Created by YouTuber Alex Luthor, the three-and-a-half minute minute is surprisingly slick and, at times, even convincing. Taking footage from virtually every modern superhero movie (and a couple of fan films), he manages to convincingly set up the most comic book-y plot ever. Combining footage from 'Fantastic Four' and 'The Avengers,' things get started when Doctor Doom uses a device to connect two separate universes. Now sharing the Earth with one another, Superman, Batman and the rest of the DC heroes find themselves battling for supremacy against Iron Man, Captain America and Spider-Man.
Although there are a few shots are that have been tinkered with (like Batman leaping over Captain America's shield), the vast majority of the trailer is accomplished using basic editing tricks. Conversations from 'Batman Begins' and 'Iron Man' are edited together so Tony Stark and Bruce Wayne can chat. Footage from 'Arrow' allows Oliver Queen to battle Hawkeye. Even Ryan Reynolds' Green Lantern gets in on the action, firing bullets made out of willpower at Captain America. It's slick and it's very well done.
Of course, this is only a trailer. Who wins in the end? Well, that's the debate you're going to have to solve amongst yourselves.


text:
On the disk dimension of planar graphs
SoAS - Scholarly Publications
Abu-khzam, Faisal
URL: http://at.yorku.ca/c/a/g/s/70.htm
The disk dimension problem was introduced by Fellows and Langston in 1987. The disk dimension of a graph, G, is the least k for which G embeds in the plane minus k open disks, with every vertex of G on a boundary of one of the disks. Disk dimension finds application in circuit layout and related fields. For every fixed k, the family of ``yes'' instances is closed under minors and excludes a planar graph. Thus graphs of disk dimension k or less are in principle (but not constructively) recognizable in linear time. In this paper, we study instead constructive techniques to decide the disk dimension problem. We prove that a graph of disk dimension k has treewidth at most 2k, and is thus amenable to an approach based on dynamic programming for fixed-width tree decompositions. More significantly, we devise a direct and highly practical linear-time algorithm to decide whether an arbitrary graph has fixed disk dimension k or less. We also discuss it's efficiency and implementation. Finally we investigate the pathwidth approximation strategy proposed for outerplanar graphs by Govindan, Langston and Yan in 1998. We demonstrate that it can be used in this setting to obtain a practical, linear-time pathwidth heuristic for graphs of bounded disk dimension. We prove that this fast heuristic, when given a graph of pathwidth p and fixed disk dimension k, will produce a path decomposition whose width is at most 3p+2k-2.
Abu-Khzam, F. On the Disk Dimension of Planar Graphs Horizons in Combinatorics.16th Shanks Lecture Series. May 21-24, 2001.Vanderbilt University.Nashville, TN, USA

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


Avonfield Gardens, based in Hilperton near Trowbridge, first opened in April 2008. The Centre prides itself on excellent levels of service, horticultural advice, and a clear, no-nonsense, no-gimmicks attitude so customers know exactly what to expect.
Grass Depot is the UK's number 1 artificial grass wholesaler. Established since 1968, with 1000's of rolls of PREMIUM grass always in stock ready for delivery! We're a family-run business, with almost 50 years of expertise in the industry!
Contact our efficient and committed team in Trowbridge, Wiltshire, for additional information about our services.


From the ethereal wonders at Mammoth Hot Springs to the grandeur of Tower Fall to its extraordinary wildlife, Yellowstone Symphony takes viewers on a spectacular visual journey through America's first national park. Set to classical music from some of the world's best composers, the park's magnificent scenery and wildlife are showcased as they change through the seasons. The stunning cinematography offers viewers a tourist-free look at the plentiful wildlife — elk, moose, grizzly bears, wolves and bison (recently named "America's National Animal") — and other inhabitants of Yellowstone National Park.
Yellowstone Symphony is part of special programming that will premiering nationally on PBS stations across the country in March 2019.
Sometimes called "the Serengeti of the West," Yellowstone became the world's first national park, beginning America's long love affair with these landmarks. Yellowstone's thermal features and geyser basins — including the iconic "Old Faithful" and other marvels — are famed worldwide and attract visitors from every continent.
This lyrical film, without narration, skillfully blends imagery with the music of Smetana, Vivaldi, Schubert, Beethoven, Mozart, Brahms, Debussy, Tchaikovsky and others. Time-lapse, underwater, slow motion and aerial photography are featured in this portrait of one of the world's best-loved places. Shot in 4K, Yellowstone Symphony features a dynamic 5.1 Surround score.
Yellowstone Symphony is produced and directed by KUED's own John Howe, an accomplished executive producer-director-writer-cinematographer with a long track record of having many of his films nationally distributed to PBS stations. His long-form documentaries include National Parks – Troubled Edens; Unspoken - America's Native American Boarding School, Return of the Wolves: The Next Chapter; Wild Horses of the West; Wallace Stegner; Wilderness: The Great Debate; Butch Cassidy and the Outlaw Trail; Wild River: The Colorado; Desert Wars: Water and the West; Utah: The National Parks; The Snow Wolves; Return of the Wolves; Arctic Wars; The Long Walk: Tears of the Navajo; Nuclear National Park; The Last Cowboys; River of Stone; Artists of the West; Horses of the West: America's Love Story, Grand Canyon Serenade, and Red Rock Serenade. Actors Robert Redford, Ali MacGraw, Joanne Woodward, Hal Holbrook, and Peter Coyote have narrated his films.
He served as executive producer for the Christmas with the Mormon Tabernacle Choir national series on PBS, consistently one of PBS's highest-rated holiday specials with guest artists including nine-time Grammy winner Natalie Cole, The Muppets, and many more.
Yellowstone Symphony premieres on KUED Wednesday, March 6 at 7 PM.
For more information, visit kued.org/yellowstonesymphony.
KUED is Utah's PBS station, providing the state with access to exceptional content that entertains, informs, and enriches viewers. KUED airs PBS programming, plus award-winning, locally produced documentaries and series. Recognized as one of the leading public television stations in the country, KUED is committed to serving and engaging with the Utah community through its diverse productions, as well as its educational and outreach programs. KUED is always evolving to provide Utahns with relevant programming and services while maintaining its core values of integrity, fairness, independence, education, and innovation. KUED also provides three additional broadcast channels: WORLD, PBS Kids 24/7, and Create.


JLL said that with ample choices available for tenants, landlords continue to offer incentives in order to retain current occupants, adding that this trend is expected to continue over the next 12 months.
Multiple commercial real estate projects have been resumed by developers in Dubai during the first few months of 2019 in a push to deliver them ahead of Expo 2020, according to a new report.
JLL's Q1 Dubai Real Estate Market Overview report said the government's introduction of regulations to stimulate demand is also expected to drive the market this year.
In the residential space, around 9,800 units were completed in the first quarter of 2019 which is the highest number of units handed over in a single quarter for the last few years, the report said.
It noted that a rising trend in the space is that of new technologies being introduced in response to the government's call to switch to paperless transactions.
The retail market shares a similar trend, with mall owners investing in new technologies such as artificial intelligence (AI) and click and collect to maintain and increase footfall.
JLL said other mall developers are expected to follow in the footsteps of Majid Al Futtaim which recently partnered with pop star Will.I.AM's technology company to deploy an AI platform to engage customers and provide a digital and virtual experience for retail and entertainment.
Craig Plumb, head of research, JLL MENA, said: "The overall real estate market in Dubai is maturing and looking beyond just cyclical trends. Entities are increasingly looking at innovative ways in which to re-strategise their portfolios and assets in order to boost their businesses.
The JLL report also said Dubai's hotel sector is also expected to receive a boost from Dubai Tourism's decision to release AED250 million of bank guarantees, which will allow local tourism companies to reinvest in their businesses.
This initiative is expected to help drive future growth towards the emirate's new target of attracting 25 million overnight visitors by 2025, it added.


Invesco Ltd. is organized under the laws of Bermuda, and our common shares are listed and traded on the New York Stock Exchange under the symbol "IVZ".
We file reports, proxy statements, and other information with the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC). These reports, proxy statements, and other information can be read and copied at the SEC's public reference room at 100 F Street, N.E., Washington, D.C. 20549. Please call the SEC at 1-800-SEC-0330 for further information on the public reference room. The SEC maintains an internet site at http://www.sec.gov that contains reports, proxy and information statements and other information regarding companies, including Invesco, that file electronically with the SEC.


text:
/**
 * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
 * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
 * You may obtain a copy of the License at
 *
 *  http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
 *
 * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
 * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
 * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
 * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
 * limitations under the License.
 */

#ifndef __STOUT_OS_WINDOWS_FCNTL_HPP__
#define __STOUT_OS_WINDOWS_FCNTL_HPP__

#include <stout/nothing.hpp>
#include <stout/try.hpp>

namespace os {

inline Try<Nothing> cloexec(int fd)
{
  UNIMPLEMENTED;
}

inline Try<bool> isCloexec(int fd)
{
  UNIMPLEMENTED;
}

inline Try<Nothing> nonblock(int fd)
{
  UNIMPLEMENTED;
}

inline Try<bool> isNonblock(int fd)
{
  UNIMPLEMENTED;
}

} // namespace os {

#endif // __STOUT_OS_WINDOWS_FCNTL_HPP__

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaGithub


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Two words for you: Steampunk Romance.
Perfect right? I mean, isn't the essence of Steampunk the romance of the Victorian era? OK, yes, the cool mechanical robots and stuff are a large part as well, but that's also very much a romantic era of dress and manner social striation.
So Clockwork Heart doesn't quite have all that, but it has most of it (plus a mystery!) and it's well worth reading.
Taya is an icarus–a courier with mechanical wings that allow her to move easily from one sector of Ondinium to another, and to deal with both the highest caste and the lowest. After her involvement in a wireferry accident that is deemed to be an act of terrorism, Taya is drawn into the mystery of who was behind the bombing (and why) as well as why an exalted would abandon his robes and live among the lower castes.
This story reminded me of many different things and of nothing. The feel was always just on the edge of familiar, yet the world was unique and full of unexpected surprises.
About the only thing I didn't love about this story was the reputation of the icarii as, well, sluts, and Taya's reputation as one who prefers to be more choosy about whom she loves. In an otherwise excellent story, that one detail felt off, and I think it could have been left out of the story entirely. But that's just me.
The mystery was well done, in that parts of it kept me guessing, and I even enjoyed the romance portion, as Taya must figure out who she likes, and why, and what those feelings mean for her in the long term.
If you're looking for something different, I can highly recommend Clockwork Heart.


