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Alejandra de Dinamarca (; Copenhague,  - Sandringham, ) fue la reina consorte del Reino Unido y sus Dominios de Ultramar y emperatriz consorte de la India entre 1901 y 1910, como esposa del rey-emperador Eduardo VII.

Su familia era relativamente poco conocida, hasta que su padre, el príncipe Cristián de Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg, fue designado para suceder en el trono danés a Federico VII, su primo lejano, con el consentimiento de las grandes potencias. A la edad de 16 años, fue elegida como la futura esposa de Alberto Eduardo, príncipe de Gales, heredero de la reina Victoria; se casaron dieciocho meses más tarde. Como princesa de Gales de 1863 a 1901, el período más largo durante el cual alguien ha ostentado el título, se ganó el cariño del pueblo británico y se volvió sumamente popular, su porte y estilo de vestir eran copiados por las mujeres conscientes de la moda. A pesar de que fue excluida de esgrimir cualquier poder político, intentó sin éxito influir en la opinión de los ministros y su familia para favorecer a sus parientes que reinaban en Grecia y Dinamarca. Sus funciones públicas se limitaron a la poco controvertida actividad de participar en obras de caridad.

A la muerte de la reina Victoria en 1901, Alberto Eduardo se convirtió en rey-emperador como Eduardo VII, con Alejandra como reina consorte. En 1910, tras el fallecimiento de Eduardo y la ascensión al trono de su hijo Jorge V, pasó a ostentar el título de reina madre, que mantuvo hasta su muerte, aunque continuó siendo conocida por su propio nombre.

Desconfiaba enormemente de su sobrino, el emperador alemán Guillermo II y apoyó a su hijo durante la Primera Guerra Mundial, en la que Gran Bretaña y sus aliados derrotaron a Alemania. Murió el  en Sandringham, después de sufrir un ataque al corazón y fue enterrada junto a su marido en la capilla de San Jorge del castillo de Windsor.

Biografía

Primeros años

La princesa Alejandra (llamada «Alix» dentro de su círculo familiar) nació el , en el palacio Amarillo, una casa del  ubicada en el número 18 de Amaliegade, justo al lado del complejo del palacio de Amalienborg, en Copenhague. Sus padres fueron el príncipe Cristián de Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg y la princesa Luisa de Hesse-Kassel. A pesar de que su familia era de sangre real, vivió una vida relativamente normal. No poseían una gran riqueza, los ingresos de su padre, que provenían de una comisión del ejército, eran de alrededor de 800  anuales y su residencia era una propiedad de gracia y favor que les fue concedida sin pago de alquiler. El escritor y poeta danés Hans Christian Andersen era invitado ocasionalmente a la casa familiar para contarles cuentos a los niños antes de mandarlos a dormir.

El rey Cristián VIII de Dinamarca falleció en 1848 y su único hijo, , ascendió al trono. Federico no tenía hijos, había pasado por dos matrimonios fallidos y se suponía que era . Esto causó una crisis de sucesión dinástica debido a que Federico reinaba en Dinamarca y Schleswig-Holstein y cada una tenía diferentes normas de sucesión. En Holstein, la Ley Sálica impedía la herencia a través de la línea femenina, mientras que tales restricciones no se aplicaban en Dinamarca. Holstein, predominantemente alemán, proclamó su independencia y pidió la ayuda de Prusia. En 1852, las grandes potencias mundiales convocaron a una conferencia en Londres para discutir la sucesión danesa. Se acordó un precario tratado de paz que incluía la disposición de que el padre de Alejandra, el príncipe Cristián, sería el heredero de Federico en todos sus dominios y las demandas previas de otras personas —que incluían las de la , el  y esposa de Cristián— fueron subordinadas a esta decisión.

Al príncipe Cristián se le dio el título de príncipe de Dinamarca y su familia se mudó a una nueva residencia oficial, el palacio Bernstorff. Aunque la condición de la familia se había elevado, no hubo siquiera un pequeño incremento en sus ingresos y no participaban en la vida cortesana de Copenhague, ya que se negaron a conocer a la tercera esposa y antigua amante de Federico, Louise Rasmussen, porque tenía un hijo ilegítimo de un anterior amante. Alejandra compartía una habitación en el ático con su hermana  —que más tarde sería emperatriz de Rusia—, hacía su propia ropa y servía la mesa junto con sus hermanas. Durante su estancia en Bernstorff, Alejandra creció hasta convertirse en una joven mujer; el capellán inglés en Copenhague le enseñó el idioma inglés y fue  en el palacio de Christiansborg. Fue devota toda su vida y siguió las prácticas de la Alta iglesia. Junto con su hermana Dagmar recibió clases de natación de la pionera sueca de la natación femenina Nancy Edberg.

