text:
Why Did Truman Really Fire MacArthur? ... The Obscure History of Nuclear Weapons and the Korean War Provides the Answer
Historians/History
tags: nuclear weapons, North Korea
by Bruce Cumings
Mr. Cumings is the author of, North Korea: Another Country (2003) and co-author of, Inventing the Axis of Evil: The Truth About North Korea, Iran, and Syria (2004).
The media claim that North Korea is trying to obtain and use weapons of mass destruction. Yet the United States, which opposes this strategy, has used or threatened to use such weapons in northeast Asia since the 1940s, when it did drop atomic bombs on Japan.
The forgotten war -- the Korean war of 1950-53 -- might better be called the unknown war. What was indelible about it was the extraordinary destructiveness of the United States' air campaigns against North Korea, from the widespread and continuous use of firebombing (mainly with napalm), to threats to use nuclear and chemical weapons (1), and the destruction of huge North Korean dams in the final stages of the war. Yet this episode is mostly unknown even to historians, let alone to the average citizen, and it has never been mentioned during the past decade of media analysis of the North Korean nuclear problem.
Korea is also assumed to have been a limited war, but its prosecution bore a strong resemblance to the air war against Imperial Japan in the second world war, and was often directed by the same US military leaders. The atomic attacks on Hiroshima and Nagasaki have been examined from many different perspectives, yet the incendiary air attacks against Japanese and Korean cities have received much less attention. The US post-Korean war air power and nuclear strategy in northeast Asia are even less well understood; yet these have dramatically shaped North Korean choices and remain a key factor in its national security strategy.
Napalm was invented at the end of the second world war. It became a major issue during the Vietnam war, brought to prominence by horrific photos of injured civilians. Yet far more napalm was dropped on Korea and with much more devastating effect, since the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (DPRK) had many more populous cities and urban industrial installations than North Vietnam. In 2003 I participated in a conference with US veterans of the Korean war. During a discussion about napalm, a survivor who lost an eye in the Changjin (in Japanese, Chosin) Reservoir battle said it was indeed a nasty weapon -- but "it fell on the right people." (Ah yes, the "right people" -- a friendly-fire drop on a dozen US soldiers.) He continued: "Men all around me were burned. They lay rolling in the snow. Men I knew, marched and fought with begged me to shoot them . . . It was terrible. Where the napalm had burned the skin to a crisp, it would be peeled back from the face, arms, legs . . . like fried potato chips." (2)
Soon after that incident, George Barrett of the New York Times had found "a macabre tribute to the totality of modern war" in a village near Anyang, in South Korea: "The inhabitants throughout the village and in the fields were caught and killed and kept the exact postures they held when the napalm struck -- a man about to get on his bicycle, 50 boys and girls playing in an orphanage, a housewife strangely unmarked, holding in her hand a page torn from a Sears-Roebuck catalogue crayoned at Mail Order No 3,811,294 for a $2.98 'bewitching bed jacket -- coral'." US Secretary of State Dean Acheson wanted censorship authorities notified about this kind of "sensationalised reporting," so it could be stopped. (3)
One of the first orders to burn towns and villages that I found in the archives was in the far southeast of Korea, during heavy fighting along the Pusan Perimeter in August 1950, when US soldiers were bedevilled by thousands of guerrillas in rear areas. On 6 August a US officer requested "to have the following towns obliterated" by the air force: Chongsong, Chinbo and Kusu-dong. B-29 strategic bombers were also called in for tactical bombing. On 16 August five groups of B-29s hit a rectangular area near the front, with many towns and villages, creating an ocean of fire with hundreds of tons of napalm. Another call went out on the 20 August. On 26 August I found in this same source the single entry: "fired 11 villages." (4) Pilots were told to bomb targets that they could see to avoid hitting civilians, but they frequently bombed major population centres by radar, or dumped huge amounts of napalm on secondary targets when the primary one was unavailable.
In a major strike on the industrial city of Hungnam on 31 July 1950, 500 tons of ordnance was delivered through clouds by radar; the flames rose 200-300 feet into the air. The air force dropped 625 tons of bombs over North Korea on 12 August, a tonnage that would have required a fleet of 250 B-17s in the second world war. By late August B-29 formations were dropping 800 tons a day on the North. (5) Much of it was pure napalm. From June to late October 1950, B-29s unloaded 866,914 gallons of napalm.
Air force sources delighted in this relatively new weapon, joking about communist protests and misleading the press about their "precision bombing." They also liked to point out that civilians were warned of the approaching bombers by leaflet, although all pilots knew that these were ineffective. (6) This was a mere prelude to the obliteration of most North Korean towns and cities after China entered the war.
China joins the war
The Chinese entry caused an immediate escalation of the air campaign. From November 1950, General Douglas MacArthur ordered that a wasteland be created between the fighting front and the Chinese border, destroying from the air every "installation, factory, city, and village" over thousands of square miles of North Korean territory. As a well-informed British attaché to MacArthur's headquarters observed, except for Najin near the Soviet border and the Yalu dams (both spared so as not to provoke Moscow or Beijing), MacArthur's orders were "to destroy every means of communication and every installation, and factories and cities and villages. This destruction is to start at the Manchurian border and to progress south." On 8 November 1950, 79 B-29s dropped 550 tons of incendiaries on Sinuiju, "removing [it] from off the map." A week later Hoeryong was napalmed "to burn out the place." By 25 November "a large part of [the] North West area between Yalu River and south to enemy lines is more or less burning"; soon the area would be a "wilderness of scorched earth." (7)
This happened before the major Sino-Korean offensive that cleared northern Korea of United Nations forces. When that began, the US air force hit Pyongyang with 700 500-pound bombs on 14-15 December; napalm dropped from Mustang fighters, with 175 tons of delayed-fuse demolition bombs, which landed with a thud and then blew up when people were trying to retrieve the dead from the napalm fires.
At the beginning of January General Matthew Ridgway again ordered the air force to hit the capital, Pyongyang, "with the goal of burning the city to the ground with incendiary bombs" (this happened in two strikes on 3 and 5 January). As the Americans retreated below the 38th parallel, the scorched-earth policy of torching continued, burning Uijongbu, Wonju and other small cities in the South as the enemy drew near. (8)
The air force also tried to destroy the North Korean leadership. During the war on Iraq in 2003 the world learned about the MOAB, "Mother of All Bombs," weighing 21,500 pounds with an explosive force of 18,000 pounds of TNT. Newsweek put this bomb on its cover, under the headline "Why America Scares the World." (9) In the desperate winter of 1950-51 Kim Il Sung and his closest allies were back where they started in the 1930s, holed up in deep bunkers in Kanggye, near the Manchurian border. After failing to find them for three months after the Inch'on landing (an intelligence failure that led to carpet-bombing the old Sino-Korean tributary route running north from Pyongyang to the border, on the assumption that they would flee to China), B-29s dropped Tarzan bombs on Kanggye. These were enormous 12,000-pound bombs never deployed before -- but firecrackers compared to the ultimate weapons, atomic bombs.
A blocking blow
On 9 July 1950 -- just two weeks into the war, it is worth remembering -- MacArthur sent Ridgway a hot message that prompted the joint chiefs of staff (JCS) "to consider whether or not A-bombs should be made available to MacArthur." The chief of operations, General Charles Bolte, was asked to talk to MacArthur about using atomic bombs "in direct support [of] ground combat." Bolte thought 10-20 such bombs could be spared for Korea without unduly jeopardising US global war capabilities.
Boite received from MacArthur an early suggestion for the tactical use of atomic weapons and an indication of MacArthur's extraordinary ambitions for the war, which included occupying the North and handling potential Chinese -- or Soviet -- intervention: "I would cut them off in North Korea . . . I visualise a cul-de-sac. The only passages leading from Manchuria and Vladivostok have many tunnels and bridges. I see here a unique use for the atomic bomb -- to strike a blocking blow -- which would require a six months' repair job. Sweeten up my B-29 force."
At this point, however, the JCS rejected use of the bomb because targets large enough to require atomic weapons were lacking; because of concerns about world opinion five years after Hiroshima; and because the JCS expected the tide of battle to be reversed by conventional military means. But that calculation changed when large numbers of Chinese troops entered the war in October and November 1950.
At a famous news conference on 30 November President Harry Truman threatened use of the atomic bomb, saying the US might use any weapon in its arsenal. (10) The threat was not the faux pas many assumed it to be, but was based on contingency planning to use the bomb. On that same day, Air Force General George Stratemeyer sent an order to General Hoyt Vandenberg that the Strategic Air Command should be put on warning, "to be prepared to dispatch without delay medium bomb groups to the Far East . . . this augmentation should include atomic capabilities."
General Curtis LeMay remembered correctly that the JCS had earlier concluded that atomic weapons would probably not be useful in Korea, except as part of "an overall atomic campaign against Red China." But, if these orders were now being changed because of the entry of Chinese forces into the war, LeMay wanted the job; he told Stratemeyer that only his headquarters had the experience, technical training, and "intimate knowledge" of delivery methods. The man who had directed the firebombing of Tokyo in 1945 was again ready to proceed to the Far East to direct the attacks. (11) Washington was not worried that the Russians would respond with atomic weapons because the US possessed at least 450 bombs and the Soviets only 25.
On 9 December MacArthur said that he wanted commander's discretion to use atomic weapons in the Korean theatre. On 24 December he submitted "a list of retardation targets" for which he required 26 atomic bombs. He also wanted four to drop on the "invasion forces" and four more for "critical concentrations of enemy air power."
