text:
\section{Introduction}
\label{introduction}
The HST Key Project on the Extragalactic Distance Scale (Mould et al.\
2000a; Freedman et al.\ 2001) and the HST project on the ``Calibration
of Nearby Type Ia Supernovae'' (Sandage et al.\ 1992) have greatly
improved our knowledge of  the Hubble Constant by providing a solid
zero point for distance indicators applicable to Population I (Pop I)
stellar systems, in particular the Tully- Fisher (TF) relation (Sakai
et al.\ 2000) and Type Ia Supernovae (SNIa; Saha et al.\ 2001; Gibson
et al.\ 2000). This goal was achieved by measuring accurate Cepheid
distances to over two dozen nearby spiral galaxies, in which Cepheid,
TF and/or SNIa distances could be compared directly.  The calibration
of distance  estimators applicable to early-type galaxies cannot
benefit from such direct comparison, leading to considerable
disagreement in the Population II (Pop II) distance scale (Ferrarese
et al.\ 2000; Blakeslee et al.\ 2002; Ciardullo et al.\ 2002).
Resolving such discrepancies  is a must, not only as a means of
checking for systematic errors in the  Pop I distance scale ladder,
but also for the practical reason that early-type galaxies are found
in all types of environments, that they are more abundant than spirals
in rich clusters, and that they enjoy a privileged position in a
cluster's gravitational center.

Pop II distance indicators include several classes of variable stars
(most notably RR-Lyrae, e.g. Dolphin et al.\ 2001 and references
therein, and Mira Variables, e.g. Feast et al.\ 1989), the Tip of the
Red Giant Branch (TRGB; e.g. Mould \& Kristian 1986), the red clump
(Paczynski \& Stanek 1998; Udalski 2000), the Surface Brightness
Fluctuation method (SBF; Tonry \& Schneider 1988), the Planetary
Nebula Luminosity Function (PNLF; Jacoby et al.\ 1999), the Globular
Cluster Luminosity Function (GCLF; e.g. Richtler 2003), the Globular
Cluster Sizes (GCS, Jord\'an et al.\ 2005), and  the Fundamental Plane
(FP; Dressler et al.\ 1987; Djorgovski \& Davis 1987).
PNLF and TRGB can be used with equal success across the entire
Hubble sequence and provide, at least in local galaxies, a direct link
between the Pop II and the Pop I (Cepheids in particular) distance
scales. Although all methods can be used  to study local deviations
from the Hubble flow (see M\'endez et al.\ 2002 for an application
using the TRGB), SBF and the FP have the additional advantage of being
the only estimators, besides TF and SNIa, to extend far enough into
the unperturbed Hubble flow to allow a direct measurement of the
Hubble constant. SBF in particular  benefits from an intrinsic scatter
which only SNIa can rival (Tonry et al.\ 2001), making it an order of
magnitude less susceptible than TF to Malmquist biases and systematic
error.

As a  step in securing a Cepheid-based calibration of Pop II distance
indicators, we present in this paper the first determination of a
Cepheid distance to an early-type galaxy. Our  target is the giant
elliptical NGC~5128. The galaxy is the dominant member of the
Centaurus group, a powerful radio galaxy (Centaurus A), the host of
the very well sampled (but highly reddened) SNIa SN1986G (Phillips et
al.\ 1987), and an archetypal merger  (Malin, Quinn \& Graham
1983). Its Pop I component, including the Cepheids, is supported by
the reservoir of gas (Oosterloo et al.\ 2002) deposited in the merger;
star formation is triggered partly by the merger and partly by
interaction between the  gas cloud and the radio jet (Mould et al.\
2000b).  Distances to NGC 5128 have been measured using the TRGB in
the halo (Soria et al.\ 1996; Harris et al.\ 2002; Rejkuba et al.\
2005), SBF (Tonry et al.\ 2001), PNLF (Hui et al.\ 1995), and GCLF
(Harris et al.\ 1988). In future contributions, we will discuss a
Cepheid distance to NGC 4647, a spiral galaxy interacting with the
giant elliptical NGC 4649, strategically located in the Virgo cluster
core. A revision of the zero points for Pop II distance indicators,
and SBF in particular, will also be presented.

The paper is organized as follows. In \S \ref{photometry} we present
the multi-epoch {\it Hubble Space Telescope} (HST) {\it Wide Field
Planetary Camera 2} (WFPC2) observations on which our distance
determination is based.  The photometric analysis is discussed in \S
\ref{dophot}, while the identification of Cepheids and their derived
properties are discussed in \S \ref{cepheids}.  The derived distance
to NGC~5128 is presented in \S \ref{distance}. The result is discussed
and contrasted with previous distance determinations for NGC~5128 and
the Centaurus group in \S \ref{discussion}, where conclusions can also
be found.

\section{Observations and Initial Data Reduction}
\label{photometry}

NGC 5128 was observed between 2001 July 8 and 2001 August 20 as part
of program GO-9043. The 44-day length of the observing window was
imposed  by the need to observe the field at a single orientation,
i.e., without changing the  roll angle of the telescope. Within this
window, WFPC2 F555W (similar to Johnson $V$) and F814W ($\sim$
Kron-Cousins $I$) images were taken at 12 and six epochs respectively,
spaced in such a way to optimize the discovery of variable stars with
period between $\sim 10$ and $50$ days, as described in Freedman et
al.\ (1994).  Each image was split in a pair of consecutive exposures,
referred to as a ``cosmic ray-split pair'', of duration between 1100
and 1400 s.  Details of the observing procedure, including the
calendar and Heliocentric Julian Date (HJD) of the observations, the
HST archive rootnames, the filter employed, and exposure times are
listed in Table \ref{tbl:observations}.

The WFPC2 field of view (FOV) is divided between three {\it Wide Field
Cameras} (WFC), each with pixel scale of 0\Sec1, and one {\it
Planetary Camera} (PC), with pixel scale of 0\Sec046. The FOV of each
WFC is 80\hbox{${}^{\prime\prime}$}$\times$80\hbox{${}^{\prime\prime}$}, while the FOV of the PC is
36\Sec8$\times$36\Sec8.  Figure~\ref{ground} shows the position of the
WFPC2 FOV  superimposed to a ground-based image of NGC 5128. The
region targeted purposely avoided the high background associated with
the galaxy core, and included the western edge of the equatorial dust
lane, where the abundance of recent star formation should prove
conducive to the detection of Cepheids.  To minimize the impact of
dead pixels and other CCD imperfections, at each epoch the telescope
pointing was offset slightly (up to  2\Sec6 relative to the first
epoch) following a spiral hexagonal pattern.  All observations were
obtained with the telescope pointing in fine lock, giving a nominal
pointing stability of 5 mas (RMS) or better over 60-second intervals.

Basic data reduction (bias removal, dark subtraction and flat
fielding) was performed by the IRAF task CALWP2 when downloading the
images from the STScI data archive, selecting the ``On the Fly
Reprocessing'' option. Details of the calibration procedures executed
by CALWP2 can be found in the WFPC2 Data Handbook (Heyer et al.\ 2005).

\section{Photometric Analysis}
\label{dophot}

The photometric reduction was performed independently using a variant
of DoPHOT (Schechter, Mateo \& Saha 1993; Saha et al.\ 1994) and DAOPHOT
II/ALLFRAME (Stetson 1994).  A detailed description of the
photometric reduction process can be found in Ferrarese et al.\ (1996)
and Stetson et al.\ (1998). In what follows, we only provide a brief
summary of the key steps.

\subsection{DoPHOT Procedure}

Unlike ALLFRAME, DoPHOT works most effectively on images which have
been cleaned of cosmic ray (CR) hits.  CR-split pairs were therefore
combined using a sigma detection algorithm which takes into account
the problems of Point Spread Function (PSF) under-sampling (Saha et
al.\ 1996).  The DoPHOT reduction of the resulting  12 F555W and six
F814W images was performed using as first guess a parametric
representation of the PSF which best represents  point sources in the
frames. To aid source detection, the photometric reduction of each
epoch adopts, as a starting point,   an input star-list generated by
running DoPHOT on deep, CR-free F555W and F814W images, respectively
created by combining all 24 F555W and 12 F814W  frames listed in
Table~\ref{tbl:observations}.  In combining the frames, single images
are first brought into alignment with the first epoch frames, using
shifts calculated by matching positions for a list of objects in
common; rotations between frames were found to be negligible in all
cases.  To insure photometric stability, in aligning the images
sub-pixel interpolation was not performed and images were not
corrected for geometric distortion. Although this unavoidably leads to
a degradation in the PSF of the deep frames relative to that of the
single exposures, this has no detrimental effects on the photometry.

