Game of Thrones is known for its expansive worldbuilding, with more than a hundred named characters and dozens of towns, holdfasts, castles, kingdoms and regions sprawled over multiple continents. George R.R. Martin's A Song of Ice and Fire series is even more in-depth, building out the fictional history of Westeros for hundreds of years. But for all we know about the world of Game of Thrones, there's just as much that remains mysterious, including the name of the world itself. So what is the name of the world in Game of Thrones?
The world of Game of Thrones includes three continents: Westeros, Essos and Sothoryos (and maybe a fourth, known as Ulthos), but everything beyond Westeros and the handful of cities the show's visited along the coasts of Essos is cloaked in mystery. Maps included in The Land of Ice and Fire only depict "the known world," essentially limiting the perspective on the world to what could be gleaned by the Maesters. Very few of the characters in Game of Thrones knows much of the world, with Sothoryos in particular a mostly unknown land.
The name of the planet itself is similarly mysterious and is never named in Game of Thrones, the A Song of Ice and Fire series, or even in Martin's compendiums of lore, like The World of Ice & Fire and Fire & Blood.
Instead, the name of the world in Game of Thrones has only ever been described in an unusual and likely non-canonical forum: by Martin in the comment section of his blog.
Martin's answer is both definitive and slippery, since the same transliteration from the fictional Common Tongue into languages legible to our Earth societies would be true of any noun in Game of Thrones. Presumably, King's Landing is not called King's Landing in the Common Tongue, nor would Arya Stark pronounce her name that way in her own language. So the world of Westeros is named Earth, just as certainly as Sandor Clegane is Sandor Clegane, but there's still a hedge in Martin's answer that prevents us from simply naming the Game of Thrones planet Earth. This is probably because, unlike The Lord of the Rings and other fantasy series set in a fictional lost age of our Earth, Westeros is located on a different planet entirely.
By Vance, Martin means Jack Vance, an American sci-fi and fantasy author, most famous for his Dying Earth series (which is amazing). Martin has long cited Vance as a major influence, even editing (with legendary sci-fi editor Gardner Dozois) a tribute anthology called Songs of the Dying Earth. Vance's novel Big Planet introduces a world that's much like Earth, except larger and lacking in useful minerals and metals. Despite its colonization by spacefaring Earthlings, Big Planet is nearly medieval due to a lack of the natural resources needed for industrialization (the combination of fantasy and sci-fi is a Vance staple).
Martin's answer regarding the planet where Game of Thrones is set suggests it may be different from ours in several ways, but should be presumptively considered Earth-like. But while the characters call it Earth, it's unlikely to be referred to as anything other than simply "the world," either on Game of Thrones or in the remaining two ASOIAF novels, The Winds of Winter and A Dream of Spring.
'Game of Thrones': Is Bran Stark the Night King?


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Q: What does this mean: considerRebuildOfPrelinkedKernel prebuild rebuild has expired A line I accidentally spotted in system.log on MacOS X 10.9.1 when I connected an external USB webcam for the first time ever.... Subsequent connects to the usb port did not produce this message again. So it may not even be related. Except for Safari nothing else was running at that time.
Basically I'm asking purely out of curiosity I'm aware that most probably I can just ignore this.
Screenshot:

A: It means that there is not a driver for that device in the kernel. Since Mac OSX uses a microkernel vs monolithic kernel like Linux. If you need to install drivers for this, an easy way to figure out what you need is to use a linux system. On the Linux machine, as root, run dmesg, then plug the device in and run dmesg again. Linux should tell you what the chipset is. Use this information in your search for a Mac OSX driver.
Now for your specific case, it is possible that upon insertion something went wrong with the USB interface and it could not recognize the device and map it to the right driver.  The next time you plugged it in, everything was working as you would expect.

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaStackExchange


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Great Explorers In American History
"There are great speeches in presidential history. And I'd rank Kennedy at Rice pretty high." In "American Moonshot" Brinkley traces. Savvy about message, Kennedy saw space exploration as a way to.
Welcome to American History for Kids. From the first Thanksgiving to the first man on the moon, you've come to the right place to learn about American history.
Old World monarchs dispatched explorers and small armies to the newly discovered. drove the explorers to perform heinous acts against the Native Americans. He discovered neither great wealth nor the Fountain of Youth, and failed to.
Truman issued an executive order seizing the American steel industry to avert a nationwide strike. he was 27. 1682: French explorer Robert de La Salle claimed the Mississippi River Basin for France.
Apr 18, 2019 · Enter the hornet's nest and join the rebellion in Mecklenburg County! Come to The Charlotte Museum of History for a day of revelry and rebellion as we celebrate the legendary Mecklenburg Declaration of Independence and explore the long history.
Ahead of the 50th anniversary of the moon landing this July, historian Douglas Brinkley is telling the backstory of the mission in his new book, "American Moonshot: John F. Kennedy and the Great Space.
Tractor Trailer Accident On George Washington Bridge WTOP brings you the latest news, traffic, and weather information for the Washington, D.C. region. Catch up on the issues & topics important to you today! FORT LEE, N.J. — A man had to be cut out of Mercedes Benz after it was crushed by two tractor-trailers on the George Washington Bridge. eastbound on the
The city of Detroit, the largest city in the state of Michigan, was settled in 1701 by French colonists.It is the first European settlement above tidewater in North America. Founded as a New France fur trading post, it began to expand with British and American settlement around the Great Lakes in the nineteenth century.Industrialization drove it into becoming a world-class industrial.
Route 66 has held a special place in the American consciousness from its beginning. The road is uniquely American. There are a thousand stories of hope, heartbreak, love, hate, starting over, and new dreams found along the next bend of the highway we call the Mother Road.
The following is a list of explorers.Their common names, countries of origin (modern and former), centuries when they were active and main areas of exploration are listed below.
Become an Expert about the History of the American Revolution by Reading Interesting and Important Facts about the American Revolution on KidInfo.com's History of the American Revolution Homework Help Resource Page.
Scores on national tests in that subject, along with history and geography. a border wall to reduce immigration will "make America great again". Perhaps just bussing newly-arrived.
So, he said, the line decided to stick to a name that was traditional and reflects 146 years of rich history. Holland America is about and that it was very important to be "very clear about those.
ANZA, JUAN BAUTISTA DE Captain Juan Bautista de Anza (1736-1788) was a Mexican-born trailblazer and explorer. He was the first person of European descent to establish an overland trail from Mexico to the northern Pacific coast of California (then called New Albion).
He specifically claimed credit for an economic revival on Minnesota's Iron Range, touted his administration's moves to open up mineral exploration. largest in history" — a claim some economists.
Jun 25, 2017. From there Pytheas of Marseilles completed the greatest recorded voyage of exploration of ancient times, circumnavigating Great Britain and.
If it conjures up the famous Sensation show at London's Royal Academy in. episodic and fractured (as perhaps suits the age), jumping across to Europe and back, co-opting the American-born Sargent.
Apr 24, 2003 · In A. D. 458, a Chinese adventurer named Hwui Shan crossed the Pacific to Mexico, and then followed the Japan current north to Alaska. Centuries later, in September 1513, Vasco Nunez de Balboa "discovered" the Pacific after struggling across the swampy Isthmus of Panama.
Mar 29, 2019 · Mandan Chief Big White. In part three of our series on Lewis and Clark and the Corps of Discovery, in the late summer and fall of 1804, the American expedition headed into the lands of the powerful Sioux nation, aiming to reach the Mandan Villages – the home of the Mandan people.
Alexander Hamilton Wedding Ring Miscellaneous 19th Century American Popular Music. NOTE: all songs, as appropriate, from my Minstrel Songs, Old and New webpage are also listed here, for their chronological listing convenience. Mar 07, 2016 · If you have been in the same room as me in the past six months, you have probably heard me mention Hamilton: An American
Captain Meriwether Lewis—William. we must have more evidence. History is about finding the truth," he adds. The National Park Service is currently reviewing the exhumation request. The intrigue.
Feb 12, 2018. David Grann writes about Henry Worsley's solitary trek, which became a singular of character.
Explore Today. Through the eyes of our Explorers, photographers, journalists, and filmmakers. Latest Stories. Culture & History. Explore Central America: Trips From $1,699. How one of Africa's great parks is rebounding from war.
Captain Meriwether Lewis and Lieutenant William Clark were tasked by Jefferson to explore the Louisiana territory and map a route across the western half of North America.
The fThe major explorers of North America. The section open with events that opened the Age of Exploration. The next major entry is all about Columbus's four.
Here is an indexed listing of biography sites for Explorers – A to Z. This is a companion page for the main Explorers page, one of many 42eXplore projects from EduScapes. A-B
There have been many famous explorers throughout time whose achievements and bravery are worth noting. Their purposeful accomplishments and occasional accidental discoveries have helped to shape the course of history. Below is a list of some of the most notable explorers of all time. Famous Explorers Leif Ericson (970-1020) Nationality: Norwegian Known For: Considered the
KUMEYAAY INDIAN HISTORY research essay facts about Native American precontact prehistoric historical San Diego County in Southwestewrn Southern California Mexico.
Columbus Sails, Others Follow, and Spain Is on Top of the World Download MP3 (Right-click or option-click the link.). Welcome to THE MAKING OF A NATION – American history in VOA Special English. In the United States, October ninth is observed as Leif Erickson Day.
French filmmaker Claire Denis, one of the great living directors. "High Life," an A24 release, is rated R by the Motion Picture Association of America for "disturbing sexual and violent content.
"Rev" Tor Krautter has always considered Santana among his greatest influences. BTG's celebrated stages reflect the history of the American theatre; they represent a priceless cultural resource for.
Statue Of Liberty 100th Anniversary Gold Stamp 1986 Statue of Liberty 2-piece Proof Coin Set. John F. Kennedy 100th Anniversary 24K Gold Aurum. Stamps & $2 Bill Customer Pick Declaration of Independence 24K Aurum, Stamps & $2 Bill Pricing $ 49.95 or 2 payments of $24.98 Rating. 5 5.0 9 (9) ♥ 2017. —–BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK—– mQQNBFUoCGgBIADFLp+QonWyK8L6SPsNrnhwgfCxCk6OUHRIHReAsgAUXegpfg0b rsoHbeI5W9s5to/MUGwULHj59M6AvT+DS5rmrThgrND8Dt0dO+XW88bmTXHsFg9K. 2014 Royal
The Explorers. filmmaker who led a famous expedition across Africa in 1934, but they were donated by the estate of Sally H. Clark, wife of James L. Clark, who served as Director for Preparations at.
The current bore them swiftly southwards. It was the start of one of the greatest journeys of exploration in American history, one that owed everything to the energy, ambition and towering curiosity.
Pocahontas, despite her iconic stature in Anglo-American colonial history. a young widower. Did the Age of Exploration bring more harm than good? A big day in history: the first baby is born to.
Resources/Collections of History Lesson Plans NEH Lesson Plans Web-based lesson plans for U.S. history and American government teachers from the National Endowment for the Humanities EDSITEment. See also History and Social Studies and Introduction to Advanced Placement U.S. History Lessons. HistorySimulation.com
Orlando singer Alyssa Raghu has made it to the Top 14 on "American Idol. In this episode of Central Florida Explorer, Patrick explores some Winter Park scenery and history while paddling the Winter.
His beat includes earthquake research, marine biology, wildfire science, nuclear testing, archaeology, wildlife and scientific exploration. illegal American tourism in Cuba and a 40-day cross.
Exploration happens here. Marvel at the colorful scales of a swallowtail butterfly's wings, count the bones of the great Barosaurus, or track earthquakes around the world in real time, right here in Manhattan. The Museum was made for explorers and adventurers—it was made for people like YOU.
. be evidence of later or continued exploration of North America by Nordic adventurers. The idea that early Nordic explorers made it to Minnesota was investigated in Episode 4, "Ghosts of the Great.
The cave stretches across 216 miles, according to the Gran Acuífero Maya (GAM), the team of explorers who discovered the cave. The discovery "allows us to appreciate much more clearly how the rituals,
Familiar names like Great Smoky Mountains. very little accurate written history about the lives and experiences of African Americans. The home served as the headquarters for the Association for the.
American History for Kids and Teachers. Creating a Nation. Explorers. Native Americans. Colonial Times, 13 Colonies. Road to Revolution
. Ibn Battuta, Zheng He, Vasco da Gama, and other explorers around the world. other European sailors had reached the coasts of America, which we know. During the 15th century, the Indian Ocean was still a great mystery to Europeans.
The book is an eye-opening account of the women's suffrage movement in England and America as. and the complex history of birth control in both the United States and the United Kingdom." For modern.
Games & Interactives for Explorers, Sailing Ships, and Sea Monsters! Games! Online Free Games & Activities about Explorers. Jeopardy Games about Explorers
America's Journeys: American Journeys contains more than 18,000 pages of eyewitness accounts of North American exploration, from the sagas of Vikings in Canada in AD 1000 to the diaries of mountain men in the Rockies 800 years later.Read the words of explorers, Indians, missionaries, traders and settlers as they lived through the founding moments of American history.
Quotes From The Autobiography Of Benjamin Franklin
Andrew Jackson Borden Biography