text:
What Is Nike's RTFKT Studios, and Why Are They Building on NFT Worlds?
Home » Collectibles » What Is Nike's RTFKT Studios, and Why Are They Building on NFT Worlds?
In December 2021, Nike announced the acquisition of RTFKT Studios, an organization that uses the latest Web3 technology to create one-of-a-kind sneakers and digital artifacts. In the official press release, John Donahoe, President and CEO of Nike, Inc. said "Our plan is to invest in the RTFKT brand, serve and grow their innovative and creative community and extend Nike's digital footprint and capabilities."
Because the terms of the deal weren't disclosed, many were left wondering what specifically Nike had in store for RTFKT. Some industry experts predicted that these "digital capabilities" referenced Nike's plans to stay ahead in the digital goods market that will likely flourish alongside the metaverse.
We have one already, its just not public yet
— SamuelCardillo.eth – RTFKT (@CardilloSamuel) May 6, 2022
Now, more details have come to light thanks to a tweet from RTFKT's Chief Technical Officer, Samuel Cardillo. Twitter user @NFTask asked Cardillo about the company's plans for creating their own metaverse on multi-metaverse platform NFT Worlds, he responded, "we have one already, its just not public yet."
Nike enters Web3
So what does this all mean? Well, it looks like RTFKT Studios is helping Nike introduce their branding into the metaverse. Although there hasn't been a formal announcement, Cardillo's tweet confirms RTFKT is building on NFT Worlds, a decentralized play-to-earn platform where users create their own metaverse experiences. Twitter user @SuperUnsexy further corroborates the news with the discovery of Nike's signature "swoosh" logo on a NFT Worlds Genesis Avatar.
This checks out, as back in October 2021, Nike filed a trademark application for the logo to be used on "downloadable virtual goods" such as "computer programs featuring digital footwear," as well as clothes, bags, sports equipment, art, toys and more "for use online and in online virtual worlds."
Are these Nike logos on the @nftworldsNFT Genesis Avatars?
… 🧐 pic.twitter.com/ftlg67uygf
— SuperUnsexy.eth (@SuperUnsexy) May 8, 2022
As of May 2022 Nike has a market cap of over $170 billion and it is currently ranked as the biggest sports brand in the world. Considering that the total market valuation of the metaverse will grow from its current $63.8 billion to about $1,527.55 billion by 2029, embracing Web3 is vital for companies to stay relevant and profitable— even Nike.
As the metaverse takes shape, the demand for wearables, and other collectibles necessary to customize our avatar counterparts will also increase. And just like in real life, some of us will reach for our Nikes.
Source: https://nftnow.com/collectibles/what-is-nikes-rtfkt-studios-and-why-are-they-building-on-nft-worlds/
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Following a record-breaking Kickstarter campaign that ended on April 12, 2013, Veronica Mars was shot over 23 days during June-July 2013. Nearly a year later, the time has finally come! It's almost March 14th! Which means Veronica Mars will be out in theaters (and available on Digital HD)! We had the pleasure of attending the NYC premiere of the film – and we can guarantee you Marshmallows that you won't be disappointed.
For fans of the series, we wanted to get the new Veronica Mars: Purity Test Marshmallow Super-fan Trivia on your radar. Think you know all there is to know about Neptune, California? Test your Veronica Mars knowledge with all 3 levels of super-fan trivia and find out if you are the ultimate Marshmallow!
Send us a tweet at @FanBolt telling us your favorite episode from the series.
You'll be automatically entered to win at that point – and we'll be posting the winner here and on Twitter on March 24th! Good luck!
Love the show and was bummed when it was done. Was a 1st day Kickstarter backer and i hit refresh all day to see it break all kinds of records. Cant wait for the movie….. so cool.
I'm new to the Veronica Mars universe. I watched the entire series over the course of a few weeks and am hooked! Can't wait to see the movie!
It's hard to describe my love for Veronica. She's simply too awesome. I became a fan in 2010 when I first watched the show, and have rewatched at least once a year since then. Veronica never seems to bore me and seeing the Kickstarter pop up online a year ago was dream-like (and still is). I donated when they had gained around 30k, so pretty early on. I watched the total rise for the rest of the day, in awe. Thousands of dollars per minute from people around the world… Veronica truly is a force to be reckoned with, not only in fictional Neptune but in our real-life as well. That's why I love Veronica.
After watching the first episode I was hooked! I mean how often do we get a smart, witty, strong female lead? Veronica Mars is a boss! Everything about the show was fantastic, I wish we got a whole new season along with the movie! But I can't wait to see how they make a come back!
I heart Veronica Mars. This show was cancelled way too early, hopefully this movie will be the first part of a comeback!
I hereby confess my undying LoVe as a Marshmallow forever and always, bring on the triva!!!!!!!!
I am a ginormous VMars fan!! I watched it when it aired and own all three seasons on dvd and I went to the panel last night at Paleyfest! It was amazing!
Alex Smith – you're our winner! 🙂 Can you email the address you would like for the prize to be sent to to Emma (at) FanBolt.com?
Thanks for your time! 🙂 Congrats!