DoPHOT  magnitudes are defined as $m_{Do} = -2.5$log(DN/$t$)$+30.0$,
where DN is the number of counts within an aperture of radius equal to
5 pixels, and $t$ is the exposure time. The raw output from DoPHOT is
converted to DoPHOT magnitudes by applying an aperture correction,
calculated by performing aperture photometry on  bright isolated
stars. Telescope jitter or focus changes between subsequent epochs can
result in a slight time dependence of the aperture corrections,
however, rather than deriving independent aperture corrections for
each epoch/filter, we instead derived aperture corrections from the
deep images (using between 35 and 160 stars depending on the
filter/chip), applied them to each epochs' photometry, matched the
deep frame photometry to that of the first epoch (both of which have
been aperture corrected), and finally matched each epoch's
aperture-corrected photometry to the aperture-corrected deep
photometry. With this procedure, the first epoch is used to tie the
photometry, the aperture corrections are derived from the high
signal-to-noise deep images, and small changes in aperture corrections
are accounted for by (effectively) matching the photometry of several
thousand stars in each epoch to that of the first. The deep frames are
not used directly to tie the photometry because of possible
complications introduced by the degradation in the PSF as a result of
the procedure used to combine the single exposures. Variations in
aperture corrections between epochs are found to be 0.03 mag or less.

\subsection{ALLFRAME}
\label{allframe}

ALLFRAME is run directly on the single exposures, without combining
CR-split  pairs or rejecting cosmic rays. An input star list to
ALLFRAME was generated from median-averaged  cosmic-ray-free F555W and
F814W deep frames.  Iterative application of DAOPHOT and ALLSTAR led
to a single final master star list, including stars detected in either
(or both) filters. This star list was input to ALLFRAME, and used to
extract profile-fitting stellar photometry from the 36 individual
frames.  The adopted PSFs were derived from public domain HST WFPC2
observations of the globular clusters Pal~4 and NGC~2419.

Aperture photometry was performed on a set of bright isolated
stars. The program DAOGROW was then employed to generate growth curves
out to 0\Sec5,  allowing an aperture correction to be derived for each
chip and filter,  using the approach of Holtzman et al.\ (1995).
As seen for the DoPHOT photometry, variations in aperture
corrections for the same filter/chip and different epochs are found to
be, on average, 0.03 mag or less.

\subsection{Absolute Photometric Calibration}
\label{zeropt}

The continuing degradation in the WFPC2 performance demands a frequent
updating of the coefficients needed to convert DoPHOT and ALLFRAME
magnitudes to standard-system magnitudes, $m_{F555W}$ and $m_{F814W}$,
and ultimately, through the adoption of a color term, to Johnson $V$
and Kron-Cousin $I$. As part of this project, we obtained  F555W and
F814W WFPC2 single-epoch images of the Draco dwarf spheroidal,  and
three globular clusters, NGC 5262, NGC 6341 and NGC 2419. Comparison
of ground-based and HST ALLFRAME photometry for secondary standard
stars in these fields has led to the updated ALLFRAME photometric
calibration equations listed in  Table~\ref{tbl:zpall}. The
transformations assume a color correction as in Holtzman et al.\
(1995), so that only the zero points are derived when matching the HST
to the ground-based photometry; a full description of the procedure
will be provided in an upcoming paper (Stetson, in preparation). These
transformations were derived using 40 s F555W and F814W exposures, and
are therefore equivalent to the ``short-exposure zero points"
presented in Hill et al.\ (1998). Comparing the Hill et al.\ to the
new  coefficients implies a 10 to 15\% degradation in the WFPC2
performance (slightly worse in F555W than in F814W) between May 1994
(when the fields analyzed by Hill et al.\ were  observed) and July
2001. Comparing the new  coefficients to those presented by Dolphin
(2000, for a ``cold'' operating temperature and gain = 7), which were
derived from data taken between January  1994 and May 2000, implies a
5 to 10\% degradation in the WFPC2 performance (again slightly worse
in F555W than in F814W).

There is some debate in the literature as to whether the photometric
zero points differ depending on whether short ($\lesssim$ 60 s) or
long exposure ($\gtrsim$1300 s) observations are used in their
derivation. Hill et al., as well as previous investigations, find
that  zero points obtained from the long exposure observations are
systematically fainter, on average by 0.05 mag, with no significant
chip/filter dependence, while Dolphin (2000) find no evidence of such
effect. In addition to the 40 s exposures mentioned above, exposures
between 230 and 300 s were obtained for all standard fields (Draco,
NGC 5262, NGC 6341 and NGC 2419) at the same time as the NGC 5128
frames; comparing these longer exposures (analyzed with ALLFRAME as
described in the previous paragraph) to the 40 s exposures yields zero
points which are on average 0.025 to 0.030 mag fainter than those
reported in Table~\ref{tbl:zpall} (again with no significant
dependence on chip/filter), in the same sense noted by Hill et al.,
i.e., the detector quantum efficiency appears to be reduced in the
shorter exposure. In light of this,  we assume a 0.05 mag difference,
in both $V$ and $I$, between the zero points listed in
Table~\ref{tbl:zpall} and those applicable to the longer NGC 5128
exposures. {\it In the rest of this paper, all tables and Figures use
the short exposure zero points given in Table~\ref{tbl:zpall},
however, we will add 0.05 mag to the final distance modulus to account
for the fact that the NGC 5128 frames used   longer exposures time
than the standard fields from which the photometric calibration is
derived.} We will include the uncertainty in the photometric zero
points in the discussion of the error budget in \S 5.3.

Analogous transformation equations applicable to the DoPHOT photometry
were obtained by comparing the DoPHOT and ALLFRAME photometry for a
set of bright, isolated secondary standard stars (listed in the
Appendix) in the NGC 5128 field.  Figure~\ref{comp1} shows a
chip-by-chip comparison of the $V-$ and $I-$band ALLFRAME and DoPHOT
photometry for these secondary standards, the former adopting the
transformations listed in Table~\ref{tbl:zpall}, and the latter using
the short exposure zero points from Hill et al.\ (1998). Mean
differences between the DoPHOT and ALLFRAME photometry are listed in
Table~\ref{tbl:comp} for each chip/filter combination.  The slightly
larger offsets noted for the PC (and more so in $I$ than in $V$) could
be due to several causes, including a slight degradation in the PSF
(the size of the aperture, in arcsec,  used in measuring DoPHOT
magnitudes is smaller in the PC than in the WF chips) between 1994 and
2001, and/or a change in the Charge-Transfer Inefficiency (CTE) which is
known to affect WFPC2 data (Stetson 1998).

Bringing the DoPHOT photometry into agreement with the ALLFRAME photometry by
correcting for the observed offsets leads to the DoPHOT photometric
transformations listed in Table~\ref{tbl:zpdo}. Figure~\ref{comp2}
shows the match between the DoPHOT and ALLFRAME photometry for the
same secondary standard stars shown in Figure~\ref{comp1} once these
final zero points are adopted. It is worth noticing that a small scale
error appears to be present in the $I-$band comparison. Regression
fits, accounting for errors in both variables, to the data shown in
Figure~\ref{comp2} give:

$$
 \; V_{\rm DoPHOT} - V_{\rm ALLFRAME} =  - (0.0023 \pm  0.0080) -
 $$
 \be
- (0.006 \pm 0.012) \times (V_{\rm DoPHOT} - 22.72)
\ee

$$
 I_{\rm DoPHOT} - I_{\rm ALLFRAME} =  - (0.0047 \pm  0.0030) -
$$
\be
- (0.0202 \pm 0.0049) \times (I_{\rm DoPHOT} - 21.43)
\ee

Scale errors of this magnitude are not uncommon when comparing DoPHOT
and ALLFRAME photometry (e.g. Hill et al. 1998), and are likely to
reflect the inherent limitations of PSF fitting procedures in crowded
fields. In the worst case scenario, i.e. assuming that the error
resides entirely with the DoPHOT photometry (which will be used in \S
5 to measure the distance to NGC 5128), the  $I-$band 0.02 mag/mag
scale error would lead to overestimate the magnitudes of the faintest
Cepheids (mean $I-$band magnitude $\sim 23.5$) by $\sim 0.04$ mag
($I_{\rm DoPHOT}$ and $I_{\rm ALLFRAME}$ agree at the mean magnitudes
of the brightest Cepheids).  Correcting all DoPHOT photometry
according to equation (2) would increase all distances (derived using
the same procedure discussed in \S 5) by 0.04 mag. However, given the
uncertain nature of this scale error, and its limited impact compared
to all other sources of error which will be discussed in \S 5.3,  we
feel justified in neglecting its effects in the remainder of this
paper.

