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Games That Defined The History of the PlayStation (PS1)
If you enjoy this guide, check out the rest of our Defining Games of Retro Gaming series
The Sony PlayStation essentially came out of nowhere in the mid 1990's to take on both Nintendo and Sega in the heated console wars. With some impressive technology, ease of development and a heavy marketing budget behind them, Sony rallied a number of the best game developers in the industry to create a powerhouse library of games – many of which laid a solid foundation for generations to come. (See our technical comparison of the Sony Playstation vs the N64 and the Sega Saturn for more info)
This overview of the PS1 takes a look at the games that made the largest impact on the industry at the time and gave the Playstation its unique personality while overcoming its opponents (as opposed to a standard list of "the best" PS1 games). If you want to learn more about the actual Playstation hardware history, library, accessories, and how it fits into a retro gaming lifestyle today, check out our Playstation 101 Beginners Guide.
Due to the size of this article and the variety of games discussed, it quickly became a group project. While Ack and I led this project, there were also many contributions from Daniel Primed, The Apprentice, Radarscope1, Niode, Fastbilly1, and BulletMagnet. Thanks to all for their contributions and I hope everyone enjoys the results!
Final Fantasy Series
Before Sony made the bold move of taking on Sega and Nintendo in the ultra-competitive gaming industry, Sony had partnered with Nintendo to develop a CD add-on for the Super Nintendo. After Nintendo breached the contract and ultimately decided to ditch the CD format, Sony decided to create the PlayStation on their own and make Nintendo regret their decision.
In addition to a new competitor in Sony, Nintendo suffered from the loss of Squaresoft as premier third party publisher. Square, angry about Nintendo's decision to go with the cartridge format instead of CD, dropped all connections with the company and instead began producing titles exclusively for the PlayStation, including their beloved Final Fantasy series.
As the first Final Fantasy game to be presented in three dimensions, Final Fantasy VII was a milestone in the RPG genre. For many impressionable youths in this new gaming generation, it was an introduction to the genre and was an early showcase of what could be done with computer generated cut-scenes and story-telling. Even though it may not have been the greatest Final Fantasy in terms of game mechanics, it is definitely high on the food chain in terms of iconic characters and experiences from the 32-bit era.
The PlayStation would also see highly-anticipated releases of Final Fantasy VIII and Final Fantasy IX – each of which was met with rave reviews and tremendous sales. Final Fantasy VII finished up with 9.8 million copies worldwide and the sequels followed up with 6 million and 5.08 million respectively.
Final Fantasy VIII and IX really showed Square's growth in using high-quality music and graphics for storytelling. The length of the games was also quite impressive. Final Fantasy VII spanned multiple discs at it's release in 1997 in Japan, just over two years after the release of the console, using disc space to put 3D rendered characters on pre-rendered backgrounds, as well as featuring 3D combat and pre-rendered cut scenes. Final Fantasy VIII and IX took it a step further by filling up four CDs each. Indeed, the quality of CG would make Square even more famous then it had been after its success with Nintendo's previous consoles.
When the book was closed on these blockbusters, the huge revenue stream helped fund the company's attempts at breaking into other game genres. While Square would not see nearly as much success in these areas, the games did endear more fans to the company, leading some to speculate that Squaresoft alone could pick which console would win the generation wars.
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Hideo Kojima's career-spanning series, Metal Gear, broke into super-stardom on PlayStation with Metal Gear Solid. Selling over 7 million copies during its lifespan, the game would become on of the highest selling games in the 32-bit generation. Of course, it also was the beginning of a franchise that would help sell millions PS2s and PS3s for years to come.
Metal Gear Solid's success comes as little surprise as it brought movie-like cut scenes, an incredible cast of characters, bizarre secrets, incredible audio, and more stealth action than one could shake a stick at. The game mechanics came as such a pleasant surprise to mainstream gamers that Metal Gear Solid is often credited as having created the popularizing the Stealth genre that is now filled with many blockbuster titles.
Of course, what more could be expected from a title whose designers were out to "literally make the best PlayStation game ever". And despite some criticisms about the short length of the title, the constant cut scenes, and how easy it was to avoid enemies, some gamers could argue they did it, or at least came close.
Looking back at the 32-bit era, it's easy to see that many of the early 3D games don't age especially well when compared to their newer counterparts. However, Metal Gear Solid seems to be one of the few exceptions to the rule. Kojima and Company did an outstanding job making use of the PlayStation's capabilities and made sure to push the limits of the things that matter most in the long-term: gameplay and story. Even though the game was remade on the Gamecube, it is still strongly recommended that one play the original version of this classic on the PlayStation.
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Crash Bandicoot Series
Originally created by famed developers, Naughty Dog, the Crash Bandicoot series would see five releases on the PlayStation before going multi-platform in 2001. While the Crash series has seen 14 titles, with over 20 million games sold worldwide, the PlayStation era yielded the largest impact.
Crash had a couple of things going for it during the 32-bit era. First of all, as Sony was trying to make its mark in the gaming industry, it unofficially embraced Crash as it's mascot – much like Nintendo's Mario and Sega's Sonic characters. Just as Sega of America's advertising campaigns went down the tubes, Sony was airing numerous commercials featuring a guy in a giant Crash Bandicoot suit that seemed like something that the cutting-edge Sega would have run in the Genesis days (including ones where Crash challenged Mario to a fight).
In addition to the advertising campaigns, Crash Bandicoot was one of the first 3D platforming games that were worth playing. Sure, it wasn't quite as smooth or expansive as the revolutionary Super Mario 64 (which came out just before Crash Bandicoot), but it was a leap above most of the rest of the competition – especially on the PlayStation.
The series would see annual releases up until 2000, with the second and third games, Crash Bandicoot 2: Cortex Strikes Back and Crash Bandicoot 3: Warped, being released in 1997 and 1998 respectively. Both continued being platformers, though introduced major changes for the better. Indeed, Crash 3 is considered by many to be the best of the entire series, as well as one of the greatest platformers of all time.
From there, the series branched out, with the 1999 release of Crash Team Racing, a kart-racer like Mario Kart 64. It was Naughty Dog's last release before Eurocom took over the Crash franchise with Crash Bash, a party game that sold relatively well despite less than stellar reviews.
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For racing junkies and PlayStation fans alike, Gran Turismo is recognized as one of the greatest high-speed series of all time. Seeing only two releases on the PS1, both titles serve as some of the best-selling racing games in history. The original Gran Turismo holds the honor of being the highest selling PlayStation game in the world, with over 10.85 million copies sold worldwide and the sequel isn't far behind at 9.37 million sold.
Of all things, perhaps Gran Turismo's greatest strengths are its realism and its size. It wasn't quite as easy to dive into as your standard arcade racers, but it rewarded those who invested the time necessary to master it. From the beginning of the series, the developers at Polyphony Digital were committed to make sure the models and handling of the vehicles were as true to life as possible with the technology at hand. Everything from physical to accurate audio was taken into consideration. In addition to having relatively accurate representations of each of the featured cars, players were able to tune the performance to their liking.
The first game featured over 170 selectable vehicles and 11 racetracks, as well as a soundtrack featuring the works of Chemical Brothers, Garbage, Feeder, and more. Gran Turismo 2 continued this success, with nearly 650 playable vehicles and 27 tracks, as well as being released with a full soundtrack. The game was so large that it required two disks, something unheard of in a racing game.
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While the Tekken series may have been one of the greatest selling 3D fighters on the PlayStation console, it is specifically Tekken 3 that deserves special attention. Considered the pinnacle of the series, Tekken 3 brought over fifteen new characters, a revised combat system where moves were easier to combo, the z-axis and side-stepping were made key to avoiding attacks, and jumps were severely toned down.
When brought over from the arcade, mini-game modes like Tekken Force and Tekken Ball were added on top of the older modes from Tekken 2. Backgrounds became more limited and character models had frames of animation removed as well as lower polygon counts and fewer textures. The game also was forced to a lower resolution. The new gameplay was left largely intact, however, and including all unlockables, the roster held an impressive 23 characters.
At its release, changes to the combat engine were happily accepted and the game was considered almost perfect by reviewers. Three out of four reviewers at Electronic Gaming Monthly gave the game a 10 out of 10, with the last giving a 9. Years later, the game is still considered one of the best, appearing on Top 10 lists. As of this writing, Game Rankings rates Tekken 3 as the 10th highest rated game of all time, much to the ire of Virtua Fighter fans everywhere.
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Tomb Raider Series
The Tomb Raider games may seem like standard fare now, but back in 1996, the series was revolutionary in more ways than one. First of all, Tomb Raider was one of the first 3D action adventure games on the market and had excellent use of 3D environments in an era when most developers were still trying to wrap their brains around truly 3D game design.
In addition to the relatively expansive and innovative game design, Tomb Raider was also a trailblazer in terms of character design. Even though Nintendo's Metroid series was the first to have a strong female character as a lead, most gamers would never have known it at the time. However, it was hard to ignore the fact that Lara Croft was not your typical game protagonist. While the extra curvy character design raised some eyebrows and attracted some extra attention from young male gamers, Lara was more than a pretty face.
The Tomb Raider series focuses on Lara's archaeological exploits in various tombs around the world and how they often turn sour, due to animal attacks, traps, puzzles, or nefarious forces attempting to steal said artifacts. Once gamers played the games, it was obvious that Lara Croft was more of a female Indiana Jones-meets-James Bond than a stereotypical pin-up girl.
