text:
Home > Opinions > People v. Williams
People v. Williams
People v. Williams , 24 Cal.2d 848
[Crim. No. 4541. In Bank. Aug. 31, 1944.]
THE PEOPLE, Respondent, v. LESTER WILLIAMS, Appellant.
Gladys Towles Root for Appellant.
Robert W. Kenny, Attorney General, Frank Richards and David K. Lener, Deputies Attorney General, Fred N. Howser, [24 Cal.2d 849] District Attorney, and Jere J. Sullivan, Deputy District Attorney, for Respondent.
This is an appeal from a judgment pronounced after a revocation of probation.
Defendant was charged with petty theft committed after a prior conviction of a like offense and imprisonment therefor. Upon entry of a plea of guilty, imposition of sentence was suspended and he was placed on probation for a period of two years commencing August 9, 1937. In March, 1938, defendant was convicted of forgery in Arizona, and served eighteen months in the state prison. On June 14, 1938, and within the probationary period, defendant's probation was revoked and, as he was then in the Arizona penitentiary, the matter was placed off calendar. After his release by the Arizona authorities, defendant served a term in a federal penitentiary. He was brought before the trial court on May 10, 1943, at which time the order revoking his probation was confirmed and the judgment here appealed from was pronounced.
It is urged that the judgment is invalid because it was not pronounced until after expiration of the probationary period.
The code sections governing the determination of the present problem are sections 1191, 1193, 1202 and 1203-1203.3 of the Penal Code. Section 1191, as it read April 30, 1937, when defendant was placed on probation, provided that the court must pronounce judgment not less than two nor more than five days after the verdict or plea of guilty, but might extend this time where probation was being considered for a designated number of days. Within four months after probation was granted, and prior to the pronouncement of the judgment, section 1191 was amended (effective August 27, 1937), so far as material here, to provide that "After a plea or verdict of guilty ... the court must appoint a time for pronouncing judgment, which must not be less than two, nor more than five days after the verdict or plea of guilty; ... and furthermore may extend the time until any proceedings under section 1203 of this code have been disposed of." (Italics added.) [1] The amended portion of the section extending the time for pronouncement of judgment and sentence until any probationary proceeding under section 1203 [24 Cal.2d 850] has been disposed of is procedural in nature, is not ex post facto, and did not deprive defendant of a vested right. (People v. Talkington, 8 Cal.App.2d 75, 81 [47 P.2d 368]; People v. Pollock, 31 Cal.App.2d 747 [89 P.2d 128]; People v. Von Moltke, 118 Cal.App. 568 [5 P.2d 917]; In re Nachnaber, 89 Cal.App. 530 [265 P. 392]; 7 Cal.Jur. 844.) [2] A probationary proceeding is not disposed of within the meaning of section 1191 until the defendant has satisfied the conditions of his probation and received his discharge or has had his probation revoked and sentence pronounced against him.
[3] Although section 1191 provides that the judgment must be pronounced within a designated period, it has been consistently held that failure to pronounce judgment within the time specified is not jurisidictional. (Rankin v. Superior Court, 157 Cal. 189, 192 [106 P. 718]; People v. Zuvela, 191 Cal. 223, 224-225 [215 P. 907]; People v. French, 12 Cal.2d 720 [87 P.2d 1014]; People v. Miller, 130 Cal.App. 191, 194 [19 P.2d 814]; People v. Rubens, 11 Cal.App.2d 576, 587 [54 P.2d 98, 1107]; People v. Pollock, 31 Cal.App.2d 747, 761-762 [89 P.2d 128].) The last-cited case states: "Numerous California authorities have held that the failure of the court to pronounce judgment within the limitation of time prescribed by section 1191 of the Penal Code does not automatically entitle the defendant to a new trial under the provisions of section 1202 of the Penal Code, nor does such delay render the judgment void for lack of jurisdiction. A judgment so pronounced may not be reversed on appeal unless the delay results in a miscarriage of justice, for the reason that the pronouncing of judgment is a mere matter of procedure which will not warrant a reversal, under the provisions of article VI, section 4 1/2, of the Constitution of California." Section 1191 by its terms must be read with section 1203. Therefore, even if we were to assume that the judgment against defendant was not pronounced until after the time limited therefor, it would have to be held that such failure was not jurisdictional to the judgment.
[4] Moreover, we find nothing in the probation sections of the code which prescribes the time within which judgment must be pronounced after revocation of probation. Section 1203 authorizes the trial court in certain cases to hear and determine probation matters, and permits the court, if it is satisfied that the ends of justice will be subserved, to grant [24 Cal.2d 851] probation. The section contains no reference to the time when judgment shall be pronounced.
Section 1203.1 provides that "The court ... in the order granting probation, may suspend the imposing, or the execution of the sentence and may direct that such suspension may continue for such period of time not exceeding the maximum possible term of such sentence ... provided, however, that upon ... the fulfillment of all conditions of probation, probation shall cease at the end of the term of probation, or sooner, in the event of modification." This section gives the court power to place a defendant on probation for the maximum time for which he could be sentenced. If a defendant complies with all the conditions imposed, his probation ends at the time designated. The section does not purport to specify a time when judgment shall be pronounced if a defendant violates the terms of his probation. There is nothing therein that can be construed as limiting the provisions of section 1191. Moreover, as already shown, the latter section specifically authorizes the court to extend the time to pronounce judgment until there has been a disposition of proceedings under the probation sections. The order of the trial court placing defendant on probation for two years and suspending proceedings was in accordance with section 1203.1, but defendant failed to satisfy the terms of his probation, and prior to its expiration it was revoked as authorized in section 1203.2.
Section 1203.2 provides that "At any time during the probationary period ... the court may in its discretion issue a warrant for the re-arrest of any such person and may thereupon revoke and terminate such probation. ... Upon such revocation and termination the court may, if the sentence has been suspended, pronounce judgment after said suspension of the sentence for any time within the longest period for which the defendant might have been sentenced. ..." Thus this section gives the court the power at any time during the probationary period, if the defendant has violated any of the provisions of his probation, to revoke probation and issue a warrant for the rearrest of the defendant. Upon revocation of probation, the defendant, in the eyes of the law, is guilty of the crime and the section fixes no exact time for pronouncement of judgment and must be [24 Cal.2d 852] construed with other provisions of law on the subject. The phrase "Upon such revocation ... the court may ... pronounce judgment ...," may mean "before, after or simultaneously with," according to the context and the purpose of the provision in which it is used. (46 C.J. 1096.) Here it undoubtedly means "after," but does not carry with it the idea of immediate action. This is indicated by the provision of the section which authorizes any probation or peace officer to rearrest any person on probation and bring him before the court "at any time until the final disposition of the case." Under the circumstances of this and similar cases, it would be an idle act to rearrest a defendant "at any time until the final disposition of the case" and "bring him before the court" if the court had no power to pronounce judgment.
Section 1203.3 provides that "The court shall have authority at any time during the term of probation to revoke, modify, or change its order of suspension of imposition or execution of sentence. It may at any time when the ends of justice will be subserved thereby, and when the good conduct and reform of the person so held on probation shall warrant it, terminate the period of probation and discharge the person so held, ... and in all cases, if the court has not seen fit to revoke the order of probation and impose sentence or pronounce judgment, the defendant shall at the end of the term of probation or any extension thereof, be by the court discharged subject to the provisions of these sections." When considered with the preceding sections, it must be concluded that there is nothing in section 1203.3 that can reasonably be construed as requiring both the revocation of probation and the pronouncement of judgment prior to expiration of the probationary period. The section has to do with the discharge of a defendant who has fully satisfied the terms and conditions of his probation. In stating the conditions essential to such discharge, the section repeats the requirement of section 1203.2 that the order revoking probation must be made prior to the expiration of the probationary period; but there is nothing in the section with respect to the time when sentence must be pronounced after such revocation. The phrase "if the court has not seen fit to revoke the order of probation and impose sentence or pronounce judgment, the defendant shall at the end of the term of probation ... be by the court discharged" merely authorizes [24 Cal.2d 853] the discharge of a probationer "if the court has not seen fit" to revoke probation and pronounce judgment in the manner provided for in the other sections of the code. Neither the quoted phrase nor any provision of the section purports to fix the time when sentence must be pronounced following a seasonable revocation of probation. When read in its entirety and properly fitted into the pattern created by the several sections which make up the probation law, section 1203.3 merely completes the picture by providing for the discharge of a defendant who has satisfied all the conditions of his probation.
Section 1203.2a is without application to this case for, as originally enacted in 1941 and clarified by amendment in 1943, it applies only to a probationer who is subsequently committed in this state.
As stated above, the court may revoke the probation at any time during the probationary period, but the defendant may be rearrested at any time until the final disposition of the case and brought before the court. There can be no final disposition of the case when probation is revoked until judgment is pronounced or the defendant is relieved from all penalties and disabilities under the provisions of the probation law. Generally, judgment must be pronounced in the presence of the defendant, unless after the exercise of reasonable diligence to procure the presence of the defendant the court shall find that it will be in the interest of justice that judgment be pronounced in his absence. (Pen. Code, § 1193.) Under this section a defendant must be personally present, and if he is not the court cannot pronounce judgment unless a proper showing of diligence is made as required therein. And even then the court may, in its discretion, find that it would not be in the interest of justice to pronounce judgment in the absence of the defendant. There are, of course, many reasons why a court might desire to have the defendant present when sentence is pronounced, and in a case such as we have here, where because of his confinement elsewhere it is not possible to produce the defendant at the time probation is revoked, the court may consider that, in the interests of justice, judgment should not be imposed until defendant can be brought before the court.
The several sections of the probation statute indicate a [24 Cal.2d 854] legislative intent to give the trial court supervisory power over a defendant on probation. The period of probation can be for the full length of time for which the probationer could have been imprisoned, or for any less time. During the probationary period the court may modify it by extending or reducing the length thereof. Or it may revoke probation, order the defendant rearrested and thereafter enter judgment against him. Section 1203.2 provides for revocation "at any time during the probationary period." The jurisdictional fact, therefore, is the timely revocation of probation. There is no exact time prescribed in the probation sections for the pronouncement of judgment and disposition of the matter. In the present case, the order revoking probation was made within the probationary period and while defendant was confined in Arizona. In the eyes of the law, defendant then stood guilty of his crime; he had failed to re-establish himself and it was the duty of the court to sentence him to a penal institution. We do not find any indication of a legislative intention to compel the court, after revocation of probation, to pronounce judgment against an absent defendant. Moreover, the delay in bringing defendant before the court for imposition of sentence was attributable to his intervening confinement in state and federal prisons.
