I also found some ice in a local stream. It looked like an ice sculpture made by mother nature. Enjoy and keep on working on your images!
The warming trend in northern Germany melted the snow but there was still plenty of ice on this lake. I like the floating ice and the reflection of the surrounding trees in the water.
I was walking through mud and thawing snow looking for some interesting winter expressions. I found this tree that caught my eye.
Enjoy and keep on working on working on this exercise.
During the last days the temperature changed dramatically. The snow started to thaw which opened the possibility for new images. I decided to photograph the forest. Instead of crisp frosty snow there is some leftover snow and fog.
Let us continue to work on "Winter Expressions" this week.
I photographed this car which appears to be covered by frost. Enjoy and keep on photographing!
Winter in northern Germany can be very gray and dark days. I photographed this image on the street I was growing up.
Winter is more than just snow on trees, it is also smoke from chimneys. Enjoy and keep on working on your images!
"Dead center is dead!" I have heard this statement over and over again from well known photographers. It is really true? I thought about this "rule" often and decided to challenge it. In this image I purposely photographed the post with the snow on top of it "dead center." Quite honesly this image looks interesting to me.
Photographing while it is snowing can be hard on your camera gear. Always protect your camera and lenses. On the other side you are able to get some great images. In order to "freeze" the action pick at least a 1/125 second exposure time.
After traveling through Italy for a couple of weeks I am ready to share my exercise with you and I hope you will develop you photographic skills and sharpen your vision in 2016. Currently I am in northern Germany and I started the year by repeating an exercise that I did a year ago in California. For me it is the same exercise just different location and climate zone. So I challenge you to continue this exercise or start it from scratch and create wonderful winter expressions.
When I think about winter in California I think about fog, rain, maybe some surface frost. In Germany I think about snow, icy road, freezing rain, overcast. Of course my thinking will have a profound impact on how I see and photograph. try to be open and go beyond your personal impression. There are also sunny days in January. There can be a very mild winter in Germany with no snow. Just think and then photograph and push yourself to create interesting images!
As always, enjoy your photography and have fun with your images!


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Lessons from the River
Barry Lopez / 8 Min Read / Activism, Fly Fishing
50th Anniversary Wild And Scenic Rivers Act
Only with our patient attention will a river open itself up to us. The McKenzie rushes through the Willamette National Forest, Oregon. Photo: Christian Heeb
Within 24 hours of noon on September 17, in any given year, spring chinook salmon arrive on gravel bars in front of my home to spawn. The females dig their redds, the males fertilize the eggs, and then both breathe their last. I've watched this event for 48 consecutive years on the middle reach of the McKenzie River in western Oregon. Each year I wait for the reassurance they bring, that even though things abstract and concrete are looking bad everywhere in the world, these fish are carrying on. If the salmon don't arrive by the evening of the 17th, I walk down through the woods to stand in the dark and listen for them. I know most all the sounds this river makes, and there is no other sound like their caudal fins breaking the surface of the water as they mill. If I hear them, then I know things are good for this particular strain of salmon for at least another three years. If I don't hear them, I toss and turn through a sleepless night and go down to look first thing in the morning.
They always arrive. I've never had to wait more than a few hours.
Much of what I know about integrity, constancy, power and nobility I've learned from this river, just as I've learned the opposite of these things—impotency, fecklessness, imprisonment—by walking across the dam on Blue River, a tributary of the McKenzie, and by standing on Cougar Dam on the river's South Fork, another tributary. I stare at the reservoirs from the tops of these dams and see the stillness of the impoundments. The absence of freedom there.
I couldn't say that I knew the McKenzie after my first year here. I had to nearly drown in it once, trying to swim across from bank to bank one day and dangerously misjudging the strength of the river's flow. I had to watch a black bear wade through a patch of redds, biting through the spines of the adults. I had to come into the habit of walking its stony bed upstream and downstream, in daylight and at midnight, bracing myself with a hiker's pole and calculating each slippery step, the water vibrating the pole in my hand like a bowstring and breaking hard over my thighs. I had to see how the surface of the river changed during a rainstorm, with the peening rain filling in the troughs and hammering down the crests. I had to become more than just acquainted with the phenomenon. I had to study beaver felling alders in its back eddies, great blue herons stab-fishing its shallows and lunging otters snatching its cutthroat trout. I had to understand the violet-green swallow swooping through rising hatches, and the ouzel flying blind through a waterfall. I had to watch elk swimming in the river at dusk. But still, I can't say I know it.
"You can select living creatures like rivers, if you choose, and take your stand with them."
As I showed continuing interest in the McKenzie over the years, the river opened up for me. I began to feel toward it as I would a person. I learned that it had emotions and moods as subtle as any animal's. And I learned that, in some strange way, the river had become a part of me. When I was away traveling I missed it, the way you miss a close friend.
The first river I developed any strong feeling for was a stretch of the Snake that winds through Jackson Hole. In 1965 I was working a summer there in Wyoming, wrangling horses and packing people into the Teton Wilderness. Some afternoons when I was free I volunteered as a swamper on float trips, eager to get a feeling for the undulation of that water. Since then I've been able to float the Middle Fork of the Salmon in Idaho, the Colorado through the Grand Canyon, the upper Yukon in Alaska and the Green in Utah, gaining from them experience with more formidable water. I've since seen rivers far from home, like the Urubamba in Peru, perhaps the wildest river, in terms of its miles of continuous commotion, that I've ever stood before. And I visited some way-far-off rivers like the Onyx, a name that brings a wrinkled brow to every river rat I've ever mentioned it to.
The Onyx, Antarctica's largest river, flows for only a few months in the austral summer, from the base of the Wright Lower Glacier in the Wright Valley to perennially frozen Lake Vanda. During a week I spent there once, at New Zealand's Vanda Station on the shore of the lake, I decided to hike a few miles of the river's north bank, wishing keenly all the while that I had a kayak. The Onyx is about 30 feet across and a foot deep, and it runs flat. A little bit of experience with the Onyx, though, helps you grasp the breadth of meaning behind the term "wild river." The designation includes everything from the virtually unrunnable, like the Urubamba, to pristine but tame rivers, like the Onyx.
I've also spent time in the thrall of another, singular type of wild river—ones that are perfectly runnable but that have gone, in my lifetime, from being virtually unknown to being popular destinations. In the boreal summer of 1979, I was camped on the upper Utukok River, on the north slope of the Brooks Range in western Alaska. A wolf pack denning in a cutbank there interested my friend Bob Stephenson, a wolf biologist with the Alaska Department of Fish and Game, and me. We'd set up our tent on a rise on the opposite side of the river, about 500 yards away. During the week we spent there, we not only saw no person except the bush pilot who brought us in, but also no evidence of anything from the man-made world. A tundra grizzly had torn up a ground squirrel's burrow 20 yards from the tent just before we arrived. We watched wolves hunting every day. We saw gyrfalcons, snow buntings, horned larks and jaegers on their nests. One night, 30 or so caribou crossed the river in front of us at a run, throwing up great sheets of water—diamonds backlit by a late-night sun.
When Bob died last year, we held a memorial service for him in Fairbanks, and I caught up with a retired biologist I'd known at the department who told me that commercial float trips now take people regularly down the Utukok. It's certainly a wild river, providing an unforgettable experience for adventurers, some of whom have become river activists as a result. To my way of thinking, however, the Utukok is not so wild now as it was when we were camped there 40 years ago, when the country, for as far as you could see, belonged to the animals.
Home from some trip and back here on the banks of the McKenzie, I always feel that I've come back together again as a person. In spring, when I notice the first few flowers blooming in the riparian zone—trillium, yellow violet, purple grouse flower, deer's head orchid—I'm aware of similar changes in myself. I've lived here long enough now—
intimate with the McKenzie's low- and high- water stages, its winter colors, its harlequin ducks, its log jams, and aerial plankton (tens of thousands of spiders "balloon drifting" in summer on breezes above the river)—to know that without this river I'm less. Listening to osprey strike the river, watching common mergansers shooting past me at 60 miles an hour, a foot off the water, hearing the surging wind roiling the leaves of black cottonwoods close around me, I become whole again.
As integral to the river as water itself, the spring chinook salmon—threatened and dwindling in number—are a harbinger of the health of the McKenzie, and in turn, our own. Photo: Morgan Bond
Many people, I have to think, have wilder and more inspiring stories to tell than I do about illuminating and staggering moments spent with a wild river. I have to believe, though, that we all share equally a love for the great range of expression this particular kind of being offers us, whether we're with it in the moment or must call up remembered feelings from former encounters. And, of course, today we all share a fate with them, during these days of the Sixth Extinction; and we know how late it is in human history to finally be thinking about protecting rivers.
We're only just now getting started with it. Congress passed the Wild and Scenic Rivers Act in 1968, 50 years ago this year. The bill was designed to protect eight different rivers from development—among them, the Middle Fork of the Clearwater in Idaho, the Eleven Point in Missouri and the Middle Fork of the Feather in California. In 1988, after another 27 rivers had slowly been incorporated into the system, Oregon passed an omnibus river bill that added another 40 rivers, including the McKenzie, each one with designated stretches of "wild," "scenic" and "recreational" water, and each one of these sections subject to increasingly stricter levels of management. Today, there are 208 wild and scenic rivers across 40 states—12,743 miles of protected river water. It's a paltry sum, actually, less than a quarter of 1 percent of the nation's river miles. But each year our understanding of the nature of this kind of planetary lifeblood grows deeper. As more land trusts come into being, like the McKenzie River Trust here, the number of champions and custodians grows larger.
Over the years, I've learned much about the McKenzie that is obvious and much that is subtle. On this waterway that supplies the city of Eugene with virtually all of its drinking water, for example, state and federal agencies have cooperated to protect bull trout and to restore the spring chinook salmon run on the upper South Fork of the river. And for subtlety, I would offer you obsidian tools buried in the river's riparian zone, evidence I've found of the very early presence of people here, some of it from before the days of the historic occupants, the Kalapuya and Molalla, tribes who traveled to the upper McKenzie in the summer to gather a great profusion of berries—blackberries, salmonberries, huckleberries, elderberries, osoberries and thimbleberries (all of which remain a priority today for local residents and others to gather).