Finally, we note that the zero points listed in Tables \ref{tbl:zpall}
and \ref{tbl:zpdo} do not include a correction for CTE. The electron
loss due to CTE is dependent on position within the chip, as well as
on the brightness of the star and underlying sky background.  The zero
points used in this paper are translated to the chips' centers;
therefore we expect that (uncorrected) CTE losses will add scatter (at
the few hundredths of a magnitude level) in the photometry, but not
produce any systematic biases in the photometry of a sample of stars
distributed uniformly throughout the chip.  We note that the
combination of $V = 20$ mag standards and 80 second exposures with $V
= 25$ mag Cepheids and 1100 second exposures leads to equal CTE
corrections for both Cepheids and standards, according to the
coefficients of Stetson (1998). Although we assume that this remained
true for our 2001 data, we expect to test this assumption in ongoing
calibration work.

\section{Cepheid Identification}
\label{cepheids}

The search for variable stars was conducted using three independent
methods: 1) a variant of Stellingwerf's (1978) phase dispersion
minimization routine, as described in Saha \& Hoessel (1990), applied
to the DoPHOT photometry; 2) the template light curve fitting
algorithm TRIAL (Stetson 1996) applied to the ALLFRAME photometry; and
3) a photometry-independent  image subtraction method, following Alard
\& Lupton (1998). The first two methods produce both a list of likely
variables and an estimate of the variability period, while the third
method was implemented to simply flag objects undergoing
luminosity variations, with no attempt to construct light curves.

Every star that satisfies the variability criteria imposed by the
previous methods was visually inspected by  blinking the images
against each other. This step is necessary since random errors in the
photometry,  uncorrected CR hits, or crowding, do occasionally result
in spurious light curves which look credible based on the photometry
alone. Of the 126 variables identified based on one or more of the
methods above, a total of 56 were judged to be {\it bona-fide} Cepheid
variables based on the character of the light curve, the
visually-established reliability of the light variations, and some
visual assurance that the star does not appear to be a blend or is
found in an unusually crowded region. The remaining 70 stars are
likely genuine variables, although either their photometry is
considered suspect because of crowding, or  their light curves do not
appear Cepheid-like.

For the remainder of this paper, we will adopt the DoPHOT photometry
for all variables. The periods quoted are therefore determined based
on method 1) above; a comparison of these periods and the TRIAL
periods best fitting the ALLFRAME light curves for the 36 {\it
bona-fide} Cepheids in common shows excellent agreement, with  a mean
difference of $(-0.5 \pm 5.4)$\%.

For each variable star, we calculated both intensity-averaged
magnitudes, defined as

\be
m = -2.5 \log_{10}\sum_{i=1}^n {1 \over n} 10^{-0.4\times m_i},
\ee

\noindent and phase-weighted magnitudes (Saha and Hoessel 1990),
defined as

\be
m = -2.5\log_{10}\sum_{i=1}^n 0.5(\phi_{i+1} - \phi_{i-1})10^{-0.4
\times m_i},
\ee

\noindent where the phase $\phi$ varies between 0 and 1.  In the above
equations, $n$ is the total number of observations, and $m_i$ and
$\phi_i$ are the magnitude and phase of the $i-$th observation in
order of increasing phase. Phase-weighted magnitudes are more robust
than intensity-averaged magnitudes for variables with non-uniform
temporal sampling (Saha and Hoessel, 1990).

$X$ and $Y$ positions within the chip (in the coordinate frame of the
first epoch), right ascension and declination, period,
intensity-averaged and phase-weighted $V$ and $I$ magnitudes for all
Cepheids are listed in Table~\ref{tbl:ceph}, while parameters for the
suspected variable stars are listed in the Appendix, where single
epoch F555W and F814W magnitudes of all Cepheids are also
reported. Note that for Cepheids which vary on timescales close to or
longer than the 44-day contiguous observing window, often only a lower
limit on the period can be placed.

The spatial distribution of the Cepheids and suspected variable stars
in each chip is shown in Figure~\ref{PC}. Detailed
finding charts are given in Figure~\ref{FC1} for the
Cepheids, and in the Appendix for the suspected variable stars.

DoPHOT light curves for each Cepheid, phased to the appropriate
period, are presented in Figure~\ref{lc1} -- the F555W and F814W
magnitudes are shown by solid and open dots, respectively.  Figure
\ref{cmd} shows the location of the 56 Cepheids (using phase-weighted
$V$ and $I$ magnitudes) listed in Table \ref{tbl:ceph} in a $V,V-I$
color-magnitude diagram  (CMD), constructed using the DoPHOT
photometry of the deep F555W and F814W frames; mean photometric
errors, calculated in bins of width equal to 0.5 mag, are shown in
Figure \ref{cmderr} as a function of magnitude and color. Note that in
Figure \ref{cmd}, most Cepheids  lie outside the instability strip,
which is shown in the Figure assuming a $V-$band distance modulus of
28.85 mag and reddening $E(V-I)=0.55$ mag (see \S 5). As will be
discussed in \S 5, this is a consequence of the large and highly
position dependent reddening of the NGC 5128 field.

\section{The Distance to NGC~5128}
\label{distance}

\subsection{Standard Procedure}

The DoPHOT  $V-$ and $I-$band Period-Luminosity (PL) relations for
NGC~5128 are shown in the upper panels of Figure \ref{pl1}, using
phase-weighted magnitudes. Cepheids identified by a symbol with an
arrow are those for which only a lower limit on the period could be
placed.  In the lower two panels of Figure \ref{pl1}, the $<V>$ and
$<I>$ phase-weighted magnitudes are combined to give the Wesenheit
function $W = V - (V-I)\times A(V)/E(V-I)$ (Madore 1982). By
construction, $W$ is unaffected by line-of-sight reddening, therefore
the extrinsic scatter in the $W-\log P$ plane should be smaller than
in either the  $<I>-\log P$ or (especially) $<V>-\log P$ planes. The
lower right panel of Figure \ref{pl1} shows the same data plotted in
the lower left panel, but Cepheids are color-coded according to the
chip to which they belong.

The apparent $V-$ and $I-$band distance moduli ({\rm i.e. } $\mu_{\rm V}$ and
$\mu_{\rm I}$) to NGC~5128 are derived relative to those of the Large
Magellanic Cloud. We adopt the LMC PL relations of Udalski et al.\
(1999), scaled to a true LMC distance modulus of
$\mu_{\circ,LMC}=18.50\pm 0.10$ mag and reddening
E($B-V$)$_{LMC}=0.10$ mag as in Freedman et al.\ (2001):

$$
\; M_V  = -2.760[\pm 0.03](\log P - 1.0) - 4.218[\pm 0.02]
$$
\be
(\sigma_V = \pm 0.16)
\ee

\noindent and

$$
\;M_I = -2.962[\pm 0.02](\log P - 1.0) - 4.904[\pm 0.01]
$$
\be
(\sigma_I = \pm 0.11).
\ee

Once a ratio of total to selective absorption $R_V = A(V)/E(B-V)$ and
a reddening law are adopted, a reddening corrected true distance
modulus $\mu_0$ can be calculated {\it for each} of the NGC 5128
Cepheids. In the absence of a metallicity dependence of the Cepheid PL
relation, and for a reddening law as derived by Cardelli, Clayton \&
Mathis (1989) with $R_V = 3.3$\footnotemark, the true distance modulus
for each individual Cepheid becomes:

\footnotetext{$R_V = 3.3$ was adopted in all Key Project papers
  (e.g. Freedman et al.\ 2001), and is in agreement with the recent
  estimate by McCall (2004). Under these conditions, $A$(F814W)$/A(V)=0.599$,
  $A$(F555W)$/A(V)=0.999$, and $A$(F555W)$/[A($F555W$)-A($F814W$)]=2.497$}

\begin{eqnarray}
\begin{array}{l}
\mu_0 = \mu_V - A(V) = \mu_I - A(I) = \\
\\
\phantom{\mu_0 }= \mu_V - A(V)/E(V-I)(\mu_V - \mu_I) = \\
\\
\phantom{\mu_0 }= 2.497\mu_I - 1.497\mu_V = \\
\\
\phantom{\mu_0 }= W + 3.27[\pm 0.01](\log P-1) + 5.94[\pm 0.01] \\
\\
\phantom{\mu_0 = } (\sigma_0=\pm0.08).
\end{array}
\end{eqnarray}

The true distance modulus to NGC 5128 is then taken as the average of
the distance moduli to the individual Cepheids. In the process,
Cepheids which deviate by more than 0.48 mag (two times the width of
the instability strip) from the main ridge-line of the $W - \log P$
plot are excluded from the fit. These Cepheids are shown as solid dots
surrounded by larger circles in Figure~\ref{pl1}; note that the
rejection is not performed based on the $V$ and $I$ PL relations, for
which large deviations could be due to differential reddening. In
addition, Cepheids with period less than 8 days, which could be
overtone pulsators (open circles in Figure~\ref{pl1}), and Cepheids
for which only a lower limit on the period could be determined, were
also excluded from the fits.  The procedure described above is
equivalent to 1) finding the  sample-mean $V$ and $I$ magnitudes at
$\log P = 1$ by fitting $V$ and $I$ PL relations to the NGC 5128 data,
with slopes fixed to those of equations (5) and (6); 2) subtracting
them from the zero points of equations (5) and (6) respectively, to
find sample-mean distance moduli $\mu_V$ and $\mu_I$; and 3) applying
the middle expression of equation (7) to derive $\mu_0$.