In interviews published posthumously, MacArthur said he had a plan that would have won the war in 10 days: "I would have dropped 30 or so atomic bombs . . . strung across the neck of Manchuria." Then he would have introduced half a million Chinese Nationalist troops at the Yalu and then "spread behind us -- from the Sea of Japan to the Yellow Sea -- a belt of radioactive cobalt . . . it has an active life of between 60 and 120 years. For at least 60 years there could have been no land invasion of Korea from the North." He was certain that the Russians would have done nothing about this extreme strategy: "My plan was a cinch." (12)
A second request
Cobalt 60 has 320 times the radioactivity of radium. One 400-ton cobalt H-bomb, historian Carroll Quigley has written, could wipe out all animal life on earth. MacArthur sounds like a warmongering lunatic, but he was not alone. Before the Sino-Korean offensive, a committee of the JCS had said that atomic bombs might be the decisive factor in cutting off a Chinese advance into Korea; initially they could be useful in "a cordon sanitaire [that] might be established by the UN in a strip in Manchuria immediately north of the Korean border." A few months later Congressman Albert Gore, Sr. (Father of former VP and 2000 Democratic candidate Al Gore, Jr., and subsequently a strong opponent of the Vietnam war) complained that "Korea has become a meat grinder of American manhood" and suggested "something cataclysmic" to end the war: a radiation belt dividing the Korean peninsula permanently into two.
Although Ridgway said nothing about a cobalt bomb, in May 1951, after replacing MacArthur as US commander in Korea, he renewed MacArthur's request of 24 December, this time for 38 atomic bombs. (13) The request was not approved.
The US came closest to using atomic weapons in April 1951, when Truman removed MacArthur. Although much related to this episode is still classified, it is now clear that Truman did not remove MacArthur simply because of his repeated insubordination, but because he wanted a reliable commander on the scene should Washington decide to use nuclear weapons; Truman traded MacArthur for his atomic policies. On 10 March 1951 MacArthur asked for a "D-Day atomic capability" to retain air superiority in the Korean theatre, after the Chinese massed huge new forces near the Korean border and after the Russians put 200 bombers into airbases in Manchuria (from which they could strike not just Korea but also US bases in Japan). (14) On 14 March General Vandenberg wrote: "Finletter and Lovett alerted on atomic discussions. Believe everything is set."
At the end of March Stratemeyer reported that atomic bomb loading pits at Kadena Air Base on Okinawa were again operational; the bombs were carried there unassembled, and put together at the base, lacking only the essential nuclear cores. On 5 April the JCS ordered immediate atomic retaliation against Manchurian bases if large numbers of new troops came into the fighting, or, it appears, if bombers were launched from there against US assets. On that day the chairman of the Atomic Energy Commission, Gordon Dean, began arrangements for transferring nine Mark IV nuclear capsules to the Air Force's 9th Bomb Group, the designated carrier for atomic weapons.
The JCS again considered the use of nuclear weapons in June 1951, this time in tactical battlefield circumstances (15) and there were many more such suggestions as the war continued to 1953. Robert Oppenheimer, former director of the Manhattan Project, was involved in Project Vista, designed to gauge the feasibility of the tactical use of atomic weapons. In 1951 young Samuel Cohen, on a secret assignment for the US Defence Department, observed the battles for the second recapture of Seoul and thought there should be a way to destroy the enemy without destroying the city. He became the father of the neutron bomb. (16)
The most terrifying nuclear project in Korea, however, was Operation Hudson Harbour. It appears to have been part of a larger project involving "overt exploitation in Korea by the Department of Defence and covert exploitation by the Central Intelligence Agency of the possible use of novel weapons" -- a euphemism for what are now called weapons of mass destruction.
The 'limited war'
Without even using such "novel weapons" -- although napalm was very new -- the air war levelled North Korea and killed millions of civilians. North Koreans tell you that for three years they faced a daily threat of being burned with napalm: "You couldn't escape it," one told me in 1981. By 1952 just about everything in northern and central Korea had been completely levelled. What was left of the population survived in caves.
Over the course of the war, Conrad Crane wrote, the US air force "had wreaked terrible destruction all across North Korea. Bomb damage assessment at the armistice revealed that 18 of 22 major cities had been at least half obliterated." A table he provided showed that the big industrial cities of Hamhung and Hungnam were 80-85% destroyed, Sariwon 95%, Sinanju 100%, the port of Chinnampo 80% and Pyongyang 75%. A British reporter described one of the thousands of obliterated villages as "a low, wide mound of violet ashes." General William Dean, who was captured after the battle of Taejon in July 1950 and taken to the North, later said that most of the towns and villages he saw were just "rubble or snowy open spaces." Just about every Korean he met, Dean wrote, had had a relative killed in a bombing raid. (17) Even Winston Churchill, late in the war, was moved to tell Washington that when napalm was invented, no one contemplated that it would be "splashed" all over a civilian population. (18)
This was Korea, "the limited war." The views of its architect, Curtis LeMay, serve as its epitaph. After it started, he said: "We slipped a note kind of under the door into the Pentagon and said let us go up there . . . and burn down five of the biggest towns in North Korea -- and they're not very big -- and that ought to stop it. Well, the answer to that was four or five screams -- 'You'll kill a lot of non-combatants' and 'It's too horrible.' Yet over a period of three years or so . . . we burned down every town in North Korea and South Korea, too . . . Now, over a period of three years this is palatable, but to kill a few people to stop this from happening -- a lot of people can't stomach it." (19)
(1) Stephen Endicott and Edward Hagerman, "First victims of biological warfare," Le Monde diplomatique, English language edition, July 1999.
(2) Quoted in Clay Blair, Forgotten War, Random House, New York, 1989.
(3) US National Archives, 995.000 file, box 6175, George Barrett dispatch of 8 February 1951.
(4) National Archives, RG338, KMAG file, box 5418, KMAG journal, entries for 6, 16, 20 and 26 August 1950.
(5) See the New York Times, 31 July, 2 August and 1 September 1950.
(6) See "Air War in Korea," Air University Quarterly Review 4 no 2, autumn 1950, and "Precision bombing," ibid, n° 4, summer 1951.
(7) MacArthur Archives, RG6, box 1, Stratemeyer to MacArthur, 8 November 1950; Public Record Office, FO 317, piece n° 84072, Bouchier to Chiefs of Staff, 6 November 1950; piece n° 84073, 25 November 1959 sitrep.
(8) Bruce Cumings, The Origins of the Korean War, vol. 2, Princeton University Press, 1990; New York Times, 13 December 1950 and 3 January 1951.
(9) Newsweek, 24 March 2003.
(10) New York Times, 30 November and 1 December 1950.
(11) Hoyt Vandenberg Papers, box 86, Stratemeyer to Vandenberg, 30 November 1950; LeMay to Vandenberg, 2 December 1950. Also Richard Rhodes, Dark Sun: The Making of the Hydrogen Bomb, Touchstone, Simon & Schuster, New York, 1995.
(12) Bruce Cumings, op cit; Charles Willoughby Papers, box 8, interviews by Bob Considine and Jim Lucas in 1954, published in the New York Times, 9 April 1964.
(13) Carroll Quigley, Tragedy and Hope: A History of the World in Our Time, MacMillan, New York, 1966; Quigley was Bill Clinton's favorite teacher at Georgetown University. See also Bruce Cumings, op cit.
(14) Documents released after the Soviet Union collapsed do not bear this out; scholars who have seen these documents say there was no such major deployment of Soviet air power at the time. However, US intelligence reports believed the deployment happened, perhaps based on effective disinformation by the Chinese.
(15) This does not mean the use of "tactical" nuclear weapons, which were not available in 1951, but the use of the Mark IVs in battlefield tactical strategy, much as heavy conventional bombs dropped by B-29 bombers had been used on battlefields since August 1950.
(16) Samuel Cohen was a childhood friend of Herman Kahn. See Fred Kaplan, The Wizards of Armageddon, Simon & Schuster, New York, 1983. On Oppenheimer and Project Vista, see Bruce Cumings, op cit; also David Elliot, "Project Vista and Nuclear Weapons in Europe," International Security 2, n° 1, summer 1986.
(17) Conrad Crane, American Airpower Strategy in Korea, University Press of Kansas, 2000.
(18) Jon Halliday and Bruce Cumings, Korea: The Unknown War, Pantheon Books, New York, 1988.
(19) J F Dulles Papers, Curtis LeMay oral history, 28 April 1966.
This article originally appeared in Le Monde Diplomatique (December 2004) and was reprinted by Japan Focus with permission of the author.
More Comments:
Tim Sydney - 8/8/2009
Amazon lists a book "Doomsday Men" by P.D.Smith (Described here )
Jerry J. Monaco - 1/20/2005
I read the above comments. What Cummings says about the use of napalm, the fire bombing of civilian populations and the destruction of dams towards the end of the Korean War is undisputed, though little known by U.S. citizens. Technically, the bombing of dams, indiscriminately drowning thousands of people, is a war crime. But does anyone among the intellectual caste of professional historians' care?
Dropping of napalm on civilian populations was just a matter of course for these we call "leaders" and "generals." At least someone should mention that this has moral implications for us today. But does anyone care? Does anyone care that we as a people have never come to terms with the atrocities we have committed, and not only in Korea and Vietnam.
A. J. Muste used to say that after a war the problem for humanity is always with the victor. The leaders of the victorious nation believe that they have learned a lesson that violence and destruction "works" and is profitable. The willingness to use violence to achieved the ends of power is no longer deterred by the thought that it may have unforeseen consequences. This has been a continuing problem of U.S. foreign policy, the leaders believe that force, violence, and destruction is the first and most useful tool to achieve their ends. Only the limits placed on the unbridled use of power by world opinion and by those of us in opposition in the U.S. prevent a similar use of U.S. power today.