In People v. Hunter, 42 Cal.App.2d 87, 91 [108 P.2d 472], where, as here, probation was revoked during the probationary period, but judgment was not imposed until after the expiration of such period, the court stated that "upon revocation of his probation, defendant stood before the court guilty of his crimes. He had failed to reestablish himself as a worthy citizen of the state. It was the duty of the court to sentence him to a penal institution. The fact that defendant was committed at a time subsequent to the expiration of the period of his probation is immaterial. His probation had been revoked prior to the expiration of the probationary term."
There is nothing in People v. Lippner, 219 Cal. 395 [26 P.2d 457], opposed to our conclusion herein. In that case both the revocation of probation and the imposition of sentence occurred "during the term of probation" and the language of the decision was addressed to that factual situation. Nothing said therein was intended to hold that where, as here, the revocation of probation occurs within the probationary period [24 Cal.2d 855] the imposition of sentence must likewise occur within the same limited period in order to have jurisdictional vitality.
People v. Hainline, 219 Cal. 532, 534 [28 P.2d 16], states that "No person is entitled to be placed on probation as a matter of right. It is a power which may be exercised in the discretion of the court to the end, as expressed in the act itself, 'that amends may be made to society for the breach of the law; for any injury done to any person resulting from such breach, and generally and specifically for the reformation and rehabilitation of the probationer; ...' Where any one of the foregoing purposes of the law has failed there is no just or logical reason why a probationer who has deliberately refused to accept the advantages with which the rehabilitating provisions of the law clothe him, and has returned to a life of crime, should be heard to invoke the benefits of a grace which saved him from the stigma of felony and which was conferred upon him in consideration of a pledge of future honest conduct and good citizenship. As a matter of comparative justice it would be giving to such a person an advantage above others who had never had the grace of probation extended to them upon conviction of their first offense."
Shenk, J., Edmonds, J., Traynor, J., and Schauer, J., concurred.
CURTIS, J.
I dissent. The court's authority in probationary proceedings is wholly regulated by statute. The plain language of section 1203.3 of the Penal Code fixes a limit of time after which judgment cannot be pronounced in probation cases, and section 1191 of said code, specifying the time generally for the pronouncement of judgment in criminal cases, has no application to such distinct proceedings.
After authorizing a revocation, modification or change of a probationary order "during the term of probation" and a termination of probation at any time when "the good conduct and reform" of the probationer warrant it, section 1203.3 provides that "in all cases, if the court has not seen fit to revoke the order of probation and impose sentence or pronounce judgment, the defendant shall at the end of the term of probation or any extension thereof, be by the court discharged subject to the provisions of these sections." [Emphasis added.) The imperative form of this statutory direction to the court--through the use of the word "shall" (57 [24 Cal.2d 856] C.J. 548)--clearly denotes the Legislature's intent to put a limit upon the time during which a criminal action involving probation considerations may be kept alive and a judgment may be rendered therein. Thus, in People v. O'Donnell, 37 Cal.App. 192 [174 P. 102], it was held that after the probationary period had fully expired, the court had no jurisdiction to revoke the suspension of sentence and impose a term of imprisonment upon the probationer. The same limitation upon the court's power appears to apply where the revocation of probation is timely but the pronouncement of judgment is delayed beyond the probationary term, for the governing statute plainly refers to the court's performance of both acts within the jurisdictional period in order to prevent the defendant's discharge.
Bearing upon this point of construction as to the functioning of the probationary law in this state is the case of People v. Lippner, 219 Cal. 395 [26 P.2d 457]. There the defendant pleaded guilty to three separate charges of violating the Corporate Securities Act. Each offense was punishable by imprisonment in the state prison for five years or in the county jail for not exceeding two years. Sentence was suspended and the defendant was granted probation for five years. Within four years of the probationary period, probation was revoked and judgment was pronounced that the defendant be imprisoned in the county jail for the term of two years upon each of the charges, the sentences to run concurrently. The maximum term of sentence was thus fixed at two years upon the offenses as misdemeanors, and the defendant contended that the court, in not pronouncing judgment until he had been on probation for four years, lost jurisdiction to impose a sentence of imprisonment in the county jail. In rejecting that argument, this court said at page 405: "There is no question but that the court could have sentenced the defendant to state prison for the term of fifteen years at the time he placed him on probation. It was accordingly within the power of the court at that time to fix the period of the defendant's probation at any term not exceeding the fifteen years, the maximum possible term of sentence which the court could have imposed upon the defendant. As the court fixed the term of probation at five years, and pronounced judgment against the defendant within that period, it acted within its jurisdiction, and the judgment so imposed is valid and binding upon the defendant." (Emphasis added.) Implicit in [24 Cal.2d 857] this holding is the concept that not only should the order of probation be revoked, but also sentence should be imposed during the probationary period in order to preclude successful challenge of the court's power to so conclude the case. In other words, unless both acts are done within the time prescribed by statute, it is the duty of the court to discharge the defendant.
As the statute makes no exception to this requirement, the fact of the defendant's prison commitments in other jurisdictions, as disclosed by the record herein, does not furnish any legal reason for the court's failure, after its timely revocation of probation, to pronounce judgment within the period prescribed by legislative mandate. The court was empowered to pronounce judgment in the defendant's absence "in the interest of justice." (Pen. Code, § 1193.) This was the only course open to the court if it was to so conclude this case within the imperative time requirement of the statute furnishing the measure of the power which it may exercise in probationary matters. Upon revocation of his probation, the defendant stood in the eyes of the law guilty of his crime; he had failed to reestablish himself as a worthy citizen of the state; and the court then, and until the expiration of the two-year probationary period, had jurisdiction, and it was its duty, to pass sentence upon him for the term prescribed by law. Its power to provide for his appropriate punishment was not of indefinite duration. Thus, where the Legislature has evinced its unqualified intent that "in all cases" unless the court has revoked probation and imposed sentence or pronounced judgment, "the defendant shall at the end of the term of probation or any extension thereof, be by the court discharged" (Pen. Code, § 1203.3), there is a clear negation of the court's authority to proceed otherwise than as the statute specifies at the time in question. Here judgment was not pronounced during the time prescribed, but some four years after the expiration of the probationary period. In so doing the court exceeded the statutory limits of its power, and the judgment should be reversed. (cf. In re Keene, 47 Ariz. 191, 194 [54 P.2d 721], where the Supreme Court of Arizona reached a like decision in ruling upon a similar factual situation in the light of that state's probationary law containing the same controlling provision as found here in section 1203.3 supra.)
The unmistakable jurisdictional nature of the limitation [24 Cal.2d 858] declared by section 1203.3 prevents the application here of the rule followed with respect to judgments pronounced after the expiration of the time fixed by section 1191, supra--that since that provision contemplates a mere matter of procedure not going to the jurisdiction of the court, a delay beyond the time fixed will not result in a reversal unless a miscarriage of justice appears. (People v. French, 12 Cal.2d 720, 773-774 [87 P.2d 1014], and cases there cited.)
For the foregoing reasons I believe the defendant is entitled to his discharge from custody.
CARTER, J.
I dissent. I am in accord with the views expressed by Justice Curtis in his dissenting opinion in this case, but I think there is an additional ground upon which the judgment should be reversed. The majority opinion takes the position that the statutory provisions relating to probation are procedural, and therefore the provisions in effect at the time the proceeding comes before the court are applicable rather than those which were in effect at the time the crime was committed or the original judgment was pronounced. I am likewise of the opinion that such provisions are procedural. Such being the case, the trial court was bound by the provisions of section 1203.2a of the Penal Code at the time it pronounced judgment on the defendant on May 10, 1943. This provision was enacted by the Legislature in 1941. Although as stated in the majority opinion it was amended in 1943, the 1941 enactment was in effect at the time judgment was pronounced. Said section then provided:
"If any person who has been released on probation is committed to a State prison for another offense, it is hereby made mandatory upon the probation officer of the county from which he was released on probation to report the commitment to the court within 30 days after being advised in writing of the commitment. Within 30 days thereafter the court shall revoke probation and impose sentence. The sentence of the court may be imposed in the absence of the defendant in such cases. In the event the probation officer fails to report such commitment to the court or the court fails to impose sentence as herein provided, such person may not thereafter be sentenced under any authority retained in the granting of the probation."
I do not agree with the majority opinion that the 1943 amendment which added the words "in this State" after [24 Cal.2d 859] the words "A State prison," constituted a mere clarification of said section. I think it is clear that the Legislature intended this section to apply to any case in which a person who had been released on probation was committed to a state prison in any state, and it was therefore applicable to the defendant in this case.
Section 1203.2a of the Penal Code was evidently enacted to overcome the effect of the case of People v. Hunter, 42 Cal.App.2d 87 [108 P.2d 472], which opinion clearly misconstrues the provisions of the Penal Code applicable to probation, and in my opinion is unsound.
The majority opinion states: "When considered with the preceding sections, it must be concluded that there is nothing in section 1203.3 that can reasonably be construed as requiring both the revocation of probation and the pronouncement of judgment prior to expiration of the probationary period. The section has to do with the discharge of a defendant who has fully satisfied the terms and conditions of his probation." This statement is clearly erroneous and disregards the plain language of section 1203.3 of the Penal Code. The first sentence in this section states: "The court shall have authority at any time during the term of probation to revoke, modify or change its order of suspension of imposition or execution of sentence." Said section further provides: "... and in all cases, if the court has not seen fit to revoke the order of probation and impose sentence or pronounce judgment, the defendant shall at the end of the term of probation or any extension thereof, be by the court discharged subject to the provisions of these sections." In my opinion the only rational conclusion which can be reached from the plain language of this section is that unless probation is revoked and sentence is imposed or judgment pronounced within the probationary period, the defendant must be discharged.
Therefore, on both grounds above-mentioned, the defendant was entitled to his discharge before sentence was imposed, and the judgment which imposed a sentence upon him should be reversed. [24 Cal.2d 860]
Thu, 08/31/1944 24 Cal.2d 848 Review - Criminal Appeal Opinion issued
1 THE PEOPLE (Respondent)
2 , v. LESTER WILLIAMS, Appellant. (, v. LESTER WILLIAMS)
Aug 31 1944 Opinion: Affirmed
SCOCAL, People v. Williams , 24 Cal.2d 848 available at: (https://scocal.stanford.edu/opinion/people-v-williams-23780) (last visited Sunday January 16, 2022).