Developed by the relatively small team at Core Design (which was newly acquired by Eidos), Tomb Raider was a quite ambitious project, but the early hype and the large sales impact the game had at the 1996 launch took the team by surprise. Though originally being released on the Sega Saturn, the first Tomb Raider would see great success on the PlayStation console, leading to further success on Sony's console and easily becoming a top-seller.
After blowing the gaming industry away, Eidos pushed Core to have Tomb Raider II ready to ship by the holiday season of 1997. Even under such a tight deadline (development was finished in nine months), Tomb Raider II was a solid product that adequately improved over the original with superior graphics, twice the scope, more flexible controls, and the ability to use vehicles. This time it wasn't much of a surprise that Tomb Raider II was heavily anticipated and had amazing sales numbers.
In the end, Core Design pumped out five solid, blockbuster games in as many years and gave not only the PlayStation, but also the entire gaming industry one of the most iconic characters of a generation. The series didn't have a huge evolution within itself, but it definitely inspired many other developers to create many of the more advanced 3D adventures that we enjoy to this day.
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Resident Evil Series
Capcom had a lot to offer when it came to two-dimensional games, but with the rise of the PlayStation and the demand for the 3D games, Capcom needed to reinvent itself a bit to stay ahead of the competition. Its first successful 3D title, Resident Evil (known as "Biohazard" in Japan) was a new direction for the company and helped popularize the "survival horror" genre.
The Resident Evil games typically followed the exploits of two characters as they end up ensnared in a diabolical plot by the Umbrella Corporation, a leading pharmaceuticals company. Umbrella produces biological weapons which turn people into zombies, and said zombies then attack other people, making them zombies and propagating Umbrella's weapon.
The main objectives of the games were to conserve ammunition and health items while dealing with limited inventory space, bizarre puzzles and fetch quests, and attempting to avoid such enemies as zombies, dogs, giant spiders, and other creatures that will make you jump out of your seat.
The PlayStation-era Resident Evil games weren't as fully three-dimensional as some other titles out there, but instead featured 3D characters moving against pre-rendered backgrounds. They were also known for their tank-like character controls. Modern gamers might be a bit put off by the control scheme, but it's fun to look back on them and see how much the series has evolved.
Something Resident Evil has never shied away from is violence. The large amounts of violence, bloodshed, and gore began a trend that continues into modern gaming, where Sony was given the image of catering towards a more adult crowd while Nintendo added to its image of being the "kiddy" game company.
The Resident Evil series would eventually see three installments on the PlayStation in addition to a Director's Cut of the original game. While all three games would later see re-releases or remakes on other platforms, the PS1 was the place to play them when they were cutting-edge. The Resident Evil series has remained tremendously successful, seeing multiple spin-off titles, sequels, prequels, numerous game-based merchandising, ports and remakes, as well as comic lines, book series, and films.
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Ridge Racer Series
The mid-1990s saw an arms race on the arcade scene, with more and more powerful graphics engines being developed in response to waning player interest and increasingly popular home consoles. The result was a huge gap between arcade games and console ports in many cases. So when new PlayStation owners popped in this disc and saw Ridge Racer running smooth and playing even smoother on their TV at home, it was enough to change the mind of even the most skeptical gamer about whether Sony was worthy of entering the home market. Even though Ridge Racer was in the arcades for about two years before it was ported to the PS1, it didn't make it any less impressive when it was released.
While many Ridge Racer reviews lead one to believe that the PS1 port is "arcade perfect"– the textures are much lower resolution than the arcade version, and there's good deal of tearing at the seams if you go back and play it today. Two other aspects of the game held up perfectly, however – the gameplay and the audio. The visceral drifting action at the heart of the game was unchanged, and the sound (annoying announcer and all) was the type of thing that simply couldn't be done on the cartridge-based systems of the time.
Ridge Racer on the PlayStation was actually a fairly light on content, though it did go beyond what the coin-op machine offered. There was essentially a single track that also had an extension section filled with hairpin turns on the harder difficulties. Coming in first on all four races (beginner, medium, expert and time trial) unlocked the reverse courses. A little trick (running through the wall behind the starting block at more than 60 mph) also unlocked mirror courses, for a total of 16 ways to race the track. Beating a Galaxian mini-game during the load sequence unlocked eight more cars in addition to the original four, and beating the impossibly fast #13 black car on the time trial unlocked it as well.
Ridge Racer was also notable because it was the first Namco game on the PlayStation. Namco went on to become a huge force the system. It rarely published games on other consoles, and essentially became a defacto second party developer for Sony, much like Squaresoft did for Nintendo in the 16-bit era. It supported the PlayStation with dozens of games, include three more Ridge Racer titles.
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Mentioned separate from the Final Fantasy series specifically to make a point, Final Fantasy Tactics was the first truly successful strategy RPG released in America. It was not the first, with titles like Ogre Battle: March of the Black Queen being released on Super Nintendo, but it sold significantly more units and brought tactical RPGs to the masses. Of course the similarities between the Ogre games and Final Fantasy Tactics wasn't a coincidence. Tactics actually shared much of the same team that made Ogre Battle and Tactics Ogre.
What's also interesting about Final Fantasy Tactics is how different it was from the other Final Fantasy games in the 32-bit era. Instead of pushing 3D graphics and focusing on visual story-telling, Tactics took an old-school approach with sprites and a rotating, isometric playing field.
The classic combat gameplay found in Tactics is just as outstanding and is really the star of the show. The game features a complex "job" system, first introduced in Final Fantasy V. Much like a game of chess, Tactics forces players to think carefully about each move, to plan ahead, and to bring the best possible strategies to duke it out against many challenging opponents. Many games, since its time, have attempted to copy and improve on its formula, but none have managed to do so with the same dramatic flair and unusual style as Final Fantasy Tactics.
Indeed, probably the greatest problem Final Fantasy Tactics had would also be the thing that would make it popular: it's featuring the Final Fantasy name. While this likely led many fans of the Final Fantasy series to pick it up, it also led to its inevitable overshadowing by Final Fantasy VII, released only a few months before it. However, Tactics was still quite successful, selling about 2.3 million copies on the PlayStation. It also saw a handful of spin-offs/sequels on portable platforms, but none has received quite as much praise as the PlayStation original.
When all was said and done, Final Fantasy Tactics is one of the most involved, serious, and well-rounded strategy RPGs out there. Despite being more than 6 years old, it remains as playable and fascinating as ever. Final Fantasy Tactics is notable for its well-crafted storyline, which might actually be one of the best in the Final Fantasy series.
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Spyro the Dragon Series
While Crash Bandicoot would be the closest any character would come to being the PlayStation's mascot, Spyro the Dragon was a close second. The Spyro the Dragon games are cartoonish 3D platformers that were quite popular with the younger crowd, but also had enough substance to keep established gamers entertained as well. And like Crash Bandicoot, the Spyro games were some of the few non-Nintendo platforming games that did well in 3D.
The Spyro games each featured free-roaming 3D environments, fantasy and futuristic locales, and even crossed over to the Crash Bandicoot series from time to time. (In fact, several of the later PlayStation Crash games would feature demo discs for Spyro titles, and vice versa.)
Of course, the games each centered around Spyro, a cocky little purple dragon that is a bit on the curious side. When enemies come and invade the various fantasy worlds that Spyro inhabits, he inevitably must go out and solve the problem, usually with the help of a group of friends. Though Spyro would branch out in later years to different consoles and handhelds, three titles were released on PlayStation. These three were the only three designed by Insomniac Games, and are often considered the best of the series.
On a side note, all of the original PlayStation's releases feature music by Stewart Copeland, better known as the drummer from the band The Police. It is often compared to Mutato Muzika's music from the Crash Bandicoot games.
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Symphony of the Night would mark a turning point in the history of all Castlevania games. It would follow the son of Dracula, Alucard, instead of a Belmont clan member. Instead of a level-by-level design that previous titles had stuck to, Symphony of the Night featured a more open-ended play style for traversing Dracula's castle, as well as a leveling and equipment system similar to RPGs. While these ideas had been tried in passing in Castlevania II: Simon's Quest, they would really be explored on this PlayStation hit, and would become mainstays to the series afterwards.
The controls were also opened up a bit, allowing for abilities like double-jumping, as well as magic spells and a series of transformations the player could gain, allowing Alucard access to new areas of Dracula's castle.
Perhaps one of the most important features of the game is its 2D style. On a console known for 3D games, Symphony of the Night shined as a model of what 2D could be like in the 32-bit era, with excellent backgrounds and sprite designs that hold up well years later.
The musical score also featured a large variety of musical styles, ranging from jazz to metal to techno, and received much praise from fans. Because of its success, almost all following Castlevanias would feature a similar format and Symphony of the Night is still the standard by which all future Castlevania games are measured.
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Twisted Metal Series
While most European and Japanese fans may not remember the Twisted Metal series due to its lack of release anywhere but the United States, American gamers will never forget how awesome a game about vehicular combat could be.
The Twisted Metal series was synonymous with the PlayStation almost from day one, seeing it's first game put out in just under two months after the North American PlayStation's release. The series would become known for its large cast of kooky characters, its outrageous storyline and ending sequences, its explosive combat, and its exclusivity. (Twisted Metal games have only ever appeared on Sony consoles and PCs).
And what's not to love about a series where the player can select a hearse or a biker to bring untold destruction upon a dune buggy or a police car? Sure, the drivers sometimes change vehicles between games, and the cast fluctuates with each new title, but the old favorites almost always find some way of returning. And though the series would see five releases on the PlayStation alone, the gameplay was always one giant destruction derby battle royale to the last man standing.