Arguing over sources is not irrelevant but it is a deliberate diversion from what is uncontested in the article and largely unknown by even most people who fancy themselves historians. Perhaps those who can find a small source taken out of context, or the fact that it wasn't mentioned in the article that one of the cities obliterated by napalm contained industrial installations can then ignore asking themselves about the moral implications of U.S. policies. That is certainly an easy way out.
Andrew D. Todd - 1/15/2005
A radiation belt of the type proposed by MacArthur is going to have inherently amorphous boundaries. A material sufficiently finely granulated to be stirred up by marching boots and inhaled is also going to be blown by the winds. Now, the attacker can march his men through the belt in a few hours at most, and if they are slated for a human wave attack anyway, the net _differential_ effect of the radiation belt might be minimal. On the other hand, the defender has to keep his troops in the vicinity of the radiation belt for months to years.
If the defender's troops are not in fairly close proximity to the radiation belt, the attacker can probably find means to go around it. Alternatively, he might dig tunnels through the belt, supplied with compressed air from outside, similar to the practice in an underground coal or metal mine. Or he might fit a few trucks up with some kind of rudimentary NBC protection, and use them to ferry large numbers of troops for short distances, through the worst of the radiation belt (say, three or four turns per hour).
It seems likely that such a belt might have killed far more American than Chinese troops.
William . H. Leckie, Jr. - 1/14/2005
Strontium did, as I remember from when I was a little critter, get into the milk we drank from test fallout. We didn't need vast conspiracies with Emperor Ming-like figures at their heads back then.
As Tom Lehrer sung it:
"So long Mom,
I'm off to drop the bomb,
So don't wait up for me...."
Good point. In offlist communications with friends who've either been involved in weapons research and/or in the Air Force,this issue came up immediately. But at the time, neither military nor intelligence organizations were reluctant to expose GIs to toxic materials or environments; and at the end of the war, the safety civilian workers in plants processing weapons-grade material was also downplayed.
Some years ago Robert Williams, then of Washington University, St. Louis, treated the question of civilian exposure with regard to the Mallinkrodt Chemical Company facility on the St. Louis riverfront, where early bomb components were refined; I do not have a citation immediately at hand because the text of a lecture he gave about it, subsequently published in edited form in The Washington University Magazine, was one of the items I left behind when I expatriated.
Another matter is the potential metereological distribution of contaminants. I recall southern Korea as a very dusty place, and assume the north is, too; skeptical dittoheads in Florida might recall the dust that accumulates there can be substantially African in origin!
But I must say the moral issues outweigh the technical. If the use of contaminants was considered along with what? nearly 30 A-bombs? that's a serious problem, folks, and we haven't even delved into the firebombing of Japanese, Korean, and yes, German cities. Appeals to "war" and its alleged demands don't cut any ice. At least not with me.
Don Williams - 1/13/2005
one has to wonder who would have suffered most
from MacArthur's order to shovel out radioactive cobalt--
the Koreans or his own men?
I have never heard of this. In para 9.110-9.112 of
"The Effects of Nuclear Weapons"[1964], Samuel Glasstone discussed radiological warfare, the nature of radioisotopes needed,etc. He indicated that pre-made powder was impractical (for the threat to one's own soldiers,among other things) and that radiological warfare only became practical with the development of weapons with high fission (not Fusion) yields in which the radioactive contaminent is produced by the fission process.
The 1977 edition of Glasstone is less forthcoming on this subject than the 1964 edition but is available online at Princeton's site --see http://www.princeton.edu/~globsec/publications/effects/effects.shtml
Earlier, in 9.44, he indicated that fusion weapons can be made "dirty" if salted with certain materials but that fission weapons are inherently dirty--especially if detonated close to the ground.
Thanks...In my annoyance at Right, writing in haste I didn't made clear I meant no cobalt fusion bomb in Korea; but Mr. Lederer has also opened the door wide to real madness: Not just A-bombs, but cobalt "spread from wagons, carts, trucks, and planes?" Good God.
1) MacArthur would not have needed Los Alamos clearance to know about cobalt bombs-- Leo Szilard had published
a public article on the concept in 1950.
2) One has to ask what was at stake in Korea --for the USA -- for MacArthur to propose such action, given the strong motivation it gave the Soviets to make a massive nuclear buildup and to ally with China.
3) The USA was by far the most powerful nation in 1951 -- and emerged from the ruins of WWII with the largest economy. Hence, it had far more to lose in a nuclear conflict.
4) Something worse than cobalt was strontium -90, with a half life of 27.7 years. While not as intensely radioactive as cobalt, strontium has a long biological half-life. That is , it is chemically similar to calcium, is water soluble, can be absorbed from the soil by plants, become concentrated in the milk of cattle, and --when ingested either in the form of vegetables or in dairy products --becomes deposited in the bones where roughly half of it remains over the next 18 years. Once there, it's radioactive emissions destroyed bone cells and marrow, leading to bone cancer and leukemia.
Because of this, "it has been estimated that a body content of 10 microcuries...of strontium -90 in a large proportion of the population would produce a noticeable increase in the occurrence of bone cancer". [Ref: Samuel Glassstone, "The Effects of Nuclear Weapon", 1964, para 11.178- 11.185, pages 612-615. ]. The detection of a spike in strontium 90 being deposited worldwide from nuclear tests was what led the USA and USSR to agree to ban above ground testing of nuclear weapons.
A salted strontium weapon smuggled into the American Midwest could have rendered a large chunk of farmland unusable for decades.
Look at the context, please. A less powerful bomb that produces cobalt 60 locally must be pretty nasty therefore.
You read selectively and in a querulously picky way, like many on the Right do. It has from another realm been all-too-graciously been called "legalistic" thinking. It can be done across the board both ways, by commission and omission, and so I call it the Chambless Fallacy, in honor, oh dubious honor indeed, of Jack A. Chambless, who teaches--God help his students--economics at Valencia Community College in Orlando, FL.
Chambless, an occasional op-ed scrivener for the Mousetown's daily, wrote in its January 6 edition (quite correctly)"the U.S. Constitution has no provision whatsoever for using taxpayer dollars to aid foreign nations." But he's also very, very wrong about the contextual authority to do so.
He was protesting assistance to South Asian nations devastated by the recent tsunami; nowhere does the Constitution authorize the incineration of Asian schoolchildren to promote the delusions of megalomaniac and morally challenged generals, though Chambless does say the Constitution provides for "defense." By fire and water, as they say...And they're only Asians, mostly Muslim, too, and those people have replaced the antlike hordes of godless oriental Communism as our enemies.
Your reading of Cummings, a kind of Gotcha! legalism, does in no way vitiate the message of his essay. Your major problem is that the minions of the US can and have done evil; your slightly lesser one, not a diminishment of status, which in all authoritarian worldviews I know of has sustained evil--so is it a character flaw shared by those on the Right, since it certainly pervades the practice of those not in "the reality based community"?--is to falsify by finding any way to smugly appropriate the illusion of truth in an attempt to "make the worse appear the better cause." It's not even good sophistry. To call it "legalism," in my worldview, is to compound the sin.
Oscar Chamberlain - 1/13/2005
Fascinating. And thank you, and John above, for doing more research on this.
Several thoughts:
1. If MacArthur is indicative, it seems that generals are beginning to think of hitherto untested weapons as being on the assembly line. Are they?
2. MacArthur seems to be in the loop on top secret weapons development. That is certainly not how things were run during WWII. How exceptional is that? Or
3. MacArthur is not in the loop. He is assuming that we have at the ready technology--cobalt A-Bombs--that we do not have (even if we could build them). That suggests he's planning is based on leaks/scuttlebutt.
This web site has a timeline for nuclear-related events in Korea: http://www.nti.org/db/profiles/dprk/nuc/chron/NKNCHPre90_GO.html
One item plus citations is the following:
General Douglas MacArthur sends a list of targets to the Pentagon and asks for 34 atomic bombs to create "a belt of radioactive cobalt across the neck of Manchuria so that there could be no land invasion of Korea from the north for at least 60 years."
—Stanley Weintraub, MacArthur's War: Korea and the Undoing of an American Hero (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2000), pp. 263-264; Bruce Cumings, The Origins of the Korean War: Volume II, The Roaring of the Cataract 1947-1950 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990), p. 750; Peter Hayes, Pacific Powderkeg: American Nuclear Dilemmas in Korea (Lexington: Lexington Books, 1991), pp. 9-10.
John H. Lederer - 1/12/2005
At least according to the NYT MacArthur advocated fission bombs for airbases and radioactive cobalt spread from vehicles. Note that the NYT is a shaky source for MacArthur as the NYT had a bit of a feud with him.
"The enemy's airpower would first have been taken out. I would have dropped
between 30 and 50 atomic bombs on his airbases and other depots strung
across the neck of Manchuria from just across the Yalu River from Antung to
Hunchun. Between 30 and 50 atomic bombs would have more than done the job.
Dropped under cover of darkness they would have destroyed the enemy's air
force on the ground, wiped out his maintenance and his airmen. ...It was my
plan as our amphibious forces moved south to spread behind us - from the Sea
of Japan to the Yellow Sea - a belt of radioactive cobalt. It could have
been spread from wagons, carts, trucks and planes. It is not an expensive
material. It has an active life of between 60 and 120 years. For at least
60 years there could have been no land invasion of Korea from the north.
The enemy could not have marched across the radiated belt." [1]
[1] "Text of Accounts by Lucas and Considine on Interviews With MacArthur in
1954," The New York Times, April 9, 1964, pg. 16.
Leckie: "'Scuse me guys, but there's no mention of a "cobalt fusion bomb""
Cummings: "Cobalt 60 has 320 times the radioactivity of radium. One 400-ton cobalt H-bomb, historian Carroll Quigley has written, could wipe out all animal life on earth. MacArthur sounds like a warmongering lunatic, but he was not alone."