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


Ryukyu Life: Why Are Crows Such Nasty Birds ?
Many years ago a hunter went up in the mountains of Miyako in search of food.
Armed with a bow and arrow, he wasn't having much success finding any game.
He spotted a beautiful golden bird but, didn't shoot it.
If the man would promise to not hunt birds on this mountain again, he would be rewarded.
The golden bird would grant him any wish, he desired.
Back at home, he had a wife who was always complaining about the place they lived in.
So, the man requested a mansion for his wife.
Sure enough, when he got home, his wife was in their beautiful new home.
She said, a crew came and refurbished the whole place and she was surprised.
When the man told her it was because of the golden bird, she became angry.
She wished she could fly like a bird and, wanted that more than a fancy house.
The man felt like a fool but, went back to find the bird to make another request.
He thanked the bird for the new house.
But, he knew his complaining wife wouldn't stop until she had her wish granted.
She wanted to be able to fly.
The golden bird was a little ruffled over this request but, made an exception for this old man.
When he got home, his wife couldn't be found anywhere.
She had been turned into the ugliest bird the man had ever seen; a crow.
To this day, the people of Miyako have a saying about crows.
They say, "Look what another greedy person has been turned into."


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Home News Vivo V11 Pro Press Renders and Specifications Leaked Ahead of Launch
Vivo V11 Pro Press Renders and Specifications Leaked Ahead of Launch
Pranob Mehrotra -
Pranob Mehrotra
Chinese smartphone manufacturer Vivo has been teasing its upcoming device, the V11/V11 Pro, for quite a while now. The latest in the string of teasers, which was released earlier this week, revealed most of the smartphone's design. Now, official press renders and specifications of the upcoming device have surfaced online. AndroidPure has managed to procure official press renders and specifications of the Vivo V11 Pro, which reveal the device in all its glory.
Image: Android Pure
According to an exclusive report from the publication, the upcoming Vivo V11 Pro will feature a 6.41-inch FHD+ Super AMOLED display with an in-display fingerprint sensor. The smartphone will be powered by Qualcomm's mid-range Snapdragon 660 SoC, coupled with 6GB of RAM and 64GB of internal storage. The leaked images also reveal that the Vivo V11 Pro will feature a 3,400mAh battery with Vivo's Dual-Engine fast charging and a triple card slot with support for two SIM cards and a microSD card.
In the camera department, the Vivo V11 Pro will feature a 12MP+5MP dual camera setup on the back, coupled with a 25MP AI-enabled front camera for better selfies. The leaked press renders also reveal that the device will feature a micro USB port, instead of a USB Type-C port which, quite honestly, is a little disappointing. Other than that, the press renders confirm all the design elements of the device that have been leaked/teased previously.
Image: AndroidPure
Vivo is expected to launch the Vivo V11 Pro in India on September 6 at a launch event in Mumbai. Other than the teasers posted on the company's social media accounts, Vivo has released no information regarding the device's specifications. The leaked press renders reveal no information regarding the pricing and neither has the company. While we can't be absolutely certain if the leaked press renders are accurate, it would be safe to say that the Vivo V11 Pro will pose a stiff competition to other mid-range smartphones in the market, including the Nokia 7 Plus and the recently launched Xiaomi Mi A2.