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Tony Hawk's Pro Skater Series
Before the Tony Hawk series plummeted into mediocrity, its first four installments broke new ground in a crowded market by offering unique gameplay, intuitive controls, and customization. The series first two titles were best known for their PlayStation releases, and rightly so; the PlayStation ports were superior to the Nintendo 64 versions and outsold the Dreamcast ports.
What makes Tony Hawk's Pro Skater so revolutionary? When the game was released in 1999, it was almost alone in its genre since many previously released skateboarding games were commercial failures. The game made a terrific first impression however and game store demo kiosks were often surrounded by gamers waiting to play it. It offered a unique control scheme that offered steaming, smooth combos allowing gamers to skate realistically for the first time, and the skating environments were ingeniously designed to allow for maximum replay value.
The second game upped the ante with an expanded arsenal of tricks at the player's disposal, improved graphics, and a skater and level creator, which was a real novelty at the time. The third and fourth installments also expanded the gameplay and allowed for greater replay value, although these games were also given superior releases on next-generation consoles. Slowing sales might have influenced the game designers, judging by the later levels of Tony Hawk's Pro Skater 4, which are unpolished and glitch plagued. Despite these issues, all four of the PlayStation releases are technical achievements for the console and are worth playing today.
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PaRappa the Rapper
One of the first groundbreaking rhythm games, PaRappa the Rapper was also one of the most bizarre and interesting. Players follow PaRappa, a rapping dog who wants to win the affection of a girl named Sunny Funny by doing such tasks as learning to drive and baking a cake – oh and, of course, he has to show off his rapping skills in the process.
That's where gameplay actually comes in. To rap, the player must press certain buttons in the right rhythm to get higher ratings. Screw up, and lyrics come out as unintelligible gibberish. Do well enough, and PaRappa gets to go nuts and freestyle. While not overly complex, the title attracted fans with its story, its style, and its art. The entire game features 2D flat characters on 3D backgrounds, similar to Paper Mario.
While not nearly as popular as other titles on the list, PaRappa the Rapper did receive a sequel on the PlayStation 2, as well as a spin-off game, UmJammer Lammy. It also spawned an animated series in Japan, PaRappa Rappa. The title would also serve as a view of things to come, as rhythm games would soon after be a major draw in arcades around the world.
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Dance Dance Revolution Series
Created by the same team at Konami that designed Beatmania a year before, Dance Dance Revolution (often-abbreviated DDR) would begin taking the arcade world by storm in the late 1990s. The title is a rhythm game that requires the player to press arrow buttons with their feet in time with the arcade cabinet's screen, a concept that seems simple enough until the actual speed of the game and the various potential foot maneuvers are taken into account. The console release would see floor pads that were similar in design in function, keeping the arcade feel of the game in the home.
While most nations wouldn't see much in the way of console releases until late in the PlayStation's life, Japanese gamers would see thirteen different DDR games released for their home consoles, with different tracks or remixes and slightly tweaked rules upon each release.
DDR eventually became one of the few games in the US that would keep the few remaining arcades open. Die-hard rhythm fans would practice on their PlayStations at home before showing off their skills in the public venue.
Eventually Disney would get in touch with Konami, leading to titles like Dance Dance Revolution Disney Mix. It would also spread to the next two generations of consoles, DVD games, television games, the PC, and cell phones.
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Chrono Cross
The Super Nintendo's Chrono Trigger was a fantastic journey that served as one of the best role-playing experiences of all time. However, considering that Chrono Cross didn't have the full "Dream Team" of developers behind it (only Hironobu Sakaguchi returned), this sequel had a lot to live up to.
A lot of things have changed from Chrono Trigger, especially the characters we grew to love. In Chrono Cross, our hero is Serge, a teenage boy who shows up in an alternate world in which he had already passed away mysteriously over ten years ago. Of course, he teams up with a number of other characters along the way (the game features forty-five playable characters) in order to find the Frozen Flame, which will allow them the bend space and time and ultimately help them find out what is really going on.
Much like Chrono Trigger, the whole "parallel dimensions" thing plays a very large role in the story and gameplay, so there are a lot of parallel concepts between the two games. However, since the storylines are not directly connected, you can play Chrono Cross before Chrono Trigger without feeling lost or being dragged down with the feeling that you're missing out on a back-story.
While some fans were a bit disappointed that it wasn't as much of a direct sequel as they would have liked, the general consensus was quite positive and is typically regarded as one of the premier games in an already impressive selection of Playstation RPGs.
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Xenogears
What happens when you take many of Squaresoft's best and brightest from the 1990s, give them a piece of an epic six-part series, and tell them to add in anime cutscenes directed by Koichi Mahimo (known for his work on Ghost in the Shell and Neon Genesis Evangelion)? You get Xenogears, a title many refer to as one of Square's greatest works.
Xenogears, part five of the six-part Xenogears Perfect Works book series, combined an epic storyline, lengthy amounts of anime cutscenes, a combat system that featured both mech combat and fighting game mechanics in an RPG, and even an ending theme with vocals by Joanne Hog.
Not bad for a title that almost didn't see a stateside release due to "sensitive religious issues" (and European gamers still haven't seen an official release). While the game's amount of questions may leave some people scratching their heads, the combat system was something very unique for its time. Random encounters were fought either in giant mechs, called Gears in the game, where actions are controlled by fuel, or on the ground in between the player's party and various NPCs. In this mode, characters use various combinations of buttons to attack with, varying in power and point value. Use a combination enough and a special move may be unlocked, allowing you to use that ability when you attack. These moves are generally impressive to watch, and some of the later ones are actually quite breathtaking, though by that point players are usually fighting in Gears. The second disc is also usually frowned upon by gamers as being too short and linear, possibly due to the developers being rushed.
Even with its weaknesses, Xenogears often finds itself listed as one of the best RPGs on the PlayStation, which is no small feat considering the large number of them. If nothing else, it's definitely worth a look by any RPG fan.
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Dragon Warrior VII
The Final Fantasy series may get much of the RPG love around the world, but it's actually the Dragon Warrior series (known in Japan as Dragon Quest) that is the big seller in is native country. Dragon Warrior VII, however was the first game in the series to be released outside of Japan since Dragon Warrior IV (which was on the NES nearly a decade earlier)
Dragon Warrior VII is probably best remembered for its more than 100 hours of gameplay – which can be both a blessing and a curse. Most people will agree that most of that time is quite enjoyable, but others will claim that it requires quite a bit of patience to make it through the journey.
Dragon Warrior VII ultimately became the eighth best-selling video game ever in Japan at 4.12 million in Japan alone – which puts it right up there with the worldwide sales of games like Spyro and Tekken 3 and ranked it as the eighth best-selling game ever in Japan. Of course, in the US the sales were limited more to the diehard RPG crowd, but it is definitely one of the more prolific RPGs in the PS1 impressive role-playing library.
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Considered by many to be one of, if not the, scariest game of all time, and definitely the scariest title at its release in 1999, Silent Hill showed the world just how adult the PlayStation could really be. While Nintendo was busy trying to stave off an image of being "kiddy," Silent Hill would continue to build on a foundation set in place by the likes of Resident Evil. A gloomy setting combined with bizarre puzzles and creatures designed to make the skin crawl would serve to cement its place as the beginning of a long and well-respected survival horror series.
But the title is also remembered for its quality. While it wouldn't go on to become a million seller like other titles on this list, it did sell enough to gain a "Greatest Hits" release. Many reviewers at the time also gave it high marks for avoiding Resident Evil-style scares of making the player jump, instead going for atmosphere and mood. The creative team behind the title has claimed inspiration came from such varied places as the works of David Lynch, The Wizard of Oz, the plays of Kobo Abe, Alice's Adventures in Wonderland, and even the music of groups such as Sonic Youth or the Moonriders.
The series is also of note as it eventually become popular enough to garner a movie that audiences actually seemed to enjoy, a rarity amongst video game-based movies. Also, in an interesting bit of censorship, the Grey Child enemy was edited in the United States release. Originally looking similar to nude children, designers thought the idea of beating them down with a metal pipe would be too much, and changed them to look more demonic. In the PAL version, the Grey Child was removed completely.
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Syphon Filter Series
Syphon Filter, both the original game and the series as a whole has always had the uncomfortable pleasure of being compared and contrasted with the PlayStation's grand opus: Metal Gear Solid. While both games strike their own merits, the comparisons are understandable. Both games are key PlayStation franchises, wrapped in fictional spy-movie inspired attires, released only a few months apart.
It's unfortunate then that we must crown one a "winner" and the other a "loser" when both franchises are such interesting titles, likening themselves to different styles of spy based fiction. With this mindset, Syphon Filter feels more like a Van Damne than a Schwarzenegger but at the same time, packs it where it counts.
Most Syphon Filter fans would think that I am talking about gadgets and weapons, but the game actually thrives on variety and balancing the momentum of play. Each mission is divided up into a series of stereotypical spy tasks such as rescuing hostages and taking out Russians. The trick is that you are never doing something long enough for it to become tiresome.
The basic shooting works well, due to the aforementioned weapons which are both vast and highly satisfying to use (especially the air taser) but even when you've done enough of that, you'll be moving onto something different. Each quantifiable element of Syphon Filter is well polished which goes a long way to keep you playing. This is the key to what makes playing Syphon Filter feel so apt title; quality, variety and balance.
Later games in the series, slowly lost sight of this balance but introduced some additions, which made the games retain the original's qualities.
While not an overall momentous series in contrast to say Metal Gear Solid or Resident Evil, there is no doubt that Syphon Filter is significant franchise, which helped solidify the PlayStation as a strong gaming platform.