text:
Variations of Water Runoff and Suspended Sediment Yield in the Kamchatsky Krai, Russia
Water Environment Variation in the Three Gorges Tributary and Its Influencing Factors on Different Scales
Transdisciplinary Research and Development Cooperation: Insights from the First Phase of the Palestinian-Dutch Academic Cooperation Programme on Water
N2O Fluxes and Rates of Nitrification and Denitrification at the Sediment–Water Interface in Taihu Lake, China
10.3390/w10101450
Bastaraud, A.
Rakotondramanga, J. Marius
Mahazosaotra, J.
Ravaonindrina, N.
Jambou, R.
Environmental Factors and the Microbial Quality of Urban Drinking Water in a Low-Income Country: The Case of Madagascar
Alexandra Bastaraud
Jean Marius Rakotondramanga
Jackson Mahazosaotra
Noror Ravaonindrina
Ronan Jambou
Food Hygiene and Environment Laboratory, Institut Pasteur of Madagascar, 101 Antananarivo, Madagascar
Epidemiology Department Institut Pasteur of Madagascar, 101 Antananarivo, Madagascar
Parasites and Vectors Insects Department, Institut Pasteur, 75015 Paris, France
Water 2018, 10(10), 1450; https://doi.org/10.3390/w10101450
Received: 25 July 2018 / Revised: 8 October 2018 / Accepted: 9 October 2018 / Published: 15 October 2018
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Climate-Water-Ecosystem-Interaction)
Access to piped water is often limited to urban areas in low-income countries, and the microbiological quality of drinking water varies due to technical and environmental constraints. To analyse the parameters that modulate the contamination of these systems, this study examines 16 years of microbial quality data for water supplied in 32 urban areas of Madagascar. A discriminant statistical approach and agglomerative hierarchical clusters were applied to environmental and climatic data. The microbial contamination varied between sites from 3.3 to 17.5%, and 78% of the supply systems showed large variations between years or months. Agglomerative hierarchical clusters (AHCs) revealed four supply system profiles that share a similar bacteriological evolution. Heavy rainfall and dry periods sustained increasing contamination, as reflected in levels of spores of sulphite-reducing clostridia (SSRC) and/or total coliforms (TC). SSRC were dominant in three profiles, with faecal indicator bacteria (FIB) dominant in the other. Principal component analysis demonstrated the main drivers of contamination: type of water source, implemented treatment, location of the site, population growth, lack of protection, agriculture, urbanization/sanitation, and flooding threats. Contamination increased over the 16-year period, reaching alarming levels. The protection of water sources should be a concern for public authorities.
water supply; spores of sulphite-reducing clostridia; total coliforms; Madagascar; climate change; agriculture
Access to safe and continuous water supply is an essential prerequisite for health, and poor water supply is associated with significant health risks [1]. Nearly 842,000 people are estimated to die each year because of unsafe drinking water, inefficient sanitation, and poor hand hygiene [2]. Most economic activities are concentrated in metropolitan areas. The United Nations predicts that half the population in Africa and Asia will be living in towns by 2030. Towns in low and middle income countries (LMICs) are growing at a rate of five million residents per month, essentially due to natural population increase (50%) and migration from rural areas (25%) [3]. Urbanization presents opportunities and challenges for poverty reduction [4], but rapid urbanization and inadequate urban planning can disturb the functional organization of the city [5]. This results in the development of informal settlements and slums. Around 62% of the urban population of sub-Saharan Africa lives in slums, with limited access to good quality drinking water and sanitation facilities [6]. In this context, surface water is often contaminated by animal and human faeces, in part due to septic tank and sewage discharge [7,8]. Default in water supply (i.e., ineffective water treatment, frequent shortages, or low pressure) and direct use of raw water for drinking [9] thus result in a high incidence of waterborne diseases.
The Millennium Development Goals focus on access to improved water sources, which does not reliably predict the microbial safety of drinking water [10]. Madagascar has not yet achieved these goals, offering only limited access to improved sources of water and facing many challenges to improving access to an adequate and safe drinking water supply for its population [11]. Nearly half of the Malagasy population lives in severe poverty [12], and the urban population is growing at twice the rate of the rest of the world (annual rate of 4.69%, 2010–2015). Nowadays, the city of Antananarivo has more than one million inhabitants, while five other cities have populations ranging from 300,000 to 100,000 inhabitants (Toamasina, Antsirabe, Fianarantsoa, Mahajunga, and Toliara) [13]. Supply of water and electricity is managed by a state-owned service (JIRAMA: Jiry sy Rano Madagasicara), which only concentrates on urban areas. Aside from private customers, the water systems also provide many urban public kiosks or taps, maintained by non-governmental organizations or community associations. The national water supply system is old and faces a rapidly growing population. However, despite poor management and increasing water demand, 82% of the urban population has access to improved water sources, while only 18% has access to improved sanitation facilities. [11]
Climate change is threatening water quality as water supply is dependent on surface water and rarely groundwater. The quality of water production can thus be impacted by climate conditions, especially if the purification system is overloaded [14]. Intensive rainfall, alternation between dry and wet periods, massive deforestation, and slash-and-burn agricultural methods strongly increase soil erosion [15,16]. These are among the most significant threats to the water sources of Madagascar, where some of the rivers carry red water. In addition, increasing periods of drought and intensity of rain exacerbate flooding and water contamination. In the past 20 years Madagascar has experienced 35 cyclones, 8 floods, and 5 periods of severe drought, with high variation in water quality [17]. Open defecation, lack of sanitation, heavy rainfalls, and hurricanes are also significant threats for the urban water sources [18,19].
In terms of delivery of water, with a rapidly increasing population new areas have to be equipped with treatment stations. It is time to define the best design for the new equipment. The aim of this study is to analyse data and parameters describing each water supply network already working in the country to determine the contamination response to climatic and environmental threats and to propose the best strategy of treatment for the future stations. For this purpose, Madagascar has a national water collection system to survey water quality that provides samples going back decades. These samples are collected monthly or daily depending on the site. For the last 20 years, our laboratory has overseen the microbial testing for all samples collected all over the country. The first part of the study analyses samples collected in towns other than the capital.
Environmental threats can heavily impact water quality as the catchment of surface water is widely used for urban water supply in the eastern highlands and in east littoral area. Groundwater resources are available in the sedimentary area of the extreme south, northwest, and alluvial aquifers of the highlands [20]. The rainfall regime is thus very important in this system for providing both surface water and as a source of contamination of resources.
2.1. Sampling Strategy and Microbial Analysis
A national strategy for water sampling was set up based on the JIRAMA organization, which comprises seven divisions throughout the whole country. As shown in Figure 1 (www.jirama.mg), the headquarters in Toliara manages 10 sites in the south, including Bezaha and Toalagnaro. It borders the Fianarantsoa division, which manages nine sites including Farafangana, as well as the Antsirabe division, which has six sites including Antanifotsy. The Antananarivo division manages 10 sites located in the highlands from Ambatondrazaka to Tsiroanomandidy, including the capital. The Tamatave division manages six sites on the east side of the island, from Soaniera Ivongo to Mahanoro. The Mahajunga division manages the west coast and part of the western highlands, including the cities of Maevatanana, Marovoay, and Port Berge. The north division (Antsiranana) includes Nosy-be and Sambava.
Large cities and urban municipalities are sampled monthly and quarterly, respectively, whereas the distribution system of the capital Antananarivo is sampled daily. Each sampling leads to 2–4 water samples at the same site, which can be private premises, community taps, or administrative buildings. Each sample is collected in sterile 500-mL containers with 10 mg of sodium thiosulfate, which are stored at 4 to 10 °C and delivered to the laboratory within 18 to 24 h.
Legal microbial limitations are first based on faecal indicator bacteria (FIB), including Escherichia coli (EC) and intestinal enterococci (IE) [18]. Non-compliance (positive samples) is registered when FIB, spores of sulphite-reducing clostridia (SSRC), IE, total coliforms (TC), and EC are detected in 100 mL. Detection of spores of sulphite-reducing clostridia (SSRC) and total coliforms (TC) can be linked to the water quality of pipes or to the effectiveness of water treatment procedures [18]. The microbiological examination of samples is done following standardized methods of filtration or inclusion (International Organization for Standardization). Since July 2014, analyses of TC, EC, and IE have been performed using IDEXX US Water Microbiology Colilert®-18, Quanti-Tray®, Enterolert®-DW, and Quanti-Tray® kits. Since November 2010, SSRC have been examined after filtration of 100 mL of sample (NF EN 26461-2), instead of the incorporation of 20 mL (NF T90-415).
2.2. Samples Selected for the Analysis
From January 1999 to December 2015, water samples were collected in 66 cities and urban municipalities, out of which only the most complete series of data over the 16-year period were retained for analysis. Some sets were removed, such as the data from the year 2009, which was marked by a political crisis. Sites with one year or two consecutive quarters of missing data were also removed. The city of Antananarivo provided more than half of the total samples but was also excluded from the study in order to conduct a separate analysis. Overall, 32 out of 66 public water supplies were selected for the analysis, providing data on 12,495 drinking water samples (described in Table S1). Seven major cities (Toamasina, Mahajanga, Toliara, Fianarantsoa, Antsirabe, Antsiranana, and Tolagnaro) provided 6855 samples (55% of the total). They were investigated twice per month, with a total of eight water samples per month and per city. Seven smaller towns in the western and eastern highlands (Ambatondrazaka, Andekaleka, Moramanga, Mandraka, Ambatolampy, Analavory, and Soavandriana) and one on the east coast (Manakara) were sampled at an average of two samples per month. They provided 2499 samples (20% of the total). The other cities were sampled every two months (Nosy-Be, Farafangana, Fenerive Est, Soaniera Ivongo, Vatomandry, Maevatanana, and Marovoay) or every three months (Sambava, Mahanoro, Sainte Marie, Antanifotsy, Mahasolo, Port-Bergé, Tsiroanomandidy, and Mampikony), with two samples per survey. These last two groups provided 1769 (14%) and 1372 (11%) samples, respectively (Figure 1).
The sources of water varied according to the site. Fifteen water supply systems use groundwater, providing 5040 samples (40%), while the others relied on surface water (7455 samples, 60%) (Table 1).
Rivers supplied water for cities located in the eastern highlands (Andekaleka), from the forest of Moramanga to the east coast (Toamasina, Soanierana Vongo, Sainte Marie), on the southeastern coast (Manakara, Fianarantsoa), in the southern (Fianarantsoa and Farafangana) and central highlands (Tsiroamomandidy), and in the north (Port Berge and Antsiranana). Lakes and springs are also used for water supply in the central highlands (lakes: Antanifotsy, Mandraka, Ambatolampy, and Antsirabe; springs: Miarinarivo, Soavinandriana, Analavory, and Ambatondrazaka). Wells and boreholes were mainly used in cities in the west (Mampikony, Maevatanana, Mahajunga, and Marovoay) and south (Bezaha and Toliara). Sand sheets were used on the east coast (Vatomandry, Mahanoro, and Sambava) [20]. Conventional or unconventional treatment processes were implemented to purify these water sources. The conventional process consists of the following sequence: (1) raw water intake; (2) coagulation; (3) flocculation; (4) sedimentation; (5) filtration; (6) disinfection by chlorination; and (7) facultative neutralization by the addition of lime. The process was applied to 10,481 samples, of which 5735 were subjected to a final neutralization step. The unconventional processes consisted of the following basic steps: (1) raw water intake; (2) basic filtration; and (3) disinfection by chlorination, or (1) raw water intake; and (2) disinfection by chlorination. These processes were applied to only 2014 samples (Table 1).
2.3. Parameters Selected for the Description of the Water Supply Systems
Climate and temperate data were extracted from https://fr.climate-data.org [21] based on the Köppen–Geiger classification (Cwa, Cwb, Cfa, Aw, Am, Af, Bwh, and Bsh) [22]. The daily rainfall in each city from 2007 to 2015 (no previous complete data for all concerned cities) was obtained from the International Institute for Research on Climate and Society (IRI). The climate in Madagascar is mainly tropical (type A, Köppen–Geiger) along the coast, arid in the south (type B), and temperate inland (Type C) [21,22]. The average annual rainfall is around 1500 mm, but with large regional variation from 3000 mm in the east littoral area to less than 400 mm in the extreme south. The whole country experiences a rainy season from November to March and a dry season from April to October. Inter-season periods are less frequent or shorter according the climate type.