A high-fat diet (HFD) causes obesity by promoting excessive energy intake, and simultaneously, by disturbing the timing of energy intake. Restoring the feeding pattern is sufficient to prevent HFD-induced obesity in mice. However, the molecular mechanism(s) underlying HFD-induced feeding pattern disturbances remain elusive. Saturated fatty acids activate microglia and cause hypothalamic inflammation. Activated microglia cause neuroinflammation, which spreads via inflammatory cytokines and gap-junction hemichannels. However, the role of gap-junction hemichannels in HFD-induced obesity remains unaddressed. We used a novel, central-acting connexin inhibitor, INI-0602, which has high affinity for gap junction hemichannels and does not affect the induction of inflammatory cytokines. We analyzed ad libitum feeding behavior and locomotor activity in mice that were fed normal chow (NC), a HFD with elevated saturated fatty acids (SFAs), or a HFD with very high SFAs. We found that HFD feeding induced acute hyperphagia, mainly during the light cycle. Feeding pattern disturbances were more pronounced in mice that consumed the HFD with very high SFAs than in mice that consumed the HFD with elevated SFAs. When INI-0602 was administered before the HFD was introduced, it blocked the feeding pattern disturbance, but not locomotor activity disturbances; moreover, it prevented subsequent diet-induced obesity. However, when INI-0602 was administered after the HFD had disturbed the feeding pattern, it failed to restore the normal feeding pattern. Therefore, we propose that SFAs in HFDs played a major role in disrupting feeding patterns in mice. Moreover, the feeding pattern disturbance required the function of central, gap junction hemichannels at the initiation of a HFD. However, altering hemichannel function after the feeding pattern disturbance was established had no effect. Thus, preventing the occurrence of a feeding pattern disturbance by blocking the hemichannel pathway was associated with the prevention of the HFD-induced obesity in mice.
Food consumption is characterized by three aspects: what, when, and how much. The content, the timing, and the size of meals are important factors in dietary effects on health . Ingesting the same food at different times of the day has different consequences on health, because systemic metabolic efficiency fluctuates over the course of the day . In humans, food intake at later times in the circadian rhythm was associated with increased adiposity, independent of the content or amount of food intake . Indeed, among humans enrolled in weight-loss programs, those that ingested more calories earlier in the day lost more weight and showed more improvement in metabolic markers compared to those that ingested more calories late in the day [4, 5]. Therefore, eating at the correct time is beneficial for health.
High fat diets (HFDs, or "what" you eat) promote obesity. First, HFDs cause excessive energy intake (affecting "how much" you eat); second, HFDs disturb various rhythms, such as feeding (affecting "when" you eat), locomotor activity, and metabolism [6–8]. A lack of coordination in feeding, activity, and metabolism can desynchronize energy intake and expenditure. Correcting the feeding schedule was sufficient to prevent HFD-induced obesity in mice, even without changing caloric intake [9, 10]. Accumulating evidence has emphasized the importance of feeding patterns (when you eat) in maintaining energy balance and health. To facilitate healthy eating behavior, it is essential to understand the mechanisms that drive ad libitum feeding patterns. However, it remains elusive how feeding patterns are regulated physiologically and how they become disturbed with a HFD.
Some studies have shown that the excessive energy intake associated with HFD ingestion is mediated by activated microglia, which cause hypothalamic inflammation [11, 12]. HFDs contain saturated long-chain fatty acids (SFAs), such as palmitic acid (C16:0) and stearic acid (C18:0), which accumulate in the hypothalamus . This accumulation activates toll-like receptor 4 signaling, which induces the transcription factor, NF-κB, to upregulate inflammatory cytokine production (e.g., TNF-α) [12, 14]. The acute microglial activation induced by HFD feeding is restricted to the arcuate nucleus (ARC) of the hypothalamus [11, 12], which is the primary center for the homeostatic control of body weight . The resulting hypothalamic inflammation causes resistance to the central anorexigenic signals of leptin and insulin. This resistance disrupts the homeostatic regulation of feeding and body weight and leads to hyperphagia and weight gain [12, 16]. However, it remains unclear what role hypothalamic inflammation plays in feeding patterns. Importantly, inflammatory cytokines are not the only pathway for spreading neuroinflammation. Indeed, neuroinflammation mediated by activated microglia is known to spread through two pathways: the inflammatory cytokine pathway (mediated by TNF-α, IL-1β, etc.) and the gap-junction hemichannel pathway . The hemichannel pathway was shown to play a major causative role in promoting neuronal damage in neurodegenerative diseases .
INI-0602 is a central-acting, pan-connexin inhibitor with a higher affinity for hemichannels than for gap junctions . INI-0602 blocks only microglial release of small molecules (such as glutamate) through hemichannels, without attenuating acute inflammatory cytokine induction . We previously reported that inhibiting this pathway with INI-0602 did not affect inflammatory cytokines; nevertheless, it suppressed disease progression in mouse models of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and Alzheimer's disease by blocking glutamate release into the extracellular space . Importantly, INI-0602 was designed to target the central nervous system (CNS); the CNS redox system oxidizes the dihyropyridine moiety of the pro-drug, which results in the drug becoming trapped within the CNS . Therefore, INI-0602 accumulates in the CNS, including the hypothalamus, although it is rapidly cleared from the circulation and peripheral tissues . Due to this pharmacodynamic property, INI-0602 demonstrated no systemic side effects in mice, even after chronic administration for 5 months . Therefore, INI-0602 is an ideal tool for investigating whether the gap junction hemichannel pathway plays a role in HFD-induced hypothalamic inflammation.
Although many investigators have extensively studied the importance of inflammatory cytokine signaling in the pathogenesis of obesity, the role of the gap junction hemichannel pathway in HFD-induced obesity has not been addressed. Therefore, in this study, we investigated whether treating HFD-fed mice with INI-0602 would be sufficient for preventing HFD-induced obesity and the associated feeding pattern disturbances. By monitoring feeding patterns in detail, we found that INI-0602 prevented HFD-induced feeding pattern disturbances, characterized by excessive feeding during the light cycle. This effect was associated with the prevention of the HFD-induced obesity in mice.
To test whether the central-acting gap junction hemichannel pathway inhibitor, INI-0602, could prevent HFD-induced obesity, we first fed male C57BL/6 J mice HFD60 feed (HFD rich in SFAs) for 4 weeks, starting at 12 weeks of age. INI-0602 or vehicle was intraperitoneally injected at the beginning of the light cycle (0800 h) every other day. Also, at 0800, mice were switched from normal chow (NC) to HFD60 feed. We found that, in the initial 3 days after the diet was switched from NC to HFD, vehicle-treated mice began to exhibit hyperphagia, but INI-0602 treatment significantly suppressed this hyperphagic response (Fig. 1a). Switching the diet from NC to HFD is known to cause hypothalamic inflammation in two phases. The acute inflammation phase occurs within 1–3 days, and the chronic inflammation phase occurs after 2 weeks . Although caloric intake remained stable after the first week, mice started to gain weight after 2 weeks in both groups, which corresponded to the timing of the chronic hypothalamic inflammation phase (Fig. 1a-b).
At the end of the 4-week study, the INI-0602–treated group gained significantly less weight compared to the vehicle-treated group (Fig. 1b). The treatment group had significantly lower epididymal fat weight (Fig. 1c) and tended to exhibit less adiposity than controls (Fig. 1d). The two groups were not different in body length (Fig. 1e); this indicated that the suppression of weight gain was not due to a suppression of normal growth, but due to reduced adiposity. Microglial activation was assessed with histological anti-Iba-1 staining of tissue sections prepared from the ARC at the end of the 4-week study (at this point, the initial activation of microglia by HFD has subsided and turned into the chronic inflammation phase). The two groups showed similar numbers of cells stained with anti-Iba-1 and similar Iba-1–positive areas within the ARC (Additional file 1: Figure S1a-c). Therefore, INI-0602 prevented HFD-induced obesity and attenuated the initial hyperphagic response that occurred with the diet switch from NC to HFD.
We noted that INI-0602 was more effective in suppressing HFD-induced hyperphagia during the first several days after the diet switch. Therefore, we next focused on this time period. We analyzed the feeding behavior of 8-week-old C57BL/6 J male mice in detail with the feeding, drinking, and activity monitoring system (FDAMS). To observe the effect of drug administration more clearly and regularly over the observation period, INI-0602 was administered daily, with intraperitoneal injections at 0800 h.
We also tested the amounts and composition of fatty acids in HFDs offered from various companies, and we tested whether they had different effects on feeding behavior. We compared two HFDs, which had similar caloric contents and similar protein/fat/carbohydrate balances, but had different amounts of long-chain SFAs, particularly palmitic acid (C16:0) and stearic acid (C18:0), which activate microglia  (Table 1). We found that, compared to the HFD with elevated SFAs (HFD32), the HFD rich in SFAs (HFD60) rapidly disturbed feeding patterns and increased caloric intake during the light cycle (Additional file 2: Figure S2). Because these two diets had similar caloric contents and similar protein/fat/carbohydrate balances, we reasoned that the SFA contents must have caused the differences in the feeding pattern disturbances observed.
We next asked how long the disturbance in feeding pattern persisted once HFD feeding was initiated in mice fed HFD60. We found that, during the 10-day observation period, feeding patterns remained disrupted (Fig. 2a-i). Switching the diet from NC to HFD rapidly disturbed feeding patterns, by increasing intake during the light phase (Fig. 2b-c), which resulted in increased daily food intakes (Fig. 2c). In contrast, feeding decreased during the dark cycle (Fig. 2d), which probably reflected a compensation mechanism, in response to the light phase hyperphagia. This response tended to adjust the total caloric intake over 24 h. Indeed, by the second day, the 24-h caloric intake returned to the level observed before the diet switch (Fig. 2e). To characterize the biological behavioral patterns of these mice, we performed a cosinor analysis on the recorded feeding and locomotor activity patterns [20, 21]. We found that, even under the influence of the 12-h light-dark cycle, the diet change significantly disrupted the period length and the amplitude of the feeding behavior, which indicated an aberrant feeding pattern (Fig. 2f-h). We then analyzed feeding patterns in individual mouse recordings, which we termed 'eatograms' (i.e., actograms of the eating behavior). We found that the frequency of feeding events and amount of intake per feeding event during the light cycle increased after the diet switch (Fig. 2i); this observation was consistent with the reduced rhythmic amplitude in the feeding pattern identified with the cosinor analyses (Fig. 2g). These changes in feeding patterns were followed by a significant increase in body weight (Fig. 2j).
In addition to feeding patterns, HFDs are known to disturb activity patterns [7, 8]. Specifically, HFD feeding was shown to reduce the absolute amount of locomotor activity during the early dark cycle and the number of spontaneous activity bouts during the light cycle. Therefore, we also analyzed the locomotor activity patterns in these mice. Switching the diet from NC to the HFD diminished the peak activity observed during the early dark cycle (Additional file 3: Fig.ure S3a) and reduced the number of light-cycle activity bouts (Additional file 3: Figure S3 h), which resulted in reduced light cycle activity (Additional file 3: Fig.ure S3b). Although the total activity over the dark cycle and over the 24-h period were not affected (Additional file 3: Figure S3c-d), the activity during the early dark cycle declined to various degrees in each mouse (Additional file 3: Figure S3 h). These changes persisted during the 10-day observation period. However, the rhythmicity of locomotor activity was not affected (Additional file 3: Figure S3e-g), because the light-dark cycle is a strong zeitgeber for locomotor activity, and these experiments were performed under a 12-h light-dark cycle. Therefore, HFD feeding disrupted the patterns of feeding and activity, and these disturbances persisted throughout the time that mice received the HFD.
Next, we addressed the role of gap junction hemichannels in the C16:0/C18:0-rich HFD-induced feeding pattern disturbances. First, we assessed whether INI-0602 could prevent the feeding pattern disturbances induced by the HFD60 (high C16:0 and C18:0 diet). Either vehicle or INI-0602 was injected intraperitoneally at 0800 h. Then, the diet was switched from NC to HFD60. Daily intraperitoneal injections were always given at the beginning of the light cycle (0800 h). The INI-0602 treatment significantly prevented the HFD-induced increase in light cycle intake. Indeed, after initiating the HFD, we observed reductions in the caloric intake during the light-cycle, expressed as a percentage of the 24-h intake, or as the caloric intake per light cycle period. In contrast, the vehicle injection did not alter the HFD effects (Fig. 3a-d). Moreover, the INI-0602 treatment did not significantly affect the dark cycle intake (Fig. 3e). These changes in 24-h caloric intakes were only significant on days 1 and 4 (Fig. 3f). However, the total caloric intake over the 5-day HFD feeding period was significantly lower in the INI-0602–treated group than in the vehicle-treated group (Fig. 3g). These responses significantly reduced weight gain in the INI-0602 group compared to the vehicle group (Fig. 3h). The diet switch caused a significant decline in the amplitude of the feeding rhythm (i.e., the ingestion pattern showed less clear "on-off" times) in the vehicle group, but not in the INI-0602 group (Fig. 3i-k). Representative eatograms of individual mice showed that mice in the vehicle group increased the number of ingestion events and calories ingested per event during the light cycle intake; in contrast, this response was prevented in the INI-0602 group (Fig. 3l). Therefore, INI-0602 treatment prevented feeding pattern disturbances and subsequent weight gain, after switching the diet from NC to HFD in mice.
Considering that INI-0602 prevented HFD-induced feeding pattern disturbances, we also assessed whether it prevented HFD-induced activity pattern disturbances in the same mice. In contrast to our expectations, INI-0602 did not prevent disturbances in locomotor activity patterns upon switching the diet from NC to HFD60 (Fig. 4a-i). The peak activities during the early dark cycle were diminished equally in both groups (Fig. 4a, b ,i). The numbers of activity bouts during the light cycle were also diminished in both groups (Fig. 4i). Thus, the rhythmicity of locomotor activities was not significantly different between the two groups (Fig. 4f-h). These results indicated that INI-0602 had differential effects on the feeding and activity patterns disturbances induced by HFDs.
We also analyzed the effect of INI-0602 on feeding behavior, locomotor activity, and body weight in NC-fed mice. We observed no differences in the feeding pattern, locomotor activity, or body weight between mice that received INI-0602 injections and those that received vehicle injections (Fig. 5 and Additional file 4: Figure S4). Therefore, INI-0602 did not affect the feeding pattern, locomotor activity, or body weight in NC-fed mice.
It is known that HFD feeding acutely activates microglia, specifically in the ARC of the hypothalamus . The ARC integrates humoral information from the periphery and regulates feeding and body weight . After a diet switch from NC to HFD, acute hypothalamic inflammation occurs within the first 3 days, which is characterized by microglial activation, followed by secondary astrocytic inflammation in 7 days . Because the HFD-induced feeding pattern disturbance and the preventive effect of INI-0602 both occurred within the first 3 days, we assessed the effects of INI-0602 on ARC microglial activation, after 1 or 3 days of HFD60 feeding. Immunohistochemistry analyses of Iba-1 showed that neither the Iba-1(+) cell number nor the Iba-1(+) area within the ARC was affected by INI-0602 (Additional file 5: Figure S5a-f). These results indicated that INI-0602 did not block HFD-induced acute microglia activation. Therefore, the data suggested that INI-0602 acted downstream of HFD-induced microglial activation to prevent feeding pattern disturbances (Additional file 5: Figure S5 h).