Table~\ref{tbl:dist} lists the distances obtained by means of the
method described above. Using Cepheids from all chips, with period $>
8$ days and excluding outliers (case 1 in the Table), the resulting
apparent distance moduli are $\mu_{V}=28.85\pm 0.10$ mag and
$\mu_{I}=28.30\pm 0.06$  mag (short exposure zero points). The
corresponding true distance modulus is $\mu_0 = 27.48 \pm 0.05$ mag,
giving a linear distance of $3.4 \pm 0.1$ Mpc, where the quoted
uncertainties are 1$\sigma$ fitting uncertainties.  These fits are
shown  by  the solid lines in Figure~\ref{pl1}, while the dotted lines
represent 2$\sigma$ deviations from the mean of the LMC relations ({\rm i.e. }
0.32 mag in $V$, and 0.22 mag in $I$, equations 5 and 6).

Previous papers have noted the importance of testing the sample for
incompleteness bias ({\rm e.g. } Lanoix, Paturel, \& Garnier 1999) by imposing
a long pass filter on the period distribution.  Table~\ref{tbl:dist}
lists distance moduli obtained by applying lower period cutoffs of 15,
20, 25 and 30 days (cases 2 to 5). In all cases, the distances agree
well within the quoted uncertainties. The same is true if
distances are derived independently for the four chips
(cases 6 to 9). Finally, if all the suspected variable stars listed
in the Appendix with period $> 8$ days are added to the Cepheid
sample, the distance remains virtually unchanged (case 10).

Using all Cepheids with period $> 8$ days gives a total (foreground
plus intrinsic) reddening to NGC 5128 of $E(V-I)=0.55\pm0.05$  mag.
The uncertainty in this estimate is not simply the quadrature sum of
the uncertainties in the apparent moduli (Stetson et al.\ 1998):
because $A(V) \propto \mu_V - \mu_I$, the intrinsic scatter in the PL
relation does not propagate into the reddening uncertainty.  The
DIRBE/IRAS dust maps of Schlegel, Finkbeiner \& Davis (1998) show a
foreground reddening component of $E(B-V)=0.115$ or $E(V-I)=0.152$ mag
along the sight-line to NGC 5128, implying an average $A(V) = 1.0$ mag
of internal extinction for the NGC 5128 Cepheids.

\subsection{The Effect of Reddening on the Distance to NGC 5128}

One complication in the analysis described in \S 5.1 is that it relies
on an assumed value for $R_V$ which, in the case discussed above, was
set to 3.3 for both NGC 5128 and the LMC. For a different $R_V$, the
coefficients in equation (7) will change, and the distance will be
affected. Furthermore, as demonstrated in Ferrarese et al.\ (1996), if
$R_V$ differs in the LMC and NGC 5128, $\mu_0$ becomes mildly
dependent on the absolute absorption $A(V)$ to the LMC:

$$
\; \mu_0 = \mu_V - \left[{A(V)\over E(V-I)}\right]^{N5128}(\mu_V -
\mu_I) +
$$
\be
+ 0.582~ \left[{E(B-V)\over
E(V-I)}\right]^{N5128}\left[{{R_V^{N5128}} \over
{R_V^{LMC}}}-1\right]~A(V)^{LMC}\\ \ee

In their study of the wavelength of maximum polarization of SN1986G,
Hough et al.\ (1987)  found $R_V = 2.4 \pm 0.13$ for the dust affected
regions of NGC 5128, significantly  different from the standard value
of 3.3 adopted in \S5.1. The generalized reddening law of Cardelli,
Clayton \& Mathis (1989) applied to equation (8) then yields the
following expression for the true distance modulus, to be compared
with equation (7):

\be
\mu_0 = 2.143\mu_I - 1.143\mu_V  - 0.047
\ee

In the last two columns of Table~\ref{tbl:dist}, distance moduli are
calculated assuming $R_V=3.3$ for the LMC and $R_V=2.4$  for NGC 5128.
The distance modulus increases by 0.14 mag relative to the case in
which $R_V=3.3$ for both galaxies, from $\mu_0 = 27.48 \pm 0.05$ to
$\mu_0 = 27.62 \pm 0.04$ for the complete sample (case 1).

The issue is explored further in Figure \ref{rvfits}, where dereddened
distance moduli are shown as a function of the value of $R_V$ assumed
for NGC 5128 (in all cases, $R_V = 3.3$ for the LMC). The upper panel
of the Figure shows the standard deviation around the best-fit line in
the $P-W$ plot as a function of $R_V$, while the lower panel shows the
corresponding variation in $\mu_0$. The scatter in the $P-W$ relation
is minimized around $R_V \sim 1.8$; at this value $\mu_0 = 27.76 \pm
0.04$, corresponding to a linear distance of $3.56 \pm 0.07$ Mpc. We
refrain from being guided by considerations of the scatter in the
$P-W$ relation in choosing $R_V$; further insight into the nature of
the reddening in NGC 5128 will require infrared photometry following
Macri et al.\ (2001).

\subsection{Error Estimates and a Final Distance}

In view of the discussion above, and given the existence of an
independent estimate of $R_V$ in NGC 5128, we adopt as our final
distance to NGC 5128 that obtained for $R_V^{NGC 5128} = 2.4$ and
$R_V^{LMC} = 3.3$. In what follows, however, we will take a
conservative approach in quoting the uncertainty in the final
distance, specifically to account for possible differences between the
reddening to SN1986G and that of our Cepheid sample.

The errors listed in \S 5.1 and \S 5.2 reflect internal errors alone,
arising from  scatter in the NGC~5128 PL relations.  A more complete
assessment of the  associated uncertainty, incorporating other
currently identified random and systematic  errors, is presented in
Table \ref{tbl:error}. Uncertainties due to  metallicity, LMC distance
modulus ($\pm 0.10$ mag, Madore \& Freedman 1991; Westerlund 1996;
Freedman et al.\ 2001), reddening and photometric calibration all
contribute  to the NGC~5128 distance modulus error budget. Of these,
we identify as ``systematic" those sources of error that affect
equally all   Cepheid distances derived using the same instrumental
setup and calibration of the LMC PL relations as those used in this
paper.

Errors related to reddening estimates in NGC 5128 contribute 0.08 mag
to the (random) error budget. This is calculated following equation
(8), assuming $R_V^{NGC5128} = 2.4 \pm 0.3$ and $R_V^{LMC}=3.3$. The
error on $R_V^{NGC5128}$ assumes that the difference between $R_V=2.4$
and 3.3 represents a $3\sigma$ uncertainty on the true value of
$R_V$. The $1\sigma$ uncertainty on $A_V^{LMC}$ is assumed to be 0.05
mag.

The remaining random uncertainty in Table \ref{tbl:error} which should
be  noted here is that due to a possible metallicity dependence of the
Cepheid PL relation at $V$ and $I$.  Sakai et al.\ (2004)  find a
metallicity dependence of the form  d$\mu_\circ$/d[O/H] =
$-0.24\pm0.05$ mag/dex. This is in agreement with Groenewegen et
al. (2004), although we note that  Romaniello et al.\ (2005)  find an
[Fe/H] dependence of approximately the same  size, but opposite
sign. If the NGC~5128 Cepheids  differ substantially in metal
abundance from those of the LMC  Cepheids which calibrate the PL
relation, a significant systematic error could  be present in the
derived distance. Since the source of the neutral hydrogen  gas for
the Pop I in NGC~5128 is a galaxy like the LMC, one might expect
parity in metal abundance. The H~I masses of NGC 5128 and the LMC are
7.2 $\times$  10$^8$ M$_\odot$ and 3.1 $\times$ 10$^8$ M$_\odot$
respectively (van Gorkom  et al.\ 1990; Luks \& Rohlfs 1992). On the
other hand, Sutherland, Bicknell and Dopita (1994) were able to fit
spectra of the jet-excited knots in Cen A  with solar abundances. In
these circumstances, we are unable to correct the NGC 5128 distance
for the LMC/NGC 5128 metallicity difference, however we can account
for it in our error estimate. Adopting  [O/H]$=-3.5$ for the LMC
Cepheids (Kennicutt et al. 1998) and assuming solar metallicity for
NGC 5128, the metallicity trend of Sakai et al.\ (2004) leads to a
0.35 $\times$ 0.24 = 0.08 mag uncertainty in the distance modulus,
which we include in our final error budget.