Settlements were defined as the population supplied by a water system (hamlet, village, town, and city) and were estimated according to the last one population census conducted in 1993 [23]. Technical variables describing the water system were recorded from JIRAMA sources, for which latest data are from 2015 [24], including: (1) the type of treatment process; (2) the monthly production of treated water (only in 2015); (3) the monthly yield or efficiency (percent of produced water effectively sold, only in 2015); (4) the analytical strategy (monthly count of samples collected from each supply system); and (5) the nature of the water source (rivers, lakes, wells, boreholes, or springs).
The environmental threats are grouped into six major categories: (1) lacking protection of the source (which includes the encroachment of riparian areas by settlers, peasants, or livestock); (2) watershed degradation (deforestation, bush fires, riparian erosion phenomena, or disturbance of surface water flow); (3) nuisances related to agriculture (when agricultural activities are found upstream of the catchment); (4) urbanization and sanitation problems (when sanitation or waste management systems are inefficient and when the expansion of the city disturbs the resource); (5) floods or infiltrations in the resources or in the network and illegal connections; and (6) twinning of hydroelectric and drinking water treatment plants . The 2008 and 2012 environmental reports provide a description of all threats that could impact the quality of water sources for each supply system in Madagascar. For each city, the increase of the water demand was estimated based on the population growth between the 1993 census and the 2013 estimation (in percent of increase) [23].
The frequency of microbial contamination of samples was calculated for the monthly, seasonal, yearly, and 16-year periods as the ratio of the number of positive samples to the total number of samples in the period considered (in percent). Each specific measure of contamination (SSRC, IE, EC, TC, or FIB) was expressed as the ratio of the number of positive samples to the total number of samples. The rainfall data were summarized as the cumulative precipitation per season (quarterly starting in December) for each site and an average for relevant group of sites was calculated.
The statistical analysis was done in XLSTAT (Addinsoft: New York, NY, USA, 2016), with a significance level set at 0.05. A non-parametric Kruskal–Wallis test was used to analyse differences between populations [25]. For each site, identification of the main type of contamination was done by computing over 16 years the Pearson's correlation coefficient between the frequency of positive samples in each indicator (specific contamination) and the frequency of total positive samples. Values of 0.3 to 0.7 suggest a weak correlation, and values of 0.7 to 1 suggest a strong positive correlation [26].
Contamination of the water systems were compared over the sites, by building agglomerative hierarchical clusters (AHC) [27,28] using: (1) annual and monthly cumulative data of sample contamination (Additional Materials, Table S2); (2) overall contamination frequency over 16 years (Table S2); and (3) correlation coefficients between specific contamination and overall contamination (Table S3). Absence of significant difference between sites within a specific cluster of contamination was tested using Kruskal–Wallis. Difference between clusters was assessed using analysis of variance, (ANOVA, p < 0.05). For each cluster, temporal trends of contamination were searched by plotting frequencies of total or specific contaminant over time (Figure 6). Statistical significance of trends was tested using a Mann–Kendall trend test for temporal series.
Typology of all the water systems was built using three independent sets of parameters used as active variables: (1) environmental variables (water source, region, type of climate); (2) technical parameters related to the water system (water treatment, monthly water production, water yield, and analytical pressure); and (3) variables describing the environment of the water source (land use and perimeter of protection, watershed degradation, nuisances related to agriculture, expansion of the city impacting sanitation, waste management, and population growth) (Tables S3–S5, respectively) (Pearson's matrix in Table S5). Three principal component analyses (PCAs) were built using these sets. Previous clusters of contamination were used as supplementary variables in the PCA map to detect the major factors characterizing each clusters of contamination. Parameters associated with the contamination of water were determined using Pearson's correlation coefficients with the clusters of contamination.
3.1. Spatio-Temporal Variation of Water Contamination
Over the whole period, 944 (7.5%) of the 12,495 samples were contaminated (479, 331, 303, and 126 samples with SSRC, TC, IE, and EC, respectively). The frequency of contamination varied with the site of sampling and ranged from 3.3% (Toamasina) to 17.5% (Vatomandry) (Figure 2). The overall frequency of contamination was greater than 10% for nine sites, while it was less than 6% in eight sites. Differences between sites were significant (Kruskal–Wallis, p < 0.001). Overall, and over the 16 years, the occurrence of contaminated samples was punctual (median and third quartile = 0%). Only two sites experienced more frequent contamination events, namely Antsiranana and Vatomandry (third quartile = 14.3% and 28.6%, respectively).
For half of the sites, monthly or annual variations of contamination were high (variation coefficient greater than 100%). Port Berge was the most impacted by temporal variation (variation coefficient VC 192% and 197%, respectively), while Toliara was the most stable (72% and 76%, respectively). In addition, means of contamination frequencies increased from 2012, with high variation between supply systems during the last years. (Figure 3a). The average contamination frequency values for the rainy months of February were higher (13.6 ± 34.2%), but also showed the most standard deviation (spatial and annual high variation, Figure 3b).
3.2. Definition of Profiles of Water Contamination Based on Temporal Variation and Most Relevant Contamination
Contamination of samples can be sustained by different types of bacteria, such as EC, IE, TC, and SSRC (Pearson's test over the 16-year period, Table 2). Half of the sites with a low level of contamination (including Toliara, Fianarantsoa, and Toamasina) showed no predominance of any type of contamination and low monthly variation of contamination. For the others (Tolagnaro, Mahanoro, and Bezaha), samples were more frequently contaminated by SSRC and IE and harboured high monthly and annual variation of contamination. The frequency of contamination increases when one type of bacteria predominates, suggesting presence of a main source of contamination releasing bacteria in the system. For some site, a stable predominant contamination was observed throughout the 16 years (correlation between a specific pathogen and total contamination >0.7) (Table 2).
To analyse fluctuations of contamination of the water systems according to time and their most relevant contamination, the systems were first grouped according to their microbiological contamination characteristics using AHC. Four clusters were identified (Figure 4).
The relevance of the system clustering was confirmed by verifying the absence of significant differences between sites within each cluster for monthly and annual contamination frequencies (Kruskal–Wallis, alpha = 0.05). No significant difference was found between sites of Clusters 2, 3, and 4 (p > 0.05), but significant differences were found between the sites of Cluster 1 (p < 0.05). Cluster 1 was then split into two sub-clusters using its first node (Figure 2). Cluster 1/1 includes Toliara, Fianarantsoa, Toamasina, Ambatolampy, Mandraka, Mahanoro, Fenerive Est, and Sambava (Kruskal-Wallis, p = 0.502). Cluster 1/2 includes Sainte Marie, Andekaleka, Moramanga, Ambatondrazaka, Tsiroanomandidy, Antsiranana, and Manakara (Kruskal–Wallis, p = 0.985). The contamination of samples increased annually since 2012 for all clusters, but this increase was significant for only Cluster 3 (Mann–Kendall test, p < 0.001) and Cluster 1/2 (p = 0.053).
3.3. Impact of Rainfall Pattern on Contamination
An ANOVA test performed on the different clusters and the explanatory factors demonstrated significant differences (p < 0.05) in the means of contamination for the years 2005, 2010 and from 2012 to 2015 (Figure 5a–f). A significant difference between the clusters has also been demonstrated for the wet months of February and March, as well as for the dry months of July. (Figure 5g–i)
The variation of contamination according to months and years suggested an impact of the weather. To analyse this relation, the fluctuation of contamination of the four described clusters was plotted with the cumulative rainfall of the same period (Figure 6). Strong contamination was statistically associated with heavy precipitation (Figure 6, χ2 of trend). In 2013, 2014, and 2015, heavy rainfall from December to February paralleled an increase in sample contamination by IE (Clusters 1, 3, and 4), TC (Clusters 2 and 3), and SSRC (all clusters except 3). Few cases of EC were detected, except during the 2014 wet season for Cluster 1/1. The increase of contamination frequencies was more associated with a conjunction of several bacterial types than a higher density of only one type of bacteria (Clusters 1, 3, and 4).
Whatever the season, SSRC contributed to maintaining the contamination of water in all clusters. During the dry period, the reason could have been low flow or low levels of water sources, but in the wet period, it could be linked to erosion phenomena. The frequency of SSRC contamination fluctuates from month to month, which indicates inefficient filtration steps. Similarly, the persistence of TC (clusters 1/2 and 3) in any season can be explained by regular inefficiency of the treatment systems, by survival or multiplication of the bacteria in the water networks themselves, or by problems in network integrity.
3.4. Main Factors Influencing Water Quality (Environmental Clustering)
According to environmental parameters the whole set of water systems, six main component factors were obtained, explaining more than 80% of the total variance of the dataset. The first axis (component) compares the variables "surface water" plus "classic treatment type" to "groundwater" plus "classic + neutralization treatment type" (Figure 7a). This axis also correlates with the environmental threat "population growth". The second axis had a large positive association with "unconventional treatment type" (45% of the variability of dataset).
Using these main component factors, four groups of systems can be observed on the observations plot (Figure 7b).
Group 1 represents water systems that are supplied by water from conventionally treated surface water with a final neutralization step (Ambatolampy, Antsirabe, Farafangana, Nosy-Be, Port Berge, and Tsiroanomandidy). Agricultural activities were present in the watershed, and more than half of the water systems did not have a protection perimeter. Aside from Ambatolampy, they all had more than 7% contaminated samples in the 16-year study period.
Group 2 is also supplied with surface water treated by conventional treatment without a final neutralization step (Andekaleka, Antanifotsy, Fianarantsoa, Manakara, Mandraka, Moramanga, Sainte Marie, Soanierana Ivongo, Toamasina, and Tolagnaro). With the exception of Sainte Marie, Soanierana Ivongo, and Toamasina, agricultural activities were also recorded in the watershed. Mahanoro is the only system associated with this group that is supplied by groundwater treated with the conventional process with no final neutralization step. In this group, half of the systems had low contamination frequency, whereas the others were highly contaminated.
Group 3 was supplied by groundwater treated by conventional treatment with a final neutralization step (Fenerive Est, Maevatanana, Mahajunga, Mahasolo, Mampikony, Miarinarivo, Sambava, Soavandriana, and Vatomandry). There was no protection perimeter at many sites. One-third of the water sources are subjected to environmental threats resulting from urbanization, poor sanitation, and population growth (more than 9%), favouring faecal contamination (IE). Indeed, SSCR are regularly detected in this group. In contrast, Fenerive Est had the lowest contamination throughout the 16 years, with no environmental threats; boreholes are better protected than wells (both are infrastructures of depth).
Group 4 included sites provided with water springs and boreholes treated by simple filtration or chlorination (i.e., Ambatondrazaka, Analavory, Marovoay, Bezaha, and Toliara). Apart from Ambatondrazaka, these supply systems demonstrated the lowest frequencies of contamination from the 16 years. Ambatondrazaka had a surface water profile similar to Moramanga with agricultural nuisances and was subject to at least two types of environmental threat.
The systems deployed to provide water in the country are adapted to the local geography. Rivers supplied water for cities located in the rainy parts of the country, i.e., the highlands, the east coast, and in the north. Lakes and springs are also used for water supply in the central highlands. When rainfall decreases, wells and boreholes are preferred (on the west coast and in the south). Sand sheets are also used near the sea of the east coast [20]. Two types of treatments are implemented (conventional or unconventional) to purify these water sources. The conventional process was applied to 85% of the water and for the remainder the unconventional basic process was applied. The use of chlorine-based disinfectants, widespread in low-income countries, is the common denominator of these treatment processes since chlorine is inexpensive and easy to use [29]. A low rate of samples contaminated with Escherichia coli (less than 1%) has been observed over the past 16 years, contrary to what can be reported in low-income countries for improved water sources [30]. This is certainly due to an adequate chlorination implementation during treatment process. A higher prevalence of intestinal enterococci (3%) indicates that the water networks may be punctually contaminated by faecal indicator bacteria (FIB)and thus relativize the effectiveness of chlorination alone, even if it is adequate [31,32]. Enterococci are indeed more resistant to chlorination than EC. SSRC are generally more prevalent in the collected samples, hence the need to improve or better control the processes of coagulation, flocculation, and filtration [33,34]. These are the main processes for removing forms of chlorine-resistant microorganisms, such as spores, oocysts or cysts [35]. Even though the SSRC test method changed in November 2010 (media, volume, filtration vs. incorporation), and the increase of the test sample volume from 20 to 100 mL facilitated the detection of positive samples, it remains obvious that some treatment plants have difficulties in treating consistently raw water. However, it is important to distinguish faecal contamination indicators from indicators to assess the effectiveness of treatment and their health significance.