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Center for Water Supply Studies
Databases and Maps
CWSS Research Objectives
The Center for Water Supply Studies is actively involved in conducting research relevant to addressing water supply issues in the Coastal Bend region of South Texas.
The Center for Water Supply Studies research is focused on:
Investigating barrier island stratigraphy, aquifer dynamics, and freshwater/saltwater interactions
Developing techniques for evaluating water contamination using proxies
Investigating sources of bacteria loading in surface water runoff and in ground water aquifers
Evaluating new water treatment technologies
Conducting geophysical studies to evaluate the stratigraphic and hydrogeological properties of aquifers
CWSS Research Projects (including graduate and undergraduate students)
understanding groundwater contributions to water quality and habitat degradationin coastal embayments.
Using radionuclides such as Radon (Rn) and Radium (Ra), elemental and stable isotope geochemistry, temperature, and electrical resistivity as indicators of groundwater discharge.
Understanding the role of groundwater nutrients in system-wide nutrient budgets, and hypoxia and phytoplankton (red & brown tide) trends in relation to groundwater flow and nutrient discharge.
Implications of climatic and anthropogenic change on decreased freshwater inflows to coastal embayments and increased salinities in surface water and groundwater in coastal areas.
Investigation of methane sources in groundwater active horizontal drilling areas and prediction of injected water quality changes under aquifer storage and recovery (ASR) using stable isotopes and modeling techniques.
Magnetotelluric and conductivity imaging of the geometry of barrier island freshwater aquifers
Development of forward modeling algorithms for modelling vertical electrical soundings of magnetotelluric and conductivity geophysical data
Development of software to extract NEXRAD rainfall data for use in watershed models
Investigation of groundwater/surface water interaction in Oso Creek to track bacteria sources
Study of the use of fluorescent whitening agents as tracers in the investigation of domestic sewage contamination of surface waters
Investigation of the geometry of the freshwater/saltwater interface on barrier islands
Examination of the correlation of rainfall recharge with spring flow at Comal Springs
Development of a variable density flow model of freshwater lens dynamics on Padre Island to contrain the flux of nitrogen into the coastal zone of the Gulf of Mexico
Spalt, N*, Murgulet, D., and Hu, X., (2018). Relating estuarine geology to groundwater discharge at an oyster reef in Copano Bay, Texas. Hydrology Journal (In Press: HYDROL22980).
Lopez, C.*, Murgulet, D., Douglas, A*, and Murgulet, V. (2018). Evaluating Groundwater Inflow and Nutrient Transport to Texas Coastal Embayments, Phase III (Baffin Bay). Scientific report submitted to Texas General Land Office, April 2018; p. 105. GLO Contract No. 16-060-000-9104.
Murgulet, D., Trevino, M.*, Douglas, A.*, Spalt, N.*, Hu, X., and Murgulet, V. (2018). Temporal and spatial fluctuations of groundwater-derived alkalinity fluxes to a semiarid coastal embayment. Science of the Total Environment. Science of the Total Environment 630 (2018) 1343–1359. #https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.02.333.
Douglas, A*, Murgulet, D., Wetz, M., and Spalt, N* (2017). Evaluating Groundwater Inflow and Nutrient Transport to Texas Coastal Embayments, Phase II (Mission-Aransas Estuary). Scientific report submitted to Texas General Land Office, April 2017; p. 103. GLO Contract No. 15-047-000-8392.
Murgulet, D., Murgulet, V., Hay, R., Mestas-Nunez, A., and Tissot, P. (2017). Relationships between Sea Surface Temperature Changes in the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans and South Texas Precipitation and Streamflow Variability. Hydrology Journal (550 (2017) 726-739. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2017.05.041
Khan, R. H. *, Smith-Engle J.M., and Tissot, P., Murgulet D. (2016). Temporal Spatial and Depth Variations of Ground Water Chemistry: An Indicator of Hydro-Geochemical Evolution in Shallow Coastal Aquifers, South Texas. Gulf Coast Association of Geological Societies (GCAGS) Journal." (2016): 313-329.
Murgulet D., M. Cook, and V. Murgulet (2016) Groundwater Mixing Between Different Aquifer Types in a Complex Structural Setting Discerned by Elemental and Stable Isotope Geochemistry. Journal of Hydrological Processes. DOI: 10.1002/hyp.10589.
Murgulet, D. and G.R. Tick (2016) Effect of variable-density groundwater flow on nitrate flux to coastal waters. Journal of Hydrological Processes. DOI: 10.1002/hyp.10580.
Tick, G.R., J.R.Harvell, and D. Murgulet (2015) Intermediate-Scale Investigation of Enhanced-Solubilization Agents on the Dissolution and Removal of a Multicomponent Dense Nonaqueous Phase Liquid (DNAPL) Source. Water Air and Soil Pollution, doi: 10.1007/s11270-015-2636-7.
Bighash, P. and D. Murgulet, (2015) Application of factor analysis and electrical resistivity to understand groundwater contributions to coastal embayments in semi-arid and hypersaline coastal settings. Science of the Total Environment. 532:688-701. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.06.077.
Murgulet, D., M.S. Wetz, A. Douglas, N. Spalt, and K. Linares (2015). Evaluating Groundwater Inflow and Nutrient Transport to Texas Coastal Embayments. Scientific report submitted to Texas General Land Office August 2015.
Murgulet, D. and R.G. Hay (2015). Technical Support document: Bacteria Total Maximum Daily Load for the Oso Creek Watershed, Texas. Submitted October 15, Contract No. 582-11-90501; Work Order No. 13
Weber, E. T. II and D. Denny (2009) 1-D inversion of magnetotelluric vertical electrical sounding curves: Defining coastal aquifers with freshwater-saltwater transition zones: Journal of Applied Geophysics.
Garrison, James R. Jr., E.T. Weber, II, S. Potter Miller, G. McMechan and X. Zeng (2009) Ground-penetrating Radar study of North Padre Island, Texas: Implications for barrier island internal architecture, models of micro-tidal barrier island growth, and Gulf of Mexico sea-level cyclicity: Journal of Sedimentary Research. doi:10.2110/jsr.2010.034
Murgulet, D., Coeckelenbergh, K., Uhlman, K. 2018. Freshwater Withdrawals Associated with Oil and Gas Production in Texas - Dorina Murgulet, Texas A&M University-Corpus Christi; 2018 UCOWR/NIWR Annual Water Resources Conference.
Gyawali, B. and Murgulet, D., 2017. Prediction of Terrestrial Water Storage Using Different Modelling Approaches; 2018 UCOWR/NIWR Annual Water Resources Conference.
Murgulet, D., Murgulet, V., Spalt, N., Douglas, A.*, Hay, R.G. (2016) Impact of hydrological alterations on river-groundwater exchange and water quality in a semi-arid area. Science of the Total Environment. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.07.198.
Murgulet, D., 2017. Submarine Groundwater Discharge and Solute Fluxes to a Semi-arid Coastal Area: Lessons Learned from South Texas Estuaries; Depto. de Recursos del MarCINVESTAV-IPN, Unidad Mérida. Invited talk.
Murgulet, D., Trevino, M.*, Douglas, A.*, Spalt. N.*, Murgulet, V. and Hu, X., 2017 Groundwater-Derived Alkalinity Fluxes to a Seondary Bay: A Temporal and Spatial Perspective. Goldschmidt Geochemical Society Conference (https://goldschmidt.info/2017/abstracts/abstractView?id=2017006238)
Douglas A. *, Abdulla H., Maupins M., Jemison C., and Murgulet D., 2017. Molecular characterization of dissolved organic matter in surface and groundwater in a highly disturbed semi-arid secondary bay (29227). Association for the Sciences of Limnology and Oceanography annual meeting (February 2017).
Murgulet V., Trevino M.*, Douglas A.*, Hu X., and Murgulet D., 2017. Alkalinity variation in a semi-arid and secondary bay of South Texas (29213). Association for the Sciences of Limnology and Oceanography annual meeting (February 2017).
Pena M.*, Douglas A.*, and Murgulet D., 2017. Assessment of historical oil-field brine discharge influences on sediment-supported radionuclide activities (29234). Association for the Sciences of Limnology and Oceanography annual meeting (February 2017).
Lopez, C.*; Douglas, A.*; Spalt, N.*; Murgulet, D., 2017. Using radium isotopes to determine residence times in Baffin Bay, Texas (29197) Association for the Sciences of Limnology and Oceanography annual meeting (February 2017).
Gyawali, B.*; Murgulet, D., 2017. Evaluation of coastal groundwater storage variability: implications on the effects of climate anomalies on submarine groundwater discharge (SGD) (29178). Association for the Sciences of Limnology and Oceanography annual meeting (February 2017).
Spalt, N., Douglas, A., Murgulet, D., 2016. Coupling 222Rn measurements and geophysical techniques to constrain SGD occurrences in relation to estuarine depositional environments. VI International Ra-Rn Workshop, Girona, Spain. (July 18, 2016).
Douglas, A.R.*, Spalt, N.*, Murgulet, D., 2016. Effects of naturally occurring radium and radon activity heterogeneity on derived water mass ages and SGD: lessons learned from a semi-arid south Texas estuary. VI International Ra-Rn Workshop, Girona, Spain. (July 18, 2016).
Trevino, M.*, Hu, X., Douglas, A.*, Spalt, N.*, Murgulet, D., 2016. Alkalinity Dynamics in Groundwater Affected Secondary Bay in South Texas" Texas Bays and Estuaries Meeting, Port Aransas, Texas. (April 13, 2016).
Spalt, N.*, Douglas, A.*, Trevino, M.*, Murgulet, D., 2016. Postulating Hydrodynamic and Geochemical Processes Associated with Nutrient Delivery in Copano Bay, Texas. Texas Bays and Estuaries Meeting, Port Aransas, Texas. (April 13, 2016).
Douglas, A.*, Spalt, N.*, Trevino, M.*, Murgulet, D., 2016. The role of submarine groundwater discharge (SGD) as a pathway for nutrient discharge to Nueces Bay, Texas. Texas Bays and Estuaries Meeting, Port Aransas, Texas. (April 13, 2016).
Murgulet, D., 2015. Submarine Groundwater Discharge and Nutrient Fluxes in a Semi-arid area: Lessons Learned from coastal South Texas; Texas A&M University-Kingsville, Environmental Engineering Department Seminar Series Invited talk.
Douglas, A, D. Murgulet, and N. Spalt. "Identifying Groundwater Discharge Sources and Associated Geochemical Influences Using Resistivity Imaging and Geochemical Tracers in a Semi-Arid Estuary in South Texas". Poster presented at AGU Fall Meeting, December 14-18, 2015, San Francisco, California
Murgulet, D., "Submarine Groundwater Discharge and Nutrient Fluxes in a Semi-arid area: Lessons Learned from coastal South Texas," Texas A&M University-Kingsville, Environmental Engineering Department Seminar series Invited talk (2015)
Douglas, A. (Author & Presenter), D. Murgulet (Author), C. Scotch (Author), W. McBee (Author), "Linking seasonal variation of submarine groundwater discharge to nutrient fluxes in Nueces Bay, Texas," National Groundwater Summit, NGWA, San Antonio. (March 2015).
Douglas, A., D. Murgulet (Author), "The Role of Groundwater and Submarine Groundwater Discharge in Coastal Systems" Teachers on the Estuary Workshop and Mission-Aransas NERR (June 2015).
Spalt, N. , D. Murgulet (Author), D. Audrey, "Groundwater and Associated Solute Contribution to a Pristine Semi-Arid Estuary Using Resistivity Imaging, Naturally Occurring Radioactive Tracers, and Geochemical Methods," American Geophysical Union, San Francisco. (December 16, 2015).
Douglas, A., D. Murgulet. (Author), N. Spalt, "Groundwater Discharge and Salinity Sources to an Impaired Major River in a Semi-Arid Coastal Region: Nueces River, Texas," American Geophysical Union, San Francisco. (December 16, 2015).
Murgulet, V., D. Murgulet. (Author), R.G. Hay, "Groundwater Discharge and Salinity Sources to an Impaired Major River in a Semi-Arid Coastal Region: Nueces River, Texas," American Geophysical Union, San Francisco. (December 16, 2015).
Murgulet, D. (Author & Presenter), A. Douglas, N. Spalt, "Processes Driving Submarine Groundwater Discharge and Nutrient Fluxes in a Semi-arid Coastal Area: Coastal South Texas," American Geophysical Union, San Francisco. (December 16, 2015).
Douglas, A., D. Murgulet, C. Scotch, and W. McBee, "Linking seasonal variation of submarine groundwater discharge to nutrient fluxes in Nueces Bay, Texas," National Groundwater Summit, NGWA, San Antonio (2015).


SPSP Theoretical Innovation Prize recognizes an article or book chapter judged to provide the most innovative theoretical contribution to social/personality psychology within a given year. Award - prize of $750. Eligibility - Eligible articles are those published as papers in peer-reviewed journals or as book chapters during the previous calendar year. Books and unpublished manuscripts are not eligible.
SPSP Student Publication Award recognizes excellence in student research by giving a prize to the best student-authored paper published in an SPSP journal (e.g., PSPB, PSPR). Award - $200. Eligibility - All student-authored papers that have been accepted for publication in these journals are automatically eligible for this award. There is no nomination or application process for this award.
SPSSI Gordon Allport Prize is given to the best paper or article of the year on intergroup relations. Award - of $1000. Eligibility - papers published during the current year or unpublished manuscripts.
SPSSI Otto Klineberg Award which honors the best paper, article, or book of the year on intercultural or international relations. Award - of $1000. Eligibility - unpublished manuscripts, in press papers or books, or papers and books published no more than 18 months prior to submission deadline.
AAAS Newcomb Cleveland Prize author or authors of an outstanding paper published in the Research Articles or Reports sections of ''Science''. Award – $25,000. The winner also receives a bronze medal, complimentary registration and reimbursement for reasonable travel and hotel expenses to attend the AAAS Annual Meeting. Eligibility - An eligible paper is one that includes original research data, theory, or synthesis; is a fundamental contribution to basic knowledge or is a technical achievement of far-reaching consequence; and is a first-time publication of the author's own work.
Foundation for Personality and Social Psychology Cialdini Award recognizes the best published paper that employs primarily field research methods and contexts. Eligibility - Eligible papers are those published as papers in peer-reviewed journals or as book chapters. Award – The prize recipient will receive a cash award of $2500, and the award will be announced and presented at the annual winter meeting of the Society for Personality and Social Psychology.
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A fun little game about flinging satellites into orbit while trying to not collide with the ones already up there.
The art style is super cute! However there was no indication of what the controls were and I had to work it out myself (Ctrl to open/close eyes). The movement also feels a bit...floaty, which can make lining up crate jumps slightly tedious. The soundtrack is great, however. Just needs more levels and an indication of the controls but fine for a prototype.
That seems like a fair compromise. But how many people would donate out of an act of giving if there was nothing in it for them. Look at the donation system in Unturned. Loads of people getting mad because they didn't get much for donating. As good of a system as it is, some people don't know the difference between a donation and a DLC purchase.
In that case I think the game shouldn't be free. They guy deserves money for whatever effort the final version requires.