The goal for most of us on the McKenzie today is not simply to protect the physical river from miscreants by implementing various layers of necessary regulation from ridgeline to ridgeline, but to revitalize and protect the entire community associated with the river. To help all who are interested understand that this river began its life long before human beings arrived, and that the wildness it offers us all can still be accessed, engaged and offered to our children. We're living today, of course, in a time of true political, social and environmental upheaval and growing threat. You can select living creatures like rivers, if you choose, and take your stand with them to ensure your own future and the future of other beings. It's a good place to be with your friends and your family, as the growing shadows blanket our skies.
On September 17, 2018, I will go down to the river and wait. I will watch for sunlight gleaming on the salmon's caudal fins, standing proud of the surface of the water in the river's shallows. I will smell them on the evening air and watch the males converge on the females, shouldering each other out of the way. And I will concentrate on this thought: If I do not help them to keep doing this, my days too are numbered.
This essay was featured in the 2018 Patagonia November Journal.
Protect Lands and Waters
The McKenzie River Trust helps people protect and care for the lands and rivers they cherish in western Oregon. Make a donation to support their work.
Barry Lopez
Lopez is the author of Arctic Dreams, which won the National Book Award, and over a dozen other works of fiction and nonfiction. He writes regularly for Harper's, Outside and numerous other journals, and is now at work on an autobiography.

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


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-Draw more. Like, A LOT MORE.
Also, hope everyone has a happy new year!
Make sure you eat well and get plenty of sleep too!
By any chance does Xavier want a Butterfree on his team? I really like contests and I can (usually) hold my own in trainer battles.
If this is Kalos, he's more likely to go for a Vivillon.
…This is why I shouldn't have accepted that gym leader offer. I'm missing out.
Glad you didn't died, checking the page ebearyday with no update got a bit unnerving.
If you're spending the hiatus playing Persona Q, it's totally worth the wait.
I love the picture that you drew, I can honestly believe that Xavier would be attracted to AZ, I don't know why but I do. I guess I picture him being attracted to older guys and if they had something that he likes.
AZ and Xavier are adorable.
Keep being KEWL and AWESOME, dear artist black!
Hope everybody had a good Valentine's Day.
I'm at least 93% sure Artist!Black is actually dead.
I'm gonna cry. It's now March.
Day 65 of the Grand Hiatus: no sign of Artist!Black's existence, but I won't give up. I'll camp here for years in this hiatus wilderness if it means I might finally get the chance to see the elusive update.


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Munich Pact
Munich Pact (1938)
related portals: Multilateral documents.
sister projects: Wikipedia article, Commons gallery, Commons category, Wikidata item.
10860Munich Pact1938
Munich Pact, 29 September 1938Edit
Germany, the United Kingdom, France and Italy, taking into consideration the agreement, which has been already reached in principle for the cession to Germany of the Sudeten German territory, have agreed on the following terms and conditions governing the said cession and the measures consequent thereon, and by this agreement they each hold themselves responsible for the steps necessary to secure its fulfilment:
(1) The evacuation will begin on 1st October.
(2) The United Kingdom, France and Italy agree that the evacuation of the territory shall be completed by the 10th October, without any existing installations having been destroyed, and that the Czechoslovak Government will be held responsible for carrying out the evacuation without damage to the said installations.
(3) The conditions governing the evacuation will be laid down in detail by an international commission composed of representatives of Germany, the United Kingdom, France, Italy and Czechoslovakia.
(4) The occupation by stages of the predominantly German territory by German troops will begin on 1st October. The four territories marked on the attached map will be occupied by German troops in the following order:
The territory marked No. I on the 1st and 2nd of October; the territory marked No. II on the 2nd and 3rd of October; the territory marked No. III on the 3rd, 4th and 5th of October; the territory marked No. IV on the 6th and 7th of October. The remaining territory of preponderantly German character will be ascertained by the aforesaid international commission forthwith and be occupied by German troops by the 10th of October.
(5) The international commission referred to in paragraph 3 will determine the territories in which a plebiscite is to be held. These territories will be occupied by international bodies until the plebiscite has been completed. The same commission will fix the conditions in which the plebiscite is to be held, taking as a basis the conditions of the Saar plebiscite. The commission will also fix a date, not later than the end of November, on which the plebiscite will be held.
(6) The final determination of the frontiers will be carried out by the international commission. The commission will also be entitled to recommend to the four Powers, Germany, the United Kingdom, France and Italy, in certain exceptional cases, minor modifications in the strictly ethnographical determination of the zones which are to be transferred without plebiscite.
(7) There will be a right of option into and out of the transferred territories, the option to be exercised within six months from the date of this agreement. A German-Czechoslovak commission shall determine the details of the option, consider ways of facilitating the transfer of population and settle questions of principle arising out of the said transfer.
(8) The Czechoslovak Government will within a period of four weeks from the date of this agreement release from their military and police forces any Sudeten Germans who may wish to be released, and the Czechoslovak Government will within the same period release Sudeten German prisoners who are serving terms of imprisonment for political offences.
Munich, September 29, 1938. ADOLF HITLER, NEVILLE CHAMBERLAIN, EDOUARD DALADIER, BENITO MUSSOLINI.
Annex to the Munich PactEdit
His MAJESTY's GOVERNMENT in the United Kingdom and the French Government have entered into the above agreement on the basis that they stand by the offer, contained in paragraph 6 of the Anglo-French proposals of the 19th September, relating to an international guarantee of the new boundaries of the Czechoslovak State against unprovoked aggression. When the question of the Polish and Hungarian minorities in Czechoslovakia has been settled, Germany and Italy for their part will give a guarantee to Czechoslovakia. Munich, September 29, 1938. ADOLF HITLER, NEVILLE CHAMBERLAIN, EDOUARD DALADIER, BENITO MUSSOLINI.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikisource.org/w/index.php?title=Munich_Pact&oldid=3368011"


Its amazing how many stories can be taken from one drunken night. The lights dim, the beer flows, and people talk about things they would never discuss in daylight hours. People whisper of old traumas and secrets so long buried they had almost forgotten they existed themselves. Of course, remembering such wonderful stories when you've drank too much yourself is a bit of a feat. This story was wonderful, but it may be a bit blurry around the edges because I had too good of a time. So, if you happen to have been at the party in question and remember this tale better than me, please let me know. I did the best I could recalling all the events through the muddy haze of my dimmed mind.
A gentleman at the gathering I was at leaned over the table to tell me that he believed in ghosts. He said that his wife drew them to her and that since he had been married to her he had seen things. He didn't want to call them ghosts, because he was uncomfortable admitting it, but he had seen things. Things were around her and with her and he could sense them. He said that his wife's grandmother told a story. She said that her father had fought with Pancho Villa and had saved his life. Pancho Villa promised to return the favor.
I'm not as up on my Mexican history as I should be so I gathered a little information on Pancho Villa. Villa was one of the most prominent Mexican Revolutionary Generals and was in prominence from 1910-1920. He became a Mexican hero. Villa and his men took hacienda land from the rich and gave it to peasants and soldiers. He robbed and commandeered trains and printed fiat money to pay for his cause. He was made Governor of Chihuahua from 1913-1914 and retired in 1920. He was assassinated in 1923 after he tried to go back to politics.
According to my gentleman narrator, Villa was never able to return the favor in life, so he kept it in the after life and every member of his wife's family since has felt his presence from time to time watching over them. I was able to speak to the gentleman's wife as well. She was much more sober and admitted the story was true but didn't want to go into much detail. She just said that she's always known he was there from time to time. She also knows when other spirits and ghosts are present. She doesn't speak of it often, but it is part of her daily life. Villa stays with her and her family and may stay with her children, watching out for them and waiting to repay his debt.
I'm not sure If I would want to be married to a woman that attracts ghosts.
It would make your life more interesting!
It's funny but when I tell people that I am interested in the paranormal, they always seem to have a ghost story. I'm sure living with a ghost magnet would make life less boring, lol.


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Home > Journals > Earth & Environmental Sciences > OJG
OJG> Vol.7 No.11, November 2017
Analysis of Mountains Passes along the East-West Continental Divide and Other Drainage Divides Surrounding the Boulder River Drainage Basin, Jefferson County, Montana, USA
Abstract Full-Text HTML XML Download as PDF (Size:1776KB) PP. 1603-1624
DOI: 10.4236/ojg.2017.711108 420 Downloads 986 Views Citations
Eric Clausen
Independent Researcher, Jenkintown, PA, USA.
Detailed topographic maps of drainage divides surrounding the Jefferson County, Montana, Boulder River drainage basin were analyzed to determine the nature of drainage systems that preceded today's Boulder River drainage system and how the Boulder River drainage system evolved from those earlier drainage systems. The Boulder River studied here drains in a north, east, and south direction to the Jefferson River, which at Three Forks, Montana joins the north-oriented Madison and Gallatin Rivers to form the north-oriented Missouri River. The North American east-west Continental Divide surrounds the Boulder River drainage basin western half and mountainous drainage divides with the Jefferson and Missouri Rivers surround the drainage basin's eastern half. More than 25 deep mountain passes are notched into these drainage divides and provide evidence of the regional drainage system that preceded the present day Boulder River drainage system. Analysis of pass elevations and of orientations of valleys leading in opposite directions from those mountain passes shows that prior to Boulder River drainage system development immense volumes of south-oriented water moving in anastomosing complexes of diverging and converging channels flowed across the Boulder River drainage basin area and that the Boulder River drainage system evolved as deeper channels progressively captured flow from shallower channels. While not documented in detail crustal warping probably raised Boulder River drainage basin areas relative to adjacent valleys and basins as capture events took place. A water source was not determined, but may have been from a large North American continental ice sheet, although Boulder River drainage basin evolution probably occurred while mid Tertiary sediments were filling adjacent valleys and basins.