While treatment plants have shown point or more frequent failures, this study suggests that some environmental factors lead to overloading the treatment systems. Madagascar faces environmental issues [16], such as climatic changes, [36] deforestation, bushfires, erosion, unplanned urbanization, and inefficient sanitation [37]. One-third of the water sources are subjected to environmental threats resulting from urbanization, poor sanitation, and population growth (more than 9%). In this context, FIB, especially IE, are prevalent in contaminated samples [38,39]. With a few exceptions, these waters are mainly provided by boreholes, for which the design (depth) appears to be able to limit the impact of environmental factors. Despite unconventional (incomplete) treatments, the samples collected are among the least contaminated. On the other hand, artesian wells or some less protected sources are under the influence of surface water (predominance of SSRC) and are not able protect themselves from surface pollution (predominance of FIB) [39]. They generally provide a high proportion of contaminated samples, regardless of the type of implemented treatment.
Most supply systems that are among the highest means of contamination have watersheds that are threatened by agricultural activities. Highland rivers are particularly vulnerable, especially since the area is carved by the paddy fields and is strongly eroded [40,41]. The highland landscape usually generates sediments to rivers [42]. This correlates to the prevalence of SSRC in contaminated samples even the most comprehensive treatment systems (coagulation–filtration–neutralization and chlorination) may fail. Similarly, the type of activities could affect the type of contamination, with FIB being more prevalent in livestock areas [43] (Bezaha) or production of vegetable crops (Ansirabe) with use of manure [43,44]. The water supplied from lakes in the same environmental context is of better quality, certainly because sediment deposition alleviates the treatment plants. Surface water seems vulnerable to threats from agricultural activities [45], possibly due to a lack of protective perimeter [18].
Throughout the 16 years, stable predominant contamination was observed in few supply systems. These point sources of contamination would be related to an inadequate water source conception (depth, soil type) or to an inadequate treatment plan design. In this case, rainfall affects the proportion of contaminated samples and not the indicator population. Non-point source pollution, in contrast, is of concern to most supply systems. For half of the sites with a low level of contamination, no predominance of any type of contamination and low monthly variation of contamination was observed. Here, rainfall seems to influence both the proportion of contaminated samples [46,47] and the indicator populations. The increase of contamination frequencies was more associated with a conjunction of several bacterial types than a higher density of only one type of bacteria [48]. In inadequate sanitation conditions (open defecation or use of wastewater open channels), and without management of storm water, urban runoff is an important part of non-point-source pollution. Thus, the capacity and efficiency of the treatment plants determine high and low averages of contamination over the 16-year period. Overall, the frequency of contamination varied with the site ranging from 3.3% to 17.5% (average 7.5%). Contamination events are related to an overloading of the decontamination process, resulting in a high level of contaminants in the water sources during storms, leaching, or flooding [49]. In the opposite way, SSRC contamination can persist during the dry period, certainly due to low flow or low levels of water sources.
Since 2012 the quality of supplied water has deteriorated for sites undergoing demographic growth, with developing environmental threats due to an increase of non-point-source pollution (prevalence of IE during rainy events). The increase in water demand can also affect the treatment time and decreases the performance of already aged systems.
To improve the public delivery of water in Madagascar, the systems need to be optimized in different towns facing environmental and climatic threats. Although a low level of EC contamination is maintained, a risk assessment approach at the catchment scale would be appropriate. Agricultural runoff associated with erosion phenomena as well as urban runoff are major threats and impact indicator populations in drinking water samples. Heavy rainfall events reinforce this impact and progressively contribute to overloading the treatment plants. The systems can no longer face to climate and urbanization threats. Thus, water source protection and an extensive improvement of treatment plants must take place all over the country. This is a priority for the country.
The following are available online at https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/10/10/1450/s1: Table S1. Repartition of the number of collected water samples from 32 Malagasy water supply systems per month and per year (1999 to 2015). Part 1: per month; Part 2: per year. Table S2. Monthly and yearly contamination frequency of drinking water samples from 1999 to 2015, except 2009. Part 1: monthly; Part 2: yearly period. Table S3. Description of the 32 water supply systems—environmental and technical descriptive variables. Table S4. Description of the 32 water supply systems—environmental threats, descriptive variables, and contamination profiles. Table S5. Pearson's correlation matrix used for detection of explanatory variables influencing each cluster in principal component analysis of 32 water supply systems.
Data Curation, A.B., J.M. and N.R.; Statistical Analysis, J.M.R.; Writing—Original Draft Preparation, A.B.; Review and Editing, R.J.
This research received no external funding.
The authors would like to acknowledge technical support given by the state-owned electric utility and water service company in Madagascar and GIS Geomatics Service in Epidemiology Department of Institut Pasteur de Madagascar.
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Figure 1. Map of selected water supply systems. The map shows location of the 32 studied water supply systems and the administrative division of the JIRAMA in Madagascar. Three-quarters of these supply systems provided fewer than 500 samples per system over 16 years. A major part of these systems is located from the east littoral area to the western highlands (Toamasina and Antananarivo divisions).
Figure 2. Mean of monthly contamination frequencies related to 32 of Madagascar's drinking water supply systems from 1999 to 2015, except 2009. Means (dots) with error bars show the proportion of contaminated samples over 16 years and its variation within each sampling system.
Figure 3. Means of contamination frequencies related to 32 of Madagascar's drinking water supply systems from 1999 to 2015 (except 2009) by specific periods. Means (dots) with error bars show: (a) the average of contaminated samples proportion by year (from 1999 to 2015); (b) the average of contaminated samples proportion by type of months (from January to December).
Figure 4. Clustering of 32 Malagasy water supply systems according to contamination. Dendrogram shows the Euclidean distance between the different supply systems and the four uneven clusters selected.
Figure 5. Means of contamination frequencies of Madagascar's drinking water systems for periods related to significant differences (ANOVA, p < 0.05) between five clusters from hierarchical clustering analysis according to temporal variation and most relevant contamination: (a) for the year 2005; (b) for the year 2010; (c) for the year 2012; (d) for the year 2013; (e) for the year 2014; (f) for the year 2015; (g) for the month of February; (h) for the month of March; (i) for the month of July.
Figure 6. Relationship between rainfall and contamination of the water samples in 32 Malagasy water supply systems from 2007 to 2015. Graphs show for each quarter (DJF: December to February; MAM: March to May; JJA: June to August; SON: September to November): mean of cumulative rainfall ( ); mean of specific contamination frequencies (%) in spores of sulphite-reducing clostridia (SSRC), in intestinal enterococci (IE), in total coliforms (TC), and in Escherichia coli (EC); and means of overall contamination frequencies (line ). For the legend of each cluster see Figure 4: (a) Cluster 1/1; (b) Cluster 1/2; (c) Cluster 2; (d) Cluster 3; (e) Cluster 4.
Figure 7. Principal component analysis map of the 32 water supply systems using environmental and technical variables, and the main environmental threats. (a) Circle of correlation between active (point) and supplementary variables (square); (b) Joined map of contamination data and descriptive variables ( active variable; supplementary data; observations). Four groups (circles) can be discriminated according to the type of water source, the treatment implemented, and the type of threats on the water source.
Table 1. Repartition by water sources and treatment processes of 12,495 samples provided by 32 of Madagascar's water supply systems from 1999 to 2015.
Unconventional Treatment
Classic + Neutralization
Chlorination
Filtration + Chlorination
N of Stations
Total (%)
Lakes 1113 1419 0 0 6 2532 (20%)
Rivers 3487 1436 0 0 11 4923 (39%)
Total 4600 2855 0 0 7455 2 (60%)
Boreholes 0 1335 1458 0 5 2793 (22%)
Wells 144 1014 0 0 6 1158 (9%)
Water springs 0 533 248 308 4 1089 (9%)
Total 144 2882 1706 308 5040 (40%)
Total number of stations 11 16 3 4 1 32
Total (%) 4744 (38%) 5737 (46%) 1706 (14%) 308 (2%) 12,495 1 (100%)
1 The 12,495 collected drinking water samples were reported by water sources and treatment processes. 2 7455 (60%) samples were provided by 17 surface water sources. 3 16 sites that were treated by a conventional process with final neutralization provided 46% of samples.
Table 2. Correlation between specific and overall contamination frequency for 32 Malagasy water supply systems. From 1999 to 2015 (except 2009), Pearson's correlation coefficients were reported.
FIB 1
IE 2
SSRC 5
Toamasina Vatomandry Bcn 0.290 0.290 0.144 0.357 0.876
Sainte Marie Rc 0.844 0.816 0.442 0.526 0.394
Soaniera Ivongo Rc 0.744 0.744 0.000 0.641 0.259
Fenerive Est Wcn 0.620 0.620 0.000 0.436 0.671
Mahanoro Wc 0.489 0.489 0.000 0.345 0.860
Toamasina Rc 0.535 0.535 0.308 0.578 0.656
Antananarivo Tsiroanomandidy Rcn 0.411 0.411 0.316 0.489 0.785
Andekaleka Rc 0.723 0.575 0.475 0.387 0.552
Moramanga Rc 0.553 0.419 0.387 0.576 0.724
Ambatondrazaka Su 0.642 0.596 0.326 0.520 0.768
Miarinarivo Scn 0.717 0.662 0.326 0.570 0.536
Mahasolo Wcn 0.734 0.541 0.541 0.817 0.483
Mandraka Lc 0.596 0.596 0.000 0.341 0.778
Soavandriana Scn 0.628 0.628 0.235 0.756 0.628
Analavory Su 0.781 0.695 0.488 0.649 0.600
Ambatolampy Lcn 0.588 0.454 0.370 0.588 0.698
Antsirabe Antsirabe Lcn 0.677 0.629 0.359 0.619 0.609
Antanifotsy Lc 0.727 0.727 0.414 0.590 0.661
Fianarantsoa Manakara Rc 0.674 0.448 0.492 0.674 0.607
Faranfangana Rcn 0.694 0.694 0.342 0.647 0.420
Fianarantsoa Rc 0.660 0.537 0.378 0.574 0.706
Toliara Bezaha Bu 0.859 0.754 0.398 0.398 0.634
Tolagnaro Lc 0.220 0.220 0.000 0.382 0.915
Toliara Bu 0.598 0.534 0.421 0.583 0.671
Mahajanga Maevatanana Wcn 0.426 0.000 0.426 0.543 0.884
Mampikony Wcn 0.431 0.431 0.000 0.500 0.804
Port Berge Rcn 0.751 0.562 0.562 0.751 0.630
Mahajanga Bcn 0.772 0.764 0.336 0.587 0.598
Marovoay Bu 0.848 0.719 0.504 0.671 0.504
Antsiranana Sambava Bu 0.476 0.386 0.386 0.515 0.798
Antsiranana Rcn 0.427 0.338 0.275 0.492 0.832
Nosy Be Lcn 0.738 0.598 0.545 0.647 0.694
1 faecal indicator bacteria; 2 Escherichia coli; 3 intestinal enterococci; 4 total coliforms; 5 spores of sulphite-reducing clostridia. Bcn: supplied from boreholes and treated with a final neutralization step; Rcn: supplied from rivers and treated with a final neutralization step; Rc: supplied from rivers and treated by the classic process; Wcn : supplied from artesian wells and treated with a final neutralization step; Su: supplied from springs and treated by the unconventional process; Scn: supplied from springs and treated with a final neutralization step; Lcn: supplied from lakes and treated with a final neutralization step; Lc: supplied from lakes and treated by the classic process; Bu: supplied from boreholes and treated by the unconventional process. Wc: supplied from artesian wells and treated by the classic process.
Bastaraud, A.; Rakotondramanga, J.M.; Mahazosaotra, J.; Ravaonindrina, N.; Jambou, R. Environmental Factors and the Microbial Quality of Urban Drinking Water in a Low-Income Country: The Case of Madagascar. Water 2018, 10, 1450. https://doi.org/10.3390/w10101450
Bastaraud A, Rakotondramanga JM, Mahazosaotra J, Ravaonindrina N, Jambou R. Environmental Factors and the Microbial Quality of Urban Drinking Water in a Low-Income Country: The Case of Madagascar. Water. 2018; 10(10):1450. https://doi.org/10.3390/w10101450
Bastaraud, Alexandra, Jean Marius Rakotondramanga, Jackson Mahazosaotra, Noror Ravaonindrina, and Ronan Jambou. 2018. "Environmental Factors and the Microbial Quality of Urban Drinking Water in a Low-Income Country: The Case of Madagascar" Water 10, no. 10: 1450. https://doi.org/10.3390/w10101450
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Water, EISSN 2073-4441, Published by MDPI