'Scuse me guys, but there's no mention of a "cobalt fusion bomb" in Cummings' essay; his starting point for cobalt-sheathed cores is (or did you miss it?) a quotation from MacArthur, who wanted to spread the width of the peninsula with radioactive cobalt. There's also an implicit message lurking in the piece: If you'd been walloped savagely by Americans from the air, had the cojones to keep fighting, just what would YOUR world view be? If I were a North Korean general, I'd take one look at George II and want every bit of firepower I could get my hands on. And dare'im to come get me.
The source Don Williams pointed out is actually ambiguous on to whether a cobalt fission bomb existed. In fact, it states that radiation characteristic of fusion reactions converts cobalt 59 to cobalt 60. ( However, it does not say that fission bombs could not do this on a lesser scale, and the article does indicate that a great deal of research was going on concerning strengthening the destructive power of fission bombs. So I'm willing to accept that such a bomb was considered.
However, and this tends to support you, John, Cummings clearly uses his reference to a cobalt fusion bomb to indicate the power of such weapons.
It really is unfortunate, because the central topic, our consideration of using atomic weapons in Korea, is a fascinating one. I have no doubt that we did consider it seriously, and I would like to know how seriously. One logical gauge for the seriousness of such consideration is the degree to which US/UN forces were willing to target civilians with conventional weapons.
And that, of course, makes your criticism of the account of Hungnam important.
Prof. Cumings in his past work has so often pulled things out of context, distorted them, or presented them in a misleading fashion that in my opinion he is an unreliable source.
This posting has enough of the earmarks of such practices that I similarly reluctantly disregard it. That is a shame .
Some of the earmarks that I note are the confusing erratic use of different units of measures, the lack of distinction between "incendiaries" and "napalm", the lack of explanation of what napalm was used for, etc.
To take one example, Cumings states:
"In a major strike on the industrial city of Hungnam on 31 July 1950, 500 tons of ordnance was delivered through clouds by radar; the flames rose 200-300 feet into the air."
The implication is of indiscriminate area wide bombing of a city (Hungnam had a population of about 200,000), so ferocious that fires rose 200-300 feet.
Unstated was that Hungnam had been made a major petro-chemical complex during the Japanese occupation, and that it was a principal source of explosives and war materials, that the raid referred to was on this complex, and that the secondary fires 200-300' high indicate that the target was successfully hit.
Hungnam was used as a port by the UN (the retreat from the Chosin reservoir embarked in Hungnam), and photos from Decmber 1950 indicate the lack of widespread damage at that time (5 months after the raid referred to by Cumings).
http://www.bob-west.com/cho2/mar33.jpg
That is not to say that Hungnam was not heavily damaged in the Korean War. It was. But most of the damage occurred in December of 1950 and later. When the UN forces were evacuated from Hungnam, explosive charges were used to destroy vast quantities of supplies that had to be abandoned and to destroy the port facilities. Ammunition dumps were blown with considerable blast effects. Heavy naval gunfire (16",8", and 5") and carrier based fighter/bombers were used to protect the embarkation from the advancing communist chinese forces.
see, for an eyewitness description, e.g. http://www.paulnoll.com/Korea/581-Sig/581-Hungnam-USS-Begor-1.html
Hungnam was badly damaged in the evacuation and subsequent bombings. But that is not exactly the way Cumings implies it was. That is the problem with Cumings stuff -- there always is some truth in it, but it is shrouded in misimplications or misstatements. Parsing his stuff is sometimes like parsing a Clinton denial -- one has to carefully watch the subjects and the precedents for the pronouns.
Hungnam is not the core of his essay -- but one is left with doubts about whether the main point is reliable when the minor points are not.
The author did not say that MacArthur proposed using a "cobalt H-bomb" in 1951 -- the mention of a large cobalt H-bomb was in the reference to an article written later by Carroll Quigley.
What MacArthur was talking about was radiological weapons -- in which a large layer of ordinary cobalt59 is wrapped around a nuclear bomb. Detonation of the bomb then generates a large number of neutrons which transforms the cobalt into radioactive cobalt60 --i.e., creates a large cloud of highly radioactive cobalt particles with a long half-life (5+ years). Leo Szilard noted in 1950 that this is a "doomsday device" capable of destroying all life on earth.
Obviously, a (fusion) H-bomb generates far more neutrons --necessary for creating the Cobalt60 isotope -- than does a normal atomic (fission) explosion. But the USA was testing "enhanced yield" atomic bombs as early as May 1951. These precursors to the H-bomb had a mixture of deuterium and tritium inside the hollow sphere of plutonium and generated large amounts of neutrons.
Search for the sections "fission boosting" and "Advanced thermonuclear weapons designs " at http://www.worldhistory.com/wiki/N/Nuclear-weapon-design.htm
This could be fasinating.
However, my credibility is having a bit of a problem with a cobalt H-bomb in 1951 as there was no H-Boomb until 1952, and to my knowledge cobalt was not used in a fission bomb.
Maybe this was an isolated mistake in an othewise good article about the hitherto understated horrors of the Korean War. But it does leave a question mark.


Florida Community Health Centers (FCHC - http://www.fchcinc.org ) has received Okeechobee County's approval to build the first phase of the Fred D. Brown Children's Health Center in Okeechobee, Florida. FCHC will provide pediatric medical and dental services in the 20,000-square-foot project, to be located across the street from Raulerson Hospital. The project is slated for completion in late 2010.
FCHC selected The Greenfield Group to develop the project. FCHC and Greenfield worked together previously at Greenfield's St. Lucie Medical Park, which completed construction in 2008.


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text:
Army of Crime
Just as director Rachid Bouchareb's Algerian ancestry inspired him to tell in his 2007 film 'Days of Glory' of the Maghrebian contribution to the effort to recover France from the Nazis in 1944, so, presumably, French filmmaker Robert Guédiguian's own background inspired this latest, equally revisionist wartime drama which offers a thrilling and informative new angle on the war in France.
Guédiguian is best known for modern-day, Marseilles-set films such as 'Marius and Jeanette' and 'My Father is an Engineer', but he is half Armenian and was latterly involved with the French communists, and this second of his historical films, after 2005's 'The Last Mitterrand', turns out to be just as personal as his more 'local' ones, despite the grand period canvas on which it unfolds.
It focuses on the guerilla efforts of the 'Manouchian group' – a unit of Paris-based communists and immigrants who helped the armed struggle against Nazi occupation. Heading this unit with some initial reluctance was the Armenian poet Missak Manouchian (Simon Abkarian) who directed a band of Jews, Hungarians, Poles and others to sabotage Nazi rule. What this film describes is the radicalisation of Manouchian and his comrades and the execution of their mission – a fatal mission, as we know from the 22 names heard over the opening credits to the refrain of 'Mort pour la France'.
The title is a double nod – firstly, to the nickname given to Manouchian and his colleagues after they were executed in 1944 and, secondly, to Jean-Pierre Melville's 1969 masterpiece 'Army of Shadows', a film which dramatised with cold brilliance the rituals of the French resistance. But while Melville suggested that all of France was resisting or supportive of the resistance, Guédiguian adopts a more nuanced stance. By dramatising the efforts of the Francs-Tireurs, the leftist resistance, he dispels the myth of a unified, Gaullist resistance – an assumption that was first and most powerfully exploded in cinema by Marcel Ophüls in his 1969 doc 'The Sorrow and the Pity'.
Dramatically, though, Guédiguian doesn't live up to Melville, who condensed the spirit of the resistance to a tense drama of few personalities. Guédiguian, meanwhile, calls on a rambling ensemble to serve the many points he has to make about wartime France and why people did – and did not – join the resistance, from stressing Manouchian's memories of war in Armenia and the motivations of French Jew Marcel (Robinson Stévenin) after his father is deported, to the idealistic communism of young Hungarian Thomas (Gregoire Leprince-Ringuet) and the self-serving collaboration with the French police of young Jew, Monique (Lola Naymark).
The breadth of Guédiguian's story is sometimes at the expense of dramatic momentum, but nobody could accuse him of over-simplification. His film is always fascinating and is a crucial, stirring addition to the cinema about wartime France.
Written by Dave Calhoun Tuesday 29 September 2009
Rated:15
Release date:Friday 2 October 2009
Director:Robert Guédiguian
Screenwriter:Robert Guédiguian
Simon Abkarian
Lola Naymark

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


text:
Prophet Muhammad's Rarely-Known Decree To the Armenian Patriarch of Jerusalem
September 14, 2018 Harut Sassounian My Turn 23
For many years, I have heard that there had been written communication between the Prophet Muhammad and the Armenian Patriarchate of Jerusalem, but I had not seen any of the documents to that effect.
Two months ago, I read a fascinating article published in the Armenian newspaper Aztag in Beirut, Lebanon, by Dr. Garbis Harboyan of Montreal, Canada, who had uncovered the details of the communication between Prophet Muhammad and the then Armenian Patriarch of Jerusalem and their successors.
Dr. Harboyan mentioned his sources as: Gregory Krikorian's, "Through the eye of an Armenian needle," published by the Armenian Catholicosate of Cilicia in 2002. Krikorian had stated that his book was the summary and English translation of "History of Jerusalem," a two-volume, 1385-page book by Dikran Sayalanians, published by the Armenian Patriarchate of Jerusalem in 1931. Dr. Harboyan also mentioned that he had recently seen the book, "Armenian Art Treasures of Jerusalem," by Bezalel Narkiss, Michael E. Stone, and Avedis Sanjian, published in New York, in 1979, which included a copy of Prophet Muhammad's decree to the Armenian Patriarchate.