Anastomosing Channel Complex, Clark Fork, Jefferson River, Missouri River, Silver Bow Creek
For more than a century since the work of Calhoun [1] and Alden [2] most geologists have believed a continental ice sheet blocked the north-oriented Missouri River in the region north of Great Falls, Montana with the east-oriented downstream Missouri River valley being eroded along that ice sheet's southern margin. The red dashed arrow in Figure 1 at location 1 shows an abandoned northeast-oriented Missouri River valley segment and the red dashed arrow at location 2 shows another abandoned northeast-oriented Missouri River valley segment. While detailed interpretations differ the north-oriented upstream Missouri River valley and the abandoned northeast-oriented Missouri River valley segments are usually considered to have been eroded during mid Tertiary time, perhaps in late Oligocene time, long before any recognized North American continental ice sheets and that ancient north-oriented Missouri River is thought to have flowed across Canada and not to the south-oriented Mississippi River as it does today. As early as 1916 Atwood [3] suggested that sometime after mid- Tertiary time, the north-oriented Missouri River worked its way headward from the Great Falls area and captured southwest Montana drainage in what is today the Jefferson River drainage basin.
Much more recently Sears [4] proposed a major north-oriented river flowing from south of Montana continued along the present day Jefferson and Missouri River valley alignments before continuing in a northeast direction into and across Canada. When in a subsequent discussion Clausen [5] suggested south oriented melt water from a large continental ice sheet was much more likely to have initially eroded what are today north-oriented river valleys Sears [6] replied that mid Tertiary sediments contained in those valleys falsified Clausen's hypothesis. The study reported here continues that discussion by using topographic map interpretation techniques to determine how mountain passes across drainage divides surrounding the present day Boulder River drainage basin originated and evolved. The Boulder River is a north-, east-, and south-oriented river located within the red rectangle shown in Figure 1 (Figure 2 shows the area within the rectangle). The North American east-west Continental Divide curves around the Boulder River drainage basin west half while the Jefferson and Missouri Rivers curve around the Boulder River drainage basin east half. The study reported here used detailed topographic map evidence to determine the nature
Figure 1. Modified Montana area map from the United States Geological Survey (USGS) National Map website showing the study area (red rectangle) and major drainage routes discussed in this paper. The brown line and Montana-Idaho border show the Continental Divide location. Letters refer to rivers as follows: "G" Gallatin River, "J" Jefferson River, "LB" Little Blackfoot River, and "Ma" Madison River.
Figure 2. Modified map from the United States Geological Survey National Map website showing drainage basins as identified in the text. The Missouri River flows to the Gulf of Mexico (Atlantic Ocean) while water in Clark Fork eventually reaches the Pacific Ocean.
and direction of flow of the drainage system that preceded the modern day Boulder River.
Figure 2 shows the Boulder River drainage basin area and the Boulder River U-shaped course. Blue arrows and names have been added to emphasize drainage routes discussed in this paper. A brown line shows the east-west Continental Divide approximate position with the Missouri River (Atlantic) drainage basin and Clark Fork (Pacific) drainage basins labeled. Note that the brown line does cross the figure southwest corner and the area where the figure scale is shown is in the Missouri River drainage basin with water flowing to the Jefferson River. Red numbers correspond to figure numbers used in this paper and identify approximate locations of detailed maps shown in this paper as figures (the number 10 is shown twice to indicate the larger area that figure covers).
2. Previous Work
The Boulder River drainage basin has been extensively studied due to economically important mineral deposits and more recently due to environmental problems those previous mining activities caused, although those studies emphasized priorities other than Boulder River drainage system evolution. Previous studies do describe bedrock underlying the Boulder River drainage basin and also provide insights into the nature of glaciation that occurred along northern Boulder River drainage divides. Church et al. [7] describe the Boulder River watershed as being "largely underlain by the Cretaceous Boulder batholith, which is a large mass of granitic rock that cooled and crystalized at depth, and the overlying Elkhorn Mountains volcanics, which formed as the molten granitic magma erupted… This entire assemblage of granitic and volcanic rocks was later eroded so that lower elevation areas of the watershed, such as valley bottoms, generally are carved through granitic rocks while higher elevation areas, such as ridges and mountain tops, are formed in the overlying volcanic rocks." Woodward [8] describes the Boulder Batholith and adjacent rocks as being the hosts to "numerous metallic mineral deposits found in over 30 mining districts" and "gold, silver, copper, and lead have been produced mainly from fissure veins", but does not address drainage features.
During the mid-twentieth century the United States Geological Survey (USGS) prepared several publications describing Boulder Batholith geology, and while drainage features are briefly mentioned the drainage history is not discussed. In a description of Basin quadrangle geology, which includes large areas of the northern Boulder River drainage basin, Ruppel [9] describes the Boulder Batholith as having been intruded into the folded Elkhorn Mountains volcanics near the close of the Cretaceous. Ruppel also describes quartz latite "of Oligocene age and rhyolite that may be late Miocene-early Pliocene in age" that crops out over much of the central part of the quadrangle. Smedes [10] describes the quartz latite as part of the Lowland Creek volcanics, which are found in the southern part of the quadrangle. Two years later Smedes and Thomas [11] reassigned the Lowland Creek volcanics age to the Eocene and in 2010 different workers confirmed that Eocene age [12] . Ruppel suggests most of the Lowland Creek volcanics were eroded away in some areas before the rhyolite erupted, although Smedes' map shows the quartz latite as an important surface bedrock unit in much of the western half of the Boulder River drainage basin. The rhyolite according to Ruppel "crops out in the northern and central parts of the Basin quadrangle… and at a few localities west of the quadrangle", or in other words at localities in the northern Boulder River drainage basin area.
Becraft et al. [13] described the geology and mineral deposits of the Jefferson City quadrangle, which is located immediately to the east of the previously described Basin quadrangle and which includes the Boulder River drainage basin northeast quadrant. Of possible importance when trying to understand Boulder River drainage system evolution they state "During the Pleistocene epoch, most of the stream valleys in the western part of the quadrangle were occupied by glaciers. Glacial erosion modified the topography only slightly, but glacial deposits are widespread. Ground moraine is extensive, and the beds of all major eastward-flowing streams contain thick accumulations of outwash gravel." They also note the presence of "non-mineralized faults of different trends; and probable faults indicated by topographic lineaments" and that "the persistent northeastward trends of many structural features are probably the result of recurring regional forces active since emplacement of the batholith and possibly even before."
Ruppel [14] prepared a separate USGS report describing what he determined to be a Wisconsin age ice sheet that blanketed much of the area between the present day Little Blackfoot and Boulder Rivers. According to his report the ice sheet blanketed an area of approximately 200 square miles (518 square kilometers). Ruppel suggests the glacial deposits, which are primarily till, are the "product of a single glacial episode…" and "the glaciation included three phases: an initial valley-glacier phase, an intermediate mountain-ice-sheet phase, and a final phase in which the mountain ice sheet thinned and the glaciers retreated." He goes on to state that during the ice-sheet phase, the major centers of ice accumulation and the central part of the sheet were in the vicinity of Thiunderbolt and Bison Mountains (on the Little Blackfoot-Boulder River drainage divide) where the ice attained a thickness of more than 1000 feet" (305 meters). The ice sheet's southern limit was mapped as having been north of the Boulder River. Glaciated valleys include those of the north oriented the Little Blackfoot River and of several south-oriented Boulder River tributaries, all of which head along or near the Continental Divide.
The only literature found describing the origins of passes crossing drainage divides surrounding the modern day Boulder River drainage basin was the Alt and Hyndman [15] interpretation that a large south-oriented stream flowing in what is today a wide north-oriented Boulder River tributary valley had flowed through (and probably eroded) Elk Park Pass. In addition they suggest that south-oriented stream had eroded what is today a wide south-oriented Boulder tributary valley and had flowed during a late Miocene a wet, tropical climatic period. Thompson et al. [16] describe regional climates as changing from wet to dry during the late Eocene, dry to wet during the late early Miocene, wet to dry during the early middle Miocene, and from dry to wet during late Miocene-Pliocene times. Retallack [17] noted warm-wet spikes during the "latest Eocene (35 Ma), middle Miocene (16 Ma), late Miocene (7 Ma), and early Pliocene (4 Ma)."
Somewhat in conflict with the Alt and Hyndman interpretation Sears et al. [18] suggest the same wet, late Miocene climate "filled large lakes and established new through-going drainage systems" including the headwaters of the north-oriented Clark Fork and the north-oriented Missouri River, which today flank the Boulder River drainage basin. There seems to be major problem with one or both of the above interpretations because none of cited authors explains how it was possible for a large south-oriented stream to erode wide valleys and the 1400-foot (427-meter) deep Elk Park Pass and for headward erosion of the present day south-oriented Boulder River valley to behead and reverse flow in that south-oriented stream valley during the same late Miocene time wet period as the north-oriented Clark Fork and Missouri River valleys were being extended southward on either side of the modern day Boulder River drainage basin.
3. Research Method
Previously the Boulder River drainage basin region had been studied during the author's much larger and unpublished Missouri River drainage basin landforms origins research project. That multi-year project consisted of systematically studying detailed United States Geologic Survey (USGS) topographic maps covering the entire Missouri River drainage basin and adjacent drainage basins to determine how major drainage divides within and surrounding the large and complex Missouri River drainage basin originated. Drainage divide origins were determined by using divide crossings (through valleys, wind gaps, etc.) as evidence of previous drainage routes and then using barbed tributaries, elbows of capture, asymmetric drainage divides, abandoned headcuts, and similar evidence to determine how many thousands of capture events altered earlier drainage routes so as to produce what are today's Missouri River drainage basin drainage routes. Approximately 550 unpublished and detailed project essays (or research notes) can be found in blog format on the author's https://geomorphologyresearch.com/ website.
The Boulder River drainage divide mountain pass study described here used detailed topographic maps available at the United States Geological Survey (USGS) National Map website [19] . The U-shaped Boulder River course results in several types of drainage divide crossings. First, passes cross the Continental Divide and link north-oriented Boulder River headwaters and tributaries with south oriented drainage to west and north oriented Silver Bow Creek, which today flows to north- and northwest-oriented Clark Fork with water eventually reaching the Pacific Ocean. Second, passes cross the Continental Divide and link north-oriented Boulder River headwaters with northwest-oriented Clark Fork tributaries. Third, passes cross the Continental Divide and link south-oriented Boulder River tributaries with north-oriented tributaries to the north- and west-oriented Little Blackfoot River, which eventually joins the northwest- oriented Clark Fork. Fourth, passes link north-northeast oriented Missouri River tributaries with south-oriented Boulder River tributaries. Fifth, passes link south-oriented Jefferson River tributaries with north-oriented Boulder River tributaries. And sixth, passes within the Boulder River drainage basin link various north-oriented Boulder River tributaries.