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In a letter that British Foreign Secretary Balfour sent to Lord Rothschild, Britain offers to facilitate the growth of a national home for the Jewish people in Palestine with caveats that it will not prejudice civil and religious rights of the non-Jewish population there, or the political rights of Jews residing elsewhere. Chaim Weizmann is key to securing the letter. In 1922, the Declaration receives international legitimacy when its wording is incorporated into the League of Nations Mandate. Zionists fiercely defend the Mandate's contents, while the Arab community in Palestine opposes it. (source)
Venice Declaration on the ME Concerning Inclusion of PLO in Negotiations
The Balfour Declaration
American Jewish Committee Gives a Qualified Endorsement to Balfour Declaration
Palestinian Authority to Sue British Government Over Balfour Declaration


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Reliability and validity testing of a short form of the readiness estimate and deployability index revised for air force nurses
Theresa Lynn Dremsa, Nancy A. Ryan-Wenger, Carol Reineck
Objective: The purpose of this study was to test the reliability and validity of the Readiness Estimate and Deployability Index Revised for Air Force Nurses Short Form, with a sample of 205 Air Force nurses. Participants were mostly female (70%), 36.31 ± 9.3 years of age, with 11.52 ± 7.17 years of nursing experience. Methods: With structural equation modeling, the initial model did not fit the data (χ2/df = 5.45) and was revised. Results: Revisions based on modification indices provided evidence of reliability (α coefficients of 0.70-0.94; the majority of R2 values were >0.50) and improved the fit of the model (χ2 difference, 35.54; df difference, 3.76; p < 0.05). Hypothesis testing provided evidence of construct validity. Conclusions: The 40-item Readiness Estimate and Deployability Index Revised for Air Force Nurses Short Form provides evidence of reliability and validity as a self-assessment measure of deployment preparedness.
https://doi.org/10.7205/MILMED.171.9.879
10.7205/MILMED.171.9.879
Fingerprint Dive into the research topics of 'Reliability and validity testing of a short form of the readiness estimate and deployability index revised for air force nurses'. Together they form a unique fingerprint.
Reproducibility of Results Medicine & Life Sciences
Air Medicine & Life Sciences
Self-Assessment Medicine & Life Sciences
Dremsa, T. L., Ryan-Wenger, N. A., & Reineck, C. (2006). Reliability and validity testing of a short form of the readiness estimate and deployability index revised for air force nurses. Military medicine, 171(9), 879-884. https://doi.org/10.7205/MILMED.171.9.879
Reliability and validity testing of a short form of the readiness estimate and deployability index revised for air force nurses. / Dremsa, Theresa Lynn; Ryan-Wenger, Nancy A.; Reineck, Carol.
In: Military medicine, Vol. 171, No. 9, 09.2006, p. 879-884.
Dremsa, TL, Ryan-Wenger, NA & Reineck, C 2006, 'Reliability and validity testing of a short form of the readiness estimate and deployability index revised for air force nurses', Military medicine, vol. 171, no. 9, pp. 879-884. https://doi.org/10.7205/MILMED.171.9.879
Dremsa TL, Ryan-Wenger NA, Reineck C. Reliability and validity testing of a short form of the readiness estimate and deployability index revised for air force nurses. Military medicine. 2006 Sep;171(9):879-884. https://doi.org/10.7205/MILMED.171.9.879
Dremsa, Theresa Lynn ; Ryan-Wenger, Nancy A. ; Reineck, Carol. / Reliability and validity testing of a short form of the readiness estimate and deployability index revised for air force nurses. In: Military medicine. 2006 ; Vol. 171, No. 9. pp. 879-884.
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title = "Reliability and validity testing of a short form of the readiness estimate and deployability index revised for air force nurses",
abstract = "Objective: The purpose of this study was to test the reliability and validity of the Readiness Estimate and Deployability Index Revised for Air Force Nurses Short Form, with a sample of 205 Air Force nurses. Participants were mostly female (70%), 36.31 ± 9.3 years of age, with 11.52 ± 7.17 years of nursing experience. Methods: With structural equation modeling, the initial model did not fit the data (χ2/df = 5.45) and was revised. Results: Revisions based on modification indices provided evidence of reliability (α coefficients of 0.70-0.94; the majority of R2 values were >0.50) and improved the fit of the model (χ2 difference, 35.54; df difference, 3.76; p < 0.05). Hypothesis testing provided evidence of construct validity. Conclusions: The 40-item Readiness Estimate and Deployability Index Revised for Air Force Nurses Short Form provides evidence of reliability and validity as a self-assessment measure of deployment preparedness.",
author = "Dremsa, {Theresa Lynn} and Ryan-Wenger, {Nancy A.} and Carol Reineck",
doi = "10.7205/MILMED.171.9.879",
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AU - Ryan-Wenger, Nancy A.
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N2 - Objective: The purpose of this study was to test the reliability and validity of the Readiness Estimate and Deployability Index Revised for Air Force Nurses Short Form, with a sample of 205 Air Force nurses. Participants were mostly female (70%), 36.31 ± 9.3 years of age, with 11.52 ± 7.17 years of nursing experience. Methods: With structural equation modeling, the initial model did not fit the data (χ2/df = 5.45) and was revised. Results: Revisions based on modification indices provided evidence of reliability (α coefficients of 0.70-0.94; the majority of R2 values were >0.50) and improved the fit of the model (χ2 difference, 35.54; df difference, 3.76; p < 0.05). Hypothesis testing provided evidence of construct validity. Conclusions: The 40-item Readiness Estimate and Deployability Index Revised for Air Force Nurses Short Form provides evidence of reliability and validity as a self-assessment measure of deployment preparedness.
AB - Objective: The purpose of this study was to test the reliability and validity of the Readiness Estimate and Deployability Index Revised for Air Force Nurses Short Form, with a sample of 205 Air Force nurses. Participants were mostly female (70%), 36.31 ± 9.3 years of age, with 11.52 ± 7.17 years of nursing experience. Methods: With structural equation modeling, the initial model did not fit the data (χ2/df = 5.45) and was revised. Results: Revisions based on modification indices provided evidence of reliability (α coefficients of 0.70-0.94; the majority of R2 values were >0.50) and improved the fit of the model (χ2 difference, 35.54; df difference, 3.76; p < 0.05). Hypothesis testing provided evidence of construct validity. Conclusions: The 40-item Readiness Estimate and Deployability Index Revised for Air Force Nurses Short Form provides evidence of reliability and validity as a self-assessment measure of deployment preparedness.
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DO - 10.7205/MILMED.171.9.879
JO - Military Medicine
JF - Military Medicine