It is known that activated microglia evoke neuroinflammation through two pathways: gap junction hemichannels and inflammatory cytokine expression . Therefore, at 1 and 3 days after switching to HFD60, we measured hypothalamic expression levels of the microglia-specific marker, Tmem119 , and genes in the inflammatory cytokine pathway (Ikbkb and Tnfa). We found that the HFD60-induced changes in the expression of these genes were not significantly affected by INI-0602 (Additional file 5: Figure S5 g). Taken together, these findings suggested that INI-0602 prevented HFD-induced feeding pattern disturbances without significantly affecting microglia activation (the upstream event) or the induction of inflammatory cytokines (another pathway). Although we lack the direct evidence, our results implied that an INI-0602 block of the gap junction hemichannel pathway might be one mechanism involved in preventing HFD-induced feeding pattern disturbances (Additional file 5: Figure S5 h).
We next tested whether INI-0602 could reverse the HFD-induced disturbances in feeding and activity patterns. Mice were fed HFD for 3 days to disturb feeding and activity patterns. Then, INI-0602 injections were initiated. Three-day INI-0602 treatments did not alter the existing feeding rhythm disturbances induced by HFD (Fig. 6a-j); the percentage of light cycle intake remained elevated compared to the pre-diet percentages (Fig. 6c). Interestingly, on the second and third days of INI-0602 treatment (Days 5 and 6 of the experiment), daily caloric intake was significantly reduced compared to vehicle-treated mice (Fig. 6f). However, INI-0602 treatment did not reverse HFD-induced activity pattern disturbances (Additional file 6: Figure S6a-i). Therefore, once HFD caused disturbances in feeding and activity, INI-0602 could not restore the behaviors to normal.
In this work, we used a central-acting reagent, INI-0602, which blocks the gap junction hemichannel pathway, but not the inflammatory cytokine pathway, during neuroinflammation. We analyzed its effects on feeding and locomotor activity patterns in detail, within the context of HFD-induced obesity. We addressed two major questions; first, how does HFD disturb feeding and locomotor activity patterns at the behavioral levels? Second, does the gap junction hemichannel pathway play any role in the pathogenesis of HFD-induced behavioral pattern disturbances and obesity (independently of the inflammatory cytokine signaling pathway). We found that HFD caused acute hyperphagia mainly by increasing light cycle feeding; moreover, the feeding pattern disturbances worsened with increasing proportions of long-chain SFAs in the HFD. These results suggested that the long-chain SFAs in HFDs were responsible for disturbing feeding rhythms. We found that INI-0602 prevented HFD-induced obesity and HFD-induced feeding pattern disturbances, but not HFD-induced activity pattern disturbances. However, INI-0602 failed to restore an existing HFD-induced feeding pattern disturbance, when it was given after HFD feeding had been initiated. These results suggested that the gap junction hemichannel pathway mediated the effect of HFD feeding on the feeding pattern only at the beginning phase of the disturbance. Importantly, preventing the initial step was sufficient to attenuate the degree of HFD-induced obesity in mice, despite HFD-induced locomotor activity pattern disturbances.
Long-chain SFAs are known to activate microglia within the ARC and induce inflammatory cytokines . The initial hypothalamic inflammation is associated with the acute activation of microglia within 3 days followed by the activation of astrocytes in 7 days . HFD-responsive microgliosis occurs specifically in the ARC and not in the adjacent ventromedial nucleus of the hypothalamus [11, 23]. The activation of the ARC residential microglia induces the subsequent recruitment of peripheral myeloid cells to the ARC by 4 weeks of HFD ingestion, further promoting ARC microgliosis . These microglial inflammation further triggers astrocyte inflammation, which also contribute to the establishment of the diet-induced obesity . Therefore, the NF-κB-dependent microglial activation is critical for the entry of bone-marrow-derived myeloid cells to the ARC, propagation of the hypothalamic inflammation, and the subsequent development of the HFD-induced obesity. The instant disruption of feeding rhythm upon HFD ingestion suggested the involvement of the acute hypothalamic ARC inflammation, which is mostly mediated by microglia.
Gap junctions consist of two apposed hemichannels, each contributed by one cell. They are used for intercellular diffusion of second messengers smaller than 1 kDa, such as Ca2+, IP3, and nucleotides . Under physiological conditions, astrocytic gap junctions contribute to the stability of neuronal networks; in contrast, resting microglia express low to undetectable levels of connexins (components of gap junction hemichannels). However, under inflammatory conditions, astrocytic gap junctions are shut down by classical inflammatory mediators, and the expression of connexin is induced in activated microglia, and morphological changes induced in microglia upon activation result in the detachment of gap junctions and cell adhesions and form unapposed hemichannels [25, 26]. Through these unapposed hemichannels, activated microglia release massive amounts of pro-inflammatory factors, such as ATP and glutamate, into the extracellular space. This milieu causes neuronal damage and secondary glial inflammation [17, 26]. Our findings suggested that SFAs activated this gap junction hemichannel pathway and led to feeding pattern disruptions.
These observations have raised the question: what are the identities of the small molecules that mediate HFD-induced feeding rhythm disturbances? Within the context of neurodegenerative disease models, in which extracellular glutamate plays pivotal roles, we previously showed that INI-0602 prevented lipopolysaccharide-induced microglial glutamate release in vivo and in vitro, and prevented disease progression . However, the identities of the pathogenic small molecules involved in HFD-induced feeding pattern disturbances remain unknown, because doing microdialysis in the ARC is challenging even in rats and no previous report exists in mice. Furthermore, the microdialysis of the ARC in HFD-fed rat has not been reported. Therefore, in this study, we could not directly determine whether INI-0602 blocked the release of small molecules in the hypothalamus that were relevant to HFD-induced feeding disturbances. This issue must be addressed in future studies.
Interestingly, INI-0602 had differential effects on HFD-induced disturbances in feeding and locomotor activity. The suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) of the hypothalamus serves as the master clock; this clock systemically coordinates various biological rhythms by regulating slave clocks located within the brain (such as "feeding clock", "activity clock", etc.) and the periphery. This control is demonstrated in the rhythmic expression patterns of clock genes, such as period1 [27–29]. Both feeding and ambient light serve as zeitgebers (timing cues from the external environmental). It is generally believed that HFDs disturb clocks in the gastrointestinal tract (including the liver), and feeding zeitgebers indirectly reset the phase of the SCN clock through a feedback loop that includes humoral and neural pathways. However, our finding that INI-0602 had differential effects on HFD-induced rhythm disturbances suggested that INI-0602 did not act on the master clock in the SCN to rescue HFD-induced behavioral disturbances. Moreover, a previous study showed that a 12-week HFD feeding period had no effect on the molecular oscillations in the SCN . Therefore, it is unlikely that INI-0602 restored the rhythmicity of the feeding clock by blocking only the specific influence of the SCN rhythm on the feeding clock (and not its influence on the activity clock). Instead, we hypothesized that the HFD might have disturbed both the feeding clock and the activity clock through two independent mechanisms; thus, INI-0602 treatment could have blocked only the former and not the latter. However, the precise location of the feeding clock in the brain remains an issue of debate. Proposed candidates include the ARC [31, 32], NPY neurons [33, 34], and the dopamine system , among others. Moreover, INI-0602 action is not specific for any particular location in the CNS. Therefore, the identity of the feeding clock remains to be uncovered in future investigations.
The findings of this study have shed some light to how the intrinsic feeding rhythm is disturbed by HFDs, and how these disturbances might be prevented. In mice fed ad libitum, the feeding pattern is presumably controlled by the intrinsic feeding drive. In humans, the timing of meals is determined by an intrinsic feeding drive (hunger) combined with the social environment and other factors . A disruption in a meal schedule (e.g., breakfast, lunch, dinner) could induce hunger-related stress and lead to in-between-meal snacking. Snacks are often rich in fat, which would exacerbate the disturbance in the feeding rhythm. Therefore, we propose that normalizing the intrinsic rhythm of the feeding drive would be beneficial in humans by facilitating a regular feeding schedule and reducing snacking. Identification of the pathogenic small molecule(s) responsible for HFD-induced feeding rhythm disturbances would help improve our strategies for improving the feeding pattern to promote better health.
All experimental procedures were performed in accordance with the Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals of the Science Council of Japan, and they were approved by the Animal Experiment Committee of Gunma University. All experiments were performed in wild-type C57BL/6 J male mice, obtained from CLEA Japan (Tokyo, Japan). Male mice, ages 7–11 weeks, were maintained on a 12-h light/dark cycle at 25 °C and they were given free access to NC and tap water before the experiment. The NC (CE-2) and HFD (HFD32) were purchased from CLEA Japan. Another HFD (HFD60) was purchased from Oriental Yeast Co. (Tokyo, Japan). The HFD32 and HFD60 had different fatty acid compositions (Table 1; information provided by manufacturers). The HFD portions were changed daily to prevent oxidation of fatty acids in the diet. The light/dark cycle was 0600 h/1800 h in the 4-week study and 0800 h/2000 h in the studies that employed the feeding, drinking, and activity monitoring system (FDAMS).
In the 4-week study, a multifeeder purchased from Shinfactory (Fukuoka, Japan) was used to measure food intake. Food intake was measured daily at 0800 h. In the experiments that employed FDAMS (also purchased from Shinfactory), food intake and locomotor activity were recorded every minute and analyzed over a specified period with Excel, as described previously . The FDAMS monitored food intake, food access, locomotor activity, and water consumption every minute. Mice had to stick their heads into the food port to gain access to the food. This apparatus prevented mice from taking away large chunks of food, because mice could not use their paws to grasp food. We also prevented the measurement of shredded food as food intake by placing the food container below the mouse's body; thus, all shredded food remained in the food container. Caloric intakes (1 kcal = 4.186 kJ) were calculated based on the grams of diet consumed (NC, 3.449 kcal/g; HFD32, 5.076 kcal/g; HFD60, 5.062 kcal/g).
Feeding and activity data were analyzed in 10-min bins to generate eatograms of eating behavior  and actograms of locomotor activity. Caloric intake was plotted in 0.1 kcal/10 min bins, and the height of each bar corresponded to the amount of calories ingested. Locomotor activity was plotted in 100 count/10 min bins, and the height of each bar indicated the amount of activity.
We analyzed the rhythms of hourly feeding behavior and locomotor activity with the cosinor-rhythmometry method [20, 21] and analysis software (Kai-Seki Ninja SL00–01; Churitsu Electric Corporation, Nagoya, Aichi, Japan). The amplitude of each rhythm was calculated as the average peak-to-trough ratio of all the cycles. The period length represented the length of one rhythmic cycle. We also quantified circadian time (CT), which is the rhythm set by an organism's endogenous circadian clock. The CT0 was the beginning of the subjective light cycle, and the CT12 was the beginning of the subjective dark cycle. The CT nadir represented the nadir phase of the rhythmic cycle, adjusted to a 24-h rhythmic cycle.
INI-0602 is a carbenoxolone derivative. We produced it in-house, in batch quantity, as previously described . It can also be purchased at Wako Pure Chemical Industries (Osaka, Japan). INI-0602 was first dissolved in ethanol, then mixed with saline to obtain a 5% ethanol/95% saline emulsion. We injected the emulsion (10 μl/g body weight [BW], for a dose of 20 mg/kg BW) or the vehicle (10 μl/g BW of 5% ethanol/95% saline) intraperitoneally into mice with a 30 G needle. Injections were performed at 0800.
The dosing of INI-0602 was based on a previous study that investigated the efficacy and safety of INI-0602 administration in murine models of neurodegenerative diseases . Intravenous injections of INI-0602 at 20 mg/kg BW in mice caused rapid accumulation of INI-0602 in brain, but the plasma concentration of the drug rapidly declined over the same time-frame; this resulted in high brain-to-plasma drug concentration . Previous studies showed that intraperitoneal injections of INI-0602 at 20 mg/kg BW every other day could effectively suppress disease progression in neurodegenerative mouse models. Moreover, it did not cause side effects in peripheral tissues, even after chronic administration for 5 months . In the present, 4-week HFD-feeding study, we used the same administration protocol. For other short-term experiments, we administered INI-0602 intraperitoneally to mice every day, at the beginning of the light cycle.
Body weight was measured at 0800 h every day. Body composition was measured with a computed tomography scan at the end of the 4-week study. Briefly, mice were anesthetized, and computed tomography imaging was performed with a LaTheta in vivo Micro computed tomography scanner, purchased from Hitachi (Tokyo, Japan). Adiposity was measured as previously described with the software provided with the computed tomography scanner .
Mice were anesthetized with pentobarbital, and euthanized between 0800 h and 1000 h. Next, mice were perfused with phosphate-buffered saline, followed by 4% paraformaldehyde. The brain samples were fixed overnight, and fixed-frozen sections of hypothalamic ARC were used for immunohistological analyses of microglia, as described previously . Immunohistochemical staining was performed with the anti-Iba1 rabbit antibody (Wako Pure Chemical Industries, 019–19,741, 1:1000 dilution), as primary antibody, and the Cy3-conjugated AffiniPure donkey anti-rabbit IgG (H + L) (Jackson ImmunoResearch, 711–165-152, 1:200 dilution) as secondary antibody. Images were acquired with a fluorescent microscope, BZ-9000 (Keyence, Osaka, Japan). The Iba-1(+) signals were measured with the densitometry function in ImageJ software, as described previously . We analyzed four ARC sections per animal.
RNA isolation and cDNA synthesis were performed as previously described , with RNAiso plus (TAKARA BIO, Otsu, Japan) and the Improm II reverse transcription system (Promega, Tokyo, Japan). Real-time PCR was performed with the LightCycler system and LightCycler 480 SYBR Green I (Roche Diagnostics K.K., Tokyo, Japan). The following primer pairs were used: Actb, forward: 5'-AGCCTTCCTTCTTGGGTA-3′ and reverse: 5'-GAGCAATGATCTTGATCTTC-3′; Ikbkb, forward: 5'-CTGAAGATCGCCTGTAGCAAA-3′ and reverse: 5'-TCCATCTGTAACCAGCTCCAG-3′; Tmem119, forward: 5'-CACCCAGAGCTGGTTCCATA-3′ and reverse: 5'-GTGACACAGAGTAGGCCACC-3′; and Tnfa, forward: 5'-ACGGCATGGATCTCAAAGAC-3′ and reverse: 5'-AGATAGCAAATCGGCTGACG-3′.
All values are presented as the mean ± s.e.m. Differences between groups and differences from the beginning time point were analyzed with the Student's t-test. For cosinor rhythmometric analyses, we performed one-way analyses of variance (ANOVA) and a post-hoc Student's t-test with Bonferroni's correction. Results with a P < 0.05 were considered statistically significant.
We thank Satoko Hashimoto for technical assistance, and we thank the members of the Laboratory of Metabolic Signaling for discussions.
This work was supported by grants from the Novartis Pharma Foundation, awarded to TS.
RN was supported, in part, by the Promotion of Science (JSPS) KAKENHI (Grant Number 24590350) and by a Research Grant for Science & Technology Innovation from TUT.
TS designed experiments, performed experiments, analyzed data, and wrote the manuscript; RN, SM, and NK analyzed data; H Y-H performed experiments; HT and TK provided advice on the experimental designs and revised the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
All experimental procedures were performed in accordance with the Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals of the Science Council of Japan and were approved by the Animal Experiment Committee of Gunma University.