In light of the uncertainties listed in Table~\ref{tbl:error}, {\it our
final quoted Cepheid-based true distance modulus to NGC 5128 is
(adding 0.05 mag to bring the photometry on the long exposure zero
points, see \S 3.3) $\mu_\circ=27.67\pm 0.12\,({\rm random})\pm 0.16\,
({\rm systematic})$ mag, with a reddening of $E(V-I)=0.55\pm0.05$
(internal+foreground).  The corresponding distance is $3.42 \pm
0.18\,({\rm random})\pm 0.25\,({\rm systematic})$ Mpc.}

\section{Discussion and Conclusions}
\label{discussion}

The most extensive study of the structure of the Centaurus A group has
been published by Karachentsev et al.\ (2002). Based on HST/WFPC2 TRGB
distances to 17 dwarf galaxies, the authors conclude that the group is
composed of two spatially distinct substructures, with NGC 5128 and
NGC 5236 (M 83) as dominant members. The mean TRGB distances to the
two substructures are found to be 3.63 $\pm$ 0.07 Mpc ($\mu_0$ = 27.80
$\pm$ 0.04 mag), and 4.57 $\pm$ 0.05 Mpc ($\mu_0$ = 28.30 $\pm$ 0.02
mag), respectively; the latter agrees with the Cepheid distance
modulus ($\mu_0=28.25 \pm 0.15$ mag) measured for NGC 5236 itself by
Thim et al.\ (2003).  A Cepheid distance exists for an additional
member of the Cen A group, NGC 5253, host of the Type Ia SN1972E,
although its value is controversial ($27.61 \pm 0.11 \pm 0.16$ mag
according to Gibson et al.\ 2000, but $28.08 \pm 0.2$ mag according to
Saha et al.\ 1995).

A comprehensive summary of published distances to NGC 5128 is given by
Rejkuba (2004). Determinations have been made using Mira variable
stars, the TRGB, PNLF and SBF; although NGC 5128 was host to the Type
Ia SN1986G, unfortunately the large reddening towards this supernova
(Phillips et al.\ 1999; $E(B-V) = 0.50$) makes a distance from the
standard candle estimator unreliable\footnotemark.  Using $K-$band
data, Rejkuba (2004) derived $\mu_0 = 27.96 \pm 0.11$ mag based on the
PL relation for Mira variables (calibrated using a distance modulus to
the LMC of 18.50 mag, as in this paper), and $\mu_0 = 27.87 \pm 0.16$
mag based on the TRGB.  The latter has been established as a solid
standard candle for stars with [Fe/H] $< -0.7$ (Mould \& Kristian
1986; Lee et al.\ 1993; Madore \& Freedman 1995; Sakai et al.\ 1996);
the $I-$band TRGB magnitude for NGC 5128 halo stars has been placed,
based on HST data, at  $m_{TRGB} = 23.88 \pm 0.1$ mag (Soria et al.\
1996;  Harris et al.\ 1999, corrected assuming a foreground extinction
$A_I = 0.22$ mag, Schlegel, Finkbeiner \& Davis 1998) and $m_{TRGB} =
23.83 \pm 0.05$ mag (Rejkuba et al. 2005 -- the value of 24.05 mag
quoted in the original paper is uncorrected for extinction). These
TRGB magnitudes can be converted to distances using the empirical
calibration of the $I-$band tip absolute magnitude, $M^{TRGB}$, as a
function of  the stars' metallicity, [Fe/H], derived by Bellazzini et
al.\ (2001) from Galactic globular clusters, with zero point anchored
by observations of the globular cluster $\omega$Cen. Harris et
al. (1999) consider only stars with [Fe/H] $< -0.7$ in measuring
$m_{TRGB}$. Soria et al.\ (1996) use stars for which $(V-I) > 1.5$ mag
(corresponding to [Fe/H] $ > -1.68$ according to Bellazzini et al.\
2001), while the $m_{TRGB}$ determination of Rejkuba et al. (2005) is
based on stars with $(V-I) < 1.8$ ([Fe/H] $ < -1.28$). Based on the
$(V-I)$ range spanned by the TRGB in the published color magnitude
diagrams, we estimate a mean [Fe/H] of $-1.2 \pm 0.5$ for both the
Soria et al. (1996) and Harris et al.\ (1999) data, and $-1.4 \pm 0.1$
for the Rejkuba et al. (2005) data. The Bellazzini et al.\ calibration
then leads to TRGB  distances to NGC 5128 of $\mu_0 = 27.91 \pm 0.44$
mag (Soria et al.\ 1996; Harris et al. 1999), and $\mu_0 = 27.89 \pm
0.16$ mag (Rejkuba et al. 2005), where the errors include a 0.12 mag
uncertainty in the zero point of the Bellazzini et al.\ calibration.

A PNLF distance of $\mu_0^{PNLF} = 27.73^{+0.03}_{-0.05}$ was
published by Hui et al.\ (1995) based on a sample of 224 planetary
nebulae. The authors use an empirical calibration of the PNLF based on
the Cepheid distance to M31; using the updated calibration by
Ferrarese et al.\ (2000), based on Cepheid distances to six galaxies
(including M31) with PNLF measurements, gives $\mu_0^{PNLF} =
27.83^{+0.03}_{-0.05}$.  The SBF distance to NGC 5128 is, at the
moment, less firmly constrained.  In their SBF survey, Tonry et al.\
(2001) report $\mu_0^{SBF} = 28.12 \pm 0.14$, but two factors have
surfaced since which require this distance to be revised. First, the
zero point of the SBF distance scale (based on Cepheid distances to
the bulges of six spirals with SBF measurements) has been updated
(Blakeslee et al.\ 2002). Adopting the new zero point gives a revised
distance modulus $\mu_0^{SBF} = 28.06 \pm 0.14$ mag.  Second, new
wide-field mosaic observations (Peng et al.\ 2004;  E.~Peng, private
communication) indicate that the original $(V{-}I)$ color measured by
Tonry et al.\ (2001) for the bulge of NGC 5128 was significantly
underestimated, by approximately 0.07 mag.  The revised color is more
reasonable for an early-type galaxy of this luminosity.  The reason
for the unexpectedly large error was the inadequate area available for
sky estimation on the small format CCDs used to observe this large
galaxy in the ground-based SBF survey.  Because the slope of the
linear SBF--$(V{-}I)$ calibration is 4.5, the Tonry et al.\ SBF
distance must be revised further by $4.5\times0.07 = 0.32$ mag.  With
these corrections, the SBF distance modulus becomes $\mu_\circ =
27.74$ mag.  The SBF calibration will be revisited in a future
contribution comparing SBF and Cepheid distances to NGC4647/NGC4649.

To summarize, distance estimates for NGC 5128 are confined in the very
narrow range $\mu_0 = 27.74 \pm 0.14$ (SBF) to $\mu_0 = 27.96 \pm
0.11$ mag (Mira variables, Rejkuba 2004).  Our Cepheid distance
modulus, $\mu_\circ=27.67\pm 0.12\,({\rm random})\pm 0.16\, ({\rm
systematic})$ is consistent with both estimates within the quoted
uncertainties.

\footnotetext{Note that the GCLF distance published by Harris et
  al.\ (1988) is to be considered tentative since based on a luminosity
  function which did not reach the turnover; this distance was in fact not
  used in subsequent papers by some of the authors (e.g. Harris et
  al.\ 1999).}

We conclude by returning briefly to the five {\it bona-fide} Cepheids
which appeared under-luminous in the $P-W$ plot of Figure
\ref{pl1}. These objects are identified by the large squares in Figure
\ref{cmd} and correspond to Cepheids  C43, C50, C52, C54, and C56 in
Table \ref{tbl:ceph}. Given the presence of an older stellar
population associated with the bulge and halo of NGC 5128, it is not
unreasonable to expect the detection of Population II variables, such
as RR-Lyrae stars, Anomalous Cepheids, RV Tauri and Pop II Cepheids
(themselves divided in BL Herculis for periods between 1 and 8 days,
and W Virginis for longer periods) within our WFPC2 field.  RR-Lyrae
are fainter (by 4 to 6 $V-$band magnitudes) and have shorter
variability timescales ($< 0.8$ day) than any of the variables
discussed here; Anomalous Cepheids, which have been detected in a
number of dwarf spheroidals (Nemec et al.\ 1994; Wallerstein 2002) are
also not known for periods longer than 1.6 days. RV Tauri stars have
characteristic light curves showing alternating deep and shallow
minima (see Alcock et al.\ 1998 for several exceptionally well sampled
light curves in the LMC), which are not characteristic of any of the
variables in NGC 5128.