In 2015, The Education Trust-Midwest launched the Michigan Achieves campaign to make Michigan a top ten education state by 2030. Each year, we report on how Michigan is making progress toward that top ten goal based on both student outcome performance metrics and opportunity to learn metrics that signal the conditions that Michigan is creating that help support — or stagnate — teaching and learning in Michigan public schools.
Michigan is at great crossroads – a historic moment when our citizens and leaders must choose whether we will take advantage of major new opportunities to become a top state economically and educationally once again – or face a continued and dramatic decline that will relegate the state and its citizens to global backwater status. The path we take during the next five years will be critical in determining which destination we reach.
Our 2015 State of Michigan Education Report, Michigan Achieves: Becoming a Top Ten Education State, lays out a comprehensive plan to lift Michigan up from the bottom and into one of our nation's top ten education states by 2030.
We do this by targeting investment in key areas that research shows have the best results. Leading education states have shown that a focus on teaching quality, higher standards and school accountability can truly put us on the path to success.


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Quantum by Tom Grace
New Audio Books
In 1948, a young German emigre reaches the threshold of a scientific vision: a theory of everything – the very blueprints for the construction of the universe. The his dreams of a future in America collide with the horros of his past, and both he and his research are seemingly lost forever.
More than half a century later, an American scientist at the Univeristy of Michigan unveils a new source of energy. The invention – a quantum power cel – is still in the experimental stage, but has the potential to radically reconfigure the economy by making traditional forms of energy production obsolete.
Halfway around the globe, Russian billionaire Victor Orlov bankrolls a competing quantum project. In a race to claim the patent and reap the financial rewards, he knows that beyond developing his own technology he must force the Americans to terminate their research. In what could become the greatest theft of all time, Orlov organizes mercenaries, spies, and the Russian Mafiya to seize the secrets he needs.
When the battle for Quantum technology explodes, Nolan Kilkenny finds himself at ground zero. In order to stop Orlov from stealing the future, Kilkenny has to fight a war across two hemispheres – as he races to solve a mystery that has gone unanswered for more than fifty years.
A story of men and women forced to make impossible choices, Quantum hurls us into the dangers of the twenty-first century, a place where human courage may still be the most unpredictable and potent force of all.
QUANTUM is available from Amazon and Audible.
"[An] exciting techno-thriller…Grace has created a moving portrait of America's technological prowess…nicely textured adventure." — Publishers Weekly
"Tom Grace's second high-tech thriller again offers international intrigue, believable technical wizardry, relatively complex characters, and plenty of suspense. Fans of Tom Clancy and Clive Cussler won't be disappointed." — Library Journal
Tom Grace is the author of five Nolan Kilkenny thrillers, including the AP #1 bestselling novel The Secret Cardinal. An architect in private practice, he resides with his wife and family in Michigan.
Dark Matter by Tom Grace
Spyder Web by Tom Grace
ITW June 7, 2013


Yoghurt Texturizer Blend is a blended free flowing powder that improves and stabilizes the texture and creamy mouthfeel in set or stirred yoghurt. It is used at 1.0 – 2.0% to produce high quality yoghurt with enhanced water binding properties.
Cheesecake Mix Baked is used for the convenient preparation of baked cheesecakes.
Cheesecake Mix Cold Set is used for the convenient preparation of refrigerated cheesecakes.


by jhwygirl Jay's raising some cash for Bozeman's JP Pomnichowski. She's great. I told you all before. (Don't make me repeat myself – go use the search over there on the right.) We need to keep her around. Get over there to Left in the West and give a great Progressive some love.


What is special about Syriac Orthodox Church and Eastern Orthodox Church Worship, in general, is beautifully covered in this short video produced by BBC.
Instead of the rational, tidy Christianity of the West, this is the face that glories in mystery. It pays meticulous attention to rituals, in particular, the quality of performance.
Eastern Christianity is more in touch with its origins than the west.
The liturgy is simple and rich in symbolism.
The way people communicate is not just through words, but also through gestures, body language, voice, tune, etc. used.
This is also very different than how western spirituality has developed. Western spirituality was developed through philosophers. Theologians were philosophers. In east, the theologians were either poets, icon drawers, etc.
Eastern Christianity has made it a priority of passing down gestures that takes us through the beginning of Christianity.
The language used is Syriac, a form of Aramaic spoken by Jesus Christ.


"Avocado Soup with Dill and Smoked Trout" is a delicious way to start a conversation about how we need to save the ocean. Cool and refreshing, with a richness from the fish, it instantly wakes you up and makes you appreciate how much enjoyment and variety can be held in just a single spoon. Being served at a tasting of sustainable seafood dishes, it then makes you realize how much diversity, beauty, and life there is in the entire vastness of the ocean.
The night's first three plates, clockwise from the top: Breads and Anchovy-garlic oil, Avocado Soup with Dill and Smoked Trout, and Mussels en escabeche.
Next, a small plate of "Mussels en escabeche" takes a humble critter, easily found by the hundreds and overlooked by snorkelers for more glamorous corals and fish, and makes it a star, its bright orange color vibrant against a white dish. It draws attention to the individuality of each and every thing in the ocean, not as abstract population numbers, but as individual creatures, each with beauty and value.
Barton Seaver doesn't need to be the one to save the world. "I want to try to save the seafood," says the conservationist-chef.
This is what popular chef and National Geographic Fellow Barton Seaver literally brings to the table: the ability to address big issues affecting the ocean through the shared experience of a great dinner. Utilizing principles and recipes from his new cookbook of recipes for sustainable seafood, For Cod and Country, Barton served it all at an NG Live event in Washington, D.C. last week.
The people gathered to share this meal and conversation included local food lovers, activists, news-anchor-emeritus Sam Donaldson, and Barton's own family. One couple was there celebrating their 30th wedding anniversary, thanks to tickets from their son. The large tables enabled these strangers to meet, helping to illustrate Barton's point that dinner isn't just about eating, it's intimate and celebratory and through it we not only nourish our bodies, but our relationships as well.
Tuna Rillettes with Herb and Rye bread, with Pink Salmon and Basil salad in the background. Fish in both dishes came from cans.
The next plate to arrive featured "Tuna Rillettes With Herb and Rye Bread" and "Pink Salmon and Basil Salad." As simple-seeming as a tuna sandwich waiting to be assembled, these elements were flavorful, fun to eat, and had lots of great textures. Most significantly though, they showed just how easy it is to cook well with sustainable seafood. These gourmet bites were made using one of the most affordable and convenient forms of food around: canned (learn to make sustainable choices with our Seafood Decision Guide).
In the past, the convenience of tuna from industrial fishing came at a disastrous price, costing the lives of hundreds of thousands of dolphins every year killed in the nets intended for the fish. Changes to fishing equipment and techniques in the 1970s and '80s kept dolphins safer, but still countless other fish are caught and wasted as by-catch every day. Now though, tuna caught one-by-one by the old fashioned pole and line method are available in cans across the U.S. at Whole Foods stores and elsewhere. The Whole Foods a few blocks from NG headquarters even donated all the cans used for this event.
The final dishes, "Mixed Seafood Salad with Mussels, Lobster, and Squid" and "Orange and Fennel Salad with Anchovy Vinaigrette" were not only delicious, they were bonding experiences. The freshness and diversity of seafood, the combination of fruits, vegetables, and protein, and the surprising dash of some mysterious spice on top of both had several at our table talking, wondering what it could be.
The final dishes, with their virtually invisible, but unforgettable sprinkling of spice.
When the chef returned to the podium to describe the ingredients and techniques used, we discovered it was nutmeg. Nutmeg! As a diner, I am learning when in doubt, guess nutmeg. I didn't guess it this time though. And I didn't guess coriander, which was also an ingredient, as was cilantro, which my nutmeg-calling dining companion pointed out are in fact the dried seed and the leaf of the same plant.
Fun conversations, a full stomach and a delighted palate made for a great evening, but more importantly, combined with all the information about our need to be more sustainable in our use of seafood, they provided an unforgettable, five-sense experience that gave everyone present a chance to develop a deeper, closer relationship with the most important member of the dining party, the sea itself.
Barton's book features fish caught in each season and lists of substitutes for these new dishes.
This spring, if you pick up a copy of Barton Seaver's For Cod and Country, get right to the kitchen and start cooking, and don't halve any recipes. Cook them to the full, surround yourself with others to share the experience, and develop those relationships with each other and the ocean for yourselves.
Get facts and tips about making more sustainable choices with our Seafood Decision Guide.
Learn more about National Geographic Fellow Barton Seaver, and order his new book For Cod and Country.
Follow Barton in the Cook-Wise videos as he goes on location to meet fishermen, farmers, and scientists, and explores how individual ingredients can make a difference for our planet.
All food photos by Andrew Howley. Portrait photo courtesy of Barton Seaver.
And How About a Midnight Snack?
Watch a quick time-lapse video of Barton Seaver and crew preparing a similar tasting at Starfish Brasserie in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania.
Starfish Brasserie with guest chef Barton Seaver from Mike Panic on Vimeo.