Nantucket Sound installs audio and video in board rooms, TVs in motels, music and TVs in sports bars and restaurants, sound reinforcement and listening systems in churches and libraries, sound systems in dentist and doctors offices and more.
Nantucket Sound has been installing car audio (and video) systems for over 40 years. We have excellent installers. We install remote starters for both winter and summer to keep your car comfortable and safe. Improved speakers and electronics increase your motoring enjoyment and convenience.
* Our on-staff electrician and car stereo installer are the best!
Nantucket Sound is a family-owned discount electronics store based in Hyannis, MA. Since 1969, Nantucket Sound has served customers in Hyannis, Cape Cod, Orleans, Plymouth, Mashpee, Falmouth, Kingston, Marthas Vineyard, Nantucket, Wareham and Hanover with low prices and top notch customer service.
Our knowledge of the electronics we sell sets us high above the competition. Nantucket Sound is an authorized dealer of such brands as McIntosh, Golden Ear, Paradigm, Definitive Technology, Sony, Samsung, Yamaha, JL Audio, Bose, Sonos and more. We can help you select your new electronics on any budget.
We look forward to seeing you at Nantucket Sound, serving Hyannis, Cape Cod, Orleans, Plymouth, Mashpee, Falmouth, Kingston, Marthas Vineyard, Nantucket, Wareham and Hanover in Massachusetts since 1969.