The Armenian Patriarchate was established in Jerusalem almost 2,000 years ago. Many Armenians had gone on pilgrimage to Jerusalem after converting to Christianity in 301 AD. They had built a part of Sourp Hagop Convent in 420 AD. By the sixth Century, Armenians had constructed 66 religious institutions in Jerusalem.
In 626 AD, the Armenian Patriarch Apraham of Jerusalem, seeing the looming dangers of Islamic expansion and conquest, went to the Holy Islamic city of Mecca with a delegation of 40 prominent Armenians to meet with Prophet Muhammad to secure his protection.
Dr. Harboyan reported that the Prophet had welcomed the Armenian guests with affection, respect, and kindness, and listened to Patriarch Apraham's suggestions. The Armenian delegation expressed its submission to the Prophet, readiness to cooperate with him, and sought his protection.
At the end of the meeting, Prophet Muhammad issued an decree which stated: "I, Muhammad, the son of Abdallah, prophet and servant of God, I pay my respect to Patriarch Apraham, I honor him and all archbishops, bishops, and priests in Jerusalem, Damascus, and Arab regions, in other words, those people who are subject to Jerusalem, such as Ethiopians, Copts, and Assyrians. I recognize and guarantee their monasteries, churches, educational centers, properties and lands. I, Prophet Muhammad, with the witness of God, and the 30 people around me, I grant my patronage and protection, and I dispense my mercy to the Armenian churches, wherever they may be, throughout Jerusalem, the Holy Tomb of Christ, Sourp Hagop Church, Bethlehem Church, all prayer houses, monasteries, Golgotha road, and the holy sites. I also secure and ensure that my protection also extends to Christian hills, valleys and Christian income-generating institutions. I declare all of this in my name as Prophet and in the name of my Muslim faithful."
The Prophet Muhammad instructed his successors to respect his decree and execute it in all of its details. Present at that meeting was Omar the son of Khattab who became one of the Prophet's successors and issued a similar decree confirming the Prophet's decree.
Thus, the Prophet's decree became the first official document confirming the status of the Armenian Patriarchate in Jerusalem. Unfortunately, the original decree cannot be located in the Patriarchate's archives. However, a yellowish copy exists in the Patriarchate's Mardigian Museum.
When Omar took over as Khalif in 634 AD, he appointed Abu Obeid as the head of the army. Abu Obeid's forces attacked Damascus and Jerusalem. The Greek Patriarch Sophronius and Armenian Patriarch Krikor met with Abu Obeid and informed him that occupying Jerusalem would enrage God, because Jerusalem is a holy city. Abu Obeid reported to Khalif Omar about his meeting with the two Patriarchs. Omar personally came to Jerusalem. The brother of the Greek Patriarch met with Omar and reminded him about the decree of Prophet Muhammad. Omar then issued his own decree and confirmed the Prophet's decree. Omar entered Jerusalem with his followers, visited the religious sites, and suggested building a Mosque in a plot of land next to the church of Christ's tomb. The Mosque was built in 935 AD and named "Al Omariye." Omar allowed freedom for Christian worship, but forbade the ringing of church bells.
Omar was succeeded by Khalif Ali who also issued a decree for Armenians in Jerusalem, confirming the previous decrees by the Prophet and Omar.
In 1097 AD, the Crusaders invaded and liberated Jerusalem. In 1187 AD, Salahuddin al Ayoubi who is Kurdish and his family originated from Dvin in Armenia, occupied Jerusalem and expelled the majority of 100,000 Christians from the city. He took over all the Latin churches in Jerusalem and forbade church services. However, he granted Armenians partial freedom.
Armenian Patriarch Apraham with a group of his clergy met with Salahuddin and showed him Prophet Muhammad's decree. Salahuddin then issued his own decree and confirmed the decrees issued by the Prophet and Khalifs Omar and Ali. Salahuddin particularly noted in his decree Armenians' jurisdiction over churches, holy places, Sourp Hagop Convent, churches of Bethlehem and Nablus, the Holy Tomb, other holy sites, and especially Armenians' freedom to worship. He also lowered the taxes on Armenian merchants and pilgrims.
In 1517 AD, Ottoman Sultan Selim occupied Jerusalem and issued his decree which confirmed the privileges bestowed upon the Armenian Patriarchate of Jerusalem by Prophet Muhammad, Khalif Omar, and Salahuddin. Sultan Selim's successor, Sultan Suleiman, issued his own decree reconfirming the Armenian rights in Jerusalem. Subsequent Sultans also issued decrees, such as Mehmed IV in 1659 AD, Sultan Mahmud I in 1735 AD, and Sultan Abdulmejid I in 1853 AD.
The Prophet Muhammad's decree, besides being a valuable historical document, indicates that Armenian Christians and Muslims have enjoyed the most cordial relations from the ancient times to the present. Armenians need to publicize the Prophet's crucial decree as well as those of his successors to counter the anti-Armenian propaganda spread by Turkey and Azerbaijan in the Islamic world.
California Courier Editor
Harut Sassounian is the publisher of The California Courier, a weekly newspaper based in Glendale, Calif. He is the president of the Armenia Artsakh Fund, a non-profit organization that has donated to Armenia and Artsakh $917 million of humanitarian aid, mostly medicines, since 1989 (including its predecessor, the United Armenian Fund). He has been decorated by the presidents of Armenia and Artsakh and the heads of the Armenian Apostolic and Catholic churches. He is also the recipient of the Ellis Island Medal of Honor.
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Caren K says:
This information deserves wider recognition, especially now.
Thanks for elucidating it.
Wadad Sleiman says:
True Islam is expressed in Prophet Muhammad's (PBUH) decree. As a muslim, I see the behavior of those muslim leaders mentioned in the aticle as affirmation of my true belief. Thank you for shring this valuable article.
Claudia P. says:
You may share this Historic fact with your fellow Muslims in the hopes
that perhaps they will dislike Armenians a little less after learning such valuable information.!
Claudia Preciousian says:
W Sleiman : you may share this important Historic fact and the valuable books cited in this article with your muslim brethren , in the hopes that perhaps they will hate Armenians a little less …
Thank you ~ God bless
Narek says:
"Submission to Mohammad" is not a right term used to describe this event, I'm sure Mohammad had knowledge of Armenians amd our honorable ancient history. They didn't submit to Mohammad, they went with respect, if submitted and fully cooporated , Armenians would have been Muslims not staywd Christians
Adam M. says:
I believe that this document's proof should be published every year on April 24 th. in all Armenian newspapers as well as in local Arabic ones in order to show our respect to the prophet,his followers and the intire Muslem world including Turkish and Azeri population.
Armen Tashjian says:
Amen to that, you are so right.
George Krikorian says:
The way the above article is written, the Armenian Patriarch Apraham of Jerusalem has lived 561 years! Most probably, the Armenian Patriarch who met with Salahuddin had the same name of the Patriarch who met with Prophet Muhammad. The writer of the article should precise that.
Norik Baboorian says:
Yes I was wondering about that too , you are right about names being recycled by our church fathers , corrections should be done . However , overall , this is utmost fascination discovery , definitely needs to be publicized by every Armenian ,, specially now that Artsakh churches are under Azeri's domination . I also wish a copy of that important degree was available to confirm the authenticity of this information .
I'm also wondering was this decree presented to sultan Hamid ll, If it was , how was destruction of Armenian churches in historical Armenia justified ? Or even now, has this been shown to Erdoghan and Aliev , before our churches in Artsakh become rubbles ?
Nadine Zakkout says:
Abraham I of Armenia, Armenian catholicos in the Dvin era of the Armenian Apostolic Church between 607 and 615
Abraham II of Armenia or Abraham Khoshabetzi, Catholicos of the Armenian Apostolic Church between 1730 and 1734.
Abraham III of Armenia or Abraham of Crete or Abraham Kretatsi (d. 1737), Catholicos of the Armenian Apostolic Church between 1734 and 1737
Alain M says:
This is surely worth bringing up…
Timothy Yeghian-Ahern says:
I am sorry, but in the Middle East, and in its associated cultures throughout the region, in addition to even both China and Japan, "submission" just isn't such a dirty word. What is missing in this narrative here is the historical fact that before the "Enlightenment" in Western Europe, culture and society, generally speaking, was not assumed to be "horizontally bolted," but rather was "vertically" structured, and more often than not, vertically bolted down tight. It is the fundamental link between all Asian and Middle Eastern culture. People often look back into the ancient world with their assumption that society "should be," and thus "is" horizontally organized. In the ancient world, every living soul had a "boss" and a "servant." When the ancient Greeks first met with the Persians this was one of their main complaints about Persian culture in that Persians had formalized manners and gestures that to the Greeks were offensive. Odd, because Greek culture in the ancient world had the same vertically organized societies; they just didn't have all the associated manners and customers, the bowing, prostration, etc., and a clearly delineated vertically organized language.
Virtue in the ancient world offered humility "up" and "benevolence" down. Thus, I propose that the Prophet Muhammad recognized in 626 AD that the humility in our Armenian Archpatriarch was authentic, and thus his devotion to "God" was a reality.
DR. MAHBOOB AHMED AGHA says:
Well written. An eye opener. Need to be widely published.
kumar says:
Very unlikely there is such a decree. If any "yellowish copy" exists, it is most probably a forgery of the ottoman or abbasid era. There have been other well known forgeries of ottoman period about so called letters and decrees of muhammad.
Magatism says:
The reason may be that Abu Bakr, Uthman and Egyptian governments have altered Quranic material in the past and all remaining documents and material evidence was destroyed
Kevork Avanian says:
Can you publish such an important decree. Just a photo.
Magatism. says:
Are there Islamic documents corroborating this, if so, why aren't majority of Muslims and Christian aware of it.