It's no secret that Marvel has taken the world by storm. It should be to no ones surprise that Marvel has been spreading its brand around too all spectrums. Toys and general merchandise are easy to do but stretching into different mediums of entertainments is more difficult.
Zen Pinball 2 is a very easy way to get your brand out into a different demographic. It features very reasonably priced DLC that adds new tables to your pinball experience. Obviously pinball is not this great fleshed out gaming adventure that many fans would like to see their favorite comic book characters go through. It does add another experience to be had; however short it may be.
The addition of the Ant-Man table does not change this formula. If you haven't seen the movie this content does not ruin anything. No crucial story elements are given away and you probably wouldn't even notice them if they were. One thing you will notice is the little movements that are directly related to the movie. Rewards for hitting certain objects trigger things that fans of the film may appreciate. There is a blue sphere on the right side of the table that can be used to trigger a multi-ball sequence if it is hit enough. There is a ramp that moves throughout your experience. There are all sorts of spots to trigger huge bonuses that will get your score soaring.
The gameplay is fluid and polished. The music is fun and it reminds you of playing pinball at an arcade. Zen Pinball 2 is the best feeling pinball video game I have played. If you enjoy the feel of the game then I think this table is worth picking up. It's fun and features enough hidden spots to make it worth replaying. As you figure it out you will find yourself spending more and more time trying to hit all of the secret spots on table. I would recommend this content to any fans of pinball or Ant-Man.
A decent enough addition for those collecting Zen Pinball 2: Portal tables though it is a slightly empty homage to Aperture Science.


Original Pancake House didn't invent the pancake, but from the time they opened their doors in Korea in 2013 they've had the pancake game on lock. The tradition of great food made-from-scratch prepared with the highest-quality ingredients is the key to their original and delicious recipes. Premium butter, pure whipping cream, high quality fresh milk, farm-fresh eggs, 100% peanut oil, premium deli meats, and freshly squeezed fruit juices means that the dream of breakfast for lunch and dinner is now just a bike ride away.
Select two kinds of pancakes. Choose among Buttermilk, Blueberry, Chocolate Chip, Banana, Coconut, Pecan, or Bacon.
Traditional Housemade Golden Brown Waffle served with hot syrup and whipped butter.
Filled with plump blueberries. Lightly dusted with powdered sugar. Served with whipped butter and hot blueberry compote.
Fluffy omelette filled with tomatoes, green bell peppers, onions, olives, and mozzarella cheese. Topped with tomato sauce. Served with 3 buttermilk pancakes.
Fluffy omelette filled with spinach, mushrooms, olives, tomatoes, swiss cheese, and mozzarella cheese. Served with 3 buttermilk pancakes.
Fluffy omelette filled with our homemade salami(Korean pork, Australian beef), hash(salami, potatoes, onions) and aged cheddar cheese. Served with 3 buttermilk pancakes.
Fluffy omelette filled with bacon(American), Swiss cheese, and mozzarella cheese. Served with 3 buttermilk pancakes.
Fluffy omelette filled with ham(American) and aged cheddar cheese. Served with 3 buttermilk pancakes.
Fluffy omelette filled with ham(American), green bell peppers, red bell peppers, onion, and aged cheddar cheese. Served with 3 buttermilk pancakes.
Fluffy omelette filled with aged cheddar cheese. Served with 3 buttermilk pancakes.
Homemade salami(Australian beef, Korean pork) hash, a special blend of salami, potatoes, and onions. Topped with two eggs, any style. Served with potato pancakes, and sour cream.
Romaine, homemade pickle, tomato, homemade comeback sauce.
Burger bun, 140g of 100% beef patty, romaine, homemade pickle, cheddar cheese, homemade comeback sauce.
Burger bun, 140g of 100% beef patty, romaine, homemade pickle, cheddar cheese, bacon, homemade comeback sauce.
Burger bun, chicken drumstick meat(Brazilian), honey butter.
Burger bun, chicken drumstick meat(Brazilian), homemade gravy, cheddar cheese.
Burger bun, chicken drumstick meat(Brazilian), romaine, tomato, bacon, homemade comeback sauce.
Burger bun, chicken drumstick meat(Brazilian), homemade pickle, coleslaw, homemade comeback sauce.
Golden brown waffle topped with crispy chicken tender strips(Korean). Served with homemade maple butter and honey tabasco sauce.
Golden brown cheddar cheese waffle topped with 3 crispy fried chickens(Korean chicken breast, Brazilian chicken drumstick). Served with homemade maple butter and honey tabasco sauce.
Crispy chicken tender strips(Korean). Served with homemade honey mustard sauce.


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company blog. Tour How to detect an empty stdout pipe in Python with subprocess. Ask Question 1. 1. I'm experimenting with, or better trying to learn and understand, the subprocess modules using Python on a Raspberry Pi running Raspbain Jessie. In the code below I'm piping the Internet traffic for an Internet appliance to stdout. The records in the pipe can come anytime, from seconds apart... In a pass through scheme merchandise is resold to the victim company at ahigher price. d. Individuals who approve purchases are most likely to engage in a billing scheme.
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In a pass through scheme merchandise is resold to the victim company at ahigher price. d. Individuals who approve purchases are most likely to engage in a billing scheme.... One way to detect shell company invoices is the lack of company information on an invoice. The invoice might come in with just a name and address (only a P.O. Box), no company logo or phone numbers, fax number, or not even a website.
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Full access permissions to another user's mailbox should be continuously monitored to minimize the risk of leaks of sensitive data and other security breaches.
Internal Shell emails seen by Finance Uncovered and Global Witness show how the world's fifth biggest company took part in a scheme which deprived Nigeria and its people of $1.1 billion in a murky deal for access to one of Africa's most valuable oil blocks, known as OPL 245.


text:
Half of Dublin's population is using a car to commute every day
One particular form of transport has seen a significant increase
David Maher
Just under half of Dublin's population is either a driver or a passenger in a car when they are heading to work, school or college.
And new statistics have shown that there are almost three million people commuting in Ireland every single day.
The report also revealed that travel times have increased, with commuting lengths rising in every county.
Commuters in counties bordering Dublin had the longest average commuting time, with those in Meath and Wicklow travelling for almost 35 minutes.
Laytown-Bettystown-Mornington, where 28% of 4,565 workers were commuting an hour or more, had the highest percentage, followed by Skerries (1,092) and Greystones-Delgany (1,855).
The national average commuting time in April 2016 was 28.2 minutes, up from 26.6 minutes in 2011.
The report also showed more workers are crossing the border for employment, with 7,037 people, up 10% from 6,419 in 2011, doing this.
The Central Statistics Office released their latest information, and it showed a 9.3% increase on the 2011 commuter figure.
It also indicated a significant rise in the number of people who are cycling.
Almost 1,700 cyclists receive fines in two years
Some 66% of those travelling for work either drove or were passengers in a car, with just under half of people living in Dublin city and its suburbs using this mode of transport.
In April 2016, 56,837 people cycled to work, an increase of 43% since 2011, according to the CSO's Census 2016 Commuting in Ireland report.
Of the 2,962,550 commuters in Ireland, 1,875,773 of those were doing so for work, an increase of 10.7% on 2011.
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Nearly 200,000 of these spent an hour or more making their way to their place of employment, up 31%.
Bus and train use is also on the rise, with figures indicating an increase of 22% and 19.7% respectively.
Walkers, meanwhile, comprise almost 10% of working commuters - increasing by 4,570 to 175,080, accounting for 9.3% of the commuting population.
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People call the island of Korčula (pronounced kor-CHEW-la) "Little Dubrovnik", and with its gorgeous old town it's not hard to see why. Where it differs though, is the lack of crowds.
With a population of just over 15,000 people living on the Croatian island, it has plenty of sandy beaches, great restaurants and wineries to explore (plus, not a cruise ship in sight).
Here's the ideal way to spend 48 hours on Korčula.
Korčula is well-connected by ferry to Dubrovnik and Split during summer, with journey times varying from one and a half to two and a half hours depending on the route. As information online can be scarce, the best option is to visit the ferry ticket office when you arrive in Dubrovnik or Split and book your ticket in advance.
There are lockers available at the nearby bus terminal if you want to leave some of your luggage and pick it up when you return from the island.
The ferry terminal in Korčula is just outside to the Old Town walls, so take this opportunity to wander through the historic streets. Walking around the walls will only take 15 minutes, but pass through the grand main gate and down the narrow cobblestone streets and you'll find local artist studios, the historic main square, Trg Svetog Marka, and St Mark's Cathedral, built from 1301 to 1806, to keep you busy.
According to local legend, all streets on the western side of the Old Town run straight, while Eastern streets runs in shape of small curve, to protect the town from cold and unpleasant north-easterly winds. Building outside the walls was forbidden until the 18th century, which also explains its tightly-concentrated shape.
As you explore the Old Town, you'll also notice Marco Polo shops, Marco Polo restaurants and even Marco Polo ice cream. Although Marco Polo is generally known as a Venetian merchant, writer and explorer, historical documents show he was captured in Korčula by the Genoese during a naval battle. Because of this, many people in Korčula claim he was born on the island.
Skip the tourist traps and stop in for lunch at a konoba or tavern on the eastern side of the old town, looking out over the ocean. Then walk out of the old town and continue past the marina on the left to the small local beach for a dip.
There are a couple of hostels in Korčula town, but private rooms through Airbnb or Hostelworld can be affordable if booked in advance and offer a little more luxury. Try to snag one within walking distance of the ferry terminal and Old Town.
There's so much more to the island than the Old Town, so hire a bike from one of the many tourist agencies for kn100 (AU$21) for the day and hit the road. The beaches of Lumbarda are known as some of the most beautiful on the island, and they're only seven kilometres away. The agency should be able to provide you with maps and directions. There are also water taxis and local buses available between the towns. Grab some supplies from the supermarket on the way for breakfast and lunch, just in case!
Once you arrive in Lumbarda, continue through the town and down to the sandy Bilin žal beach on the north coast. This beach is smaller but often less crowded than the nearby Vela Pržina beach, so check out both and take your pick.
Take refuge from the heat at one of the many wineries on the road back to Korčula town. Popić Winery offers wine tasting with a charcuterie plate for around $10, and you can try the island's famous grk grape. The grk variety is unique to Lumbarda and produces a full-bodied, dry white wine that is something of an obsession in the area. If you like what you taste, the price of a bottle here is much cheaper than in town.
After cycling back to Korčula town, stake out a sunset-viewing spot on the eastern side of the island. Once the crowds subside, visit Konoba Skver for fresh seafood and traditional Dalmatian dishes. Afterwards head to Massimo Cocktail Bar, located in one of the Medieval Old Town turrets, with a sweeping view of the mainland.
Pre-purchase your return ticket to avoid the queue in the morning and make sure to double-check the time and place with the company as there are two possible departure points for the ferry from the Old Town.
After a couple of days in Korčula, we can bet you're already planning your next Croatian island getaway.
Check out Qantas flights to Croatia and begin your next adventure.