text:
Magnus Jákupsson (born 8 September 1994) is a professional swimmer who swam for the Faroe Islands until 2012 and for Denmark since 2013. He is also swimming for Farum Svømmeklub since March 2015. Earlier he swam for the Danish clubs SIGMA Nordsjælland and Vestegnens Aqua Team (VAT) and for the Faroese club Havnar Svimjifelag. Until 2012 he held several Faroese records, he holds the second most Faroese men's swimming records, after Pál Joensen. His Faroese records are in backstroke, individual medley and butterfly. He moved to Denmark in 2011, and the following year he changed his swimming nationality to Danish. After that he can only set Danish records, not Faroese, and he can only represent Denmark in swimming competitions. Until he changed swimming nationality he was the record holder of six individual Faroese records on short course and eight individual Faroese records on long course.

In October 2013 Jákupsson was selected for the Great Danes project, and the year after, in November 2014, he was selected for the Danish senior national team for men, named The Vikings.

In 2015 he broke the Danish record in 50 metre backstroke on short course at the 2015 European Short Course Swimming Championships in Netanya, Israel with the time 23.84. On 24 January 2016 he tied the long course Danish record in the same event, set by Mathias Gydesen in 2010. Jákupsson broke the record at the Flanders Speedo Cup where he won the gold medal. He is currently one of the best Danish male swimmers.

Swimming results

2011 Faroese Championships
Magnus Jákupsson was the second most winning swimmer at the 2011 Faroese Championships in Tórshavn in May 2011. He won 11 gold and one bronze medal, Pál Joensen won most medals: 11 gold and three silver.

2011 European Junior Championship in Belgrade
Jákupsson competed at the 2011 European Junior Swimming Championships from 6 to 10 July 2011 in Belgrade, Serbia. His best result was number 10 in the 50 metre backstroke. He broke Faroese records and junior records in all six events he competed in.
 Number 10 in 50m backstroke with the time 26.76 (Faroese record and junior record)
 Number 13 in 50m butterfly with the time 24.96 (Faroese record and junior record)
 Number 24 in 100m butterfly with the time 56.20 (Faroese record and junior record)
 Number 26 in 50m freestyle with the time 23.90 (Faroese record and junior record)
 Number 26 in 200m backstroke with the time 2:08.88 (Faroese record and junior record)
 Number 28 in 100m backstroke with the time 58.51 (Faroese record and junior record)

2011 Island Games
Magnus Jákupsson competed one time at the Islands Games for the Faroe Islands, before his change of nationality. He won 3 gold, 5 silver and one bronze medalal at the Island Games on the Isle of Wight in July 2011. His results:
 Gold in 50m butterfly with the time 24.79
 Gold in 4x50m freestyle with the time 1:33.59 (together with Pál Joensen, Pauli Øssursson Mohr og Heðin Lisberg Olsen)
 Gold in 4x100m freestyle with the time 3:23.10 (together with Pál Joensen, Pauli Øssursson Mohr og Heðin Lisberg Olsen)
 Silver in 100m backstroke with the time 54.74
 Silver in 200m backstroke with the time 2:00.86
 Silver in 4x100m medley with the time 3:47.81 (together with Pál Joensen, Pauli Øssursson Mohr og Heðin Lisberg Olsen)
 Silver in 4x50m medley with the time 1:43.23 (together with Pál Joensen, Pauli Øssursson Mohr og Heðin Lisberg Olsen)
 Silver in 50m backstroke with the time 25.84
 Bronze in 100m butterfly with the time 55.95

2012 Danish Open in Brønshøj
Silver in 50 metre backstroke with the time 26.64, which was new Faroese record.
Number 7 in 100 metre butterfly with the time 55.46 which was new Faroese record.

2013 Danish Open
 Gold in 50 m backstroke with the time 25.92
 Gold in 200 m backstroke with the time 2:03.98

2013 Swedish Swim Games
 Gold in 50 m backstroke in the time 24.64 (personal best time)
 Gold in 100 m backstroke in the time 52.63 (personal best and championship record)
 Gold in 200 m backstroke in the time 1:58.09
 Silver in 50 m butterfly in the time 24.03 (personal best)

2013 Danish Championships on Short Course
Gold in 50 m freestyle with the time 24.21, which was new Danish record. Andreas Schiellerup swam in the same time so they shared the gold medal and the record.
Gold in 100 m backstroke in the time 51.75 (personal record).
Gold in 200 m backstroke with the time 1:54.90.

2013 European Short Course Championships in Herning
Number 13 in 50 metre backstroke with the time 24.06, which was a new Danish record.

2014 MOM Marseille
Magnus was selected to the 3e Meeting Open Méditerranéen in  Marseille as a part of the Great Danes team. The competition was held from 7–9 March 2014.
Gold in 100 m backstroke in the time 56.85
Bronze in 50 m backstroke in the time 26.47

2014 Danish Short Course Championships in Bellahøj
Gold in 50 m butterfly with the time 24.08
Gold in 100 m butterfly with the time 53.34
Gold in 50 m backstroke with the time 24.86
Gold in 100 m backstroke with the time 53.82
Gold in 100 m medley with the time 54.57
Bronze in 50 m freestyle with the time 22.43
Bronze in 100 m freestyle with the time 49.66

2015 Danish Short Course Championships
Gold in 50 meter freestyle with the time 22.31
Gold in 50 meter backstroke with the time 24.25
Gold in 4x50 metre medley with Farum Guns H+ Arkitekter from Farum Swimming Club, their time was 1:38.38. Jákupsson was the first to swim, he swam in the time 24.32
Gold in 4x100 metre freestyle with Farum Guns H+ Arkitekter from Farum Swimming Club, their time was 3:17.89

2015 European Short Course Swimming Championships in Netanya
Magnus Jákupsson broke the Danish record two times in 50 metre backstroke at the European Short Course Swimming Championship, first in the heats with the time 24.01 and after that he improved his own record with the time 23.84. He became number 11 in the semifinale and did not make it to the final.
Number 11 in 50 metre backstroke with the time 23.84 (Danish record)

2016 Flanders Speedo Cup
Jákupsson competed at the Flanders Speedo Cup from 22–24 January 2016 with the Danish national team swimmers from the Great Danes and the Vikings.
Gold in 50 m backstroke with the time 25.44, which was Danish and Nordic record, Magnus Jákupsson is the co-holder of the records together with Mathias Gydesen, who broke the same record in 2010.

2016 Danish Open
 Gold in 50 m backstroke with the time 25.43, which was new Danish and Nordic record.
 Gold in 100 m backstroke with the time 55.46

Notes

References

1994 births
Living people
People from Tórshavn
Danish male butterfly swimmers
Faroese male swimmers
Danish male backstroke swimmers
Danish male freestyle swimmers
Danish male medley swimmers

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


Naeem Khan SS17 – TRESemmé (Backstage Access). | #StyleHeirs.
[NEW YORK CITY.] In fashion a big chunk of designers grab majority of their inspirations from experiences they've had working under the directions of other big names that have helped mentor their skills. For me, it's nice to learn who has worked where before branching out to start their own namesake labels; it's quite fascinating and backstage at Naeem Khan I learned that Halston was where Khan mastered a few techniques. Special thanks to TRESemmé for inviting StyleHeirs.com backstage with press access to Naeem Khan Summer Spring 2017 collection presentation at New York Fashion Week.
A few moments before the show I had the lovely chance to speak with TRESemmé Stylist Jeanie Syfu in regards to the products and styles used for Khan's 'Halston 1970's girl' – The main outcome was a nice natural and polished look that gave a great balance to the embroidered, extravagant pieces Khan designed for the show. Since Khan worked so closely with the legendary designer Syfu was approached with specific details on the end result for hairstyling the show. Keywords Natural hair, minimal make-up being really soft with quite big earrings offset the look.
Collaborating with a designer can be a bit stressful and sometimes unsatisfying since the designer makes the final decision – I wanted to know if she was happy with the final look and if this was the most minimalistic styling she's done. "Actually, yes this is but I think this is how the modern girl looks. It's non-fussy glamour, I think it looks really modern. There's a confidence about a polished look that seems that you haven't spent so much time on it. It's how a lot of girls like to run around in the city." replied Jeanie Syfu.
As for the actual clothes – the detailing was a fantasy brought to tangible life, the absolute best, bar none. It was a visual romantic story that gave my viewers on snapchat and instagram live story an escape from reality. I left with hopes that one day in the near future that Naeem Khan will design a menswear collection, hell hopefully design a specific red carpet look for me. God willing.
← The Blonds NYC SS17.