Matrimonio y familia

La reina Victoria y su esposo, el príncipe Alberto, estaban preocupados por encontrar una novia para su hijo y heredero, Alberto Eduardo, príncipe de Gales y decidieron solicitar a su hija, la princesa heredera Victoria de Prusia, que los ayudara a buscar una candidata adecuada. Alejandra no fue su primera elección, ya que los daneses estaban en desacuerdo con los prusianos en el asunto de Schleswig-Holstein y la mayor parte de los parientes de la familia real británica eran alemanes. Finalmente, después de rechazar otras posibilidades, resolvieron que Alejandra era «la única opción posible».

El 24 de septiembre de 1861, la princesa Victoria presentó a su hermano Alberto Eduardo con Alejandra en Espira, pero no fue hasta casi un año más tarde el 9 de septiembre de 1862 —después de su romance con
Nellie Clifden y la muerte de su padre— que Alberto Eduardo le propuso matrimonio a Alejandra en el Castillo Real de Laeken, la casa de su tío abuelo, el rey Leopoldo I de Bélgica.

Unos meses más tarde, Alejandra de Dinamarca viajó al Reino Unido a bordo del yate real Victoria and Albert II y desembarcó en Gravesend, Kent, el 7 de marzo de 1863. Sir Arthur Sullivan realizó una composición musical especial por su llegada y Alfred Tennyson, el poeta laureado, escribió una oda en su honor:

La pareja se casó el 10 de marzo de 1863, en la capilla de St. George en el Castillo de Windsor, en una ceremonia oficiada por Thomas Longley, arzobispo de Canterbury. La elección de la sede fue criticada por la prensa —ya que como estaba fuera de Londres sería difícil que el espectáculo fuera presenciado por grandes multitudes de público—, los potenciales invitados —porque era difícil de llegar y se trataba de un lugar pequeño, algunas personas que esperaban invitación finalmente no fueron invitadas— y los daneses —ya que solo los parientes más cercanos de Alejandra fueron invitados—. La corte todavía estaba de luto por la muerte del príncipe Alberto, por lo que las señoras fueron restringidas a usar gris, lila o malva. Durante su luna de miel en Osborne House en la isla de Wight, los alumnos del vecino Colegio Eton, que incluían a Lord Randolph Churchill, pudieron observar ocasionalmente a la pareja.

A finales del año siguiente, el padre de Alejandra había ascendido al trono de Dinamarca, su hermano Jorge se había convertido en rey de los helenos, su hermana Dagmar se había comprometido con el zarévich de Rusia, Nicolás Aleksándrovich, y Alejandra había dado a luz a su primer hijo. El ascenso al trono de Cristián IX dio lugar a nuevos conflictos por la suerte de Schleswig-Holstein. La Confederación Alemana invadió exitosamente Dinamarca y redujo su área en dos quintas partes. Con gran irritación de la reina Victoria y la princesa heredera de Prusia, Alejandra y Alberto Eduardo apoyaron al reino danés durante la guerra. La conquista prusiana de antiguas tierras danesas incrementó la profunda aversión de Alejandra hacia los alemanes, un sentimiento que permaneció con ella el resto de su vida.

El primer hijo de los príncipes de Gales, Alberto Víctor, nació a principios de 1864, dos meses antes de tiempo. Alejandra se dedicó con devoción a sus hijos, según la niñera principal, la señora Blackburn: «Se sentía en la gloria cuando podía correr hasta la habitación de los niños, ponerse un delantal de franela, bañarlos por sí misma y verlos dormir en sus pequeñas camas». La pareja tuvo seis hijos en total: Alberto Víctor, Jorge, Luisa, Victoria, Maud y Alejandro. Al parecer, todos los hijos de Alejandra nacieron antes de tiempo; el biógrafo Richard Hough pensaba que la princesa engañaba deliberadamente a la reina Victoria sobre su fecha probable de parto, ya que no quería que estuviera presente en los nacimientos. El nacimiento de su tercer hijo en 1867, se complicó con un ataque de fiebre reumática que amenazó su vida y la dejó con una cojera permanente.

En público, Alejandra era digna y encantadora, en privado, cariñosa y alegre. Disfrutaba las actividades sociales como el baile y el patinaje sobre hielo, era una experta jinete y conductora de carruajes. También disfrutaba de la caza, para consternación de la reina Victoria, quien le pidió sin éxito que dejara de practicarla. Incluso después del nacimiento de su primer hijo siguió socializando tanto como antes, esto provocó algunas fricciones entre la reina y la joven pareja, lo que se agravaba todavía más por el odio que Alejandra sentía por los prusianos y la parcialidad de la reina hacia ellos.

Princesa de Gales

Alberto Eduardo y Alejandra visitaron Irlanda en abril de 1868. Después de haber estado enferma el año anterior, la princesa empezaba a caminar de nuevo sin la ayuda de los dos bastones de madera y estaba embarazada de su cuarto hijo. Llevaron a cabo una gira de seis meses por Austria, Egipto y Grecia entre 1868 y 1869. Esta gira incluyó la visita a su hermano, el rey Jorge I de Grecia, a los campos de batalla de Crimea y, para ella solamente, al harén del Jedive Ismail. En Turquía se convirtió en la primera mujer en sentarse a cenar con el sultán —Abdülaziz—.