text:
(Redirected from Cinemascope)
Early widescreen filming system
Find sources: "CinemaScope" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (September 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
CinemaScope is an anamorphic lens series used, from 1953 to 1967, and less often later, for shooting widescreen movies that, crucially, could be screened in theatres using existing equipment, albeit with a lens adapter. Its creation in 1953 by Spyros P. Skouras,[1] the president of 20th Century Fox, marked the beginning of the modern anamorphic format in both principal photography and movie projection.
The anamorphic lenses theoretically allowed the process to create an image of up to a 2.66:1 aspect ratio, almost twice as wide as the previously common Academy format's 1.37:1 ratio. Although the technology behind the CinemaScope lens system was made obsolete by later developments, primarily advanced by Panavision, CinemaScope's anamorphic format has continued to this day. In film-industry jargon, the shortened form, 'Scope, is still widely used by both filmmakers and projectionists, although today it generally refers to any 2.35:1, 2.39:1, 2.40:1 or 2.55:1 presentation or, sometimes, the use of anamorphic lensing or projection in general. Bausch & Lomb won a 1954 Oscar for its development of the CinemaScope lens.
2 Early implementation
3 Audio
4 Rival processes
5 Technical difficulties
6 CinemaScope 55
7 Decline
8 Modern references
Origins[edit]
French inventor Henri Chrétien developed and patented a new film process that he called Anamorphoscope in 1926. It was this process that would later form the basis for CinemaScope. Chrétien's process was based on lenses that employed an optical trick which produced an image twice as wide as those that were being produced with conventional lenses; this was done using an optical system called Hypergonar, which was the process of compressing (at shoot time) and dilating (at projection time) the image laterally.[2] He attempted to interest the motion picture industry in his invention, but at that time the industry was not sufficiently impressed.
By 1950, however, cinema attendance seriously declined with the advent of a new competitive rival: television. Yet Cinerama and the early 3D films, both launched in 1952, succeeded at the box office in defying this trend, which in turn persuaded Spyros Skouras, the head of Twentieth Century-Fox, that technical innovation could help to meet the challenge.[3] Skouras tasked Earl Sponable, head of Fox's research department, with devising a new, impressive, projection system, but something that, unlike Cinerama, could be retrofitted to existing theatres at a relatively modest cost – and then Herbert Brag, Sponable's assistant, remembered Chrétien's "hypergonar" lens.[4]
The optical company Bausch & Lomb was asked to produce a prototype "anamorphoser" (later shortened to "anamorphic") lens. Meanwhile, Sponable tracked down Professor Chrétien, whose patent for the process had expired, so Fox purchased his existing Hypergonars from him and these lenses were flown to Fox's studios in Hollywood. Test footage shot with these lenses was screened for Skouras, who gave the go-ahead for development of a widescreen process based on Chrétien's invention, which was to be known as "CinemaScope".
Twentieth Century-Fox's pre-production of The Robe, originally committed to Technicolor Three-Strip origination, was halted so that the film could be changed to a CinemaScope production (using Eastmancolor, but processed by Technicolor). Two other CinemaScope productions were also planned: How to Marry a Millionaire and Beneath the Twelve-Mile Reef. So that production of these first CinemaScope films could proceed without delay, shooting started using the best three of Chrétien's Hypergonars while Bausch & Lomb continued working on their own versions. The introduction of CinemaScope enabled Fox and other studios to reassert its distinction from the new competitor, television.
Chrétien's Hypergonars proved to have significant optical and operational defects (primarily loss-of-squeeze at close camera-to-subject distances, plus the requirement of two camera assistants). Bausch & Lomb, Fox's prime contractor for the production of these lenses, initially produced an improved "Chrétien-formula" adapter lens design (CinemaScope Adapter Type I), and subsequently produced a dramatically improved and patented "Bausch & Lomb formula" adapter lens design (CinemaScope Adapter Type II).
Ultimately "Bausch & Lomb formula" "combined" lens designs incorporated both the "prime" lens and the anamorphic lens in one unit (initially in 35, 40, 50, 75, 100 and 152 mm focal lengths, and later including a 25 mm focal length). These "combined" lenses continue to be used to this day, particularly in special effects units. Other manufacturers' lenses are often preferred for so-called "production" applications that benefit from significantly lighter weight or lower distortion, or a combination of both characteristics.
Early implementation[edit]
CinemaScope was developed to use a separate film for sound (see Audio below), thus enabling the full "silent" 1.33:1 aperture to be available for the picture, with a 2:1 anamorphic squeeze applied that would allow an aspect ratio of 2.66:1. When, however, developers found that magnetic stripes could be added to the film to produce a composite picture/sound print, the ratio of the image was reduced to 2.55:1. This reduction was kept to a minimum by reducing the width of the normal KS perforations so that they were nearly square, but of DH height. This was the CinemaScope, or CS, perforation, known colloquially as "fox-holes". Later still an optical soundtrack was added, further reducing the aspect ratio to 2.35:1 (1678:715). This change also meant a shift in the optical center of the projected image. All of Fox's CinemaScope films were made using a silent/full aperture for the negatives, as was this studio's practice for all films, whether anamorphic or not.
In order to better hide so-called "negative assembly" splices, the ratio of the image was later changed by others to 2.39:1 (1024:429) and, finally, to 2.40:1. All professional cameras are capable of shooting 2.55:1 (special 'Scope aperture plate) or 2.66:1 (standard "Full"/"Silent" aperture plate, preferred by many producers and all optical houses), and 2.35:1 or 2.39:1 or 2.40:1 is simply a hard-matted version of the others.
A promotional poster advertising The Robe and CinemaScope. The small box in the center represents a regular-width screen. The curvature and width of the screen have been greatly exaggerated; it looks more like a Cinerama screen. Unlike Cinerama screens, CinemaScope screens were rectangular, and only 86% wider than standard ratio.
Fox selected The Robe as the first film to start production in CinemaScope, a project chosen because of its epic nature. During its production, How to Marry a Millionaire and Beneath the 12-Mile Reef also went into Cinemascope production. Millionaire finished production first, before The Robe, but because of its importance, The Robe was released first.
Fox used its influential people to promote CinemaScope. With the success of The Robe and How to Marry a Millionaire, the process enjoyed success in Hollywood. Fox licensed the process to many of the major film studios including Columbia, Warner Bros., Universal, MGM and Walt Disney Productions.
Walt Disney Productions was one of the first companies to license the CinemaScope process from Fox. Among the features and shorts they filmed with it, they created the live-action epic 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea, considered one of the best examples of early CinemaScope productions.[5] Walt Disney Productions' Toot, Whistle, Plunk and Boom, which won an Academy Award for Best Short Subject (Cartoons) in 1953, was the first cartoon produced in Cinemascope. The first animated feature film to use CinemaScope was Lady and the Tramp (1955), also from Walt Disney Productions.
Due to initial uncertainty about whether the process would be adopted widely, a number of films were shot simultaneously with anamorphic and regular lenses. Despite early success with the process, Fox did not shoot every production by this process. They reserved CinemaScope as a trade name for their "A" productions, while "B" productions in black and white were begun in 1956 at Fox under the trade name, "RegalScope." The latter used the very same optics as CinemaScope, but, usually, a different camera system (such as Mitchell BNCs at TCF-TV studios for RegalScope rather than Fox Studio Cameras at Fox Hills studios for CinemaScope).
Audio[edit]
Fox officials were keen that the sound of their new widescreen film format should be as impressive as the picture, and that meant it should include true stereophonic sound.
Previously, stereo sound in the commercial cinema had always employed separate sound films; Walt Disney's 1940 release Fantasia, the first film with stereophonic sound, had used Disney's Fantasound system, which utilized a three-channel soundtrack played from separate optical film. Early post-war stereo systems used with Cinerama and some 3-D films had used multichannel audio played from a separate magnetic film. Fox had initially intended to use 3-channel stereo from magnetic film for CinemaScope.
However, Hazard E. Reeves' sound company had devised a method of coating 35 mm stock with magnetic stripes and designed a 3-channel (left, center, right) system based on three 0.063-inch-wide (1.6 mm) stripes, one on each edge of the film outside the perforations, and one between the picture and the perforations in approximately the position of a standard optical soundtrack. Later it was found possible to add a narrower 0.029 in (0.74 mm) stripe between the picture and perforations on the other side of the film; this fourth track was used for a surround channel, also sometimes known at the time as an "effects" channel. In order to avoid hiss on the surround/effects channel from distracting the audience the surround speakers were switched on by a 12 kHz tone recorded on the surround track only while wanted surround program material was present.[6]
This 4-track magnetic sound system was also used for some non-CinemaScope films; for example Fantasia was re-released in 1956, 1963, and 1969 with the original Fantasound track transferred to 4-track magnetic.
Rival processes[edit]
Further information: List of anamorphic format trade names
CinemaScope itself was a response to early "realism" processes Cinerama and 3-D. Cinerama was relatively unaffected by CinemaScope, as it was a quality-controlled process that played in select venues, similar to the IMAX films of recent years. 3-D was hurt, however, by studio advertising surrounding CinemaScope's promise that it was the "miracle you see without glasses." Technical difficulties in presentation spelled the true end for 3-D, but studio hype was quick to hail it a "victory" for CinemaScope.
In April 1953, a technique simply now known as "wide-screen" appeared and was soon adopted as a standard by all "flat" film productions in the US. In this process, a fully exposed 1.37:1 Academy ratio-area is cropped in the projector to a wide-screen aspect ratio by the use of an aperture plate, also known as a soft matte. Most films shot today use this technique, cropping the top and bottom of a 1.37:1 image to produce one at a ratio of 1.85:1.
Aware of Fox's upcoming CinemaScope productions, Paramount introduced this technique in March's release of Shane with the 1.66:1 aspect ratio, although the film was not shot with this ratio originally in mind. Universal-International followed suit in May with a 1.85:1 aspect ratio for Thunder Bay. By summer of 1953, Paramount, Universal, MGM, Columbia, and even Fox's B-unit contractors, under the banner of "Panoramic Productions" had switched from filming flat shows in a 1.37:1 format, and used variable flat wide-screen aspect ratios in their filming, which would become the standard of that time.
By this time Chrétien's 1926 patent on the Hypergonar lens had expired while the fundamental technique that CinemaScope utilised was not patentable because the anamorphoscope had been known for centuries. Anamorphosis had been used in visual media such as Hans Holbein's painting, The Ambassadors (1533). Some studios thus sought to develop their own systems rather than pay Fox.
In response to the demands for a higher visual resolution spherical widescreen process, Paramount created an optical process, VistaVision, which shot horizontally on the 35 mm film roll, and then printed down to standard 4-perf vertical 35 mm. Thus, a negative with a finer grain was created and release prints had less grain. The first Paramount film in VistaVision was White Christmas. VistaVision died out for feature production in the late 1950s with the introduction of faster film stocks, but was revived by Industrial Light & Magic in 1975 to create high quality visual effects for Star Wars and ILM's subsequent film projects.
RKO used the Superscope process in which the standard 35 mm image was cropped and then optically squeezed in post-production to create an anamorphic image on film. Today's Super 35 is a variation of this process.
Another process called Techniscope was developed by Technicolor Inc. in the early 1960s, using normal 35 mm cameras modified for two perforations per (half) frame instead of the regular four and later converted into an anamorphic print. Techniscope was mostly used in Europe, especially with low-budget films.
Many European countries and studios used the standard anamorphic process for their wide-screen films, identical in technical specifications to CinemaScope, and renamed to avoid the trademarks of Fox. Some of these include Euroscope, Franscope, and Naturama (the latter used by Republic Pictures). In 1953, Warner Bros. also planned to develop an identical anamorphic process called Warnerscope but, after the premiere of CinemaScope, Warner Bros. decided to license it from Fox instead.
Technical difficulties[edit]
A CinemaScope 35 mm film frame showing a circle. It has been squeezed by a ratio of 2:1 by an anamorphic camera lens. The anamorphic projection lens will stretch the image horizontally to show a normal round circle on the screen.
Although CinemaScope was capable of producing a 2.66:1 image, the addition of magnetic sound tracks for multi-channel sound reduced this to 2.55:1.