The remaining, and indeed likely possibility is that the five
under-luminous variables in NGC 5128 are Population II Cepheids of the
W Virginis class. These are known to have regular light curves, which
compared to those of classical (Pop I) Cepheids, often display a flat
maximum, a symmetric minimum and/or a hump during the decline phase
(Schmidt et al.\ 2004; Alcock et al.\ 1998). Although such differences
cannot be easily appreciated in sparsely sampled light curves such as
the ones available for NGC 5128,   all of the under-luminous variables
in NGC 5128, with the exception of C50, show a broad maximum (C43,
C52), a symmetric light curve (C54) and/or a slow ascent (C56): in
other words, their light curves are consistent with those seen for Pop
II Cepheids. In a CMD, Pop II Cepheids occupy the instability strip,
and indeed Figure \ref{cmd} shows that the five under-luminous
variables in NGC 5128 do not appear to have abnormal colors (the fact
that four of them are among the bluest of the Cepheids discovered in
NGC 5128 could simply reflect the fact that they suffer from lower
internal extinction, as expected for objects belonging to the bulge or
halo).  Finally, the under-luminous Cepheids have mean $V-$band
magnitudes consistent with those expected based on the PL relation
observed by Alcock et al.\ (1998) for Pop II Cepheids and RV Tauri
stars in the LMC (Figure \ref{pl1})\footnotemark.

\footnotetext{Unfortunately, the PL relation for Pop II Cepheids is
not characterized in the $I-$band.}

Beyond the Milky Way globular clusters, bulge and halo, Pop II
Cepheids have been detected only in the LMC (Alcock et al.\ 1998), the
Fornax dwarf spheroidal (Bersier \& Wood 2002) and, possibly, NGC 6822
(Antonello et al.\ 2002), IC 1613 (Antonello et al.\ 1999) and the
And I and And III dwarf spheroidal companions of M31 (Pritzl et al.\
2005).  If our assessment of the under-luminous variables in NGC 5128
is correct,  to the best of our knowledge this would represent the
first detection of Pop II Cepheids outside the Local group.

\acknowledgments

The work presented in this paper is based on observations with the NASA/ESA
Hubble Space Telescope, obtained by the Space Telescope Science Institute,
which is operated by AURA, Inc. under NASA contract No. 5-26555.
Support for this work was provided by NASA through grant GO-09043.02 from
the Space Telescope Science Institute (STScI).

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaArXiv


text:
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I have already found plenty of ftp client implementations, I just need an acceptable server solution.

A: There is an article about rolling your own FTP server in C# here. It's a bit old, but it might be complete enough for your requirements.
If you can get away from the need to process inbound data on-the-fly, I'd suggest just using an off-the-shelf FTP server (maybe even IIS), and process the received files from a folder. Your service could easily monitor this folder for new files. The other benefit of this is that files could be received even if your service is not running or restarting, and testing would be easier as you can drop your own files into the monitored folder.
Good luck!

A: Hope you find RemObjects free IP nice to use,
http://www.remobjects.com/ip.aspx
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redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaStackExchange


text:
You are here: Home / More News Right / More room to grow in Hanson
More room to grow in Hanson
April 11, 2019 By Tracy F. Seelye, Express Editor
Improvements, including a fence to deter deer, are among the changes coming to the Hanson Community Garden this year. (Photo by Tracy Seelye)
HANSON — There is room for you to grow at Hanson's Community Garden.
While it has been operated exclusively for Hanson residents up to now, nonresidents can apply for the first time this year, according to Green Hanson members Evelyn Golden and Kathy Gernhardt. Non-residents will be asked to pay a higher fee than residents.
"It's only fair, but it's still only $15 a growing season," Golden said. "They're going to spend more than that on their water bill if they were to grow their vegetable garden at home."
The non-resident fee is waived if the application comes in through the Hanson Food Pantry on behalf of a client. A small variety of seeds can also be provided for those growers.
"We'll provide the dirt and the water and the community — and the seeds — they just have to do the labor," Golden said.
Applications for the 24-30 potential open garden sites are available in the Selectmen's office in Town Hall. For more information, visit hansongarden@gmail.com.
Golden and Gernhardt said improvements being made, including a fence to deter deer, to bring more people back to the project. Soil amendments — aged manure and other quality composts — are also planned to encourage better plant growth.
Part of the fence project will include additional compost bins to improve garden sustainability in the future.
"We've lost gardeners because the crops were being eaten," Golden said of the deer problem.
At least two of those who left because of deer damage have pledged to come back after learning about the planned fence. Including Scout and church groups which grew produce for the food pantry, nearly two dozen participants were involved in the Community Garden program last year.
The fence, an Eagle Scout project, will place a five-foot high chain link barrier around the garden. The Scout is still working on approval from the Eagle board, but is hoping to do it by May.
"The thought and the research is that we know you need eight [feet] or more for a deer to not scale it," Golden said as the two spoke at the Community Garden site adjascent to the Hanson Food Pantry on High Street. "But, where it's going to be chain-link [the deer] are still going to see all the white poles and it's going to mess with their optical vision — we hope. That's what researchers are saying."
Gernhardt added that the higher and more closed off the fence is, it won't be as welcoming.
"We want to make sure we're presenting a welcoming facility," she said.
Golden said the important thing is that, when deer don't see a clear space in which to land, they are not going to jump a fence.
"That's a really important project that we're expecting to take place this year," Gernhardt said.
A lot can be produced in the three-foot square patches based on the square-foot garden growing practice.
"It's a little bit different from conventional gardening," Golden said.
Take green beans, for example. Seed packets advise spacing plants two inches apart in a long row, which means 18 plants in a three-foot row. By planting crops by the square foot, you can grow 36 plants.
"It's a more intensive way of growing," Gernhardt said. "What we find in square-foot gardening is people tend to be more diverse [in plant selection] per box."
It also helps deter weeds, and is very big on vertical growing, Golden said, adding that it also makes soil replenishment and crop rotation more important.
Cucumbers grown vertically can make a better crop yield as well as serving as a space-saver, she said.
Green Hanson is sponsoring a cleanup day at the gardens from 11 a.m. to 12:30 p.m., on Saturday, April 20. A new 4-H group, the United Farmers, will also be focusing some of its project work at the gardens, Golden said.
The W-H golf team also selected the garden for its community service project this year, working at the site and donating funds to the project, as well.
"To us it was a huge donation, because anything helps," Golden said.
Green Hanson is the garden's umbrella organization through Sustainable South Shore. Working through Green Hanson, the garden received a $500 grant last year, Gernhardt said. After the Community Garden project demonstrates its own growth as an operation and community program, organizers can reapply for the grant.
Filed Under: More News Right, News