Each group of passes was analyzed separately before results were combined to determine whether they resulted in a logically consistent pattern that could be used to describe a drainage system that preceded the present-day Boulder River drainage system. Each of the studied passes was first interpreted to have been eroded by a now dismembered drainage route and orientations of valleys now leading away from the pass were then used to determine the orientations of those former drainage routes. The former direction of flow across each of the passes was determined by studying present day streams that now flow in opposite directions from the pass to determine which of the opposing streams is flowing in a valley where the direction of flow has probably been reversed. Types of evidence used in determining former directions of flow included looking for barbed tributaries and stream capture evidence and also looking at gradients of the opposing streams. The spacing of the passes (former drainage routes) was considered when interpreting characteristics of the drainage system that preceded the Boulder River.
4.1. Boulder River-Silver Bow Creek Divide Segment of the Continental Divide
Bison Creek-Silver Bow Creek drainage divide segment: Elk Park Pass (number 1 in Figure 3) with an elevation of 6352 feet (1936 meters) is the deepest pass along the Boulder River-Silver Bow Creek drainage divide segment. East of Elk Park Pass the Continental Divide is oriented in a north-to-south direction and rises in about 2 miles (3.2 kilometers) to elevations greater than 8000 feet (2438 meters) and to the west the Continental Divide rises almost immediately to more than 7500 feet (2286 meters). To the north of Elk Park Pass Bison Creek drains the almost level and broad Elk Park Valley in a north-northeast direction to the east-oriented Boulder River segment approximately 17 miles (27 kilometers) further north. Drainage south of Elk Park Pass is down Woodville Canyon (shown, but not labeled in Figure 3) with water draining to west-oriented Silver Bow Creek in Butte (at an elevation of about 5500 feet or 1676 meters). The asymmetric divide and depth of Elk Park Pass along with southwest-oriented and barbed tributaries joining north-northeast oriented Bison Creek are evidence supporting the previously mentioned interpretation that a large south- oriented stream eroded both Elk Park Pass and the Elk Park Valley, although topographic maps cannot be used to confirm the previously mentioned late Miocene erosion date.
Interestingly a pass (at location 1a in Figure 3) links a Bison Creek tributary valley with southeast-oriented headwaters of a Jefferson River tributary. That pass has a floor elevation of approximately 7500 feet (2286 meters) and is 1150
Figure 3. Modified topographic map from the United States Geological Survey National Map website showing the Elk Park Pass area. The brown line shows the Continental Divide and the dashed brown line the Boulder River-Jefferson River divide. The contour interval is 50 feet (15 meters).
feet (351 meters) higher than the Elk Park Pass floor elevation, but is more than 500 feet (152 meters) deep. If a south-oriented stream eroded Elk Park Pass then a south-oriented stream must have also eroded the higher elevation pass before deep erosion of the Elk Park Valley (and of Elk Park Pass). If so that higher elevation south-oriented stream on the present day north-oriented Bison Creek alignment and the stream eroding Elk Park Pass must have once diverged with some water flowing along the Elk Park Pass alignment to the present day Butte location and with some water flowing in a southeast direction to erode the higher elevation pass and then to the present day Jefferson River valley. After the higher elevation pass floor had been lowered by more than 500 feet (152 meters) headward erosion of the deeper Elk Park Pass valley must have captured the south-oriented flow moving to the Jefferson River and flow across the higher elevation pass ceased. South-oriented water moving along the alignment of what is now the north-oriented stream in the northeast corner of Figure 3 also eroded what are now southwest- and west-oriented Bison Creek headwaters valleys suggesting an anastomosing complex of bedrock-walled diverging and converging stream channels once crossed the region.
Lowland Creek and Silver Bow Creek drainage divide segment: West of Elk Park Pass the Continental Divide rapidly rises before turning in a north direction and dropping to a gap or pass linking northeast-oriented and southwest-oriented valleys. That gap was probably eroded by southwest-oriented water also diverging from a high elevation south-oriented stream flowing along the Bison Creek alignment. Further to the northwest is another pass (unseen and number 3a) across the Continental Divide with an elevation of between 7120 and 7160 feet (2170 and 2182 meters) that links a northeast- and east-oriented Bison Creek tributary with the southwest-oriented Silver Bow Creek headwaters valley and that was also probably eroded by southwest-oriented water diverging from the high elevation south-oriented stream on the Bison Creek alignment. Next the Continental Divide enters the Figure 4 map area and the pass illustrated at location 3 with an elevation of 7258 feet (2212 meters) links the valley of a north- and east-oriented Lowland Creek tributary with the valley of a southwest- and south-oriented Silver Bow Creek tributary. Lowland Creek like Bison Creek is a north-oriented Boulder River tributary, but unlike Bison Creek flows in a narrow valley. North and west of Figure 4 a similar pass (unseen and number 3b) crosses the Lowland Creek-Silver Bow Creek divide with a floor elevation of about 6740 feet (2054 meters) and links a northeast-oriented Lowland Creek tributary valley with a southwest-oriented Silver Bow Creek tributary valley.
Perhaps the best clue as to the direction of flow that eroded pass number 3 and pass number 3b (north and west of Figure 4) is pass number 2 in Figure 4, which links Lowland Creek with the Elk Park Valley and which has a floor elevation where Lowland Road crosses the drainage divide of 6677 feet (2035 meters), which is only slightly lower than the floor of pass number 3b (north and west of Figure 4). There is a gradient differential at pass number 2 with steep slopes leading into the Elk Park Valley and gentle slopes leading to Lowland Creek. This gradient difference strongly suggests water once flowed in a south direction along the present day north-oriented Lowland Creek alignment with one stream of water diverging in an east direction to enter the Elk Park Valley while the other stream of water continued in a southwest direction to erode pass number 3. For reasons not apparent in Figure 4 the Elk Park Valley floor was lowered after most Lowland Creek valley erosion occurred. Eventually headward erosion of the deeper south- and east-oriented Lowland Creek valley from the Elk Park Valley (eroding the pass at location 2) beheaded and reversed south-oriented flow to pass 3 and later to the deeper pass number 3b to create what are today northeast-oriented Lowland Creek tributaries.
Boulder River headwaters-Silver Bow Creek divide segment: Four divide crossings or passes with approximately the same floor elevations can be seen in Figure 5 and they link north-oriented Boulder River headwaters valleys with south-oriented valleys draining to south-oriented Brown's Gulch, which flows to Silver Bow Creek. Pass number 4 has a floor elevation of between 7280 and 7320 feet (2219 and 2231 meters), pass number 5 has an elevation of 7303 feet (2226 meters), pass number 6 an elevation of between 7180 and 7220 feet, and pass number 7 an elevation of between 7200 and 7240 feet (2195 and 2207 meters). East of pass number 4 the Continental Divide rises to an elevation of more than 7800 feet (2377 meters) before decreasing. Between pass number 4 and pass number 5 the Continental Divide rises to 7533 feet (2296 meters), between pass number 5 and pass number 6 to more than 7460 feet (2274 meters), between
Figure 4. Modified topographic map from USGS National Map website showing the Lowland Creek-Silver Bow Creek drainage divide. The solid brown line follows the Continental Divide and the dashed brown line follows the Lowland Creek-Bison Creek divide. The contour interval is 50 feet (15 meters).
Figure 5. Modified topographic map from USGS National Map website showing the Boulder River headwaters-Brown's Gulch drainage divide. The brown line follows the Continental Divide and the dashed brown lines follow other major drainage divides. Red numbers identify passes discussed in the text. The contour interval is 40 feet (12 meters).
pass number 6 and pass number 7 to 7567 feet (2308 meters), and west of pass number 7 to more than 7360 feet (2243 meters) before becoming the drainage divide between the Boulder River and Clark Fork (discussed in the next section below). The similarity of the four pass floor elevations suggests all four passes were eroded by the same drainage system, which based on flow directions determined for other passes along the Boulder River-Silver Bow Creek drainage divide almost certainly must have been in a south direction.
The four closely spaced passes seen in Figure 5 suggest south-oriented streams of water diverged from the present day north oriented Boulder River headwaters valley into four separate channels before converging again in what is today the south-oriented Brown's Gulch valley (see Figure 2). The possibility of additional higher elevation diverging and converging channels is suggested by the presence of opposing Boulder River and Brown's Gulch tributaries seen east of pass number 4 and also by the south-oriented headwaters of an east-oriented tributary to north-oriented Lowland Creek seen near the east edge of Figure 5. These diverging and converging channels must have eroded what Baker [20] describes as bedrock-walled anastomosing channel complex. The multiple passes now crossing the Boulder River-Silver Bow Creek drainage divide segment of the Continental Divide and described in this section appear to have all been components of a much larger south-oriented anastomosing channel complex that was captured south of Figure 5 by headward erosion of the much deeper west-oriented Silver Bow Creek valley.
4.2. Clark Fork-Boulder River Headwaters Divide Segment of the Continental Divide
Figure 6 shows the drainage divide between north-oriented Boulder River headwaters and the north-oriented Clark Fork. Some of the previously discussed Boulder River-Silver Bow Creek drainage divide area is also seen in Figure 6, although in less detail than in Figure 5. Not seen in Figure 6, but seen in Figure 2 is Silver Bow Creek, which flows in a west direction from Butte before entering the Deer Lodge Graben south end where today it turns to flow in a north direction to join Warm Springs Creek (near location A in Figure 6) to form the north-oriented Clark Fork. Clausen [21] implied that prior to turning in a north direction the west-oriented Silver Bow Creek headwaters turned to flow in a
Figure 6. Modified topographic map from USGS National Map website showing Clark Fork-Boulder River divide segment of the Continental Divide. The brown line follows the Continental Divide and the dashed brown line follows the divide between south-oriented drainage to Silver Bow Creek, and northwest-oriented drainage to Clark Fork. Red numbers identify passes discussed in the text. The contour interval is 100 feet (30.5 meters).
south direction across the Continental Divide at what is today Deer Lodge Pass to join the south-oriented Big Hole River, which today flows to the northeast-oriented Jefferson River. Sears and Ryan [22] interpret the north-oriented Clark Fork to have formed by mid Miocene time and also describe the Clark Fork valley floor as being eroded into thick Tertiary lacustrine and alluvial deposits that fill the Deer Lodge Graben through which the Clark Fork is flowing "about 70 m [230 feet] below the middle Miocene paleovalley strath-terrace, which is preserved as a prominent bench along the course of the river, locally with remnants of Miocene stream gravel. The modern valley floor is typically underlain by ~15 m [49 feet] of Quaternary gravel."