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← Faoileagan nan Seanfhaclan / Seagulls of Many Proverbs
Foraging Fortnight – a celebration of Scotland's wild food →
Find autumn gold in Scotland's National Nature Reserves
Posted on August 29, 2019 by NatureScot
Autumn, with its depth of colour and light, is a fantastic season to get out and explore our mountains, forests and coasts, especially if you're looking for ideas to get the kids active during the school break.
Scotland's wonderful National Nature Reserves are a great place to start. With fantastic opportunities to get away from it all and connect with nature, whether you're looking for a short stroll, an adventurous day out or simply want to sit and watch the local wildlife go by, they never fail to impress.
Here are 10 top nature experiences for autumn and where you can enjoy them across Scotland.
1. Hear the Monarch of the Glen roar
Rutting red deer Stag, Isle of Rum National Nature Reserve, ©Laurie Campbell/SNH
The roar of red deer stags across a Highland glen is one of the most evocative sounds of the season and hearing it for yourself is an experience not to be missed. The red deer is Scotland's largest land mammal and stags can be seen and heard roaring from late September onwards on nature reserves from Ben Wyvis in the north to Cairnsmore in the south, and from Mar Lodge Estate in the east to Beinn Eighe in the west. For a really special experience, take a walk out to Kilmory Bay to watch rutting stags on the coastal grasslands on the Isle of Rum.
2. Fun with fungi
Chanterelles fungi and moss, Glen Affric National Nature Reserve, ©Lorne Gill/SNH
With autumn comes cooler nights and frequent showers, making it the best time of year for fungi to thrive. See how many different colours of mushrooms you can spot as you wander through the woods. Many nature reserves hold fungi forays during the season at locations including Muir of Dinnet in Royal Deeside and Beinn Eighe in Wester Ross. Or explore Glen Affric, regarded by many as Scotland's most beautiful glen, with its stunning lochs, mountains and Caledonian forest – a wonderful mix of pine, birch and oak. The area is golden brown in autumn with the ochres, oranges and yellows of the birch and aspen leaves. Fungi, such as huge penny-buns, golden chanterelles and bright red fly-agarics, appear like magic overnight in the damp woodlands. Learn more with SNH's guide to Scottish fungi.
3. A riot of colour
Looking over Loch Lomond from Duncryne Hill, Loch Lomond & The Trossachs National Park
At this time of the year Scotland's west coast temperate rain forest transforms with the vibrant hues of russets, reds and ochres of oak, birch, willow and alder. Bracken and ferns add muted hues of brown and gold to create a feast for the eyes. Enjoy a scenic walk at Taynish in Argyll, Ariundle Oakwood on the Sunart Peninsula or The Great Trossachs Forest in Loch Lomond & The Trossachs National Park. Explore Scotland's oldest and richest forest of oak, ash, rowan and hazel hidden in the dramatic gorges of the Clyde Valley Woodlands or visit the ancient, gnarled Cadzow oaks near Chatelherault.
4. A gaggle of geese
Geese at dawn in Loch Leven, Perthshire © Lorne Gill/SNH
Rise and shine to experience the dawn flypast of thousands of geese returning from their breeding grounds in the Arctic. Huge numbers of barnacle geese from Svalbard are a highlight in October as they arrive at Caerlaverock on the Solway Firth. Or you can explore the wonderful Loch Leven Heritage Trail on foot or by bike, which encircles Loch Leven National Nature Reserve. Stop by one of the many hides and listen out for the distinctive "wink-wink" call of the pink-footed goose. Visit early in the morning to see the spectacle of huge flocks heading off to feed or in the evening when they return to roost.
5. A feast of nuts and berries
Waxwings feeding on rowan berries © Lorne Gill/SNH
In autumn the rowan trees at Creag Meagaidh will be laden with vibrant red berries – look out for migrant thrushes such as fieldfares and redwings, or even waxwings newly arrived from Scandinavia. There may also be locally-breeding ring ouzels filling up before they migrate south to the mountains of North Africa for the winter. Walk a trail in the Glasdrum or Glen Nant woodlands further west which will be dotted with the bright red of holly berries, and the yellows and browns of hazelnuts and acorns as they ripen.
6. Winter is coming
Looking over Lochan an Ais to Cul Beag and Stac Pollaidh, Knockan Crag, Assynt © Lorne Gill/SNH
Scotland's mountain landscapes are amongst the most scenic in the world, whether you want to photograph the view from the roadside or have the itch to embark on a challenging hike. Short trails and a visitor centre at Knockan Crag provide a spectacular panorama of Assynt's hills, while Craigellachie offers one of the best views of the Cairngorms National Park. For keen walkers it's hard to beat the glaciated, ice sculpted landscapes of Glen Coe near Fort William in the west, or Corrie Fee in the Angus Glens further east. You might even spot a ptarmigan or a mountain hare changing colour from summer grey to winter white as the hills are dusted with their first sprinkling of snow.
7. Stunning coastlines
Hermaness on Unst in Shetland is Scotland's most northerly National Nature Reserve © Lorne Gill/SNH
Scotland has a long and incredibly varied coastline, which you can celebrate as part of our Year of Coasts & Waters 2020. From wide sandy beaches to towering sea cliffs, this diverse coast supports amazing wildlife and is great for exploring during autumn when gales can drive huge waves ashore, making reserves, such as Hermaness on Shetland, exhilarating places to appreciate the power of nature. If you're really lucky you might even see whales like orca from Noss on Shetland, or a humpback from St Cyrus or Forvie on Aberdeenshire's east coast.
8. Waders and wildfowl
Evening light on Forvie Sands, Aberdeenshire © Lorne Gill/SNH
Scotland's estuaries come alive in the autumn as summer birds get ready to leave and winter birds arrive. Look out for vast wheeling flocks of waders, like knot, which have returned from their Arctic breeding grounds. Listen for the evocative whistling call of wigeon as they start to arrive in big numbers from their Russian wintering areas. Visit bird hides at Loch Fleet on the North Coast 500, at Forvie on the Ythan Estuary (where you'll also find a half-buried 12th century church ruin and large numbers of basking seals) and at St Cyrus at the mouth of the River North Esk.
9. Squirrels get ready
Red Squirrel, Royal Deeside © Lorne Gill/SNH
Who could resist watching red squirrels preparing for winter, hiding food in scattered places to prevent it being pinched by other animals? In autumn these charismatic characters also grow their bushy winter coat ready for the cold nights ahead. The woodlands of Muir of Dinnet on Royal Deeside are home to red squirrels while at Tentsmuir on the Fife coast, visitors to the squirrel hide at Morton Lochs have an excellent chance of seeing and photographing their antics.
10. The last days of summer
A beautiful Scotch argus, Cairngorms National Park © Lorne Gill/SNH
Take a walk in grassland or through woodland clearings at Glasdrum or Beinn Eighe and look out for the last flight of the Scotch argus, a local specialist with the ability to survive cooler temperatures than other butterflies. Elsewhere butterflies such as peacocks, red admirals and small tortoiseshells will be feeding up before hibernating over the winter in cool sheds and outbuildings in places as far flung as the Isle of May in the Firth of Forth.
These are just a few of the wildlife treats in store this autumn, find out about some of Scotland's key species in this wildlife calendar. Pick up some ideas on what to do with the kids in Visit Scotland's autumn breaks in Scotland guide, or why not become a leaf peeper in our colourful woodlands?
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