You could end all Islamic wars against Armenians with this one info. I don't think the author has done justice by providing authentic proofs and testimonials.
Omar J Shah says:
I read this with great interest. We are a monotheistic religion and believe in all prophet's and our father Ibrahim (AS). This is what Prophet Muhammad (SAW) taught to the world and it is high time we all understand the purpose behind all this.
M. M. Agha says:
Muslims rulers have history of kindness and compassionate treatment towards non muslims.Christians and Jews are on record for their barbarian murders and racial hatred.Totally different attitudes.
All religions have good and evil. Christians, Muslims, Jews etc. so do not even try to isolate one. People have been killing eachother since the beginning ALL people. Do not spread your hatred around.
Prophet Mohammed (salla allah aleyhi wa salam) wasn't able to read or write at all. I do not think it is possible he issued a decree.
It is more realistic that the author of this article has a political agenda for the reason he mentioned himself : counter the anti-Armenian propaganda spread by Turkey and Azerbaijan in the Islamic world.
Mary Sarkisyan says:
Armenians, then, made a decree with the devil. If any of this is true I worry about the future of Armenia and what role we will end up playing upon the return of Jesus Christ at His 2nd coming. No deal with Christ deniers is a good one. Armenia was a Christian nation, but it appears corruption consumed us via the institution of the church early on. What's happening today could very well be our own doing, our own fatal judgment for attempting to coexist as apposed to fighting from the beginning. Armenians may be on the wrong side of the Gog-Magog invasion if we do not repent and return to Christ completely. This is not good at all. Jesus Christ is the only way; no deal with a muslim is a good one. Mohammad is one of many false prophets. If such a decree exists, let those who honor it burn it and repent before the 2nd coming of our Messiah, who will crush these nations! I pray our people repent and not be crushed with the deniers of Christs deity. Shame on the strayed church for misleading the flock. Many Armenians died for their faith in Christ at the hands of muslims, never forget! The war is ultimately God's, He has already won, all we must do is join Him by accepting the blood of Jesus and become born again. Praying for Armenia, praying for America. Scary times…


A good starting point for exploring the town is the tower of Our Lady of the Rosary: the baroque church in the centre.
From here you can see hundreds of typical rooftop terraces on the roofs of the whitewashed cubes from which the city derives its unique view.
Stroll through the maze of streets and white houses in the picturesque fishing district.
Olhão is a town for people who like the real Portugal, its history and culture, the beautiful islands and beaches, the nature reserve and the beautiful hinterlands. So this is not the place for clubbers, loud bar lovers etc.
We have been living for 13 years in the Algarve and consider Olhão as one of the nicest towns along the coast. While many other coastal towns thrive mainly on tourism, Olhão still has its original character with a strong Moorish influence and still functions as the main fishery port in the Algarve.
The result is that it is very lively throughout the year, while other tourist towns are often quite dead outside the tourist season.
The 1.3 km boulevard in Olhão is one of the best in the whole Algarve, due to its green parks, childrens play areas, the famous red brick buildings housing the covered daily (except Sundays) fish, fruit and vegetable markets, the local products/ gipsy market on Saturday and the many excellent cafés/coffee shops, bars and restaurants.
Many different restaurants are present, but we especially recommend the very fresh fish and other sea food (seashells, crabs and shrimps) available, which are excellent.
On the boulevard there are two ferry terminals to the islands. One is located opposite the Real Marine Hotel & Spa adjacent to the apartment and the other 10 minutes walking from the apartment, on the eastern end of the boulevard.
The centre of Olhão has a pedestrian shopping area with winding, cobbled back streets, which come out at the beautiful main avenida (avenue). Olhão has the biggest number of large supermarkets and Chinese shops of all towns in the Algarve.
Because the prices in the Olhão restaurant are about the best in the Algarve, most tourist eat outside, but guests who might still like to prepare some food themselves have many options to buy groceries.
Continente and Lidl, along the coastal road (EN125) at walking distance from the apartment. Pão de Açúcar in Ria Shopping in Olhao along the EN125, Pingo Doce and Aldi along the EN125 to the east of Olhão, Intermaché and Pingo Doce, near the fishing port.
The new shopping mall (Ria Shopping) has 80 small shops, a large supermarket, restaurants/bars and a cinema (incl. 3D). All movies, except children's movies, are in English with Portuguese subtitles.
O Bote Restaurante, freshly grilled fish and chicken.


Commercial or residential? This 70x180ft lot is centrally located on the main street of Plamondon, AB. Has mixed used zoning with a 1136 sq ft bungalow with 4 bedroom and 2 full baths. Many upgrades & improvements! New windows, doors, front deck and railings, shingles, laminate flooring, and baseboard and trim. Kitchen has been finished with custom cabinets, new counter-tops, back-splash, flooring, paint and has a large island for maximum counter and cupboard space. The main bathroom has been completely renovated as well. Furnace was replaced with HE furnace in 2012 & a newer hot water tank. There is a semi detached garage & carport with breezeway that is access to the large landscaped back yard complete with large shed & crusher cone firepit. A service road borders the back yard allowing for excellent access. In the event that the home is used for commercial purpose then the residential application of the property would end & the property would be required to meet zoning requirements.


text:
Quadrant, October 1979, 23 (10), 27-29.
The Scottish Paradox
Why is it that some countries are richer than others? This is a question which is of course fraught with political perils but it is nonetheless one of the most vital and involving of modern times. Any light that can be shed on its answer could be of incalculable importance.
The standard answer that economists give would at its minimum include characteristics such as saving rate (i.e. rate of capital formation), political stability, and a competitive, profit-seeking private-enterprise economy. Sociologists might name the Protestant work ethic or some other motive of equivalent import, political pluralism (not necessarily democracy) and a breakdown of traditional extended family ties. Both would stress level of education and literacy.
The above list is not exhaustive and it is certainly not unanimously agreed upon. Whether our list of characteristics leading to economic advancement is longer or shorter than the above, however, the Scottish paradox consists of the fact that the Scots have just about everything on anybody's list and yet are poor and getting poorer. The natural resource windfall of the North Sea oil discovery will give temporary respite but the long term trend is not hopeful. Yet with their legendary thrift, their devotion to education, their classically Calvinist Protestantism and their venerable capitalist democracy they should by all accounts be among the most prosperous people in the world.
An understandably popular fallacy of modern times is that natural resources (by which is generally meant mineral resources) are the key to wealth. There are however many examples of countries already wealthy or fast becoming so which have few or no domestic mineral resources (such as Switzerland, Japan, Taiwan, Hong Kong or Singapore) and other examples of mineral rich countries (such as much of Africa) which are showing no advancement at all. At best natural resources can have only a facilitative role. In any case, from the beginning of the industrial era Scotland has had its own supplies of the mineral that has only recently been demoted to second place in terms of industrial desirability - coal.
Scots themselves tend to attribute their relative poverty to the climate or the poor quality of the land. Yet Sweden has a far more severe climate and prospers. The land too might be poor but there is a lot of it per head by European standards due to Scotland's small population. In any case much of the poor quality of the land is visibly due to erosion which in turn is generally man-made. The sacrifice of forests for the ubiquitous sheep was probably the key factor there. In other words, if the land is poor it is so to a considerable extent because the crofters have made it so. Overgrazing of sheep in difficult times is producing the same result in the Sahel of Africa today. Even so, Scotland is still largely self-sufficient in terms of food products.
In general, then, the Scottish paradox could be due to political events or to as yet undefined elements in the Scottish character. The first explanation is extremely popular in Scotland at the moment and has given rise to the fast-expanding Scottish National Party. The political events identified are generally termed "English Dominance" or on some occasions "English Oppression". This however is more a turning to a traditional scapegoat than a serious attempt at explanation. It is for instance the case that a disproportionate amount of British welfare and defence expenditure is made in Scotland and one has to look hard indeed to find possible instances of oppression. In fact a case could be made that the Scots have forced their form of government on the English. On most occasions since the war Labour governments have gained power only with the aid of the overwhelmingly socialist Scottish electorate. On such occasions, the majority of English seats went to the Conservatives.
We appear to be left for the moment then with the task of finding something in the Scots themselves to account for their being one of the Common Market's "special assistance" areas.
One line of approach would be to compare Scotland with other special assistance areas (such as Calabria) to see what they had in common. A potentially more useful approach, however, might be to see what is different between the Scots and South Eastern England. This comparison is useful because there is so much held in common between the two areas (same language, same government, similar history etc) and yet they differ very greatly in prosperity. This shows up not in differing standard wage rates but rather in vastly different levels of unemployment. South Eastern England has virtually no unemployment by modern standards whereas Scotland has crushing levels of it. The sort of difference being spoken of in the Scottish popular press in late 1977 was between levels such as 1.5% and 14%.
Here, a comparison will be made between the citizens of the two big cities of Scotland and South Eastern England - Glasgow and London.
The psychology of economic development is an as yet little developed science. It is hard to know where to start looking for personal characteristics that might explain economic backwardness in a people. The most extensive body of research to date seems to centre around the concept of achievement motivation. This concept has been developed by McClelland [1] as an extension of Weber's notion of the Protestant Ethic. It is held that Protestantism leads to economic development via its encouragement of a general motive to achieve. Our first hypothesis then must be that for some reason, the Scots are especially low on achievement motivation.
Much of the achievement motivation research of the past has been done with projective tests. These are now generally suspect throughout psychology because of their generally very poor reliability (failure to give the same answer twice. See Entwisle [2], Weinstein [3].
The present research is based on a test of known reliability and validity -- the Ray-Lynn 'AO" scale [4]. This test is in behaviour inventory format, is completely balanced against acquiescent response set and was constructed from the start for use with a general population sample rather than students. It was used in the present study in a short form of fourteen items. See appendix.