Two deep passes and several shallower passes are notched into this Clark Fork-Boulder River drainage divide segment of North America's Continental Divide. The deeper of the two deep passes is number 8 and links an east- and northeast-oriented Boulder River tributary valley with the valley of a northwest-, west-, and northwest-oriented Clark Fork tributary. The floor of pass number 8 has an elevation of between 6800 and 6840 feet (2073 and 2085 meters) and is more than 400 feet (122 meters) below the Continental Divide elevation to the north and south. The second of the deeper passes (number 9) is named on detailed topographic maps as Champion Pass and has a floor elevation of between 6920 and 6960 feet (2109 and 2121 meters), which is more than 500 feet (152 meters) below nearby Continental Divide elevations. Both passes and other passes notched into this Continental Divide segment appear to be erosional features carved by streams or rivers flowing in one direction or the other, however the direction of flow is not immediately obvious and could have changed after south-oriented flow across the Boulder River headwaters-Silver Bow Creek drainage divide segment ended.
Passes number 8 and 9 and several other passes notched into this Boulder River headwaters-Clark Fork Continental Divide segment are lower in elevation than passes notched into the previously discussed Boulder River headwaters-Silver Bow Creek divide segment suggesting after water ceased to flow in a south direction across the Boulder River headwaters-Silver Bow Creek drainage divide water continued to flow across this Boulder River headwaters-Clark Fork drainage divide segment. At least two different interpretations can explain the topographic map evidence with both interpretations beginning with south- oriented streams of water moving along the present day north-oriented Clark Fork alignment at a time when elevation differences seen in Figure 6 did not exist. Both interpretations begin with southeast-oriented water moving from the present day north-oriented Clark Fork valley to the diverging and converging valley complex that eroded passes number 4, 5, 6, and 7 across what is today the Boulder River headwaters-Silver Bow Creek drainage divide segment.
The two interpretations differ when water ceased to flow across the Boulder River headwaters-Silver Bow Creek drainage divide with the first interpretation interpreting that change to mean head ward erosion of the east-oriented Boulder River valley had beheaded and reversed south-oriented flow on the modern day north-oriented Boulder River headwaters alignment. This first interpretation then assumes southeast-oriented streams of water continued to flow from the Clark Fork valley area into the Boulder River headwaters region and eroded the north-oriented Boulder River headwaters valleys and helped to erode the deep downstream Boulder River valley and perhaps even the deep Elk Park Pass valley. Eventually elevation difference caused by Deer Lodge Graben subsidence and perhaps by uplift of the Boulder River drainage basin area caused reversals of flow that created the present day northwest-oriented Clark Fork tributaries.
The alternate interpretation assumes subsidence in the Deer Lodge Graben caused reversals of flow along the southeast-oriented diverging channels leading from the Deer Lodge Graben area to the Boulder River headwaters area. These reversals of flow captured south-oriented water that had been flowing across the Boulder River headwaters-Silver Bow Creek drainage divide and diverted that flow in a west and northwest direction into the subsiding Deer Lodge Graben where drainage was being reversed to the create the north-oriented Clark Fork seen today. This second interpretation requires south-oriented water from north of the Boulder River drainage basin to have eroded the Boulder River headwaters valleys, with the south-oriented flow in the present day north-oriented Boulder River headwaters valleys being beheaded and reversed by headward erosion of the east-oriented Boulder River valley. With both interpretations tectonic activity played an important role in creating elevation differences that now exist.
4.3. Little Blackfoot River-Boulder River Divide Segment of the Continental Divide
The Little Blackfoot River is a north- and west-oriented tributary joining Clark Fork as seen in Figure 1. Figure 7 shows the Continental Divide segment located south of the north-oriented Little Blackfoot River headwaters. West of the north-oriented Little Blackfoot River headwaters are west- and northwest oriented Clark Fork tributaries while south and east of the Continental Divide are south- and southeast-oriented Boulder River tributaries. As previously mentioned a Wisconsin age mountain ice sheet covered the entire Figure 7 and Figure 8 map areas and was thickest between Thunderbolt Mountain (seen in Figure 7) and Bison Mountain (seen in Figure 8), although the ice sheet is not reported to have deeply eroded the region and the map evidence shows no evidence of deep glacial erosion. Passes notched into this Continental Divide segment are not the result of ice erosion, but originated when streams or rivers flowed across the region.
Passes numbered 10 and 11 link northwest-oriented Clark Fork tributaries with south-oriented Boulder River tributary valleys and have floor elevations exceeding 7900 feet (2408 meters). Passes numbered 12 and 13 are much deeper and are located between Electric Peak and Thunderbolt Mountain and link the north-oriented Little Blackfoot River headwaters valley with a south-oriented Boulder River tributary (Thunderbolt Creek). Pass number 12 has a floor elevation of between 7440 and 7480 feet (2668 and 2280 meters) and pass number 13
Figure 7. Modified topographic map from the USGS National Map website showing a section of the Continental Divide segment between the Little Blackfoot River and Boulder River drainage basins. The contour interval is 40 feet (12 meters).
Figure 8. Modified topographic map from USGS National Map website showing the Continental Divide segment near Bison Mountain. The brown line follows the Continental Divide and numbers identify passes discussed in the text. The contour interval is 40 feet (12 meters).
has a floor elevation of between 7560 and 7600 feet (2304 and 2316 meters) while Electric Peak rises to more than 8320 feet (2536 meters) and Thunderbolt Mountain to 8597 feet (2620 meters). Based on these elevations pass number 12 is more 800 feet (244 meters) deep and the larger gap between Electric Peak and Thunderbolt Mountain was probably eroded by diverging and converging south-oriented streams of water with the final flow moving through pass number 12. Water movement across pass number 12 probably ended when tectonic activity enabled head ward erosion of a deeper northwest-oriented Little Blackfoot River tributary valley (north of Figure 7 and Figure 8) to behead and reverse the south-oriented flow so to create the north-oriented Little Blackfoot River headwaters drainage route and to create the modern day Little Blackfoot-Boulder River drainage divide.
As seen on Figure 7 passes crossing this high Continental Divide segment are common. Pass number 14 with an elevation of between 7480 and 7520 feet (2280 and 2292 meters) links the north-oriented Little Blackfoot River headwaters valley with still a different southeast-oriented Boulder River tributary valley (Red Rock Creek). Elevations of passes number 12 and 14 are similar suggesting they were eroded by streams diverging from the same south-oriented stream. Pass number 15 also links the north-oriented Little Blackfoot River valley with southeast-oriented Red Rock Creek valley and just beyond the northeast corner of Figure 7 is a much deeper pass (number 17 on Figure 8), with a floor elevation of between 7280 and 7320 feet (2219 and 2331 meters) that links the north-oriented Little Blackfoot River with yet another different southeast-oriented Boulder River tributary (Basin Creek). Pass number 16 links the south-oriented valley across pass number 12 with a west- and northwest-oriented Clark Fork tributary valley and can be interpreted in two different ways just like passes numbered 8 and 9.
The deepest pass across the Little Blackfoot River-Boulder River drainage divide (number 19) is seen in Figure 8, which shows the region immediately to the northeast of Figure 7. Pass number 19 has a floor elevation of between 6840 and 6880 feet (2085 and 2097 meters) and links north-oriented Bison Creek with south-oriented Joe Bowers Creek, which flows to south-oriented Basin Creek and then to the Boulder River. Bison Creek flows in a north direction to join northwest-oriented Ontario Creek, which north of Figure 7 joins the north- and west-oriented Little Blackfoot River. Head ward erosion of this deeper south- oriented valley from the Boulder River valley beheaded and reversed flow in all other north-oriented Little Blackfoot River tributary and headwaters valleys and ended flow across all other passes seen in figures 7 and 8. Pass number 18 seen in Figure 8 has a floor elevation of between 7440 and 7480 feet (2268 and 2280 meters) and links north-oriented Monarch Creek with south-oriented Basin Creek. North of Figure 8 Monarch Creek joins northwest-oriented Ontario Creek. The previously mentioned pass number 17 is located at the southwest corner of Figure 8 and northeast corner of Figure 7.
The closely spaced passes seen in Figure 7 and Figure 8 suggest multiple south-oriented streams of water diverged from what is today the north-oriented Little Blackfoot River headwaters alignment and flowed across what is now the Continental Divide before converging again in the Boulder River valley. Diverging and converging streams eroded a bedrock-walled anastomosing channel complex where channels able to erode deeper valleys beheaded and reversed flow in shallower channels so as to begin to create the drainage divide seen today. Head ward erosion of the deep valley across pass number 19 in Figure 8 ended south-oriented flow across all other passes seen in figures 7 and 8. Flow across pass 19 ended when head ward erosion of the deep west-oriented Little Blackfoot River valley (north of Figure 7 and Figure 8) beheaded and reversed south- oriented flow in the present day north-oriented Little Blackfoot River headwaters valley.
4.4. Missouri River-Boulder River Drainage Divide
A short distance north and east of Figure 8 the Continental Divide and the Boulder River drainage divides separate with the Continental Divide turning in a north direction and the Boulder River drainage divide turning in an east and then southeast direction so as to becomes the divide between the Missouri River drainage basin to the north and northeast and the Boulder River drainage basin to the south and southwest. Several noticeable passes crossing the west-to-east oriented Missouri River-Boulder River divide segment link headwaters of north-oriented tributaries to north-oriented Prickly Pear Creek (which flows to a northwest-oriented Missouri River segment near Helena) with south-oriented Boulder River tributaries. Floor elevations of these passes exceed 7500 feet (2286 meters) with the highest point on this divide segment being 8251 feet (2515 meters). The multiple closely spaced passes notched into this drainage divide suggest diverging and converging streams of south-oriented water flowing from what is now the north-oriented Missouri River valley to the south-oriented Boulder River once crossed the region.