The fact that the image was expanded horizontally when projected meant that there could be visible graininess and brightness problems. To combat this, larger film formats were developed (initially a too-costly 55 mm for Carousel and The King and I) and then abandoned (both films were eventually reduction printed at 35 mm, although the aspect ratio was kept at 2.55:1). Later Fox re-released The King and I in the 65/70 mm format. The initial problems with grain and brightness were eventually reduced thanks to improvements in film stock and lenses.
The CinemaScope lenses were optically flawed, however, by the fixed anamorphic element, which caused the anamorphic effect to gradually drop off as objects approached closer to the lens. The effect was that close-ups would slightly overstretch an actor's face, a problem that was soon referred to as "the mumps". This problem was avoided at first by composing wider shots, but as anamorphic technology lost its novelty, directors and cinematographers sought compositional freedom from these limitations. Issues with the lenses also made it difficult to photograph animation using the CinemaScope process. Nevertheless, many animated short films and a few features were filmed in CinemaScope during the 1950s, including Walt Disney's Lady and the Tramp (1955).
CinemaScope 55[edit]
CinemaScope 55 was a large-format version of CinemaScope introduced by Twentieth Century Fox in 1955, which used a film width of 55.625 mm.[7]
Fox had introduced the original 35 mm version of CinemaScope in 1953 and it had proved to be commercially successful. But the additional image enlargement needed to fill the new wider screens, which had been installed in theatres for CinemaScope, resulted in visible film grain. A larger film was used to reduce the need for such enlargement.[8] CinemaScope 55 was developed to satisfy this need and was one of three "high-definition" film systems introduced in the mid-1950s, the other two being Paramount's VistaVision and the Todd-AO 70 mm film system.
Fox determined that a system that produced a frame area approximately 4 times that of the 35mm CinemaScope frame would be the optimal trade-off between performance and cost, and it chose the 55.625 mm film width as satisfying that. Camera negative film had larger grain than the film stocks used for prints, so there was a consistent approach in using a larger frame on the film negative than on prints. Since the image area of a print has to allow for a soundtrack, a camera negative does not. CinemaScope 55 had different frame dimensions for the camera negative and struck prints.
The negative film had the perforations (of the CS "Fox-hole" type) close to the edge of the film and the camera aperture was 1.824" by 1.430" (approx. 46 mm x 36 mm), giving an image area of 2.61 sq. inch. This compares to the 0.866" by 0.732" (approx. 22 mm x 18.6 mm) frame of a modern anamorphic 35 mm negative, which provides a frame area of 0.64 sq. inch. On the print film, however, there was a smaller frame size of approximately 1.34" x 1.06" (34 mm x 27 mm) to allow space for the 6 magnetic soundtracks. Four of these soundtracks (two each side) were outside the perforations, which were further from the edges of the print film than in the negative film; the other two soundtracks were between the perforations and the image. The pull-down for the negative was 8 perforations, while for the smaller frame on the print film, it was 6 perforations. In both cases, however, the frame had an aspect ratio of 1.275:1, which when expanded by a 2:1 anamorphic lens resulted in an image of 2.55:1.
A camera originally built for the obsolete Fox 70 mm "Grandeur" film format more than 20 years before was modified to work with the new 55 mm film. Bausch & Lomb, the firm that created the original anamorphic CinemaScope lenses, was contracted by Fox to build new "Super CinemaScope" lenses that could cover the larger film frame.
Fox shot two of their Rodgers and Hammerstein musical series in CinemaScope 55: Carousel, and The King and I. But it did not make 55 mm release prints for either film; both were released in conventional 35 mm CinemaScope with a limited release of The King and I being shown in 70 mm.
Fox soon discontinued this process, as it was too impractical for theaters to re-equip for 55 mm prints. The company substituted Todd-AO for its wide-gauge production process, having acquired a financial interest in the process from the Mike Todd estate.[9]
Subsequent to the abandonment of CinemaScope 55, Century, which had made the 55/35mm dual-gauge projector for Fox (50 sets were delivered), redesigned this projector head into the present day 70/35mm Model JJ, and Ampex, which had made the 55/35mm dual gauge "penthouse" magnetic sound reproducer head specifically for CinemaScope 55, abandoned this product (but six-channel Ampex theater systems persisted, these being re-purposed from 55/35mm to 70mm Todd-AO/35mm CinemaScope).
Although commercial 55 mm prints were not made, some 55 mm prints were produced. Samples of these prints reside in the Earl I. Sponable Collection at Columbia University.[citation needed] Several 55/35mm projectors and at least one 55/35mm reproducer are in the hands of collectors.[citation needed]
Cinemascope 55 was originally intended to have a six-track stereo soundtrack. The premiere engagement of Carousel in New York did use one, recorded on magnetic film interlocked with the visual image, as with Cinerama. This proved too impractical, and all other engagements of Carousel had the standard four-track stereo soundtrack ("sounded" on the actual film) as was then used in all CinemaScope releases.
In 2005 both CinemaScope 55 films were restored from the original 55 mm negatives.[10][11]
Decline[edit]
Lens manufacturer Panavision was initially founded in late 1953 as a manufacturer of anamorphic lens adapters for movie projectors screening CinemaScope films, capitalizing on the success of the new anamorphic format and filling in the gap created by Bausch and Lomb's inability to mass-produce the needed adapters for movie theaters fast enough. Looking to expand beyond projector lenses, Panavision founder Robert Gottschalk soon improved upon the anamorphic camera lenses by creating a new lens set that included dual rotating anamorphic elements which were interlocked with the lens focus gearing. This innovation allowed the Panavision lenses to keep the plane of focus at a constant anamorphic ratio of 2x, thus avoiding the horizontally-overstretched "mumps" effect that afflicted many CinemaScope films. After screening a demo reel comparing the two systems, many U.S. studios adopted the Panavision anamorphic lenses. The Panavision technique was also considered more attractive to the industry because it was more affordable than CinemaScope and was not owned or licensed-out by a rival studio. Confusingly, some studios, particularly MGM, continued to use the CinemaScope credit even though they had switched to Panavision lenses. Virtually all MGM "CinemaScope" films after 1958 are actually in Panavision.
By 1967, even Fox had begun to abandon CinemaScope for Panavision (famously at the demand of Frank Sinatra for Von Ryan's Express), although a significant amount of the principal photography was actually filmed using CinemaScope lenses. Fox eventually capitulated completely to third-party lenses. In Like Flint with James Coburn and Caprice with Doris Day, were Fox's final films in CinemaScope.
Fox originally intended CinemaScope films to use magnetic stereo sound only, and although in certain areas, such as Los Angeles and New York City, the vast majority of theaters were equipped for 4-track magnetic sound (4-track magnetic sound achieving nearly 90 percent penetration of theaters in the greater Los Angeles area) the owners of many smaller theaters were dissatisfied with contractually having to install expensive three- or four-track magnetic stereo, and because of the technical nature of sound installations, drive-in theaters had trouble presenting stereophonic sound at all. Due to these conflicts, and because other studios were starting to release anamorphic prints with standard optical soundtracks, Fox revoked their policy of stereo-only presentations in 1957, and added a half-width optical soundtrack, while keeping the magnetic tracks for those theaters that were able to present their films with stereophonic sound. These so-called "mag-optical" prints provided a somewhat sub-standard optical sound and were also expensive to produce. It made little economic sense to supply those theaters which had only mono sound systems with an expensive striped print. Eventually Fox, and others, elected to supply the majority of their prints in standard mono optical sound form, with magnetic striped prints reserved for those theaters capable of playing them.
Magnetic-striped prints were expensive to produce; each print cost at least twice as much as a print with a standard optical soundtrack only. Furthermore, these striped prints wore out faster than optical prints and caused more problems in use, such as flakes of oxide clogging the replay heads. Due to these problems, and also because many cinemas never installed the necessary playback equipment, magnetic-sound prints started to be made in small quantities for "roadshow" screenings only, with the main release using standard mono optical-sound prints. As time went by roadshow screenings were increasingly made using 70 mm film, and the use of striped 35 mm prints declined further. Many CinemaScope films from the 1960s and 1970s were never released in stereo at all. Finally, the 1976 introduction of Dolby Stereo – which provided similar performance to striped magnetic prints albeit more reliable and at a far lower cost – caused the 4-track magnetic system to become totally obsolete.
Modern references[edit]
The song "Stereophonic Sound" written by Cole Porter for the 1955 Broadway musical Silk Stockings mentions CinemaScope in the lyrics. The first verse is: "Today to get the public to attend the picture show/ It's not enough to advertise a famous star they know/ If you wanna get the crowds to come around/ You gotta have glorious Technicolor/ Breathtaking CinemaScope and stereophonic sound." The musical was adapted for film in 1957 and was indeed filmed in CinemaScope. (Although the song refers to Technicolor, the film was actually made in Metrocolor.)
While the lens system has been retired for decades, Fox has used the trademark in recent years on at least three films: Down with Love, which was shot with Panavision optics but used the credit as a throwback to the films it references, and the Don Bluth films Anastasia and Titan A.E. at Bluth's insistence. Nonetheless, these films are not true CinemaScope as they use modern lenses. CinemaScope's association with anamorphic projection is still so embedded in mass consciousness that all anamorphic prints are now referred to generically as "'Scope" prints.
Similarly, the 2016 release La La Land was shot on film (not digitally) with Panavision equipment in a 2.55:1 widescreen format, but not true CinemaScope.[12][13][14][15] However, the film's opening credits do say "Presented in CinemaScope" ("presented," not "shot") as a tribute to 1950s musicals in that format. This credit appears initially in black-and-white and in a narrow format. It then widens to widescreen and dissolves to the old-fashioned CinemaScope logo, in color.
In the 1963 Jean-Luc Godard film Contempt (Le Mepris), filmmaker Fritz Lang makes a disparaging comment about CinemaScope: "Oh, it wasn't meant for human beings. Just for snakes – and funerals." Ironically, Contempt was shot in Franscope, a process with a similar format to CinemaScope.
During the production of 1999's The Iron Giant, director Brad Bird wanted to use CinemaScope on the film's promotion, but Fox disapproved of this, so it was not used. The joke was later realized during the end credits of the 2015 "Signature Edition" re-release.
Recently, the two 2018 blockbuster films Jurassic World: Fallen Kingdom and Deadpool 2 were shot in CinemaScope.[16]
American Widescreen Museum (Cinemascope section)
Anamorphic widescreen
List of film formats
CinemaScope 55
21:9 aspect ratio
^ "CinemaScope: Selected Documents from the Spyros P. Skouras Archive | ILIAS CHRISSOCHOIDIS". Academia.edu. 1970-01-01. Retrieved 2016-09-01.
^ Peter Gray - Director of Photography. "History of CinemaScope". Web.archive.org. Archived from the original on 2006-04-10. Retrieved 2016-09-01. CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown (link)
^ "Spyros P. Skouras, Memoirs (1893-1953) | ILIAS CHRISSOCHOIDIS". Academia.edu. 1970-01-01. Retrieved 2016-09-01.
^ "out of the Lens Cupboard – Anamorphosis part two, the coming of Cinemascope" Grant Lobban, Cinema Technology Vol 7 No.3 April 1994
^ "CinemaScope at the Widescreen Museum". Widescreenmuseum.com. 1953-09-24. Retrieved 2012-06-10.
^ "Four-track Magnetic Theater Sound Reproducer for Composite Films" by Athey, Borberg, and White. Journal of the SMPTE March 1954 Vol 62
^ "Widescreen Museum - The CinemaScope Wing 6 - CinemaScope 55". www.widescreenmuseum.com.
^ "Why Wide Film" by Earl I. Sponable, Journal of the SMPTE Vol 65 February 56
^ [1], Wide Screen Museum website
^ "American Cinematographer: June 2005". www.theasc.com.
^ "Restoring Cinemascope 55". www.in70mm.com.
^ "Shot in CinemaScope, La La Land vibrantly romances the olden days of Hollywood," http://motion.kodak.com/kodakgcg/us/en/motion/blog/blog_post/?contentid=4295000679#, January 10, 2017.
^ "Review: La La Land". 14 December 2016.
^ Desowitz, Bill (10 November 2016). "Oscars 2017: Why Cinematographers for Scorsese, Chazelle and More Shot on Film".
^ La La Land (Damien Chazelle, US) — Special Presentations - Cinema Scope
^ Sciretta, Peter (April 24, 2018). "'Jurassic World: Fallen Kingdom' Director J.A. Bayona on Bringing Suspense Back to the Franchise [Set Visit Interview] (page 2 of 3)". /Film. Retrieved April 25, 2018.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to CinemaScope.
Ilias Chrissochoidis (ed.), CinemaScope: Selected Documents from the Spyros P. Skouras Archive (Stanford, 2013)
ASC article about the restoration of "Carousel" and "The King and I"
Carousel - trivia, IMDb
Motion picture film formats
Film gauges
Film formats
CinemaScope (1953)
VistaVision (1954)
Technirama (1956)
Modern anamorphic (1957)
Techniscope (1960)
Super 35 (1982)
Todd-AO (1955)
Ultra Panavision 70 (1957)
Super Panavision 70 (1959)
IMAX (1970)
35 mm × 3
Cinerama (1952)
Kinopanorama (1958)
Cinemiracle (1958)
Aspect ratio standards
Academy ratio
Anamorphic format
Video framing
Pillarbox
Windowbox
Pan and scan
Shoot and protect
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=CinemaScope&oldid=898789017"
CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown


text:
WND News Center
Legal team creates new way to blast Congress about presidential election fraud
December 27, 2020 December 28, 2020 Bob Unruh, WND
The U.S. Capitol in Washington, D.C. is illuminated during the Republican National Convention on Wednesday, Aug. 26, 2020 (RNC video screenshot)
A legal team whose members routinely appear in court to fight for religious rights and defend Christians who are attacked for their faith is creating an opportunity for Americans to urge members of Congress to address fraud in the 2020 presidential election.
Through Liberty Counsel's campaign, citizens can send faxes to members in the U.S. House or Senate.
It provides for senders to cover the cost of the fax and contribute to the organization as well.
It explains that seven states that were called for former Vice President Joe Biden have now cast two sets of Electoral College votes.
"Sen. Ron Johnson, R-Wis., as chair of the U.S. Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs Committee, held a hearing on election fraud that established strong evidence of fraud," Liberty Counsel said.
"We must urge Republican U.S. legislators to stop the fraud when they meet on January 6."
The organization said: "Republican Electoral College voters cast alternate votes for President Trump in Pennsylvania (20), Georgia (16), Michigan (16), Wisconsin (10), Arizona, (11), Nevada (6) and New Mexico (5). All combined, these contested states have 84 Electoral College votes. That is more than enough to swing the presidential election for one candidate or the other."
In Congress, the group explained, "with the objection of one member from each chamber, contest election results."
"Two members of the legislature can constitutionally take control out of the hands of the swing states and move it to the federal level."
The fax explains to members of Congress the problems with the "irrevocably tainted" election.
President Donald J. Trump arrives on stage at the Protecting America's Seniors event Friday, Oct. 16, 2020, at the Caloosa Sound Convention Center & Amphitheater in Fort Myers, Florida. (Official White House photo by Shealah Craighead)
It says a forensic audit of voting machines in Antrim County, Michigan, found votes were flipped from President Trump to Joe Biden due to a "machine enabled program."
And "an amazing 68% of votes had been 'adjudicated.'"
Further, documentation that is legally required to be maintained was deleted, and "there were three separate vote totals on the total number of voters and the total votes for each candidate changed three times."
In Georgia, among other problems, "66,000 kids" voted.
"Multiple Post Office workers in Pennsylvania and Michigan confirmed that their office stamped the wrong date on ballots so they would be counted after the election. In addition, up to 288,000 ballots went missing during one transfer in postal custody in PA."
Nevada saw "tribal groups" paying people to vote and telling them to vote for Biden, and in Arizona, thousands of voters never proved they are citizens.
The message to members of Congress explains, "For these, and thousands of other reasons, I plead with you to stand up for electoral integrity and vote to name President Trump president for four more years. Fraud must not be allowed to reign in America."
Content created by the WND News Center is available for re-publication without charge to any eligible news publisher that can provide a large audience. For licensing opportunities of our original content, please contact [email protected].
This article was originally published by the WND News Center.
Brennan: Biden moving with 'laser-light' speed to 'root out' opposition
January 21, 2021 Art Moore, WND
Judge protects doctors from Obamacare demand to do gender 'change' surgeries
January 21, 2021 January 21, 2021 Bob Unruh, WND
Previous: Lesbian attorney general: Punish any lawyer challenging election
Next: Impact of Trump-orchestrated Middle East peace deals hits new high
Only half of voters say Congress gave 'fair hearing' to election fraud
Pro-lifers vow to resist Biden's radical abortion plans