The test was included in a questionnaire which also included a selection of questions on current social and political issues. These were due to Wilson [5] and were included to check further on possible attitudinal difference between the Scots and the Southern English. Two additional questions on attitude to the E.E.C. and preferences for Scotland's political future were also included together with the usual demographic questions.
This questionnaire was given to a doorstep sample of people in the Glasgow and London areas. The sampling frame in each case was the conurbation rather than the city itself. The sampling method was cluster sampling -- the same method that is universally used by British public opinion polls, where it gives generally very accurate results. The sample size in each city was 100. Samples larger than 100 give very little gain in statistical significance and it is in any case the representativeness rather than the sample size which counts.
The two samples were found to show no significant differences on demographic characteristics. The reliability of the achievement motivation scale was .73 in London and .72 in Glasgow. Both are satisfactory levels for a short form of a scale. Mean scores (and S.D.s) on the scale in the two cities were 32.45 (5.70) in London and 31.33 (5.64) in Glasgow. The difference is not statistically significant.
On the single questions about general social and political issues, however, there were very widespread differences indeed. Compared with the English, it was found that the Scots favoured coloured immigration more, the death penalty more, Sabbath observance more, co-education more, and Socialism more. They also oppose divorce, birth control and the Common Market more. In fact on only four issues of the twelve examined were the two groups not significantly different. These were censorship, working mothers, evolution theory and whether Scotland should get greater independence.
Clearly achievement motivation was a false trail as far as explaining the differences between English and Scottish economic prowess is concerned. When such motivation is reliably and validly measured, the differences are so small as to be effectively non-existent. The fact that there were no significant differences in demographic characteristics of the two samples also means that artifacts due to age, sex, education and occupation can be ruled out. We clearly must look beyond achievement motivation for our explanation of the Scottish paradox.
The differences on social attitudes however, more than justified the traditional Scottish view that they are very different from the English. The differences revealed do also offer a hint as to how the Scottish paradox might be explained. The thread that runs through the observed differences is of a greater Scottish moral severity. The severe Scottish Presbyterian is no myth even in these atheistic days. Thus we see the Scottish view as being rooted in a brand of Christianity that still pays great homage to the commandments of the Old Testament: crime must be punished severely -- by death if "an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth" calls for it; the Sabbath should be kept -- it is after all in the Ten Commandments; divorce offends against the sanctity of marriage "what God has joined together let no man put asunder"; birth control also offends against God's purposes that man should "go forth and multiply and fill the earth;" socialism even is nothing more than a political application of the chief Christian commandment to "love your neighbour as yourself." Perhaps the only item that does not clearly fit this image of strongly old-testament Christianity is the opposition to co-education. At the risk of creating a chicken and egg problem, however, it must be said that co-education has always been the norm in Scotland. There just has never been any custom against it. This may be tied up with the fact that reverence for education traditionally had a wider class-spread in Scotland than in England. It was less of an upper class preserve in the heyday of the segregated schools of England.
It is then the economic application of this moralism -- socialism -- that might have given rise to the Scottish differences on the economic front. In post-war Britain generally there is a strong tendency to regard profit as immoral. In London, however, there still seems to be an instinctive admiration for a man who is smart enough to "beat the system" and end up rich. In Glasgow the same man would be more likely to be regarded as a bit of a blackguard who is robbing his fellow citizens. The ordinary Scot is morally offended by wealth. The ordinary Englishman is not.
Thus although the British government as a whole bends every effort towards destroying profit and the enterprise which produces it, it is only in Scotland that such formal sanctions are backed up with informal sanctions. If an Englishman can leap through all the hoops that officialdom puts up and come through in the end as a wealthy man, he can at least look forward to feeling proud at the end and basking in the admiration of his fellows. Neither of these rewards would be at all assured in Scotland. On the contrary, he would have a guarantee of considerable opprobrium.
We are thus left with the eminently understandable situation that the society which opposes material wealth is not materially wealthy. In Scotland it is permissible to secure one's material position by saving because this cannot in any way be robbing anybody else; but securing one's material position by earning more in the first place would mean the unendurable risk of endangering one's standing as a worthy person with one's fellows.
This explanation does then at one stroke explain the fanatical Scottish thrift, the poverty of Scotland and the affluence of Scots who emigrate to societies less intolerant of wealth. When he does not have to run the risk of social disapproval (when he lives, say, in such deeply conservative countries as Australia or the U.S.A.) the Scot is as good at creating wealth as his heritage would lead us to expect.
Ideally, of course, the Scots and perhaps most people everywhere would like it to be possible for wealth creation to proceed by lifting everyone up at the same rate. They would approve of the whole society getting richer at the same rate if that were possible. Experience, however, teaches us that this is never so. From industrial revolution England to the Brazil of today, average standards of living tend to be improved by expanding the size of the middle class rather than by making the poor richer. The poor may very rapidly become fewer but only very slowly richer. The Scots quite simply prefer an evenly poor society to an unevenly rich one.
1. McClelland, D.C. (1961) The Achieving Society Princeton, N.J.: Van Nostrand.
2. Entwisle, Doris R. (1972) To dispel fantasies about fantasy-based measures of achievement motivation. Psychological Bulletin 77, 377391.
3. Weinstein, M.S. (1969) "Achievement Motivation and Risk Preference." Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 13, 153-172.
4. Ray, J.J. (1970) Christianism.... The Protestant ethic among unbelievers. J. Christian Education, 13, 169-176. ; Ray, J.J. (1975) A behavior inventory to measure achievement motivation. J. Social Psychology 95, 135-136.
5. Wilson, G.D. (1973) "Liberal Extremists." New Society, 26,263-264.
The Items of the Short Form of the Ray-Lynn AO Scale
Response options are "yes" (scored 3), "?" (scored 2), "no" (scored 1). Items marked "R" are to be reverse-scored (e.g. "1 becomes "3") before addition to get the overall score.
1. Is being comfortable more important to you than getting ahead? R
2. Are you satisfied to be no better than most other people at your job? R
3. Do you like to make improvement to the way the organization you belong to functions?
4. Do you take trouble to cultivate people who may be useful to you in your career?
5. Do you get restless and annoyed when you feel you are wasting time?
6. Have you always worked hard in order to be among the best in your own line: (school, organization, profession).
7. Would you prefer to work with a congenial but incompetent partner rather than with a difficult but highly competent one? R
8. Do you tend to plan ahead for your job or career?
9. Is "getting on in life" important to you?
10. Are you an ambitious person?
11. Are you inclined to read of the successes of others rather than do the work of making yourself a success? R
12. Would you describe yourself as being lazy? R
13. Will days often go by without your having done a thing? R
14. Are you inclined to take life as it comes without much planning? R


That is quite a conflicting statement, yet there's no question about the truth of it.
Every year as far back as the brain will remember, Memorial Day has been a very special time.
In the beginning only one grave was visited. There wasn't even a tombstone for namesake Grandpa Frank. Only Grandma Buchman, Nannie, knew exactly where he was buried in Calvary Cemetery.
Dad (Clarence) was only 11 years old when Grandpa passed, uncle Elmer was 14, and Aunt Luvella was quite young. Of course, there was no money to buy any kind of marker.
Finally, sometime in the late '50s, a nice gray granite grave marker was purchased. It was engraved with pertinent now-most-interesting information about the Frank Buchman and placed where Grandma said to.
When Grandma passed, nearly half a century after Grandpa, she was buried beside him with matching stone. Elmer is next to her, and Dad and Mom are buried behind them.
Nowadays, at least four cemeteries are visited in the important day's trek. Flowers, sometimes artificial and occasionally real ones, are placed on lost loved one's graves.
Far most important though is the precious reminiscences of those gone to the great beyond. With bowed head, name, birthdate and day of passing are read and read again while remembering. Visions of stature, features, voice, special times and sometimes more are reflected.
Brief stops are also at graves of distant relatives born more than a century ago. Only know them as others have said their names.
While specific visits are usually not made, many additional markers are also viewed walking and driving through graveyards. Again, it's quite depressing, as so many have been acquaintances, friends, and best customers.
Thankful for the Memorial Day services honoring the men and women who died while serving in the U.S. military. They must never be forgotten.


The process of listing characters who appeared in this source is not yet complete. This story was indexed from secondary sources only. The character list above is not necessarily comprehensive. Webpage for X-Men: Deadly Genesis #2 (Feb. 2006) created 11 March 2018. Last modified 11 March 2018.


Enjoying a glass of wine with your evening meal along with family and friends out on the town usually comes at the cost of buying that bottle of wine. Or, if the restaurant offers a by-the-glass program, you might find the taste of the wine different to the freshly opened one you usually drink at home, especially if you order a higher-priced glass of wine. The problem is that expensive glasses sell less frequently than cheaper "house" glasses, so when a premium bottle is sold by-the-glass, you can expect to experience spoilage.
Wouldn't it be nice to get at least 30 days of preservation from an open bottle of wine? Yeah, it surely would, but there is a problem: wine dispensing and preservation systems cost a fortune, and restaurant owners think twice before shelling out the money for such machinery. Székelyudvarhely/Odorheiu Secuiesc-born 24-year-old wine expert and entrepreneur Tamás Ágoston spotted a great opportunity here, so he quit his day job and started working on his own dream.
Seeing that wine dispensers are too expensive for even high-class restaurants in Transylvania to invest in, he dared to dream big and sketched his first vision, which is about to become the first wine dispenser and preservation system designed in Székelyudvarhely, to meet demand from sommeliers and restaurant owners.
At the first stage, the wine dispenser system will be bootstrapped and focus only on preserving the wine. However, as he organizes wine-tasting events as well, he envisions a fully automated wine dispenser system that replaces the sommelier and is available 24/7. All users need to do is swipe their card to enjoy the taste of the selected wine. For Tamás, that is the ultimate goal.