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


One of my favorite lessons, that will always stay with me, was being taught the importance of your work really meaning something to you, putting heart and soul into everything that you do and most importantly, to think differently. Its interesting how one simple thing can change the way that you work and can stay with you for the rest of your career. This one particular event was so, so simple, yet brilliant, original and creative!
At the time I was studying A level art at South Bristol college (UK) and it was our very first lesson of the year. Our lecturer, who I remember resembling the late celebrity artist and television presenter Tony Hart had asked us to start the year by bringing in our very favorite piece of work. One by one, those who had remembered, worked through our slew of portrait, landscape and activist commentaries on society. Each one of us had valued our selection of work solely on the technical aesthetic of what we had achieved. Our lecturer gracefully commented on each piece, offering his vast experience.
What I remember liking so much about this particular lecturer was that he would never expect you to do something that he wouldn't do himself and after we had gone through all our paintings and drawings he was also going to show us the piece of work that he had done, that was his favorite. We all waited excitingly to see what he had brought in, after his many years as a successful artist/illustrator each one of us students were expecting to have our socks well and truly blown off. Throughout our lesson, his piece of work had sat behind his desk, ready for the big reveal. It had been facing away from the class and it was large enough that it stood a good foot above his desk. He always sat on his desk, never behind it. I loved that as it really made a statement to me! He was free thinking and not stuck up like some of the other lecturers. When all us students had finished showing our best pieces, my lecturer jumps from his desk, walks around and excitedly picks up his piece of work.
He looks across the class and with a smile on his face, slowly starts to turn his work around for us all to see.
Completely bemused, all of us students looked around at each other in confusion! Some laughed wondering if he had made some form of mistake. For all intents and purposes, it looked as if our lecturer had brought in his pin board from home. It was thick with pictures, notes, receipts and little drawings. Was this some form of joke or mistake!
When the noise from the class began to lower, the lecturer started to speak softly. He first confirmed that this was both his favorite piece of work and that it was also his family pin board. He told us that it represented the things that he valued the most in his life. It was his family and friends in a visual form. His daughters first painting. Hand and foot prints. Photos of his children, one was the day that his son had walked for the first time. There were also photos and receipts from activity's and day trips out together. There were letters from distant family and friends and somehow the whole thing just looked beautiful. He told us that the best art and design comes from emotion, experience and observation... From life.
Sometimes the answer can be staring us in the face and we don't even see it. As artists and designers, we need to see the world differently. It wasn't a painting or a drawing, but this pin board was his art. His art was his life! With great art and design you have to be able to see the hidden beauty that's all around us and then be able to translate that to your audience. And the fact that it's a commercial job is still no excuse. You need to maintain integrity in everything that you do. For instance, there are some organisations and companies that I just wont work for.
That pin board often comes back to me. It taught me an incredibly importance lesson about taking initiative and not always doing what you believe is expected of you. As a designer you should be looking for that simple clear meaningful answer in everything that you do. Work through all the rhetoric to find that hidden simple truth. You need to find your pin board in everything that you do!
This story dates back to the late 1980's. Just over ten years later, after Steve Jobs return to Apple, the company released their 'Think Different' campaign. This legendary piece of marketing was accompanied on the TV ads by the now famous 'Crazy Ones' speech, which played a significant role in the re emergence of the business. When I see past images from that campaign or hear that speech, I often think of my lecturer and his lesson. Ive added the full text of the brilliant 'Crazy Ones' speech below.