text:
Q: Pandas, how to reorder by date I have a Pandas dataframe that has two columns and looks like:
    title      date
   Event0     2016-01-03
   Event1     2016-02-28
   Event2     2016-06-19
   Event3     2016-04-17
   Event4     2015-11-12

etc...
I would like to reorder the events by date in descending order by date and then create a python dictionary of the results.  Thus, I'd like my python dictionary's key(string),value(datetime) pair to look like:
result_dictionary = {
    'Event2': 2016-06-19,
    'Event3': 2016-04-17,
    'Event1': 2016-02-28,
    'Event0': 2016-01-03,
    'Event4': 2015-11-12
}

What is the most efficient way to do this?
Thank-you

A: You need OrderedDict, because you cannot sort a dict because dictionary has no ordering:
from collections import OrderedDict

d = df.set_index('title').date.to_dict()
print (d)
{'Event1': '2016-02-28',
 'Event4': '2015-11-12',
 'Event0': '2016-01-03',
 'Event3': '2016-04-17',
 'Event2': '2016-06-19'}

od = OrderedDict(sorted(d.items(), key=lambda x:x[1], reverse=True))
print (od)
OrderedDict([('Event2', '2016-06-19'),
             ('Event3', '2016-04-17'),
             ('Event1', '2016-02-28'),
             ('Event0', '2016-01-03'),
             ('Event4', '2015-11-12')])

d = df.set_index('title').date.sort_values(ascending=False).to_dict()
print (d)
{'Event0': '2016-01-03',
 'Event4': '2015-11-12',
 'Event1': '2016-02-28',
 'Event3': '2016-04-17',
 'Event2': '2016-06-19'}

A: try this
dataframe.sort_values(by = 'date', ascending = False, inplace = True)
dataframe.to_dict()

docs here http://pandas.pydata.org/pandas-docs/stable/generated/pandas.DataFrame.to_dict.html


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text:
Warner announces Shadow of Mordor: GOTY edition
NEWS The game and all DLC.
PC, 360, XO, PS3, PS4
Middle-earth: Shadow of Mordor players have killed more than 5.65 billion Uruks
NEWS Oh the humanity.
▰ 9
Shadow of Mordor cleans up at DICE Summit
NEWS But Dragon Age takes GOTY.
Shadow of Mordor's Lord of the Hunt story DLC launches
NEWS More meat to carve up.
Shadow of Mordor's Lord of the Hunt DLC has mounted warchiefs and more
NEWS Out this year.
Shadow of Mordor marketers accused of ransoming positive coverage
NEWS One does not simply discuss bugs.
▰ 13
Last-gen Middle-earth: Shadow of Mordor delayed six weeks
NEWS A receding shadow.
E3: Middle-earth: Shadow of Mordor first impressions
PREVIEW One does not simply copy Arkham.
Middle-earth: Shadow of Mordor now has a release date
NEWS And a second screen app.
Middle-earth: Shadow of Mordor's Nemesis system a new-gen feature
NEWS Too much for 360, PS3 to handle.
No multiplayer or Wii U for Middle-earth: Shadow of Mordor
NEWS Procedural enemies explained.
Shadow of Mordor nicked my Assassin's Creed animations – former Ubisoft dev
NEWS "I know it when I see it."
WBIE announces action title Middle-earth: Shadow of Mordor
NEWS An original story in Tolkien's universe.


text:
For a view on myth independent on Christian values, we move back to the first century of the Christian era, when Plutarch used the mythology of Isis and Osiris to expand his views on the matter.
Plutarch (c. 46-120) was a Greek historian whose most famous work is Parallel Lives, where he compared the biographies of distinguished Greeks and Romans.
His thoughts are not that very different from those presented above and those following below, in so much as he propagated reading the myths as something more than the absurd adventure stories they may seem to be: "you must not think that any of these tales actually happened in the manner in which they are related." [Plutarch, 'Isis and Osiris', Moralia, vol. V, translated by Frank Cole Babbitt, London 1936, 29.]
Plutarch was convinced, like most of the later writers on the subject, that the myths conveyed other meanings of religious and ritualistic kind.
Where later Christian mythologists concentrated on the Greek fables, Plutarch turned to the Egyptians, as did many Greeks when searching for the ancient sources to their own mythology. To Plutarch, a myth like that of Isis and Osiris and their tragic struggle against their foe Typhon should be understood as telling something profound about nature and the powers ruling it:
Just as the rainbow, according to the account of the mathematicians, is a reflection of the sun, and owes its many hues to the withdrawal of our gaze from the sun and our fixing it on the cloud, so the somewhat fanciful accounts here set down are but reflections of some true tale which turns back our thoughts to other matters. [Plutarch 1936, 51.]
Plutarch claims to have support from Egyptian traditions in reading the myth as a symbolic account of the drama of natural forces:
And thus among the Egyptians such men say that Osiris is the Nile consorting with the Earth, which is Isis, and that the sea is Typhon into which the Nile discharges its waters and is lost to view and dissipated, save for that part which the earth takes up and absorbs and thereby becomes fertilized. [Plutarch 1936, 77ff.]
But he goes on. To Plutarch, the myth's symbolic content is one of higher and more general principles, understood by the Egyptian priestly elite. So, Isis is the earth, which is a basic and complete natural force of its own, and in this capacity as that out of which everything grows she is "the female principle of Nature." [Plutarch 1936, 129.] As for the other two players in the drama:
The wiser of the priests call not only the Nile Osiris and the sea Typhon, but they simply give the name of Osiris to the whole source and faculty creative of moisture, believing this to be the cause of generation and the substance of life-producing seed; and the name of Typhon they give to all that is dry, fiery, and arid, in general, and antagonistic to moisture. [Plutarch 1936, 81.]
Then the battle between Isis and Osiris versus Typhon is one of moisture: The earth needs moisture to be fertile, whereas drought leads to decay. This comes quite close to the cyclic shift of the seasons and thereby to such theories about myths as the one presented by James G. Frazer some 1800 years later in his book The Golden Bough. But Plutarch would have none of that:
We shall undertake to deal with the numerous and tiresome people, whether they be such as take pleasure in associating theological problems with the seasonal changes in the surrounding atmosphere, or with the growth of the crops and seed-times and ploughing; and also those who say that Osiris is being buried at the time when the grain is sown and covered in the earth and that he comes to life and reappears when plants begin to sprout. [Plutarch 1936, 153.]
To Plutarch, such a view leads to atheism, which he deplores, by "conferring the names of gods upon natural objects which are senseless and inanimate." [Plutarch 1936, 155.] Although he connects the three figures of the myth to natural forces, this does not mean he robs them of personal will and identity. He will not have them dethroned from deity: "God is not senseless nor inanimate nor subject to human control." Isis, Osiris, and Typhon actively control the natural forces to which they are connected. So, the myth about the battle between them is in this way accurate, albeit misunderstood if believed to be only a senseless war of deities over nothing at all.
The three may not be full-feathered gods, though, since Plutarch regards that title really to belong only to one supreme being, referring to Zeus: "Him who is the First, the Lord of All, the Ideal One." [Plutarch 1936, 9.] Taking support from Plato, Pythagoras, Xenocrates, Chrysippus, and Homer, he classifies figures such as the three of this myth as demigods or daemons. Daemon, Latin from the Greek daimon, is a kind of deity that - contrary to the modern concept of demons - can be benevolent as well as malevolent. According to Plutarch they are:
stronger than men and, in their might, greatly surpassing our nature, yet not possessing the divine quality unmixed and uncontaminated, but with a share also in the nature of the soul and in the perceptive faculties of the body, and with a susceptibility to pleasure and pain and to whatsoever other experience is incident to these mutations, and is the source of much disquiet in some and of less in others. [Plutarch 1936, 59ff.]
They cannot be complete gods since in them, as in men, there are diverse "degrees of virtue and vice." He refers to Plato's Symposium when describing these half-gods as:
an interpretative and ministering class, midway between gods and men, in that they convey thither the prayers and petitions of men, and thence they bring hither the oracles and the gifts of good things. [Plutarch 1936, 65.]
Plutarch goes on to explain that the real distinction between deities is one between good and bad. Nature does by necessity contain both:
For if it is the law of nature that nothing comes into being without a cause, and if the good cannot provide a cause for evil, then it follows that Nature must have in herself the source and origin of evil, just as she contains the source and origin of good. [Plutarch 1936, 111.]
He sees the world as a grand battlefield between good and evil, better or bad, where the former has some predominance. Still, not enough so that the battle comes to an end:
Yet it is impossible for the bad to be completely eradicated, since it is innate, in large amount, in the body and likewise in the soul of the Universe, and is always fighting a hard fight against the better. [Plutarch 1936, 121.]
This very profound conflict within nature makes Plutarch conclude that there are really but two deities:
The great majority and the wisest of men hold this opinion: they believe that there are two gods, rivals as it were, the one the Artificer of good and the other of evil. There are also those who call the better one a god and the other a daemon. [Plutarch 1936, 111.]
So, the battle of Isis and Osiris versus Typhon is, as any battle in nature, one between good and evil. Therefore it cannot end, but repeats itself over and over.
In his discussion of how to understand mythology, Plutarch expresses outright contempt for the theory of Euhemerus in the early 3rd century BC, who claimed that many of the myths refer to historical persons and events, having been enhanced and glorified by posterity. Plutarch calls Euhemerus deceitful and many of the myths he used to prove his thesis non-existent. What enrages Plutarch the most is that Euhemerus promoted atheism:
by obliterating the gods of our belief and converting them all alike into names of generals, admirals, and kings, who, forsooth, lived in very ancient times and are recorded in inscriptions written in golden letters at Panchon, which no foreigner and no Greek had ever happened to meet with, save only Euhemerus. He, it seems, made a voyage to the Panchoans and Triphyllians, who never existed anywhere on earth and do not exist! [Plutarch 1936, 57.]
Nevertheless, the theory of Euhemerus, to which I will return, made a lasting impression way beyond the days of Plutarch. That can be seen in the thoughts of several others presented above. It is still around in one or other form.
And Plutarch was himself not beyond errors. He assumes a connection between Egyptian gods as well as words and Greek ones, even claiming the latter to be the roots. On the other hand, he is in good company with both Plato and Herodotus making such assumptions. [Plutarch 1936, 4.] Later mythologists would also frequently fall into the trap of making dubious language connections.
Euhemerus: Myth as Actual History.