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Wipeout Series
If the technical racing of Gran Turismo isn't your thing, perhaps you would enjoy the high-speed futuristic racing that the Wipeout series has to offer. Considering it was released in 1995, its impressive how much fast and smooth this racer ran on the PlayStation hardware. The game was also released on the Saturn, but because the developers struggled with the dual-processor setup of Sega's machine, didn't have quite the graphical flair of the PS1 version.
In addition to the adrenaline-pumping speed, Wipeout was also known for its audio quality and soundtrack. The techno tracks from The Chemical Brothers, Orbital, CoLD SToRAGE, and other artists propelled Wipeout to the top of many gamers favorite soundtrack lists.
Wipeout XL (known as Wipeout 2097 outside of the US) was released a year later. As expected, the sequel added a few things here and there such as new tracks, crafts, and weapons. It also made it a bit easier for beginners to pick up and play while still giving experienced players a challenge. The game was criticized for not having slip-screen multiplayer, but it did offer PS1 owners to link two PlayStations together for networked play.
Check for Wipeout Series on eBay
Driver Series
Driver, developed by Reflections Interactive (creators of the successful Destruction Derby series) has you adopt the role of Tanner, an NYPD undercover detective tasked with infiltrating an underworld syndicate of crime gangs as a wheelman. Your wheelman role has you fulfilling several roles, such as getaway driver, delivery man and car thief or in one particular amusing mission, intimidating a particular taxi customer into disclosing lucrative information through reckless driving.
The game was designed to be faithful to 60s and 70s car chase films such as Bullitt or the TV show Starksy and Hutch. Characters are dressed in 70s getup and the music has chicken scratch guitar and grooving basslines synonymous with that period.
The game's 'Director's Mode' was highly praised by critics and gamers at the time of release for it's unique ability to fully edit and sequence camera angles during replays of your missions (or just general driving around in 'City' mode.) Hours could be spent tweaking your replays into seamless 70s action sequences. This added longevity to the game despite its lack of multiplayer mode.
The games story is split into four main cities, each city tasking you with missions for the three different gangs in the game. The cities are Miami (the city you receive your first real mission after you finish the punishing training mission), San Francisco, Los Angeles and New York City. Missions can occur at anytime of day and some missions are set at night with some impressive (for the PlayStation) lighting on the cars and roads.
The game was met with mostly positive feedback and acclaim upon its launch. Most criticism about the game was regarding its lack of multiplayer and somewhat punishing driving mechanic. Many people found that they could not get further than the training mission in the parking garage at the beginning of the game. This particular mission had you demonstrate your driving skills to a gang of thugs without damaging your car. Certain objectives were a little obscured such as the slalom through the pillars of the garage requiring you to do a 180 and go back through them and the infamous J-turn maneuver (reverse 180) all within a strict time limit.
Street Fighter Alpha 3
Even though 3D games were all the rage on the PlayStation, there were still a number of beloved 2D fighters on the platform as well. Franchises from both Capcom and SNK made their mark on the PlayStation, but Street Fighter Alpha 3 is probably the most treasured out of the bunch.
Gamers love the combination of the Street Fighter world and large character rosters, so Street Fighter Alpha 3 received a great deal of praise by merging the Alpha 2 cast with some beloved characters from Street Fighter 2 and in addition to some completely new contenders. The games also had a wonderful blend of fresh sprites, great combos, and a fighting system that was easy to play, but difficult to master. It also allowed great flexibility in choosing your fighting style, resulting in some great dorm-room matchups back in the day.
In most cases, the PlayStation was at a huge disadvantage to the Sega Saturn when it game to 2D fighters. The Saturn was a 2D powerhouse with lots of RAM. The PlayStation, on the other hand usually had stripped-down ports of the arcade favorites. However, Street Fighter Alpha 3 for the PS1 was actually a superb arcade port that also offered a number of extra game modes. The end result was one of the best 2D Games that Pushed the Playstation to Its Limits.
Check for Street Fighter Alpha 3 on eBay
Einhander (and the rest of the Shmup library)
In addition to 2D fighting games, the PlayStation was also a haven for fans of 2D shooters. There are a ton of good arcade ports in addition to some PlayStation exclusives. As was the case with the far more ill-fated Sega Saturn, many of the shooters on the PlayStation never saw release outside of Japan, and remain veiled in obscurity to this day.
One such game, however, that nearly any player of the era has at least heard of, is this uncharacteristic Squaresoft production. Having been catapulted out of the niche market in the West by the runaway success of Final Fantasy VII, the company was riding high, and eager to spread its wings farther outside of the RPG and Strategy genres than usual; in addition, it was less afraid to take the risk of localization, giving foreign gamers a shot at some of its more unusual titles. Thus Einhander, unlike so many of its kin, was both widely-available (except in Europe, unfortunately) and well-received enough to become, arguably, the shooter that defined the PS1.
Of course, the unusual-by-default nature of an old-fashioned shooter released in that era, as well as the suddenly-desirable Square label on the cover, weren't the only things to garner the title so much attention, though they certainly were factors. Its graphics certainly didn't hurt its cause either – while we are talking 32-bit polygons here, the designs and details (your craft is especially nifty-looking) were top-notch back in the day, and actually still hold up rather well over ten years later. The cliché but solid techno-laden soundtrack and plot (in a bit of a twist, you're actually the "invader", sent by a moon colony to attack Earth) round out the presentation. Once you pick up the controller, in many ways the title plays like a "typical" side-scroller, but with a unique power-up system – with the exception of your default pea-shooter, the only weapons you're going to get are the ones you can salvage directly from defeated enemies. This being the case, you're required to aim carefully during battles, so as to blast rivals' weapons off of them before bringing them down – if done properly, you can gingerly swoop in to collect their arms, and thereafter use them yourself.
Despite its sometimes being labeled as an example of a "modern" shooter, the game actually comes across as far more of an "old-school" tribute after spending some time with it, since it doesn't hesitate to make you memorize its layout to succeed (let alone score well), not to mention send your sorry carcass back to a checkpoint with all your collected weapons gone after being shot down. As such, while the trimmings are most likely to appeal to curious newcomers to the genre, it will likely be the long-time shmuppers who will be most at home after becoming acquainted with its inner workings. All told, Einhander stands as an appealing, if slightly intimidating, blend of old and new, and the PS1's most famous foray into the shooter realm. The game was recently put up for download on the PS3 via the Japanese PlayStation Network, so if you're unwilling to fight over an original copy on eBay this might be your chance to see what all the fuss is about.
Check for Einhander on eBay
There's so many great games and franchises on the Playstation, it pains me to leave some of them off the full list. Here's some others that were a big part of the the Playstation library. I'm sure you all have additional favorites — feel free to mention them in the comments below.
Grand Theft Auto Series
Medal of Honor Series
Dino Crisis Series
Oddworld: Abe's Oddysee
Legacy of Kain
Jet Moto
Grandia
Breath of Fire Series
Soul Blade
Tenchu: Stealth Assassins
SaGa Frontier
Star Ocean: The Second Story
Colony Wars Series
Tales of Destiny Series
Cool Boarders
October 19th, 2008 at 7:42pm by racketboy
December 9th, 2018 at 9:07pm
Playstation, Retro Gaming
best, defined, playstation, ps1
Mozgus says:
Ooo, I spotted a couple of my screenshots.
racketboy says:
I thought you'd enjoy that 🙂
tylerbgood says:
Great list! I always find a gem or two I don't have.
I would add the Grand Theft Auto series and Medal of Honor, and Mega Man 8 representing another franchise stolen from Nintendo.
Droid_Party says:
I second tylerbgoods recomendations. GTA and MOH should at least be "Honorable Mentions".(Never been a fan of the Mega man series).
Shazback says:
A very nice collection, and I must say that I largely agree. I'd put WipEout and Oddworld up instead of Einhander and Twisted Metal, and GTA or Legacy of Kain might also be worthy of a honourable mention. Great list.
Well it might take me a while to get some full writups for additions, but I'll see what I can do.
If I had to bump one up, it would be Wipeout.
Was the GTA series that popular then? I mean I played the first one on the PC, but it didn't seem like it really caught on until it went 3D on the PS2.
Playstation games says:
Amazing list there! I love all these games, there all great, did you mention GTA? They are brilliant games
makis says:
shadow of the colossus!!
fingersmaloy says:
Man, I thought Tenchu was a no-brainer. Then again, I guess it never led to much besides other, crappier Tenchu games.
What about Ape Escape? It was probably the first game to really take advantage of the Dual Shock controller, and now Sony's still using it.
@ Racketboy:
My friends and I played GTA II for PSX constantly back in the day. The game sold 1.15 million in the US and gave birth to a series of games which defined the later PS systems.
Makis, Shadow of the Colossus was on the PS2.
Everyone else: I've added Wipeout to the main list and added the other suggestions to the Honorable Mentions — thanks!
sir jorge says:
This is awesome, and true on all accords.
JohnnyRocket says:
Where's WarHawk!!??
numbnuts2 says:
I can't give this list credit if they didn't even mention Mortal Kombat. I guarentee you, mortal kombat is tons more popular than Tekken.
In my mind, Mortal Kombat was old news by then — just a few fans hanging on — it was way hotter in the SNES/Genesis days.
SFA3 sold much better also.
Arby3k says:
This was an awesome blast of nostalgia.
I loved the 4 crash games Naughty Dog made.
I've lost all but a few PS1 games, in the many times I have moved. But with the Ps3 allowing for playable full version downloads, makes it better i think :p
/goes to get Crash3 again. 😀
No Tomba?!
bobbie boy says:
You forgot NBA!!
mortal kombat 3 was the first release on the psx that everyone really looked forward to. mortal kombat was far from old news by then.