text:
Travel and Home in Homer's Odyssey and Contemporary Literature
Carol Dougherty
Myths of the Underworld in Contemporary Culture
Judith Fletcher
Published online: June 2019
Servilia and her Family
Susan Treggiari
Published online: February 2019
Tombs of the Ancient Poets
Nora Goldschmidt and others
Published online: October 2018
Ovid's Presence in Contemporary Women's Writing
Fiona Cox
Published online: August 2018
Lykophron's Alexandra, Rome, and the Hellenistic World
Simon Hornblower
American Arcadia
Peter J. Holliday
The Treasures of Alexander the Great
Frank L. Holt
Published online: April 2016
The Ancient Highlands of Southwest China
Alice Yao
Published online: January 2016
You are looking at 1-8 of 8 items for:
University Presses: University of North Carolina Press x
University of North Carolina Press x
The Archaeology of Sanitation in Roman Italy: Toilets, Sewers, and Water Systems
Ann Koloski-Ostrow
University of North Carolina Press
10.5149/northcarolina/9781469621289.001.0001
Classical Studies, Archaeology: Classical
The Romans developed sophisticated methods for managing hygiene, including aqueducts for moving water from one place to another, sewers for removing used water from baths and runoff from walkways and ... More
The Romans developed sophisticated methods for managing hygiene, including aqueducts for moving water from one place to another, sewers for removing used water from baths and runoff from walkways and roads, and public and private latrines. Through the archaeological record, graffiti, sanitation-related paintings, and literature, this book explores this little-known world of bathrooms and sewers, offering unique insights into Roman sanitation, engineering, urban planning and development, hygiene, and public health. Focusing on the cities of Pompeii, Herculaneum, Ostia, and Rome, this work challenges common perceptions of Romans' social customs, beliefs about health, tolerance for filth in their cities, and attitudes toward privacy. In charting the complex history of sanitary customs from the late republic to the early empire, the book reveals the origins of waste removal technologies and their implications for urban health, past and present.Less
The Archaeology of Sanitation in Roman Italy : Toilets, Sewers, and Water Systems
The Romans developed sophisticated methods for managing hygiene, including aqueducts for moving water from one place to another, sewers for removing used water from baths and runoff from walkways and roads, and public and private latrines. Through the archaeological record, graffiti, sanitation-related paintings, and literature, this book explores this little-known world of bathrooms and sewers, offering unique insights into Roman sanitation, engineering, urban planning and development, hygiene, and public health. Focusing on the cities of Pompeii, Herculaneum, Ostia, and Rome, this work challenges common perceptions of Romans' social customs, beliefs about health, tolerance for filth in their cities, and attitudes toward privacy. In charting the complex history of sanitary customs from the late republic to the early empire, the book reveals the origins of waste removal technologies and their implications for urban health, past and present.
Keywords: Romans, hygiene, aqueducts, graffiti, sanitation, bathrooms, sewers, urban planning, public health, Roman social customs
The Art of Forgetting: Disgrace and Oblivion in Roman Political Culture
Harriet I. Flower
10.5149/9780807877463_flower
Elite Romans periodically chose to limit or destroy the memory of a leading citizen who was deemed an unworthy member of the community. Sanctions against memory could lead to the removal or ... More
Elite Romans periodically chose to limit or destroy the memory of a leading citizen who was deemed an unworthy member of the community. Sanctions against memory could lead to the removal or mutilation of portraits and public inscriptions. The author of this book provides the first chronological overview of the development of this Roman practice—an instruction to forget—from archaic times into the second century a.d. She explores Roman memory sanctions against the background of Greek and Hellenistic cultural influence and in the context of the wider Mediterranean world. Combining literary texts, inscriptions, coins, and material evidence, this richly illustrated study contributes to a deeper understanding of Roman political culture.Less
The Art of Forgetting : Disgrace and Oblivion in Roman Political Culture
Elite Romans periodically chose to limit or destroy the memory of a leading citizen who was deemed an unworthy member of the community. Sanctions against memory could lead to the removal or mutilation of portraits and public inscriptions. The author of this book provides the first chronological overview of the development of this Roman practice—an instruction to forget—from archaic times into the second century a.d. She explores Roman memory sanctions against the background of Greek and Hellenistic cultural influence and in the context of the wider Mediterranean world. Combining literary texts, inscriptions, coins, and material evidence, this richly illustrated study contributes to a deeper understanding of Roman political culture.
Keywords: elite Romans, memory, portraits, public inscriptions, Mediterranean world, literary texts, inscriptions, coins, material evidence, political culture
The Column of Marcus Aurelius: The Genesis and Meaning of a Roman Imperial Monument
Martin Beckmann
10.5149/9780807877777_beckmann
One of the most important monuments of Imperial Rome and at the same time one of the most poorly understood, the Column of Marcus Aurelius has long stood in the shadow of the Column of Trajan. This ... More
One of the most important monuments of Imperial Rome and at the same time one of the most poorly understood, the Column of Marcus Aurelius has long stood in the shadow of the Column of Trajan. This book makes a thorough study of the form, content, and meaning of this infrequently studied monument. The author employs a new approach to the column, one that focuses on the process of its creation and construction, to uncover the cultural significance of the column to the Romans of the late second century ad. Using clues from ancient sources and from the monument itself, this book traces the creative process step by step from the first decision to build the monument through the processes of planning and construction to the final carving of the column's relief decoration. The conclusions challenge many of the widely held assumptions about the value of the column's 700-foot-long frieze as a historical source. By reconstructing the creative process of the column's sculpture, the author opens up numerous new paths of analysis not only to the Column of Marcus Aurelius but also to Roman imperial art and architecture in general.Less
The Column of Marcus Aurelius : The Genesis and Meaning of a Roman Imperial Monument
One of the most important monuments of Imperial Rome and at the same time one of the most poorly understood, the Column of Marcus Aurelius has long stood in the shadow of the Column of Trajan. This book makes a thorough study of the form, content, and meaning of this infrequently studied monument. The author employs a new approach to the column, one that focuses on the process of its creation and construction, to uncover the cultural significance of the column to the Romans of the late second century ad. Using clues from ancient sources and from the monument itself, this book traces the creative process step by step from the first decision to build the monument through the processes of planning and construction to the final carving of the column's relief decoration. The conclusions challenge many of the widely held assumptions about the value of the column's 700-foot-long frieze as a historical source. By reconstructing the creative process of the column's sculpture, the author opens up numerous new paths of analysis not only to the Column of Marcus Aurelius but also to Roman imperial art and architecture in general.
Keywords: Imperial Rome, Marcus Aurelius, Column of Trajan, Romans, relief decoration, Roman imperial art
Commanders and Command in the Roman Republic and Early Empire
Fred K. Drogula
This book studies the development of Roman provincial command using the terms and concepts of the Romans themselves as reference points. Beginning in the earliest years of the republic, the text ... More
This book studies the development of Roman provincial command using the terms and concepts of the Romans themselves as reference points. Beginning in the earliest years of the republic, the text argues, provincial command was not a uniform concept fixed in positive law but rather a dynamic set of ideas shaped by traditional practice. Therefore, as the Roman state grew, concepts of authority, control over territory, and military power underwent continual transformation. This adaptability was a tremendous resource for the Romans since it enabled them to respond to new military challenges in effective ways. But it was also a source of conflict over the roles and definitions of power. The rise of popular politics in the late republic enabled men like Pompey and Caesar to use their considerable influence to manipulate the flexible traditions of military command for their own advantage. Later, Augustus used nominal provincial commands to appease the senate even as he concentrated military and governing power under his own control by claiming supreme rule. In doing so, he laid the groundwork for the early empire's rules of command.Less
This book studies the development of Roman provincial command using the terms and concepts of the Romans themselves as reference points. Beginning in the earliest years of the republic, the text argues, provincial command was not a uniform concept fixed in positive law but rather a dynamic set of ideas shaped by traditional practice. Therefore, as the Roman state grew, concepts of authority, control over territory, and military power underwent continual transformation. This adaptability was a tremendous resource for the Romans since it enabled them to respond to new military challenges in effective ways. But it was also a source of conflict over the roles and definitions of power. The rise of popular politics in the late republic enabled men like Pompey and Caesar to use their considerable influence to manipulate the flexible traditions of military command for their own advantage. Later, Augustus used nominal provincial commands to appease the senate even as he concentrated military and governing power under his own control by claiming supreme rule. In doing so, he laid the groundwork for the early empire's rules of command.
Keywords: Romans, provincial command, Roman state, military power, conflict, Augustus, empire, Pompey, Caesar
New Testament Interpretation Through Rhetorical Criticism
George A. Kennedy
10.5149/9781469616254_Kennedy
This book provides readers of the Bible with an important tool for understanding the Scriptures. Based on the theory and practice of Greek rhetoric in the New Testament, the book's approach ... More
This book provides readers of the Bible with an important tool for understanding the Scriptures. Based on the theory and practice of Greek rhetoric in the New Testament, the book's approach acknowledges that New Testament writers wrote to persuade an audience of the truth of their messages. These writers employed rhetorical conventions that were widely known and imitated in the society of the times. Sometimes confirming but often challenging common interpretations of texts, this is a systematic study of the rhetorical composition of the New Testament. As a complement to form criticism, historical criticism, and other methods of biblical analysis, rhetorical criticism focuses on the text as we have it, and seeks to discover the basis of its powerful appeal and the intent of its authors. The book shows that biblical writers employed both "external" modes of persuasion, such as scriptural authority, the evidence of miracles, and the testimony of witnesses, and "internal" methods, such as ethos (authority and character of the speaker), pathos (emotional appeal to the audience), and logos (deductive and inductive argument in the text). The first chapter presents a survey of how rhetoric was taught in the New Testament period and outlines a rigorous method of rhetorical criticism that involves a series of steps. The book provides in succeeding chapters examples of rhetorical analysis, including close looks at the Sermon on the Mount, the Sermon on the Plain, Jesus's farewell to the disciples in John's Gospel, and the distinctive rhetoric of Jesus.Less
This book provides readers of the Bible with an important tool for understanding the Scriptures. Based on the theory and practice of Greek rhetoric in the New Testament, the book's approach acknowledges that New Testament writers wrote to persuade an audience of the truth of their messages. These writers employed rhetorical conventions that were widely known and imitated in the society of the times. Sometimes confirming but often challenging common interpretations of texts, this is a systematic study of the rhetorical composition of the New Testament. As a complement to form criticism, historical criticism, and other methods of biblical analysis, rhetorical criticism focuses on the text as we have it, and seeks to discover the basis of its powerful appeal and the intent of its authors. The book shows that biblical writers employed both "external" modes of persuasion, such as scriptural authority, the evidence of miracles, and the testimony of witnesses, and "internal" methods, such as ethos (authority and character of the speaker), pathos (emotional appeal to the audience), and logos (deductive and inductive argument in the text). The first chapter presents a survey of how rhetoric was taught in the New Testament period and outlines a rigorous method of rhetorical criticism that involves a series of steps. The book provides in succeeding chapters examples of rhetorical analysis, including close looks at the Sermon on the Mount, the Sermon on the Plain, Jesus's farewell to the disciples in John's Gospel, and the distinctive rhetoric of Jesus.
Keywords: Bible, Greek rhetoric, New Testament, rhetorical conventions, former criticism, historical criticism, biblical analysis, biblical writers
Rome, the Greek World, and the East: Volume 3: The Greek World, the Jews, and the East
Fergus Millar
Hannah M. Cotton and Guy MacLean Rogers (eds)
10.5149/9780807876657_millar
This volume completes the author's three-volume collection of essays, which, together with his books, transformed the study of the Roman Empire by shifting the focus of inquiry onto the broader ... More
This volume completes the author's three-volume collection of essays, which, together with his books, transformed the study of the Roman Empire by shifting the focus of inquiry onto the broader Mediterranean world and beyond. The eighteen essays presented here include his classic contributions to our understanding of the impact of Rome on the peoples, cultures, and religions of the eastern Mediterranean, and the extent to which Graeco-Roman culture acted as a vehicle for the self-expression of the indigenous cultures. In an epilogue written to conclude the collection, the author argues for rethinking the focus of "ancient history" itself and for considering the Levant and the eastern Mediterranean from the first millennium bc to the Islamic conquests a valid scholarly framework and an appropriate educational syllabus for the study of antiquity. English translations of extended ancient passages in Greek, Latin, and Semitic languages in all the essays make the author's most important articles accessible for the first time to specialists and nonspecialists alike.Less
Rome, the Greek World, and the East : Volume 3: The Greek World, the Jews, and the East
This volume completes the author's three-volume collection of essays, which, together with his books, transformed the study of the Roman Empire by shifting the focus of inquiry onto the broader Mediterranean world and beyond. The eighteen essays presented here include his classic contributions to our understanding of the impact of Rome on the peoples, cultures, and religions of the eastern Mediterranean, and the extent to which Graeco-Roman culture acted as a vehicle for the self-expression of the indigenous cultures. In an epilogue written to conclude the collection, the author argues for rethinking the focus of "ancient history" itself and for considering the Levant and the eastern Mediterranean from the first millennium bc to the Islamic conquests a valid scholarly framework and an appropriate educational syllabus for the study of antiquity. English translations of extended ancient passages in Greek, Latin, and Semitic languages in all the essays make the author's most important articles accessible for the first time to specialists and nonspecialists alike.
Keywords: Roman Empire, Mediterranean world, Rome, eastern Mediterranean, Graeco-Roman culture, self-expression, indigenous cultures, ancient history, Levant, antiquity
Trials of Character: The Eloquence of Ciceronian Ethos
James M. May
By its very nature, the art of oratory involves character. Verbal persuasion entails the presentation of a persona by the speaker that affects an audience for good or ill. This book explores the role ... More
By its very nature, the art of oratory involves character. Verbal persuasion entails the presentation of a persona by the speaker that affects an audience for good or ill. This book explores the role and extent of Cicero's use of ethos and demonstrates its persuasive effect. The book discusses the importance of ethos, not just in classical rhetorical theory but also in the social, political, and judicial milieu of ancient Rome, and then applies his insights to the oratory of Cicero. Ciceronian ethos was a complex blend of Roman tradition, Cicero's own personality, and selected features of Greek and Roman oratory. More than any other ancient literary genre, oratory dealt with constantly changing circumstances, with a wide variety of rhetorical challenges. An orator's success or failure, as well as the artistic quality of his orations, was largely the direct result of responses to these circumstances and challenges. Acutely aware of his audience and its cultural heritage and steeped in the rhetorical traditions of his predecessors, Cicero employed rhetorical ethos with uncanny success. The book analyzes individual speeches from four different periods of Cicero's career, tracing changes in the way Cicero depicted character, both his own and others', as a source of persuasion—changes intimately connected with the vicissitudes of Cicero's career and personal life. It shows that ethos played a major role in almost every Ciceronian speech, that Cicero's audiences were conditioned by common beliefs about character, and finally, that Cicero's rhetorical ethos became a major source for persuasion in his oratory.Less
Trials of Character : The Eloquence of Ciceronian Ethos
By its very nature, the art of oratory involves character. Verbal persuasion entails the presentation of a persona by the speaker that affects an audience for good or ill. This book explores the role and extent of Cicero's use of ethos and demonstrates its persuasive effect. The book discusses the importance of ethos, not just in classical rhetorical theory but also in the social, political, and judicial milieu of ancient Rome, and then applies his insights to the oratory of Cicero. Ciceronian ethos was a complex blend of Roman tradition, Cicero's own personality, and selected features of Greek and Roman oratory. More than any other ancient literary genre, oratory dealt with constantly changing circumstances, with a wide variety of rhetorical challenges. An orator's success or failure, as well as the artistic quality of his orations, was largely the direct result of responses to these circumstances and challenges. Acutely aware of his audience and its cultural heritage and steeped in the rhetorical traditions of his predecessors, Cicero employed rhetorical ethos with uncanny success. The book analyzes individual speeches from four different periods of Cicero's career, tracing changes in the way Cicero depicted character, both his own and others', as a source of persuasion—changes intimately connected with the vicissitudes of Cicero's career and personal life. It shows that ethos played a major role in almost every Ciceronian speech, that Cicero's audiences were conditioned by common beliefs about character, and finally, that Cicero's rhetorical ethos became a major source for persuasion in his oratory.
Keywords: oratory, verbal persuasion, Cicero, ethos, classical rhetorical theory, ancient Rome, Greek oratory, Roman oratory, Ciceronian speech
The World of Ovid's Metamorphoses
Joseph B. Solodow
10.5149/9781469616490_Solodow
Synthesizing many detailed observations, this book studies the structure of Ovid's poem Metamorphoses, the role of the narrator, Ovid's treatment of myth, and the relationship between Ovid's and ... More
Synthesizing many detailed observations, this book studies the structure of Ovid's poem Metamorphoses, the role of the narrator, Ovid's treatment of myth, and the relationship between Ovid's and Virgil's presentations of Aeneas. It argues that for Ovid, metamorphosis is an act of clarification, a form of artistic creation, and that the metamorphosed creatures in his poem are comparable to works of art. These figures ultimately aid us in perceiving and understanding the world.Less
Synthesizing many detailed observations, this book studies the structure of Ovid's poem Metamorphoses, the role of the narrator, Ovid's treatment of myth, and the relationship between Ovid's and Virgil's presentations of Aeneas. It argues that for Ovid, metamorphosis is an act of clarification, a form of artistic creation, and that the metamorphosed creatures in his poem are comparable to works of art. These figures ultimately aid us in perceiving and understanding the world.
Keywords: Ovid, myth, artistic creation, Virgil, Aeneas, Metamorphoses