After turning in a southeast direction the Missouri River-Boulder River drainage divide decreases in elevation and is again crossed by passes linking other north-oriented Prickly Pear Creek tributaries (flowing to the Missouri River) with south-oriented Boulder River tributaries before turning again in a west-to- east direction where it is crossed by the deep pass number 20 (seen in Figure 9), which is today used as a major transportation route. The pass links the north-northeast oriented Beavertown Creek valley with the south-oriented Muskrat Creek valley (also known as the Boulder Valley) and has a floor elevation of 5609 feet (1710 meters). Beavertown Creek joins north-northeast oriented Prickly Pear Creek, which then flows to a northwest-oriented Missouri River segment (see Figure 1). Muskrat Creek flows through the wide Boulder Valley to join a southeast-oriented Boulder River segment, which then turns in a south direction to join a southeast- and northeast-oriented Jefferson River segment, which proceeds to join the north-oriented Madison and Gallatin Rivers at Three Forks to form the north- and northwest-oriented Missouri River. Pass number 20 must have been eroded by large volumes of south-oriented water that diverged from south-oriented flow on the modern day north-oriented Missouri River alignment to reach the south-oriented Boulder River valley.
4.5. Boulder River-Jefferson River Drainage Divide
Figure 10 provides a topographic map of the Boulder River-Jefferson River drainage divide area (pass 1a seen in Figure 3 also is notched into the Boulder River-Jefferson River drainage divide). Two deep passes are notched into this drainage divide and are identified by the numbers 21 and 22. Pass number 21 is located south of the Boulder Valley seen in Figure 9 and links a north-oriented Boulder River tributary with the south-oriented Whitetail Deer Creek valley,
Figure 9. Modified topographic map from USGS National Map website showing the deep pass at red number 20 linking the Beaver town Creek and Muskrat Creek valleys. The dashed brown line follows the Missouri River-Boulder River drainage divide. The contour interval is 50 feet (15 meters).
Figure 10. Modified topographic map from the USGS National Map website illustrating the Boulder River-Jefferson River drainage divide area. The dashed brown line follows the drainage divide and the contour interval is 100 feet (30.5 meters).
which drains to the Jefferson River (south of Figure 10). The floor elevation of pass 21 is 5723 feet (1744 meters), which is only slightly higher than the 5609-foot (1710-meter) elevation of pass number 20 in Figure 9. Apparently water flowed in a south direction from the present day north-oriented Missouri River valley across pass number 20 in Figure 9 and across what is now the southeast oriented Boulder River valley to reach pass number 21 in Figure 10 and then to enter the Whitetail Deer Creek valley (today the intervening Boulder Valley floor elevation is approximately 4900 feet or 1494 meters). Headward erosion of the intervening southeast-oriented Boulder River valley (perhaps aided by other geologic factors) captured south-oriented flow to the Whitetail Deer Creek valley and reversed the north end of the beheaded south-oriented flow channel to create the north-oriented Boulder River tributary seen today.
Pass number 22 is much higher than pass number 21 and has a floor elevation of slightly less than 7400 feet (2256 meters) and links the northeast-oriented Little Boulder River valley with the south-oriented headwaters of Little Whitetail Creek, which south of Figure 10 joins Whitetail Deer Creek with water flowing to the Jefferson River. The pass floor consists of several channels separated by low hills in a zone approximately 2 miles (3.2 kilometers) wide that is approximately 400 feet (122 meters) lower in elevation than the Boulder River-Jefferson River drainage divide elevations on either side. The floor elevation of pass number 22 is almost identical to the floor elevation of pass number 23, which does not cross the Boulder River-Jefferson River drainage divide, but instead links the northeast-oriented Little Boulder River valley with the southwest-oriented headwaters of a tributary to north-northeast oriented Bison Creek, which as previously discussed flows to the Boulder River. The similarity of the two pass floor elevations strongly suggests southwest-oriented water flowing in the present day northeast-oriented Little Boulder River valley diverged with some water turning to flow in a south direction to the Little Whitetail Creek valley and the remaining water flowing in a southwest direction to enter the Elk Park Valley and then to help erode Elk Park Pass and to reach and probably cross what is today the west-oriented Silver Bow Creek headwaters valley.
Detailed topographic map evidence permits the above-described Boulder River drainage basin area erosional landform evolution process to be deciphered, however important unanswered questions remain. For example, where did the large volumes of south-oriented water required to erode deep valleys across the Boulder Batholith originate? This question becomes even more significant when evidence from other western Montana regions is considered. Recently Clausen [21] described evidence that similar south-oriented diverging and converging stream or river channel complexes had crossed what are today the southwest Montana Anaconda, Beaverhead, Centennial, and Pioneer Mountains prior to modern day Big Hole and Beaverhead River drainage system evolution (today those rivers drain in a north direction to the northeast- and east-oriented Jefferson River, which then drains to the north-oriented Missouri River). Volumes of south-oriented water moving across the entire region must have been immense much greater than a wet climatic cycle would likely generate.
A related question arises when looking at the number of capture events required as the Boulder River drainage system evolved. Bishop [23] states, "The key process in stream capture, namely, drainage head retreat, is difficult to envisage as a normal part of drainage net evolution... Stream capture may therefore be a relatively rare event in drainage net evolution... [and] should not be routinely invoked in interpretations of long-term drainage evolution." Regions with wet climates exist today, yet stream capture in those regions does not appear to occur significantly more frequently than in drier regions. Factors other than just a wet climatic cycle must have been involved as large volumes of south-oriented water eroded the modern day Boulder River drainage basin. Tectonic activity was almost certainly occurring as the large quantities of south-oriented water flowed across the region, which raises still an additional question. Why would immense quantities of south-oriented water flow across western Montana during a period when mountain ranges were uplifted while adjacent basin areas subsided? Sears et al. [18] attribute this period of tectonic activity to Yellowstone hotspot evolution, but such an explanation does not account for the volumes of water required to erode deep valleys and to transport and deposit large volumes of sediments. A different factor must be involved.
One possible source of large south-oriented volumes of water moving across western Montana that might trigger tectonic activity would be a large North American continental ice sheet. Large North American continental ice sheets are known to have existed and would have contained enough frozen water to fill a medium-sized ocean. In addition such ice sheets might have created and occupied a deep "hole" in the North American continent by depressing the continental crust beneath them, deeply eroding the underlying bedrock underneath them, and by warping the continental crust elsewhere. While the concept of deep erosion by continental ice sheets has been rejected by much of the geologic research community the concept has been proposed (see references by White [24] [25] ) and Clausen [26] and [27] has recently described western South Dakota and southeastern Montana evidence for headward erosion of deep north- and northeast-oriented valleys (perhaps eroding headward from space in an ice sheet created and occupied deep "hole" that was being opened up as a large continental ice sheet melted). The north-oriented South Dakota and southeastern Montana valleys eroded headward across what may have been large and southeast-oriented ice marginal melt water floods.
Today the north-oriented Montana Missouri River valley (east of the Boulder River drainage basin) and the north- and northwest-oriented Clark Fork valley (west of the Boulder River drainage basin) both drain toward recognized continental ice sheet margin areas. It is not difficult to imagine immense floods of south-oriented melt water from a North American ice sheet (occupying an ice sheet created deep "hole") moving in those valleys and reversing their flow direction as melting opened up space in that "hole". The Boulder River drainage divide evidence described in this paper definitely supports such an interpretation. However the problem remains, large North American continental ice sheets as commonly described did not create and occupy deep "holes" and existed during Pleistocene time and the large volumes of water responsible for eroding the Boulder River probably flowed across the region prior to that time.
Evidence presented and illustrated in this paper makes it possible to describe in detail how the Boulder River drainage basin evolved from a large complex of diverging and converging south-oriented stream or river channels that previously crossed the region to the drainage system that exists today. This evolutionary process occurred as numerous stream capture events repeatedly funneled south- oriented water into fewer and fewer and deeper and deeper channels while at the same time reversing flow on north ends of the beheaded channels so as to create new drainage divides. While hundreds and possibly thousands of capture events were taking place tectonic activity probably was also raising the Boulder Batholith area while the adjacent basin areas (e.g. Deer Lodge Graben) subsided under the weight of accumulating sedimentary deposits. Further work is needed to determine the south-oriented water source and to better relate the Boulder River drainage system evolution with sedimentary deposits found in the nearby valleys and basins. However, whenever large volumes of water crossed the region and whatever the source the water that eroded the Boulder River drainage basin flowed in south direction.
Clausen, E. (2017) Analysis of Mountains Passes along the East-West Continental Divide and Other Drainage Divides Surrounding the Boulder River Drainage Basin, Jefferson County, Montana, USA. Open Journal of Geology, 7, 1603-1624. doi: 10.4236/ojg.2017.711108.
[1] Calhoun, F.H.H. (1906) The Montana Lobe of the Keewatin Ice Sheet. United States Geological Survey Professional Paper 50.
[2] Alden, W.C. (1932) Physiography and Glacial Geology of Eastern Montana and Adjacent Areas. U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 174.
[3] Atwood, W.W. (1916) The Physiographic Conditions at Butte, Montana, and Bingham Canyon, Utah, When the Copper in These Districts Was Enriched. Economic Geology, 11, 697-749.
https://doi.org/10.2113/gsecongeo.11.8.697
[4] Sears, J.W. (2013) Late Oligocene-Early Miocene Grand Canyon: A Canadian Connection? GSA Today, 23, 4-10.
https://doi.org/10.1130/GSATG178A.1
[5] Clausen, E. (2014) Comment: Late Oligocene-Early Miocene Grand Canyon: A Canadian Connection? Online: GSA Today, Comments and Replies.
https://www.geosociety.org/gsatoday/comment-reply/pdf/i1052-5173-24-4-e32.pdf
[6] Sears, J.W. (2014) Reply to Comment: "Late Oligocene-Early Miocene Grand Canyon: A Canadian connection?" Online: GSA Today, Comments and Replies.