How is GTA and Jet Moto only Honorable mention!!!!
Endsville says:
Another great list. I know lists like these always have someone saying "you forgot", but I have to add that Vagrant Story is probably one of the single best, and under-rated PS1 games ever made. It'd be nice to see it at least in the Honorable Mentions.
Dentedskillet says:
I know the racing genre has already been well represented with Gran Turismo and Ridge Racer, I feel that Need for Speed might also fit on the list. Sure it got started on the flop 3DO and PC, but I felt it really became the brand on the PS1.
NFL Blitz.
I loved reading this; it was like a recap of my childhood
Ah, the good days of PlayStation. Jet Moto was amazing to me, to bad it's only honorable mention.
@matt: GTA at that time was still overhead and I would think it's impact in gaming didn't come until the game went 3D in GTA 3.
safadasas says:
Love the main list.
Thanks for giving soulblade an honorable mention. Its sad to go into a retro game store and find that not one person knows anything about it. not like it matters i guess.
..GTA was popular on the PS1? I'm not sure if it's worth even an honorable mention as a game that defined the PS1.
What about the Bust-A-Move series? It has more of a spot than GTA on the honorable mentions at least.
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text:
Nihonia é um gênero de gastrópodes pertencente a família Cochlespiridae.

Espécies
 Nihonia australis (Roissy, 1805)
 Nihonia circumstricta (Martens, 1901)
 Nihonia maxima Sysoev, 1997
 Nihonia mirabilis (Sowerby III, 1914)

Espécies extintas:
 †Nihonia birmanica (Vredenburg, 1921)
 †Nihonia pervirgo (Yokoyaina, 1928)
 †Nihonia shimajiriensis MacNeil, 1960
 †Nihonia santosi Sbuto, 1969
 †Nihonia soyomaruae (Otuka, 1959)
 †Nihonia sucabumiana (K. Martin, 1895)

Ligações externas

Cochlespiridae
Gêneros de gastrópodes

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


text:
INTERVIEWS FILM BLU-RAY DVD & BOOK REVIEWS
COLD MOON **
Directed by: Griff Furst, Starring: Josh Stewart, Frank Whaley, Chester Rushing, Candy Clark. Horror, US 2016, 83mins, Cert 15.
Released on DVD & Download in the UK by Bulldog Film Distribution on 22nd January 2018.
Approximately 55 minutes into this adaptation of Michael McDowell's 1980 novel 'Cold Moon Over Babylon', a coffin levitates out of its freshly dug grave, explodes, and deposits a snake-like creature bearing a remarkable resemblance to Michael Keaton's 'Betelgeuse'. Given author McDowell co-wrote Tim Burton's BEETLEJUICE, this is either a belated tribute to the late writer (who died in 1999), a cynical attempt to miss-sell this Southern gothic tale of supernatural revenge, or a complete coincidence (admittedly, Candy Clark's Grandma Larkin is a dead ringer for the "...ghost with the most...").
It's 1989. Down at the Larkin Blueberry Farm in Babylon, Florida, Jerry Larkin (Chester Rushing from MY FATHER DIES, STRANGER THINGS), is worried the blueberry yield is getting lower every year, and those red repayment reminders building up in the kitchen drawer look increasingly likely to spell foreclosure in the not too distant future. But Jerry and his grandmother Evelyn (the venerable genre Candy Clark, hugely over-emoting here) have a more immediate concern: why hasn't Jerry's 16 year old sister Margaret not returned home from cycling into town to help her teacher Mr Perry...?
There's a lot of plot strands all desperately straining for screen time in this unnecessarily overcomplicated ghost story. Like the muddied waters of the river which Margaret Larkin's strangled corpse is fished out of, the narrative focus constantly seems to be shifting, which, whilst never dull, makes for an uneven, muddled experience. There's a murder mystery for starters (who strangled Margaret?) which is then abandoned at the start of the second act when, in a double-whammy that the film never really recovers from, not only is the killer revealed, but they also brutally dispatch two of the main characters by unflinchingly beheading one before swiftly running a sword through the other! As I said, dull it certainly ain't! Then, whilst the sheriff (Frank Whaley) does his best to complicate matters further by arresting an innocent man on the basis of a clue stitch-up even the writers of Scooby-Doo would baulk at, the unsympathetic bank manager who's been itching to grab the deeds to the Larkin Farm, Nathan Redfield (Josh Stewart), is consuming increasingly vast quantities of hard liquor and drowning his liver whilst seemingly transforming into Sean Penn with every swig. Meanwhile, his wheelchair bound dad James, (Christopher Lloyd, wasted – in the role I mean, not literally like his on screen son Nathan) spends most of his limited screen time nonsensically ranting whilst leering at his nubile cheerleading babe carer, who's favourite past-time is trying on new bikinis – when she's not sleeping with his alcoholic son that is – and who also just happens to be the sheriff's daughter to boot.
There's the obligatory scene of characters watching NIGHT OF THE LIVING DEAD (1968) on TV for those who wish to play genre cliché bingo. The Tommy Wiseau cameo is of the blink-and-you'll-miss-it variety (who thought that would ever be a selling point anyway?),
Oh yes, I nearly forgot, there's also the ghost of strangled Margaret Larkin, floating around town suspended in mid-air peddling her invisible bicycle and generally harassing her killer at inopportune moments. These yield some visually striking flourishes, but even she too flounders (along with her fellow haunters) in the near hysteria of a film which is trying to cram too much of a novel into its relatively modest running time. Ultimately, COLD MOON eclipses itself.
Extras: None
Paul Worts
BACK TO REVIEW INDEX
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text:
St. Giles School
St. Giles is a friendly and aspirational school for children and young people aged 3-18 with a broad range of difficulties from moderate/severe to profound and multiple, which includes those with autism and associated behaviours. We are situated in the market town of Retford and our school serves the whole of the Bassetlaw area, which is the most northerly district of Nottinghamshire.
There are currently 125 pupils on roll – 40 primary aged children and 85 secondary aged pupils, including students who attend our Post 16.
We also have a health care Support team, personal care team and a senior moving and handling advisor. In addition, the school has regular support from visiting specialist professions nurses, pediatricians, speech therapists, physio therapists, occupational therapists and a senior educational psychologist.
Our purpose-built school was officially opened by HRH The Duke of Kent in 2009 and includes, an early years classroom, teaching classrooms and specialist areas such as science lab, technology, music, and art room. Additional specialist facilities including hydrotherapy pool, soft play room and an interactive sensory room provide opportunities for a highly personalised learning environment. The school also has extensive grounds with play areas equipped with trim-trails, swings, round-a-bouts, trampolines, a multi surface court and interactive sensory exploration area.
St. Giles School aims to develop the full potential our pupils by providing a broad based and balanced curriculum which is individually tailored to the needs of each pupil. Curriculum includes National Curriculum and its pre-requisites, sensory education, communication skills, a wide ranging personal and social education programme, mobility education, and a well-developed post 16 education programme.
Our pupils are based in teaching groups according to their ability and more loosely their chronological age. There are currently three teams, focusing on formal, semi-formal and pre-formal teaching, called Discovers, Explorers and Adventures. Each teaching group is the responsibility of a teacher, supported by at least two teaching assistant. Phases (primary, secondary and post 16) are encouraged to work collaboratively, resulting in a positive life-long approach to learning, which prepares our pupils for adulthood from their earliest years.
Our school has a long tradition of community involvement; we are supported by a highly effective network of 'Friends of St Giles' and have a coffee shop in town run by our older students, which not only provides a great interface with our local community, it also supports students to hone their functional and independence skills.
St. Giles aims for strong links with parents. School diaries provide a daily link between home and school. Newsletters, a parents' hub, review meetings and parents' evenings all form part of our broader communication system.
St. Giles School and Nottinghamshire County Council are committed to safeguarding and promoting the welfare of children, young people and vulnerable adults and we expect all staff and volunteers to share our commitment.
St Giles has been specially designed and built to ensure we are able to meet the needs of a broad range of children and young people. Our building is fully accessible, with wide doorways for pupils in wheelchairs, guide rails for pupils with visual impairments and specialist acoustic blinds and sails to support pupils with sensory processing difficulties and Autism.
Pupils can access a range of NHS specialists who periodically work out of the school. Providing access to equipment and assessments to ensure their needs are met in a timely way.


text:
Andrea Avalli: The Etruscan myth and Italian racial identity in Fascist culture
admin February 12, 2020 March 4th, 2021
Since the late 1970s, Italian classicists like Mariella Cagnetta, Luciano Canfora and Andrea Giardina have been studying the Fascist myth of ancient Rome. Moreover, in recent years, historians of Fascism like Roger Griffin, Emilio Gentile, Aristotle Kallis, Paola Salvatori and Joshua Arthurs have reflected on the Italian relationship with its classical past by studying the history of archaeology, contemporary art and architecture as sources to understand Fascist ideology. Since the myth of ancient Rome has been widely interpreted by classicists and historians, through my PhD research (2016-2020) I tried to extend this approach to an analysis of the political uses of the Etruscan identity under Fascism. As an ancient people who were enemies of ancient Rome and historically associated with a regional identity, the Etruscan case can enlighten the ambiguous, socially constructed features of Italian nationalism and racism.
"Paese Sera", 27 April 1955, p. 3: two 'carabinieri' watching an Etruscan
terracotta fragment at the 1955 Exhibition of Etruscan Art and Civilization.
The exhibition was curated by Massimo Pallottino.