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


For all General English courses you will use a text book, which forms the basis of your study, but which is augmented by a variety of other materials such as video and audio recordings, supplementary text books and authentic materials.
The minimum course length for General English is 1 week. There is no upper limit, although if you plan to study with St Giles for 6 months or more we would recommend our specially discounted International Semester Courses programmes.
Остальные программы от "St. Giles International"


text:
New wellness gadget collects health information from your pee
January 4, 2023 by publisher team
Your pee holds a lot of information about your health (Credits: Getty)
A new gadget will tell you all about your body's health metrics and all you need to do is pee on it.
The U-Scan is the latest offering from Withings, a well-known health and wellness company, and was unveiled at the Consumer Electronics Show in Las Vegas.
The white, pebble-shaped device sits inside your toilet bowl and collects urine through a special inlet. Once the pee is collected, it passes through to special pods where a variety of chemical reactions take place.
The results of these reactions are read by an optical module which, in turn, feeds the information through to a companion app on your smartphone to offer a 'large variety of health information.'
Withings says the cartridges that sit inside the test pods will need to be replaced every three months. The U-Scan itself has a rechargeable battery the same as your phone. We'd recommend a quick clean before plugging it in, though.
A successful pee will likely be able to tell you about things like your body's pH, vitamin C, and ketone levels. It'll also let you know about your fluid levels and protein balance helping you to optimize your diet and nutrition.
'The ability of U-Scan to perform daily urine analysis from the home will allow Withings to take its mission to help consumers fully utilize urine data to an entirely new level,' said Mathieu Letombe, Withings CEO.
'It's one of the most exciting and complex products we've ever announced. We begin this journey with U-Scan Cycle Sync and Nutri Balance and look forward to announcing more cartridges on an ongoing basis as well as medical applications of the technology.'
The Withings U-Scan will launch in Europe later this year (Credit: Withings)
Withings says the U-Scan will launch in Europe in the second quarter of 2023 and will cost €500 (£440).
MORE: These gadgets will transport you to a new world of gaming from your bed
MORE: Tech and gadgets to buy friends and family this Christmas – from £15 to £650
Get your need-to-know latest news, feel-good stories, analysis and more
Central bank seeks to update medical insurance requirements
UK College of Education acting dean announced
More than 221,000 Wisconsinites enrolled in health coverage