate the priority both sides place on identifying their candidate as a source of change at a time when surveys show about half the public dissatisfied with the country's direction.
Republicans think Bush's arguments have framed the race in a way that will help him win a solid share of voters eager for change -- something presidential incumbents have almost never achieved.
"It's a nice contrast to have for an incumbent: We're for new, and they're for old," said Ed Gillespie, chairman of the Republican National Committee. "That's the biggest change in the [campaign's] dynamic that has taken place here going into the stretch run."
Kerry advisers agree that Bush will benefit if he can define the choice in those terms. But they think the president, with a record behind him, will have difficulty accomplishing that. "Listen, if they get away with it, it would be a threat," said Tad Devine, a senior Kerry adviser. "I don't think they are going to get away with it."
Typically, challengers define themselves as the agent of change in presidential races.
Bush's attempt to depict himself as the candidate of change this year is reminiscent of Bill Clinton's strategy in the 1996 campaign.
As he sought re-election, Clinton promoted policies he said represented a "bridge to the 21st century, while contending his Republican challenger, Sen. Bob Dole of Kansas, was offering "a bridge to the past."


Dolce & Gabbana's 'Rain Boots' come in shiny gold rubber with a chunky sole for a stylish and water resistant finish. A decorative buckle gives them character and an almost equestrian feel, while the metal embossed decorative plaques to the back give them instant brand recognition. Wear yours with anything from pretty day dresses to second-skin denim.


text:
The Poetics of Air
CHANGING MINDSETS WITH THE AEROSCENE FOUNDATION
The Aeroscene project, initiated by the artist Tomás Saraceno, seeks to "activate a new imaginary for how we perceive our relationship with air". Editor and designer Sophie Rzepecky examines this idea of changing mindsets about such intangibles through cooperative action and poetic awareness.
The air above our heads might seem free as the wind but it is in fact highly regulated and controlled by geopolitics, multinational corporations and governments. We breath in, move through, and with air. Yet we tend to take this valuable resource – which is perhaps not as infinite as we believe – for granted. Indeed, air is in trouble, as seen most recently with serious fires ravaging the Amazon rainforest – a source of 20 percent of the world's oxygen emissions. How do we bring urgent awareness to such an intangible and important subject as air?
The Aerocene Foundation may have the answer. Aerocene, founded by visual artist Tomás Saraceno in 2015, is a community-based foundation working towards creating a poetic awareness of air. Motivated by a central question: what would it feel like to breathe in a post-fossil fuel world?, the foundation brings together an interdisciplinary set of activists, radio and balloon enthusiasts, academic experts, researchers and artists to activate a new imaginary for how we perceive our relationship with air. The activities of the foundation are various, but key to its output is the development, launching and testing of Aerosolar sculptures; dark, triangular-shaped balloons that, when filled with air, are heated from the inside by the rays of the sun and lifted into the atmosphere without the use of fossil fuels.
Unlike national and international land borders, the air has no physical borders discernible to the human eye. In fact, air connects everything and everyone, "it flows through, in and around," as mentioned in the Aerocene Manifesto. Aerosolar sculptures, are launched by a dedicated community of enthusiasts around the world and across borders, with Aerocene's Do-It-Together kit – a portable backpack designed as a tether-flight starter kit, with everything you need to float an Aerocene sculpture. These kits offer new and embodied ways of experiencing air, by harnessing its power in collaboration with the sun.
"Aerocene is a project about friendship, about the relationship between air, universe, humans, sun, animals, plants, planets. It is a project showing how shared enthusiasm becomes the common ground to shared dreams. Where time becomes different, where energy and inspiration are endless resources. I can only hope that this family will grow even bigger." – Tomás Saraceno
Aerocene encourages the use of launches as a bottom-up practice to challenge the status quo and bring attention to the idea that local communities should be able to inform policy on the air and environment. Indeed the site of launches have also at times acted as provocation, as with the inaugural launch of Aerocene D-O AEC in 2015 at White Sands, New Mexico, the site of the first detonation of a nuclear device , code-named "Trinity" in 1945; or a launch in 2017 over Salar de Uyuni in Bolivia, a site of mass extraction of the mineral lithium used in batteries for powering computers and driverless cars. As artistic interventions, launching at these sites created a political imaginary for what life could be like if we left valuable resources in the ground, and collaborated more holistically with planetary rhythms.
The interest in and support in the Aerocene Foundation, amongst scientists, laypersons, students and teachers alike is a testament to the power of artistic investigation into the environment, by bringing to light the complexity of air as a resource controlled by multiple entities. To believe there can be new ways of living on planet earth, we first need to imagine them and Aerocene leads the way.