In 20th century Italian culture, the Etruscan civilisation has been interpreted as a matter of national and racial identity. We can trace a starting point for this cultural interest: in 1916 the archaeologist Giulio Quirino Giglioli discovered a group of ancient Etruscan statues at the archaeological site of Veii, near Rome. A right-wing nationalist activist and a volunteer soldier in the First World War, Giglioli made his discovery on a temporary military leave from the war front. After the end of the war and his return to private life, from 1919 he engaged himself as a promoter of Etruscan art, as an archaic model for Italian national art. Before and after his adhesion to Fascism, he committed himself to the enhancement of ancient Etruscan art both in his scientific writings and through his new role as director of the national museum of Villa Giulia, in Rome, where the Veii statues had been exhibited. Moreover, Giglioli's promotion of everything Etruscan proved popular among artists and art critics, directly influencing their turn from avant-garde, modernist formal experimentations to a national way of classicism.
In Italy, this so-called "return to order" was organised by the group of Valori Plastici in Rome and especially by the Milanese group of Novecento Italiano, which was promoted by the art critic Margherita Sarfatti, a close collaborator of Benito Mussolini. Therefore, the Italian "return to order" of modernist art took an openly nationalist and pro-Fascist approach to classicism, as former avant-garde artists were looking to ancient Etruscan, Italic and Roman art as models for a reborn Italian culture and civilisation. Etruscan art came to be used as a nationally and ethnically rooted tradition, against the perception of a cosmopolitan, internationalist and modernist art. In their search for a national classicism, the Italian artists were therefore aligned with the Fascist project of a refoundation of the Italian civilisation against liberalism and socialism, claiming a direct ideological continuity from ancient Italy to the 20th century. Sculptors and painters who associated themselves with the Novecento artistic movement, like Arturo Martini, Marino Marini and Massimo Campigli, were deeply influenced in their works by Etruscan art, which they also studied by visiting the Villa Giulia museum, the archaeological sites and reading scientific works. Even Mario Sironi claimed he was inspired by Etruscan art for his mural paintings, that he presented as an explicitly political, totalitarian art for public buildings.
Certainly, reception of the Etruscan identity had an archaeological, anthropological and linguistic dimension in the history of Italian culture. A new, comprehensive term came to include all the historical, archaeological, anthropological, linguistic and naturalistic research on the Etruscans: "Etruscology". Modern Etruscology was institutionalised in Italy under Fascism, in the years following the discovery of the Veii statues and the cultural interest for Etruscan art. In 1925 a Comitato Permanente per l'Etruria was founded in Florence, which was later to become the Istituto di Studi Etruschi, and a new chair of Etruscology and Italic Antiquities was established in the university of Rome and entrusted to the archaeologist Alessandro Della Seta. From 1927 a new scientific review, Studi Etruschi, began to be published every year, supplying an authoritative platform for international, scientific studies on the Etruscan civilisation. In 1926 and 1928 two conferences of Etruscology were organised in Florence, where Italian scholars brought together a network of colleagues from different European countries. The main theme of those conferences was the question of Etruscan ethnic origins.
In 19th and early 20th centuries science, the ancient and modern uncertainties about Etruscan origins and the meaning of their language had developed a debate on three main racial theories. Two of them had already been expressed during Antiquity, and were redefined during the 19th century through modern archaeological and anthropological methods. The first, and the most popular among the scholars, was the theory of the oriental origins of the Etruscans, famously theorised by Herodotus. A second interpretation was the autochthonist one, firstly expressed by the ancient Greek author Dionysius of Halicarnassus, according to which the Etruscans were an Italic, autochthonous people. A third theory, based on a passage of the Latin historian Livy, emerged during the 18th and 19th centuries from scholars like Nicolas Fréret and Barthold Georg Niebuhr, who argued that the Etruscans had come to Italy from the north.
In the late 1920s the different national conditionings in approaching the question of Etruscan ethnic origins became evident. While the majority of non-Italian (especially German and French) scholars believed that the Etruscans had come to Italy from the East, Italian Etruscologists expressed a nationalist perspective on the Etruscan identity along with their adhesion to the Fascist regime. Through their research in art history, anthropology, linguistics, history of religions and folklore studies, Italian scholars shared a representation of the Etruscans as an Italic people, racially and linguistically pre-Indo-European and Mediterranean. In Italy, the international diversity of scientific opinions on the question of the ethnic origins was replaced by a nationalist consensus on the "Italicness" of the Etruscans and their de facto autochthonism as the fathers of the Tuscan and Italian race and civilisation. An isolated, oppositional voice in this cultural context was represented by the imprisoned communist leader Antonio Gramsci. A former student in Humanities, interested in linguistics, Gramsci wrote in his "Prison Notebooks" several critical notes on the nationalist consensus about the Etruscan identity. The Marxist thinker criticised the influence of nationalism in Italian science and expressed interest in the theory of the Nordic origins of the Etruscans, as an alternative to the Fascist, neo-autochthonist consensus.
Another field of Italian culture to be considered, in the analysis of the reception of the Etruscan identity, is literature. Before the First World War and the discovery of the Veii statues we cannot find evidence of a nationalist use of the Etruscans in Italian literature and cinema. In novels and in historical films, they were represented as enemies of the Roman heroes, with orientalist and even macabre attributes. On the other hand, the Etruscans were approached in a regionalist perspective by Tuscan writers and artists. Members of the avant-garde and Futurist groups like Giovanni Papini and Ardengo Soffici claimed in their pre-war writings to be racial heirs of the Etruscans, in order to express a populist, anti-liberal and anti-socialist myth of the Tuscans. This ideology was inherited by Tuscan Fascists, who became interested in the new Etruscology. In particular, several members of the cultural movement of Strapaese, made up by Fascist artists and writers from Tuscany and Emilia-Romagna, reclaimed the Etruscan identity. The ideology of Strapaese consisted of a radical opposition to modern and bourgeois society, industry, liberalism, democracy, cosmopolitanism and fashion, and in a fierce, xenophobic and also anti-Semitic defence of an idealised rural, provincial and traditionalist life. In this context, the Etruscans were used as a symbol for a Tuscan, anti-modern identity, and even for radical, provincial Fascism against the perception of a national, Roman and conservative Fascism. Curzio Malaparte and Vincenzo Cardarelli were the main Italian writers to express this Fascist, Etruscan identity in Italian interwar literature.
As had happened before, non-Italian writers also became interested in the Etruscans. The most influential European writer in the literary reception of the Etruscans was David Herbert Lawrence, who lived in Fascist Italy during the 1920s. In his critique of modern, industrial and democratic society, he came to consider the Etruscans as the symbol of an ancient and natural way of life. Lawrence idealised them as a people free in their sexual and artistic instincts, against his perception of a modernity that repressed desire and human nature. He therefore criticised the Romans as the forefathers of this kind of modernity, and the Fascists for claiming to be the heirs of Roman power and violence. Nonetheless, Lawrence idealised the modern Italian people as still Etruscan in their way of life, and thus immune to Fascist ideology and discipline. In the same years, Aldous Huxley also lived in Fascist Italy and was influenced by Lawrence's theories on history and politics. In Huxley's short stories and novels as well, we find use of the Etruscans as an anti-modern people, that could be usefully related to his dystopian critique of modernity. In the UK George Orwell openly criticised, from a Marxist perspective, Lawrence's anti-modern use of the Etruscans as reactionary.
In all of these fields of Italian culture (art, Etruscology and literature) the Etruscan identity was represented in a racial perspective: the ancient Etruscan people were intended as a race, both in a physical and in a cultural sense, and it was put at the very base of the Tuscan and Italian ethnic composition. Even the irrationalist groups in Florence and Rome became interested in the Etruscan civilisation, claiming it to be at the roots of the Italian race and spirituality. In Fascist Italy artists, scholars, writers and irrationalists were therefore generally involved in a regionalist and nationalist use of the Etruscan identity.
The racial dimension of the Italian approach to the Etruscans was therefore well rooted in Italian culture before the ideological influence of German racism in Fascist Italy. Only from 1930 onwards, and especially after the Nazi seizure of power in 1933, did the Italian positive reception of the Etruscan identity have to confront itself with German racial theories. While German nationalist theorists like Arthur Moeller van den Bruck and Oswald Spengler had expressed positive representations of the Etruscans, among Nazi intellectuals anti-Etruscan theories emerged. Especially Hans Friedrich Karl Günther and Alfred Rosenberg were responsible for spreading the idea that the Etruscans were a Middle-Eastern people, devoted to murders and black magic, responsible for the birth of the Catholic Church. They argued this anti-Etruscan perspective under the influence of anti-Christian and anti-Semitic theories and the theory of the oriental origins of the Etruscans. Nonetheless, these theories were openly criticised within German society. In particular, the Catholic anthropologist and theorist of scientific racism, Eugen Fischer, also argued in 1938 that the Etruscans were an autonomous race of Indo-European descent.