[7] Church, S.E., Nimick, D.A., Finger, S.E. and O'Neill, J.M. (2007) The Boulder River Watershed Study, Jefferson County, Montana. In: Nimick, D.A., Church, S.E. and Finger, S.E., Eds., Chapter B, Integrated Investigations of Environmental Effects of Historical Mining in the Basin and Boulder Mining Districts, Boulder River Watershed, Jefferson County, Montana, United States Geological Survey Professional Paper 1652-B, 697-740.
[8] Woodward, L.A. (1986) Tectonic Origin of Fractures for Fissure Vein Emplacement in the Boulder Batholith and Adjacent Rocks, Montana. Economic Geology, 81, 1387-1395.
https://doi.org/10.2113/gsecongeo.81.6.1387
[9] Ruppel, E.T. (1963) Geology of the Basin Quadrangle Jefferson, Lewis and Clark, and Powell Counties, Montana. United States Geological Survey Bulletin, 1151.
[10] Smedes, H.W. (1962) Lowland Creek Voleanics, an Oligocene Formation near Butte, Montana. The Journal of Geology, 70, 255-266.
[11] Smedes, H.W. and Thomas, H.H. (1965) Reassignment of the Lowland Creek Volcanics to Eocene Age. The Journal of Geology, 73, 508-510.
[12] Dudas, F.O., Ispolatov, V.O., Harlan, S.S. and Snee, L.W. (2010) 40Ar/39Ar Geochronology and Geochemical Reconnaissance of the Eocene Lowland Creek Volcanic Field, West-Central Montana. The Journal of Geology, 118, 295-304.
[13] Becraft, G.E., Pinckney, D.M. and Rosenblum, S. (1963) Geology and Mineral Deposits of the Jefferson City Quadrangle, Jefferson and Lewis and Clark Counties, Montana. United States Geological Survey Professional Paper 428.
[14] Ruppel, E.T. (1962) A Pleistocene Ice Sheet in the Northern Boulder Mountains Jefferson, Powell, and Lewis and Clark Counties, Montana. United States Geological Survey Bulletin 1141-G.
[15] Alt, D.D. and Hyndman, D.W. (1986) Roadside Geology of Montana. Mountain Press Publishing Company, Missoula.
[16] Thompson, G.R., Fields, R.W. and Alt, D. (1982) Land-Based Evidence for Tertiary Climatic Variations: Northern Rockies. Geology, 10, 413-417.
https://doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1982)10<413:LEFTCV>2.0.CO;2
[17] Retallack, G.J. (2007) Cenozoic Paleoclimate on Land in North America. The Journal of Geology, 115, 271-294.
[18] Sears, J.W., Hendrix, M.S., Thomas, R.C. and Fritz, W.J. (2009) Stratigraphic Record of the Yellowstone Hotspot Track, Neogene Sixmile Creek Formation Grabens, Southwest Montana. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, 188, 250-259.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2009.08.017
[19] United States Geological Survey National Map.
https://viewer.nationalmap.gov/advanced-viewer/
[20] Baker, V.R. (1981) Large-Scale Erosional and Depositional Features of the Channel Scabland. In: Baker, V.R., Ed., Catastrophic Flooding; The Origin of the Channeled Scabland, Dowden, Hutchinson and Ross Inc., Stroudsburg, 276-310.
[21] Clausen, E. (2017) Origin of Mountain Passes across Continental Divide Segments Surrounding the Southwest Montana Big Hole and Beaverhead River Drainage Basins, USA. Open Journal of Geology, 7, 1362-1385.
https://doi.org/10.4236/ojg.2017.79091
[22] Sears, J.W. and Ryan, P. (2003) Cenozoic Evolution of the Montana Cordillera: Evidence from Paleovalleys. In: Raynolds, R. and Flores, J., Eds., Cenozoic Paleogeography of Western US: Rocky Mountain Section, Society of Exploration Paleontologists and Mineralogists, Denver, 289-301.
[23] Bishop, P. (1995) Drainage Rearrangement by River Capture, Beheading and Diversion. Progress in Physical Geography, 19, 449-473.
[24] White, W.A. (1972) Deep Erosion by Continental Ice Sheets. Geological Society of America Bulletin, 81, 1037-1056.
https://doi.org/10.1130/0016-7606(1972)83[1037:DEBCIS]2.0.CO;2
[25] White, W.A. (1988) More on Deep Glacial Erosion by Continental Ice Sheets and Their Tongues of Distributary Ice. Quaternary Research, 30, 137-150.
[26] Clausen, E. (2017) Solving a Perplexing Scenic and Sage Creek Basin Drainage History Problem, Pennington County, South Dakota, USA. Journal of Geography and Geology, 9, 1-10.
[27] Clausen, E. (2017) Origin of Little Missouri River—South Fork Grand River and nearby Drainage Divides in Harding County, South Dakota and Adjacent Eastern Montana, USA. Open Journal of Geology, 7, 1063-1077.
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Release of IEA's Key World Energy Statistics, 2014 edition
Home /Bioenergy Reporter, Facts & Education, Market, News, Report/Release of IEA's Key World Energy Statistics, 2014 edition
Bioenergy Reporter,Facts & Education,Market,News,Report |
Published each year since 1997, the booklet presents 16 different headline statistics for each country, from gross domestic product to total primary energy supply to energy production to CO2 emissions per capita. Overview sections offer graphs showing energy output, generation or refining, and consumption by region, fuel or sector from 1973 through to 2013, with pie charts demonstrating differences for these two time periods. Other sections present energy-related CO2 emissions, energy projections, and various market and retail prices for select fuels and countries.
To download the new Key World Energy Statistics, please click here. Many more detailed statistics by country, including energy balance Sankey flow animations, are also available for free on the IEA website's statistics page. The site has been recently updated to incorporate the most recent data available.
An electronic version of the 2014 edition of the Key World Energy Statistics – the International Energy Agency's free, easy-to-consult reference tool – is now available for download, offering the most important statistics on production, transformation and consumption of energy, as well as CO2 emissions, in more than 140 countries and regions, with global and regional overviews.
IRENA: Biomass Could Reach 60% of Total Global Renewable Energy Use by 2030
Vega Biofuels' Pilot Torrefaction Plant Joint Venture, ATP-SC, LLC Awarded a $200,000 USDA Value-Added Producer Grant
TAGS: energy IEA statistics


The Khutniya school was built during the reign of Salahuddin al Ayyubi in 587H/1191CE adjacent to the northern wall of the Qibli Masjid. It was named after Sheikh al Khutni, who taught Islamic sciences there. Over time the structure of the school saw several modifications. Today, only a few arches and windows remain of the school's original building.
A product of the Mamluk era, this school was established by Prince Alam Ad Din Abu Musa Sanjar al Duwaidar near Masjid al Aqsa's Gate of Darkness in 695H/1295CE. It was a centre of learning for the Shafi'Mathab, and also served as a hospice. It retained its function through the Ottoman era, and even into the time of the British mandate. At a certain stage, it was dedicated exclusively to teaching girls. Today, the school serves those with special needs, and is called Al Bakriyah. It is a two story building boasting a beautifully decorated entrance.
Also a motif of the Mamluk era, at Tankaziyah school is so named after its founder, and then governor of Shaam, Prince Saif ad Din Tankaz An Nasri, who built it in 729H/1328CE. It is situated between the Gate of the Chain and the al Buraq Wall at Masjid al Aqsa. It its initial years it served as school of Hadith and Sunnah. Later on, the Mamluks utilised it as a courthouse. The Ottomans adopted it as a Sharia Court, and in the early days of the British Mandate Al Haj Amin al Husseini, the Grand Mufti of Jerusalem, took it as his place of residence. The building thereafter resumed its function as a madrassah, but was subsequently occupied by Israel in 1388H/1969CE and transformed into a Border Police outpost used to eavesdrop on Masjid al Aqsa.
Named after the Mamluk Prince Faris Al Baki bin Al amir Qatlo bin Abdullah, who commissioned its building in 755H/1352CE. It is situated atop Masjid al Aqsa's northern corridor and a staircase leads to its entrance. The school features a courtyard as well as another staircase that leads to the adjacent Aminyah School. Today, the school is inhabited by a few families from al Quds.
Half of this building is located inside the Masjid al Aqsa compound, while the other half is outside the Masjid borders. This school is considered the third architectural jewel of Masjid al Aqsa after the Qibli Masjid and Dome of the Rock. Prince Hassan bin Tatr Ath Thahiry built this school as a gift for King Thaher Khashqoum in 872H/1426CE during the Mamluk era. The King passed on before its construction was completed and it was subsequently dedicated to Sultan Ashraf Qaitbay who appointed for it scholars and teachers. When the Sultan visited it, he was not impressed by its construction and ordered its rebuilding in 885H/1470CE. The school consists of a two-story building. Its entrance is beautiful decorated with red and white bricks. It was historically frequented by followers of the Hanbali mathab. It also houses two graves. Today the school is home to the Al Aqsa Sharia School for girls as well as the Islamic Waqf's Department of Manuscripts. Parts of it are also inhabited by certain Jerusalemite families. The building underwent a restoration in 1420H/2000CE.
Mamluk King Joukndar al Malaki An Nasiri built this school in 741H/1340CE during the reign of Sultan An Nasser Mohammed bin Qalawun. It is two story structure with a well decorated entrance. It's largest room overlooks the courtyard of Masjid al Aqsa. It is currently used a housing.
Built by Alm Ad Din Sanjr bin Abdullah al Jawli, Mamluk governor of Jerusalem during the reign of King Nasser bin Qalawun in 712-720H/1312-1320CE. It is a two storey structure, with an open courtyard surrounded by a number of rooms. In the Ottoman era it served as a city hall as well as governmental building. Today, it constitutes part of the Al Omariyah School.
This school was proclaimed as a waqf by Lady Agl Khatun in the 7th century Hijri/13th century Gregorian coinciding with the Mamluk era. Some of its windows overlook the courtyards of Masjid al Aqsa. Initially Qur'aan and Fiqh were taught here. Several Islamic and Palestinian figures of historical significance are buried here. They include: Indian Prince Mohammad al Hindi, who defended the Palestinian cause; Musa Kathem al Husseini, Mayor of Jerusalem under the Ottomans; Sharif Abdul Hamid bin Awn, father in law of King Abdullah of Jordan, Ahmad Hilmi Abdul Baqi, first Palestinian Prime Minister in the 1948 All-Palestine government; Abdul Qader al Husseini, commander of local Arab forces in the 1948 War and leader of Palestinians in the famous Al Qastal battle. His son Faisal al Husseini who was the PLO representative in Jerusalem, and Abdul Hamid Shoman, founder of the Arab Bank, are also buried here.