"In many cases I couldn't sell the wine to the restaurant, because they didn't want to sell it by the glass. I haven't seen a wine dispenser system used in the Carpathian Basin, but when you look at countries such as France or Italy, such systems are widely used. However, these systems can be very pricey: a four-bottle system can go for as much as €4,000. After taking into consideration the dispensers available in the aforementioned countries, I concluded that my product would be specifically designed for the Romanian market," Tamás says.
The company led by Tamás has three main activities: sales of premium drinks, wine-tasting event organization, and the design and sale of the wine dispenser system. The three activities fold nicely into each other: the events he holds foster wine sales, and the more wine he sells, the more likely customers – restaurants or even patrons – are to order a wine dispenser system to enjoy the taste of the drink for longer.
After spending more than a year at the drawing board designing the wine dispenser prototype, Tamás says he is now nearing the final steps of hitting the production line. If you're driving around Harghita Business Center, pay a visit to Tamás; he will gladly talk about the wines and premium drinks produced in Transylvania, and you'll definitely get a good recommendation for a Valentine's Day drink, for example.


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2 Drake Gifts A$AP Rocky With Custom A$AP Yams Chain For Yams Day 2020
J. Cole Speaks On Jay-Z's Input, Creative Control & Production
by Andres Tardio
During a recent interview with DJ Absolut's Take This Serious, J. Cole spoke on his creative control while making his debut, Cole World: The Sideline Story. He also shed light on what Jay-Z did during the process and why he preferred to produce for himself instead of having big names come and help him out.
"I had a hundred percent freedom, the whole album. Yeah, the whole album is my creative control…It was all me," he said of his hands-on approach. Cole did, however, share that Jay-Z played an important role as well. "[Jay] had a lot of input. Say I would do six, seven song over the course of a few weeks, I would go and play it for him and try to get his feedback on certain songs…I would really go to him like, 'What you think about this single?'…That how a lot of songs like 'Blow Up' was made and 'Can't Get Enough' because I was trying to impress him."
Aside from trying to impress Jay-Z, Cole was also trying to impress fans by producing for himself. Acknowledging that he will now try to enlist others, Cole said he refused collabos this go-around to try to solidify his own sound first.
"I'ma producer myself so it helps me establish my sound. The reason I'm even here right now is because my fans fell in love with my songs that I produced in the first place so it would be oput of character for me to be working on my first album and go see Swizz and go to see Timbaland. When you go to producers it's because you feel they got something you don't got, hits basically. So, you end up having an album full of wanna-be hits. But, please believe now that I've done this, I would definitely want to go see these guys because they got knowledge that I don't."
RELATED: J. Cole-Cole World: The Sideline Story
#DXCLUSIVE: Who's better than Nickel Nine? Let's break it down.


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Column, Pistons Lineups
Evaluating the Detroit Pistons Starting Lineup Possibilities
Posted by Dylan Edenfield on August 29, 2022 August 29, 2022
Head coach Dwane Casey will have some decisions to make when it comes to this season's starting lineup. (Image: Gregory Shamus/Getty Images)
For the first time in recent memory, the Detroit Pistons will be among the more versatile teams in the NBA this season. The team continues to add multidimensional young talent along with developing the picks that general manager Troy Weaver has amassed over the past couple years. Detroit's 2023 roster allows them to realistically run both big and small-ball lineups while also having the chance to try out three-guard lineups thanks to the above-average length of Killian Hayes and Cade Cunningham. While Dwane Casey likely won't (and shouldn't) be shy about running many different lineup combinations throughout the season, his starting lineups usually stay relatively consistent throughout the year. With more versatility at his disposal than ever, coach Casey has the opportunity to experiment a bit more with this season's starting lineup – as well as seeing the positives and negatives of each.
Lineup 1: Jadey Ivey, Cade Cunningham, Saddiq Bey, Marvin Bagley III, Isaiah Stewart
The most probable opening night starting lineup, in my opinion, is arguably Detroit's most exciting offensive quintet, with each player here possessing a distinctly unique skillset. Ivey, Cunningham, and Bey – and probably Stewart – should all be locks for the starting lineup, regardless of who is playing alongside them. Cunningham and Bey especially can be plugged into any lineup and succeed, one of the key reasons they are both so valuable. If Stewart's jumper can translate from what he displayed in Summer League this year – and he's shown to be a capable shooter as a rookie – I could see this lineup panning out.
This is a really important development for the future of the Detroit Pistons.
Isaiah Stewart is now 4-6 from the 3-point line in Summer League. pic.twitter.com/WhpFoV4SJb
— Aaron Johnson (@AJohnsonNBA) July 9, 2022
Opening the paint for Marvin Bagley to roam for lobs and serve as a roller will be essential unless the 23-year-old reinvents his offensive game. With Bagley as the oldest here, this new-look starting lineup is truly a testament to the restoration job Troy Weaver has been tasked with since his arrival.
Lineup 2: Jaden Ivey, Cade Cunningham, Isaiah Livers, Saddiq Bey, Isaiah Stewart
Isaiah Livers exceeded the expectations of many as a second-round rookie. With exception to the confident Michigan fans who preached that the forward's shooting and high-IQ defense would transfer to the league, not many expected much of Livers in 2022 following a serious foot injury at the end of his college career. However, he proved to be a valuable rotation piece and can also be added to basically any lineup for a boost in shooting and defense. By subbing Bagley for Livers, the Pistons are sacrificing the rim pressure and athleticism that the former brings for the aforementioned shooting and defense of the latter. Only time will tell if that exchange is worth it, but I believe the improved spacing would allow for both Ivey and Cunningham to dominate inside.
(Image: Chris Carlson/AP Photo)
Lineup 3: Jaden Ivey, Cade Cunningham, Saddiq Bey, Kelly Olynyk, Isaiah Stewart
Kelly Olynyk sticks out as the lone veteran among Detroit's youth-filled frontcourt, and as a result, often goes unmentioned when it comes to the talent on the roster. However, Olynyk represents a nice contrast to Marvin Bagley's abilities in the starting lineup, which could be valuable for Detroit -especially if Isaiah Stewart struggles to score outside the paint. While underwhelming in his lone season with the Pistons, Olynyk could at least provide a steadying presence in the starting lineup and (hopefully) an average three-point shot. Any spacing that the Pistons can put around Ivey and Cunningham will be crucial, and Detroit doesn't have many options outside of Olynyk at the moment. Olynyk's playmaking is an underrated aspect of his game as well, which would add another layer to Detroit's offense.
Lineup 4: Jaden Ivey, Alec Burks, Cade Cunningham, Saddiq Bey, Isaiah Stewart
The Pistons acquired a much-needed shot creator in Alec Burks from the New York Knicks this offseason, and he has experience both as a starter and bench player. Burks took on more ball-handling responsibilities than usual last season, serving as the Knicks' starting point guard for stretches after their failed Kemba Walker experiment. The veteran guard would take some of the defensive pressure off of Detroit's young guards and also provide a reliable perimeter threat if he were inserted into the starting lineup. He's not a defensive stopper by any means, but at 6-foot-6, the concerns wouldn't be devastating on that end. While his skillset could benefit the starting lineup, it is more than likely Burks will be tasked with carrying a bench unit that is void of scorers.
Most of the Detroit Pistons' starters are likely already set in stone to begin the 2023 season, and for a good reason, yet one subtle tweak in the rotation can completely shift the way a team plays. With training camp set to begin in just a few short weeks, we'll perhaps get clarity on the potential starting unit for Detroit sooner rather than later.
Alec BurksCade CunninghamIsaiah LiversIsaiah StewartJaden IveyKelly OlynykMarvin Bagley IIISaddiq Bey
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It's probably going to be the first one, which is tanktastic, if nothing else.


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S10E01 - The Treasure of Elk Creek Canyon Air Date: 30 October 1961 17:00 -
S10E02 - A Bullet for the D.A. Air Date: 13 November 1961 17:00 -
S10E03 - Trial by Fear Air Date: 25 January 1962 17:00 -
S10E04 - Queen of Spades Air Date: 02 October 1961 17:00 -
S10E05 - Storm Over Truckee Air Date: 23 October 1961 17:00 -
S10E06 - The Hold-Up Proof Safe Air Date: 20 October 1961 17:00 -
S10E07 - The Watch Air Date: 04 December 1961 17:00 -
S10E08 - The Miracle at Boot Hill Air Date: 11 December 1961 17:00 -
S10E09 - A Sponge Full of Vinegar Air Date: 15 January 1962 17:00 -
S10E10 - The Truth Teller Air Date: 01 January 1962 17:00 -
S10E12 - Feud at Dome Rock Air Date: 29 January 1962 17:00 -
S10E13 - Justice at Jackson Creek Air Date: 30 January 1962 17:00 -
S10E14 - Preacher with a Past Air Date: 01 February 1962 17:00 -
S10E15 - Abel Duncan's Dying Wish Air Date: 03 February 1962 17:00 -
S10E16 - Way Station Air Date: 09 March 1962 17:00 -
S10E17 - Miracle at Whiskey Gulch Air Date: 26 January 1962 17:00 -
S10E18 - Matter of Honor Air Date: 12 February 1962 17:00 -
S10E19 - The Breaking Point Air Date: 01 March 1962 17:00 -
S10E20 - Girl with a Gun Air Date: 08 March 1962 17:00 -
S10E21 - Showdown at Kamaaina Flats Air Date: 15 May 1962 17:00 -
S10E22 - La Tules Air Date: 21 May 1962 17:00 -
S10E23 - The Unshakable Man Air Date: 06 May 1962 17:00 -