During the 1930s Italian approaches to Etruscan racial identity became deeply differentiated in relation to the different German racial theories. Facing the alliance with Nazi Germany, Italian racists took different positions and can be divided into three competing factions. Scientific racists, pro-German theorists of the Aryan race represented the "biological" faction, who produced the 1938 Manifesto of racist scientists. Irrationalist racists, pro-German theorists of the Aryan race composed the "esoteric-traditionalist" faction. Nationalist and Catholic racists, anti-German theorists of a Roman-Italic or Mediterranean race, formed a "national-racist" faction. Each of these groups had different ideas on the Etruscans as an ethnic component of Italian racial history. Scientific, "biological" racists were influenced by Eugen Fischer's ideas of a Nordic origin of the Etruscans, and therefore included them within the Italian Aryan race. The pro-Nazi racist philosopher Giulio Cogni, as well as the "esoteric-traditionalist" racist Julius Evola, were both influenced by Rosenberg's ideas on the Etruscans as an alien body within the Italian race. The main Italian Etruscologists, on the contrary, can be included in the "national-racist" faction. They shared a nationalist, non-Aryan racial identity, tracing back its origins to pre-Roman Italy. In this perspective, and according to the Etruscological "neo-autochthonist" consensus, the Etruscans were considered as an autochthonous people, part of the Roman-Italic race. The main "national-racist" Etruscologist was Massimo Pallottino, a former student of Giulio Quirino Giglioli and his collaborator in Fascist and racist exhibitions such as the Mostra Augustea della Romanità (1937-1938) and the Mostra della Razza project (1939-41). In particular, during the Second World War Massimo Pallottino first expressed his theory on the ethnic "formation" of the Etruscan people, which was later to become, in the post-war years, the most important scientific interpretation of the Etruscan identity in Italy and abroad. By quoting national-racist anthropologists and their political leader, Giacomo Acerbo, Pallottino definitively consolidated the nationalist, "neo-autochthonist" interpretation of the Etruscans as an Italic and Italian civilisation. He criticised other theories on the Etruscan origins, and he argued that Etruscologists should study the process of "formation" of the Etruscan people as a historical process that took place in ancient Italy, from different ethnic backgrounds.
Among Etruscologists, only Ranuccio Bianchi Bandinelli criticised the nationalist consensus on the Etruscans and the use of racial categories in the interpretation of the ancient past. This scientifically isolated position eventually brought Bianchi Bandinelli to renounce Etruscology as a nationalist science. At the same time, his anti-racist and anti-nationalist critique must be related to his non-linear way to antifascism, which after the fall of the regime led him to adhere to the communist party and eventually to Antonio Gramsci's Marxism.
After the fall of Fascism in 1943, the German and Allied occupation of Italy and the start of a civil war, a new phase for Etruscology began. Italian scholars themselves were involved in this dramatic war context. In German-occupied Rome, Massimo Pallottino participated in a Catholic and monarchist group of former Fascists that published anti-German propaganda. After the end of the German occupation, he criticised the antifascist democratic parties and openly condemned their attempt to purge the former Fascists like himself from the State. Contrarily to his teacher Giglioli, who was condemned as a Fascist but soon reintegrated in his university chair, Pallottino was never tried for his role in Fascist and racist cultural policy. Instead, he obtained the chair of Etruscology at the University of Rome, maintaining it for the following decades. On the contrary, Ranuccio Bianchi Bandinelli participated in the antifascist Resistance in German-occupied Florence, adhering to the Italian Communist Party. In the post-war trials, after an initial diffidence, he testified against Fascist colleagues, and called for a renewal of Italian culture, in a communist perspective.
The post-Fascist reception of the Etruscans was soon influenced by the new, Cold War ideological context. During the 1950s Bianchi Bandinelli became one of the leading voices of the communist cultural policy in Italy. His new studies on ancient art were now influenced by Antonio Gramsci's Marxism. In 1957 he was appointed president of the Istituto Gramsci, a centre for Marxist-Leninist studies supervised by the communist party. In a socialist realist perspective, he criticised Etruscan art as a mere imitation of the classic Greek one, and the interest for the Etruscans as a nationalist, racist and irrationalist myth. On the contrary, Pallottino became the most influential Etruscologist in Italy and abroad, because of his theory of the Etruscan origins, now purged of its Fascist connotation. Moreover, during the 1950s Pallottino engaged himself in constant cultural activism, promoting exhibitions on the Etruscan civilisation across Europe. While imposing his "neo-autochthonist" theory as the main feature of Italian Etruscology, in the years of the Cold War and of Western European economic integration, he ideologically presented the Etruscans as the forefathers of Western Europe.
As regards post-war Italian culture, because of the scientific continuity of Pallottino's nationalist Etruscology after the war, along with the political and cultural limits of the antifascist "epuration" attempt, the fall of Fascism did not immediately change the reception of the Etruscan civilisation as a matter of national identity. Only after the 1950s can we see a real change in perspective and a new, post-Fascist phase in the history of Italian reception of the Etruscans.
In post-war Italian culture, new approaches to the Etruscan identity were slowly produced, conditioned by the memory of the regime, the war and the Holocaust. In post-war Italian cinema, historical films abandoned the image of a triumphant and imperialist ancient Rome, ideologically represented by the Fascist regime in Scipione l'Africano (1937), and began to depict the Roman rule – in the typical American peplum style – as an arbitrary dictatorship that killed innocent Christians (L'apocalisse 1947, Fabiola 1949, Messalina 1951, Nerone e Messalina 1953). Even if the Etruscans were not represented in those films, we could argue that this new, Catholic and post-Fascist narrative enabled a popular representation of the Etruscans as victims of their violent Roman rulers. Especially in the early 1960s, the emergence of a public memory of the Holocaust stimulated a new kind of private and political reflection on the Etruscan past. In 1962 the Italian Jewish writer Giorgio Bassani interpreted an Etruscan necropolis through the memory of the Holocaust, depicting the Etruscans as an ancient persecuted people, like contemporary Jews. In the 1965 movie Vaghe stelle dell'Orsa…, directed by Luchino Visconti, the Etruscan identity was used as the scenario for the dramatic history of the sons of an Italian Jew killed by the Nazis. Many years later, in 1982, Elie Wiesel also wrote a similar use of the Etruscan identity into his short story L'éternité étrusque, representing an Israeli Jewish survivor and his love for the Etruscans as a persecuted people. Besides, in movies like Il sorpasso, La voglia matta (1962) and later Le vacanze intelligenti (1978) the new, post-war, consumerist Italian people were represented as non-interested in Etruscan identity, and immune to the old, rhetorical and nationalistic education, as well as to the new, intellectual and progressive theories. Such a refusal of Etruscology and the Etruscans is openly theorised, in a clearly antifascist perspective, in 1950s Luciano Bianciardi's short stories and novels. During the 1960s a new, post-Fascist reception of the Etruscans in popular culture was therefore produced. At the same time, through Pallottino's relevant and continuous impact on Italian Etruscology, several ideological continuities persisted, especially Italian nationalisation of the Etruscan identity.
The longue durée of interest in the ancient Etruscans as a matter of national and racial identity in 20th century Italy could therefore serve as a case study. It could provide an insight into how modern regional, national and racial identities have been socially constructed through different levels of cultural production, from cinema and literature to archaeology and anthropology. I hope it could therefore stimulate a reflection on cultural and political history, particularly as regards nationalism and racism, through an analysis of our ideological relationship with the historical past.
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© 2022 CENTRA.
Centre on the History of Racism and Antiracism in Modern Italy
info@centrastudies.org


Your Soul/Personal Guide/Spirit/Path Energy only has two states of being or disposition, if you will.
One state of being is that of calmness/neutrality/stillness/serenity. Think of this as when the sea is calm and still. When you are where you are meant to be, this is the state you are in. (Your Mind may have opposing feelings but this concept will be addressed further down, in this post).
The other state of being is that of 'pressure', for lack of a better term. This 'pressure can be subtle or strong, depending on the message it carries. When it is time for you to act on something, the energy moves – giving you a (sort of) push to do it.
This push can be a subtle-but-constant reminder to do a particular thing, or a strong-and-constant urge to do a particular thing. Most times, with the strong urges, one cannot help but do it because it is so persistent that you do it automatically, without thinking. In many cases, it is in hindsight that one will realise what they did.
Think of this as when forces of nature generate waves in the sea. It is also like a stirring in your heart or a prompting. Some people also call it a 'disturbance in your heart/spirit'. You will always feel it in your heart and not your head – which is where you always feel your mind's urges/desires/inspirations. When you start learning to differentiate between the two, you will find that it is distinct. It never stops until the required action is taken but the mind's ideas can cease after a while, though the mind's urges can be just as strong – if not stronger than the Spirit's promptings.
The mind's strong urges can be forceful, with a sense of urgency, where the Spirit's urges can be intense but never forceful. If it is something you must do immediately and there is no time to spare, the Spirit literally moves you to do so, automatically. The mind does not have that power unless you are unaware of it, in which case, you follow whatever the mind inspires you to do without checking where the inspiration is coming from or how you feel.
Many people have learned, by default, to ignore these (Spirit) promptings, to the point that it doesn't seem to be there anymore – but it is.
These are the only two states you can be in, spiritually. These are the only two feelings you can have, spiritually: Calmness (stillness of the sea) and Constant Heart Prompting/Urge/Inspiration to do something (waves of the sea). When it is done and only then, it returns to its stillness.
Note that both 'states of being' come with Peace. They are never "warring" against you or anyone. Whether you are being prompted to do nothing or do something, whether the prompting is subtle or strong, its nature is always peaceful.
On the other hand, feelings of happiness or sadness, etc are simply your mind's reaction to where you are/what you are doing. These feelings are not permanent. As you begin to understand them, you will find that the feeling of happiness/excitement, for example, will become a not-so-big-deal to you and all you really are is 'accepting of your peaceful state'. This is not to say that you should not allow yourself to feel excited or happy but the point of the post is to not let the feelings determine what your Spirit is saying. You cannot tell, just based on them. They are not true indicators.
At peace + happy = You are where you should be/doing what you should + Your mind likes or accepts where you are/what you are doing.
At peace + sad = You are where you should be/doing what you should + Your mind does not like or accept where you are/what you are doing (It would rather be somewhere else/doing something else).