Majd Ad Din Abdul ghani bin Saif Ad Din Abu Bakr Yusuf al Asa'rdi ordered the building of this school in 760H/1385CE. It was officially declared a waqf 10 years later. It is located in Masjid al Aqsa's northern corridor and consists of a two storey building and an open courtyard. It also possesses three beautiful domes and a musallah. Today, the building is used as a residence.
Construction of this school was initated by Mamluk Prince Aragun Al Kamili in 758H/1356CE and completed by Rukn Ad Din Baibars. It can be found between the Cotton Merchants and Iron Gates at the western end of Masjid al Aqsa. It is a two-storey building with a beautiful red and white brick façade. The entrance features and inscription bearing the founder's name. It houses two graves – one of Prince Aragun and the other of the Hashemite King Hussein bin Ali. Today, the larger part of it is used as a residence.
Built by Amin Ad Din Abdullah in 730H/1330CE during the Mamluk era. A number of Muslim scholars are buried here. Today, part of the building overlaps with the Farsiyah School and part is used as a house.
Can be found in the north of Masjid al Aqsa next to the Al Duwaidaryah School. Made a waqf by Judge Zein Ad Din Abdul Basit Khalil al Dimashqi – who was the treasurer general and army commander during the time of Mamluk King al Mu'ayyad Saif Ad Din Sheikh al Mamluki – during the years 815-824H/1412-1421CE. It's foundation is attributed to Sheikh al Islam Shams Ad Din Mohammad al Harawi. It was a place of learning for Shafi' Fiqh, Hadith and Qur'aan for orphans and Sufis. Today it serves as housing quarters.
Located on the Western Wall of Masjid al Aqsa, to the left of the Inspector's Gate. Its construction is attributed to Saif Ad Din Manjak Al Yousifi An Nasiri, who also declared it a Waqf in the 8th Century Hijri/14th Century CE, during the Mamluk era. It is made up of two floors and comprises many rooms. Initiated as a school, it later served as a shelter for foreign visitors to Jerusalem. During the days of the British Mandate it returned to be used as a school. The Supreme Islamic Council then took it as headquarters, and it now serves as the base of the Islamic Waqf in Jerusalem.
Located at the Ablution Gate, alongside the al Ashrafiyah School. Named after Asfahan Shah Khatun Bint Mahmoud al Uthmaniayh, the Turkish lady who established it in 840H/1436CE. Her grave can be found to the left side of the school's entrance. The structure's entrance is characteristically Mamluk and the building has two floors. Consists of a number of rooms and a small open courtyard overlooking Masjid al Aqsa. The structure was restored by the Supreme Islamic Council, but was subsequently damaged by Israeli excavations. The musalla at the school was seized by the Israel, on the pretext of using it to create ventilation for a Zionist tunnel beneath Masjid al Aqsa.


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Undergraduate study - 2020 entry
Undergraduate study - 2020 entry home
Subject: Social Policy
MA Social Policy and Economics
UCAS code: LL41
Delivery: Full-time
School: Social and Political Science
College: Arts, Humanities & Social Sciences
Contract all
What you will study
You will take Social Policy & Society, which revolves around three main themes: social needs, social problems and social rights, and how different debates about welfare have been influenced by these themes.
You will study Politics of the Welfare State, which examines social policy as a political issue in the UK. It introduces you to the politics of the area that constitutes one of the largest sets of government expenditure.
You will be confronted with debates about the different ways of delivering welfare and the interplay between the state and the private sector.
You can choose option courses from other academic areas and will also take the course Fundamentals of Social Policy, which provides the key subject-specific learning skills you'll use in your further years of study.
You will take European Social Policy, which compares different approaches to social policy in various European countries.
You will also take Evidence, Politics and Policy as well as further Fundamentals courses, which will equip you with analytical skills needed to engage with controversial policy issues in public debate.
You will also study other compulsory courses appropriate to your programme and will select one option course.
You can study option courses that cover areas such as family policy, labour market policies, social inequalities, criminal justice, health policy and education policy. You will also take at least one course on research methods.
You will continue to take social policy courses and will complete an individual research project. This may involve collecting and analysing data and information from sources such as the European Commission, UK Government, Scottish Government, local authorities and voluntary organisations.
Find out more about the compulsory and optional courses in this degree programme.
To give you an idea of what you will study on this programme, we publish the latest available information. However, please note this may not be for your year of entry, but for a different academic year.
Programme structure (2019/20)
Where you will study
Most of the teaching takes place in the University's Central Area. You will also have access to the University's computer facilities and libraries.
You may apply to spend Year 3 abroad in one of several universities in North America, Central and South America, Australia and Asia with whom the University has special links.
In addition, we have European Erasmus exchange schemes with Leuphana University Lüneburg and Jacobs University Bremen (Germany).
You can also apply to university-wide Erasmus exchanges in Amsterdam (Netherlands), Dublin (Ireland) and Lund (Sweden).
What are my options for going abroad?
Learning and assessment
How will I learn?
You will be taught through a combination of lectures, tutorials/seminars and individual supervision.
You will be assessed by a combination of exams and coursework, and through a Year 4 research project.
Find out more about this programme's aims, what you will learn, how you will be assessed and what skills and knowledge you will develop.
To give you an idea of what to expect from this programme, we publish the latest available information. However, please note this may not be for your year of entry, but for a different academic year.
Programme details (2019/20)
Most of our graduates move into careers in policy or research within government, voluntary organisations, pressure groups or commercial organisations.
These programmes also equip you with skills and knowledge that could be applied to careers in teaching or to the management and delivery of services, whether public or commercial.
Some graduates have gone on to study for professional qualifications in housing management, social work or human resource management.
Standard entry requirement
The standard entry requirement is:
SQA Highers: AAAA - ABBB by end of S5. If you haven't achieved this by the end of S5 we may consider your application based on a strong performance in S6. A minimum of BBB must be achieved in one year of S4-S6. (Revised 18/10/2019 from 'AAAA - AABB'.)
A Levels: ABB. (Revised 21/06/2019 from 'ABB'. Revised 11/12/2019 from 'AAB - ABB'.)
IB: 40 points (grades 766 at HL) - 34 points (grades 655 at HL) (Revised 11/12/2019 from '40 (766 at HL)').
Minimum entry requirement
The minimum entry requirement for widening access applicants is:
SQA Highers: ABBB by end of S6, with a minimum of BBB achieved in one year of S4-S6.
A Levels: ABB.
IB: 34 points (grades 655 at HL).
More information for widening access applicants
Required subjects
The grades used to meet our entry requirements must include:
SQA: Higher: Mathematics at grade B. National 5: English at grade C.
A Levels: Mathematics at grade B, or AS Mathematics at grade A (if A Level is not taken). GCSEs: English at grade C or 4. (Revised 18/3/2019 to provide more accurate information).
IB: HL: Mathematics at grade 5. SL: Mathematics at grade 6 (if not taken at HL) and English at grade 5. Mathematical Studies is not accepted for any of our Economics programmes. (Revised 18/3/2019 to provide more accurate information).
Find out more about entry requirements
We welcome applications from students studying a wide range of international qualifications.
Entry requirements by country
International Foundation Programme
If you are an international student and your school qualifications are not accepted for direct entry to the University you may be eligible for admission to this degree programme through our International Foundation Programme.
We welcome applications from mature students and accept a range of qualifications.
Mature applicant qualifications
You must demonstrate a level of English language competency at a level that will enable you to succeed in your studies, regardless of your nationality or country of residence.
SQA, GCSE and IB
For SQA, GCSE and IB students, unless a higher level is specified in the stated entry requirements, a pass is required in English at the following grades or higher:
SQA National 5 Grade C
SQA Standard Grade 3
SQA Intermediate 1 Grade A
SQA Intermediate 2 Grade C
GCSE Grade C or 4
Level 2 Certificate Grade C
IB Standard Level Grade 5 (English ab initio is not accepted for entry)
We accept the following English language qualifications at the grades specified:
IELTS Academic module overall 6.5 with 5.5 in each component
TOEFL-iBT 92 or above with 20 in each section
Cambridge English: Advanced or Proficiency overall 176 with 162 in each component
PTE Academic: Total 61 with at least 51 in each "Communicative Skills" section
Trinity ISE: ISE II with a distinction in all four components
We also accept a wider range of international qualifications and tests.
English language qualifications must be no more than three and a half years old from the start date of the programme you are applying to study, unless you are using IELTS, TOEFL, PTE or Trinity ISE, in which case it must be no more than two years old.
(Revised 05/06/2019 to provide more accurate/comprehensive information.)
Discover Uni data
This information is part of a government initiative to enhance the material that higher education institutions provide about their degree programmes.
It is one of many sources of information which will enable you to make an informed decision on what and where to study.
Please note that some programmes do not have Discover Uni data available.
Fees, costs and funding
Tuition fees for MA Social Policy and Economics
For more information on how much it will cost to study with us and the financial support available see our fees and funding information.
College of Arts, Humanities & Social Sciences Undergraduate Admissions Office
Web: Contact CAHSS Undergraduate Admissions Office
Degrees in Social Policy
7 degrees in Social Policy
Government, Policy and Society (MA) L230
Government, Policy and Society with Quantitative Methods (MA) L231
Social Policy and Economics (MA) LL41
Social Policy and Law (MA) LM41
Social Policy and Politics (MA) LL42
Social Policy and Sociology (MA) LL43
Social Policy with Quantitative Methods (MA) 4T6H
French and Social Policy (MA) RL14
Geography and Social Policy (MA) LL74
German and Social Policy (MA) RL24
Law and Social Policy (LLB) ML14
Russian Studies and Social Policy (MA) RL74
Scandinavian Studies and Social Policy (MA) RL64
Social Anthropology and Social Policy (MA) LL64
Sustainable Development (MA) HL23
Why choose Social Policy
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