Let's be realistic. Considering the increasing number of threats that we all face, it's wise from time to time to do a quick overview of what our real capabilities are. What can you really do when things go bad? What skill sets do you have? What can you really pull off when your life or the lives of your loved ones are at take? This isn't the time for bravado, ego, or guessing. It's not something you need to share with the world, but we must, each of us, be honest in our accurate assessment of what we can really do.
Then it's time to work to improve those weaknesses within our skill sets — gradually advancing our whole preparedness level and increasing the safety of ourselves and those around us.
To help you start things off with your personal assessment, here's a list of nine skill sets that every warrior should possess. There are many more to be sure, but this is a quick list that you can continually revisit, to make sure that you're covering all the bases. As you continue to grow, you may add some or blend two together. That's okay. Make the list yours but don't shape the list to make things easier on you. A life-and-death altercation will not be easy, so the training for it shouldn't be either. Don't skip the hard stuff; you can rest assured that the dirtbag you're fighting was spared none of the hard knocks in life. You must be just as hardened as he is and even more prepared.
Just as important as what you train is how you train it. Each skill set you develop has a "swim lane." Imagine that the left side marker of the swim lane indicates you're not training enough on that skill set and the right side marker means you're spending too much time training on that skill set. Now it's easy to see why not training a skill would be bad, but how could you spend too much time training something? Basically, training too much time in one skill set probably means you're neglecting one of the others. For example, in the Medical Management lane, too far left might be letting your CPR certification expire. Too far to the right might mean carrying a huge medical kit everywhere you go, but not carrying a weapon.
Or it could be vice versa: carrying tons of weapons but not having basic life saving skills. So as you will find, each one of these areas must be nurtured, developed, maintained, and monitored to make sure you're not too far outside your swim lane.
As people train, they become specialists due to personal preference and given attributes. So guys who kick well, become kickers. They teach their martial arts students to become kickers, and then the whole art becomes focused on kicking. This happens all because that's what the leader was good at. Guys who can grapple teach grappling, guys who can shoot become shooters, etc. The problem with specificity is that when the environment changes they are the first to be picked off, due to the inability to adapt. To be truly combat effective for the majority of time and circumstance, we can't afford to specialize. We must be well-rounded and have the ability to transition from skill set to skill set as needed. This is what separates the pros from the amateurs.
To go from striking skills to standing grappling, to drawing a weapon to medical management after the altercation — that's the goal. To do that we must first realize there is no such thing as a gunfight or a knife fight. There is only fighting. Sometimes, for example, a fight will contain grappling range, weapons, striking, running, and grappling again. So as you can see, you really need at least a basic understanding and survival level skill set in each of these areas.
To get these skill sets you should go to the specialist. Go to a striker for striking skills and a grappler for standing and ground grappling. Go to a shooting instructor for shooting and a blade specialist for knife work. Then you will have to work on learning when and how to transition. Each specialist may have advice on how to start on that path, but you will have to do a lot of work on your own due to the specifics of your ability and lifestyle.
This is the most basic of type of all combatives. Simply put, you must be able to hit someone very hard without letting them hit you very hard. Don't think about not getting hit or even hurt; that's going to happen. Instead think about not getting knocked out or broken while striving to knock him out or break him. People think they can get into fights and not get hit. But in the realm of real violence, there are many things that can equalize talent or experience. So plan on being physically fit enough and mentally tough enough to endure some punches and kicks. When it comes to striking barehanded, go for open-hand strikes, such as slaps and palm strikes. If you're going to hit with a fist, use a hammerfist motion.
Even more powerful, but limited in range, are forearm strikes and elbows. These are your most powerful upper body weapons. They are worth the effort to develop on a punching bag in your garage or basement. They can take someone out of the fight very quickly and even smaller, weaker people are dangerous with some good reps on this skill set.
Add some close-range knees to those upper body strikes and you've become someone who has a dangerous striking arsenal. Knees are powerful. They are driven into the thighs, groin, or ribs and they can end the fight quickly. Just remember that at this range, he's dangerous as well. So instead of trying to block his elbows and knees, be the one DOING the elbows and knees!
Empty-hand techniques used in self-defense are essential skills for the modern warrior.
Even more powerful, but limited in range, are forearm strikes and elbows. These are your most powerful upper body weapons.
Simply put, weapons are the tools of the trade. To think that anyone can survive in today's world without utilizing the best weapons of the day is naive and dangerous. There's a reason weapons were invented and have been used in every serious altercation and war since Cain slew Abel. They work! They equalize the odds and turn the tide of battle. Just as we wouldn't expect our soldiers or police officers to go out and do their job without the tools necessary to survive, we shouldn't expect anything less for ourselves.
When it comes to weapons, most people who actually do train with them focus on the actual usage of the weapon. But to effectively use a weapon you must carry it daily. If you aren't carrying it — well, let's just say it's not much help sitting in a drawer. All weapons' use must include the practice-of-carry methods, concealment, deployment, and then the actual weapon use. Don't just grab a training knife or gun from your bag and practice how to use it. Realize that these other aspects are skill sets as well and must be practiced to successfully and regularly carry weapons.
There are many different types of weapons out there. To make it simpler, let's break it down into three categories of the most common weapons systems in today's world: impact, edged and firearms. There are other categories but they are less common, thus less likely to be useful and less likely to be encountered today.
This may be the most common weapon system. From stone knives to custom handmade blades, they can be found everywhere. In many countries, machetes are daily utility tools. Even here in the U.S., pocketknives, screwdrivers, and box cutters are everywhere. They are lightweight so you can carry more than one, easily concealable, legal in most areas, and require almost no power or physical athleticism. They could be THE ideal weapons platform.
Spend the time to gain some skill and understanding of this swim lane. This weapons platform is also very easily improvised, meaning you can carry something that is perfectly legal, allowed in your workplace, and still very effective. These items could be seen by anyone, dismissed as everyday items and double as practical self-defense tools.
holding you down and allows you to escape.
The reality is that in fighting, if you fail to knock your opponent out in the striking range, which is difficult to do without weapons, there is a real possibility you will be fighting on the ground. Think back to fights you saw in grade school. Two kids would swing punches at each other and then eventually they would grab each other. Someone would trip the other or slip and fall. Then, one would get on top and beat the other until he gave up or the teacher broke up the fight. Without training, those same kids grow up and fight exactly the same way as adults. The only difference is that since they are larger, they now have the ability to knock each other out.
They learned how to do it better through experience, but the formula for the fight pretty much remains the same. So, how do we handle some big guy sitting on our chest pounding us in the face? There are many different grappling martial arts systems out there, Sambo, Jiu jitsu, Folkstyle, Greco-Roman wrestling, etc. Any one of them will help you out here. The key is that grappling is done against a resisting opponent, so he's trying to hold you down while you're trying to hold him down. You don't have to become a professional fighter or a black belt. Just a few months of getting the basics and that will probably be enough to get you into a realistic swim lane.
This is probably the most overlooked and misunderstood category on this list. It's also one of the most difficult to develop because it involves buy-in from others in your life. Most people are a part of at least one social group. We have sons, daughters, teammates, coworkers, husbands, wives, fathers and mothers. These are the people that make up your "team." There is a chance you will not be alone when an altercation happens. That is why it's important to train your team as well. It is not always easy to convince a friend, spouse or child to delve into the world of realistic training for violent encounters.
Yet, when you ask most people why they train in the martial arts, most will reply that it's to defend themselves and their families. But, why do so few actually train that way? Because it is incredibly rare for martial arts schools to offer training to a team or whole family as a fighting unit. Your kids may be in a child's class, or your wife took a self-defense course, or you and your buddy take a class together, but that's not anywhere near the reality we need to address. Every member of your team needs to have an understanding of all the skills discussed in this article, and what their role or job is on your team.
Even the children need to be trained on how to listen, when and where to move, etc. Then the whole team needs to train and fight together. Now everyone knows their parts, knows what to do, and they all have experience, which increases confidence and reduces fear in a real altercation. Everyone has a job.
The simplest and oldest type of weapon system. Rocks, bricks, bats, pipes and hammers are some examples. Anything that can be used to break bones or crush skulls when swung with force would be in this classification of weapon, which needs force to work. However, it doesn't always need a lot of force. For instance, how hard do you need to hit someone in the head with a hammer to stop them? Now consider the force required to achieve the same results if swinging a pipe or a bat.
This is why it's important to choose your weapon according to your physical capabilities. In general, impact weapons work best when used against targets made of bone, such as elbows, hands, collarbones, shins, and the skull. The goal is to break those targets causing debilitating pain and limited use of the limb. As with all weapons systems, the more of these targets you hit, the better. You should practice hitting a combination of those targets, not just hitting the same one repeatedly.
Communication is one of the most critical areas in a warrior's training. Having pre-established verbal or physical cues for what to do if you or your spouse or teammate see the potential for violence developing is an important part of communication. You also want to have verbal cues to communicate what you plan to do, what you expect from them, etc. This will all help to keep your team safe and informed as a situation begins to take a bad turn.
Communication can also be much more than that. For instance, developing the ability to verbally de-escalate a situation before it becomes violent could be one of the most useful skills you can develop. Most people who have someone that is angry and screaming in their face allow themselves to also become emotional. Doing so during that highly charged state leads them to make poor decisions that jeopardize themselves and those around them. Instead, you should sit back and think about why this person is upset, determine what they need to return them to a normal state, and calmly begin to work towards that goal.
If you find yourself in a situation where you have to punch, stab, or shoot someone you should never do it emotionally. If you do have to inflict violence upon someone who earned it, then communication after the fact with local authorities or your attorney should be as clear and calm as possible. It should not be emotional babble that may or may not be accurate. Take the time to add this into your training. After a workout, when you're out of breath and exhausted, try to tell your friend or training partner a story. Then include your family.
Give them instructions and see how clear you are. Drills like these are critical to clear communication when stressed about the potential for violence or in the aftermath of it.
There's a lot of truth in the saying "God may have made all men, but Sam Colt made them equal." Firearms are a massive force multiplier that allows you to address multiple attackers very quickly. You can maintain a safer distance than with impact or edged weapons and all you need is a weapon and training. There's no need for great cardio or big biceps, just a tool and training.
That's right, more training. Like all weapons, firearms require training to be concealed, carried and used safely. But with just a bit of training you can have the top weapons platform of modern times at your disposal. Many people feel uneasy about firearms due to the negative press they regularly receive. That, combined with a lack of experience often leads people to shy away from firearms training. Instead, you should seek out a qualified instructor that you like and feel comfortable with and take a beginner course.
A good instructor will walk you through how the weapon works, the legal aspects of ownership and use, the realities of shooting, and a basic familiarization course on a range where you actually shoot the weapon under the watchful eyes of the instructors. If at any point you feel uncomfortable, just tell the instructor and take time to watch him and the others. Once you feel more familiar with what is going on and expected of you, start again. There's no reason for this type of training to be any more or less uncomfortable than any of the other sections on this list. Just go slow, take your time and find your swim lane.
Violence is inflicting harm upon another human. It's ugly and there is nothing fun about it, but sometimes it's a necessary evil to protect yourself and those around you. It's unrealistic that you can inflict harm on someone else without the potential for you to be harmed or even worse, your teammate.
This leads us to the need for medical management. The truth of the matter is that you're more likely to you use these skills to save someone than you are to use your grappling skills. A child choking, a family member having a heart attack, or someone injured in an auto accident would all benefit from your medical management skills. These all happen with far more frequency in most of our lives than an actual violent encounter. It doesn't do you any good to be the world's best Mixed Martial Arts champion if you're in a car crash and your loved one dies in the car because you do not know how to stop the bleeding. If you truly consider it your job to protect those around you, you cannot overlook this skill set.
Medical management is an essential skill for anyone who trains in the combatives. The life you save might be your training partner's—or your own.
When it comes to violence something as simple as a broken nose or as complicated as a gunshot can occur during a fight, so how can we prepare? Go back to training! At the very least, you can attend some Red Cross courses on CPR and first aid. There are also more advanced courses that deal with tactical medicine or even wilderness medicine. Those types of courses expand your capabilities and help you to understand exactly what you can and cannot do. You will also learn what kind of equipment you should carry with you.
we can learn to adapt.
Nothing beats a purpose-built item, but these may not always be on hand. This is when your improvisation skill comes in. For instance, when you need to stop profusely-bleeding wounds, a belt can serve as an effective tourniquet.
Besides a tourniquet, you could use a belt. Instead of using a knife, you could use a screwdriver or broken piece of glass. Learning to recognize items for their specific attributes is the key. Does it cut? Is it strong and sharp enough to puncture into a chest cavity? Can I use it to pack a bleeding wound? Can I use this to communicate with my wife from across the room or parking lot?
Once you reach a certain level of skill with this you will start to carry fewer items. You will gain the understanding that, with a glance around the room, you could improvise something that will work in a pinch. This gives you a greater capability and sense of comfort knowing you can still do what is required even if you're limited by what you can carry due to legal restrictions or lack of resources.
This article and magazine (and others like them) help to bring awareness to a wide variety of topics that we might otherwise overlook. There are many levels of awareness. It's a huge topic, but we will touch on a few key points that are salient to this article. Just being aware that there IS a list is huge progress.
This gives us realization that we need to assess our own strengths and weaknesses, as well as those in our family and in our group/tribe/business. We also need awareness of what dangers we really face. Are your perspectives on violence based on reality or what you've seen in movies? Have you watched video footage of real crimes, real murders, real robberies, real shootouts? Have you seen real violence firsthand? Have you been a part of it? Do you know the set ups for a potential violent encounter?
You can't really prepare correctly unless you know exactly what you're preparing for. So broadening your scope of awareness to include the strengths and weaknesses of yourself and your group, what violence and crime really look like, as well as things like your home security, travel plans, and emergency disaster plans all help you and your team be that much more prepared.
There's a lot of truth in the saying "God may have made all men, but Sam Colt made them equal." Firearms are a massive force multiplier that allows you to address multiple attackers very quickly. You can maintain a safer distance than with impact or edged weapons and all you need is a weapon and training. There's no need for great cardio or big biceps, just a tool and training. That's right, more training. Like all weapons, firearms require training to be concealed, carried and used safely. But with just a bit of training you can have the top weapons platform of modern times at your disposal.
through how the weapon works, the legal aspects of ownership and use, the realities of shooting, and a basic familiarization course on a range where you actually shoot the weapon under the watchful eyes of the instructors. If at any point you feel uncomfortable, just tell the instructor and take time to watch him and the others.
Once you feel more familiar with what is going on and expected of you, start again. There's no reason for this type of training to be any more or less uncomfortable than any of the other sections on this list. Just go slow, take your time and find your swim lane.
This list is a starting point. It is designed to increase your awareness and to be referenced again and again to make sure you are checking all the boxes needed to be a truly capable warrior. It is by no means a complete list. We could go on and on, adding more each time. Each section would become another swim lane, requiring time, energy, and money to develop and maintain. New items like navigation, primitive survival skills, escape and evasion skills, and so on could all be added to the list. But this list contains the core skills every warrior should possess. If you consider it your personal responsibility to protect yourself and those you love, you owe it to them to get to work building your own personal skills sets.
Editor's note: A version of this article first appeared in the How-To special issue of American Survival Guide.


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