At peace + confused = You are where you should be/doing what you should + Your mind does not understand why you are where you are/ what you are doing; It cannot decide if you should stay where you are or do something else.
At peace + frustrated = You are where you should be/doing what you should + Your mind has other plans of where you should be/ what you should be doing; It has persuaded you to do something else but you didn't succeed and/or it cannot find a way to achieve what it wants to do.
At peace + depressed = You are where you should be/doing what you should + Your mind, having tried all it can to achieve what it thinks it needs – and failed, or having found no way to achieve what it wants, It doesn't believe there is hope for its happiness anymore or that you are where you should be. It only sees failure and thinks/feels it's the end. It sees no answer, no light at the end of the tunnel, no silver lining, nothing. It believes escape is better than the torture it is going through. At this point, it may even start considering death as the next option, since there is nothing left for it. It has either refused to connect to the Spirit or it doesn't know how or it isn't aware of it or all of the above.
At peace + afraid = You are where you are/should be + Your mind is conjuring up all kinds of fearful thoughts, warnings and discouragement because it thinks things will go wrong.
Not at peace + happy = You are not where you should be/doing what you should + Your mind likes what you are doing/where you are/what you have.
Not at peace + sad = You are not where you should be/doing what you should + Your mind does not like what is going on/where you are/what you have.
Not at peace + confused = You are not where you should be/doing what you should + Your mind does not understand what is going on and why.
Not at peace + frustrated = You are not where you should be/doing what you should + Your mind keeps coming up with other plans of where you should be/ what you should be doing. It has tried to do so many things but failed or it cannot find a way to achieve what it truly wants. It cannot figure out what to do. It can also mean it has achieved what it wants but it still feels empty/unfulfilled.
Not at peace + depressed = You are not where you should be/doing what you should + Your mind is also not happy with where you are. It is similar to 'At peace + depressed', only worse. Having tried all it can to achieve what it thinks it needs – and failed, or having found no way to achieve what it wants, it doesn't believe there is hope for its happiness. It sees failure and thinks/feels its the end. It sees no answer, no light at the end of the tunnel, no silver lining, nothing. It believes escape is better. Here, it will definitely start considering death as the next option, since there is nothing left for it. Anything to end the agony it is in. It may also have achieved what it wants but it still feels empty/unfulfilled.
Not at peace + afraid = You are not where you are/should be + Your mind is coming up with a million things that could go wrong. Not being at peace, just makes it worse.
Remember these feelings are temporary.
Ever heard of the saying, "Money cannot buy happiness"?
Well it actually can but what people are really trying to say – but unable to differentiate – is that money cannot buy Peace. Meaning, you can have money and not be at peace, because you are not where you should be. You can chase temporary happiness all your life – and find it – but you will always feel "empty inside"/like something is missing/unfulfilled/unsatisfied, if you are not at peace. You will either chase happiness endlessly (which can often be in an effort to find peace) or give up. On another hand, you can have money and be at peace because you are where you should be. Money is not the issue. Being where you should be/doing what you are being led to do on your Path is the key.
There are many other variations of this example. As you can see, what you call 'good feelings' and 'bad feelings' do not determine if you are on your Path or not. These are only feelings generated from the mind. At some point in your journey, as you keep advancing in following your Personal Guide/Spirit/Path, you will learn to differentiate between what your Soul's state of being is and what you feel from your mind (state of mind/mental state). This is an important distinction to make, in order to become more confident in your Path.
In summary, you are either at peace, in one or more aspects of your life, or you are not.


Sometimes it's interesting to hear what people who are not around the OHL that much think of their experiences when they visit the Ontario Hockey League. I just heard from a colleague who made the trek from Rhode Island to OHL turf this past weekend.
Joe Tasca works in radio in Providence, RI, home of the Boston Bruins AHL-affiliate. He made an Ontario Hockey League trip this past weekend and gave me an update on what he experienced.
The Niagara game was fun. I understand the need for new arenas, but for an American who is surrounded by massive arenas not designed for hockey, I particularly enjoy a small town rink like Gatecliff because, quite frankly, it's a hockey arena with a hockey atmosphere.
Scott Fletcher showed me a lot. He was poised with the puck and I like the fact that he brings some much-needed sandpaper to that lineup. He'll definitely be a nice fit in Providence next year.
The London game was somewhat of a disappointment. I wanted to see Aliu play, and the fact that he got booted in Windsor the night before was a real downer. I do have to admit, though, the atmosphere in London is definitely reminiscent of an NHL game. It's a unique experience for junior hockey. Having said that, I'd rather see a game in St. Catharines any day.
Note: For Saturday night's game Joe was deciding between heading to Belleville or Peterborough. He was considering the strong team in Belleville this year versus the great community atmosphere he'd heard about in Peterborough (not to say Belleville does not have good atmosphere either). He e-mailed me before the trip to ask which of the two he should go to. Being from Peterborough it was pretty obvious which one I'd send him to.
I have to tip my hat to you because Peterborough was the class of the trip. We met some great people, and the arena is the best I've visited thus far for junior hockey as far as intimacy and atmosphere are concerned. The Hall of Fame is definitely a nice touch. Plus, I got to chat with Scott Bowman, as the 1959 TPT Petes were honored before the game. I'd like to make it back to town when the team is more formidable.
I await my referral fee from Peterborough & The Kawartha Tourism.
As always, comments, questions, travel arrangements, etc.
Providence is suppose to be a good atmosphere as well.
Nice that he enjoyed his trip and got a good mixture of games in. On Friday night I too had plans to meet up with a couple of fans from Brampton. They had never been out to many rinks and wanted to see some in the West. I upgraded their tickets from nosebleed to lower bowl so they could really enjoy it.
Their stories about Brampton games makes you appreciate things a lot more.


text:
Meeting of the Board of Regents | December 2007
Saturday, December 1, 2007 - 8:00am
Johanna Duncan-Poitier
Merger of DeVry Institute of Technology and Keller Graduate School of Management
Issue for Decision (Consent Agenda)
Should the Board of Regents approve the merger of DeVry Institute of Technology and Keller Graduate School of Management as DeVry College of New York?
Required by State Regulation.
The question will come before the Higher Education and Professional Practice Committee at its December 2007 meeting where it will be voted on and action taken. It will then come before the full Board at its December 2007 meeting for final action.
On June 14, 1996, the Board of Regents authorized DeVry, Inc. to establish DeVry Institute of Technology in the New York City area, with authority to award the Associate in Applied Science (A.A.S.), Bachelor of Professional Studies (B.P.S.), and Bachelor of Technology (B.Tech.) degrees and to offer programs leading to those degrees. On October 5, 2001, the Board authorized DeVry University, Inc. (a subsidiary of DeVry, Inc.) to establish the Keller Graduate School of Management in Long Island City, with a branch campus in Manhattan and authority to award the Master of Business Administration (M.B.A.) and Master of Science (M.S.) degrees and to offer programs leading to those degrees. The two institutions have registered programs leading to those degrees.
DeVry, Inc. currently operates two colleges in New York State, DeVry Institute of Technology and Keller Graduate School of Management. When these institutions were first granted degree authority in New York State, DeVry established a Delaware corporation, DeVry, Inc., doing business as DeVry Institute of Technology. It used DeVry University, Inc., also a Delaware corporation, to do business as Keller Graduate School of Management. Both entities currently operate this way.
DeVry Institute offers Associate in Applied Science, (A.A.S.), Bachelor of Professional Studies (B.P.S.), and Bachelor of Technology (B.Tech.) programs in the disciplines of Business, Engineering, and the Physical Sciences. Its campus is located in Long Island City (Queens County), with an extension site in Manhattan. Keller Graduate School of Management is located on the premises of DeVry Institute's Long Island City campus, with an extension center in Manhattan. Keller has not implemented its branch campus authority. It currently offers three programs: Master of Science (M.S.) programs in Accounting and Financial Management, and Information Systems Management, and a Master of Business Administration (M.B.A.) program in Management.
The Department has determined that the programs offered by both institutions meet registration standards. Both institutions are accredited by the North Central Association of Colleges and Schools, which accredits all DeVry institutions. In the fall of 2006, DeVry Institute of Technology had 1,128 students; Keller Graduate School of Management had 304.
The corporate parent, DeVry, Inc., is an Illinois corporation. The parent company is now in the process of restructuring its corporations and would like to merge the colleges in New York State so that they will fall under one corporate parent. As a result of the restructuring, DeVry, Inc. will become the sole corporation that has the authority to operate in New York. It would then file one certificate of assumed name as DeVry College of New York, which would encompass both campuses.
The corporation would then dissolve the authority to do business in New York of both Delaware corporations.
It is recommended that the Board of Regents grant DeVry, Inc., Oakbrook, Illinois, authority to do business as DeVry College of New York, with a campus in Long Island City, Queens, and a branch campus in Manhattan (New York County); to award the degrees of Associate in Applied Science (A.A.S.), Bachelor of Professional Studies (B.P.S.), Bachelor of Technology (B.Tech.), Master of Business Administration(M.B.A.), and Master of Science (M.S.); and to offer associate degree programs in the discipline area of Engineering, baccalaureate programs in the discipline areas of Business, Engineering, and the Physical Sciences, and master's degree programs in the discipline areas of Business and the Physical Sciences; and that the Board terminate the separate authority granted to DeVry, Inc. on June 18, 1996, and to DeVry University, Inc. on October 5, 2001.
If the Board of Regents approves the merger and grant of degree powers, the College will proceed to merge their resources and register their programs under the new structure.