La residencia preferida de los príncipes de Gales era Sandringham House y Marlborough House era su base en Londres. Los biógrafos coinciden en que su matrimonio fue feliz en muchos sentidos, sin embargo, algunos afirman que Alberto Eduardo no le daba a su esposa toda la atención que ella deseaba y que poco a poco la pareja se fue alejando, hasta que a finales de 1871 el príncipe sufrió un ataque de fiebre tifoidea —la enfermedad que se cree mató a su padre—, lo que produjo una reconciliación. Estas afirmaciones son cuestionadas por otros escritores, que señalan los embarazos frecuentes de Alejandra a lo largo de este período y usan las cartas familiares para negar la existencia de una grave fisura. Sin embargo, Alberto Eduardo fue duramente criticado desde muchos sectores de la sociedad, por su aparente falta de interés en la grave enfermedad de su mujer, la fiebre reumática. A lo largo de su matrimonio, el príncipe de Gales siguió manteniendo relaciones con otras mujeres, entre ellas la actriz Lillie Langtry; Daisy Greville, condesa de Warwick; Agnes Keyser y la distinguida mujer de sociedad Alice Keppel. La mayoría de sus romances fueron del pleno conocimiento de Alejandra, que incluso más tarde permitió que Alice Keppel visitara al rey en su lecho de muerte. La princesa se mantuvo fiel durante todo su matrimonio.

Alejandra se fue aislando socialmente debido al agravamiento de su sordera, causada por la otosclerosis hereditaria, y cada vez pasaba más tiempo en casa con sus hijos y mascotas. Su sexto y último embarazo terminó en tragedia, cuando su hijo recién nacido murió después de solo un día de vida. A pesar de que la princesa suplicó privacidad, la reina Victoria insistió en anunciar un período de luto en la corte, lo que condujo a que los elementos hostiles de la prensa describieran el nacimiento como un «desdichado aborto» y los arreglos del funeral como una «mascarada repugnante».

Durante ocho meses entre 1875 y 1876, el príncipe de Gales estuvo ausente de Gran Bretaña mientras realizaba un viaje por la India, pero, para su consternación, Alejandra tuvo que quedarse en casa. El príncipe había planeado un viaje con un grupo de varones y tenía la intención de dedicar la mayor parte del tiempo a la caza y el tiro. Durante la gira, uno de los amigos que viajaba con el príncipe, Lord Aylesford, fue informado por su esposa que iba a dejarlo por otro hombre: Lord Blandford, que a su vez estaba casado. Aylesford estaba consternado y decidió pedir el divorcio. Mientras tanto, el hermano de Lord Blandford, Lord Randolph Churchill, convenció a los amantes de no fugarse. Preocupada por la amenaza de divorcio, Lady Aylesford trató de disuadir a su marido de llevar a cabo el procedimiento, pero Lord Aylesford se mostró inflexible y se negó a reconsiderarlo. En un intento de presión para que Lord Aylesford abandonara su demanda de divorcio, Lady Aylesford y Lord Randolph Churchill acudieron con Alejandra y le dijeron que si el divorcio procedía, el príncipe sería citado como testigo e implicado en el escándalo. Afligida por las amenazas y siguiendo el consejo de Sir William Knollys y la duquesa de Teck, Alejandra informó a la reina, quien luego escribió al príncipe de Gales. El príncipe se indignó. Finalmente, los Blandford y los Aylesford se divorciaron en privado. Aunque Lord Randolph Churchill se disculpó más tarde, durante muchos años el príncipe de Gales se negó a hablarle o verle.

Alejandra pasó en Grecia la primavera de 1877, mientras se recuperaba de un período de mala salud y visitaba a su hermano el rey Jorge de Grecia. Durante la Guerra Ruso-Turca (1877-1878), era claramente parcial contra Turquía y a favor de Rusia, donde su hermana estaba casada con el zarévich, y presionó para que se realizara una revisión de la frontera entre Grecia y Turquía que favoreciera a los griegos. Alejandra y sus dos hijos pasaron los próximos tres años separados, en gran medida porque los jóvenes fueron enviados en un crucero por todo el mundo como parte de su educación naval y general. La despedida estuvo llena de lágrimas y, como lo demuestra su correspondencia regular, los echó de menos terriblemente. En 1881, Alejandra y Alberto Eduardo viajaron a San Petersburgo tras el asesinato de Alejandro II de Rusia, tanto para representar a Gran Bretaña, como para que la princesa pudiera confortar a su hermana Dagmar, que se había convertido en la zarina.

Alejandra asumió muchas responsabilidades en eventos públicos; en palabras de la reina Victoria, «me quitó la tensión y la fatiga de muchas funciones. Abre bazares, asiste a conciertos, visita hospitales en mi lugar... no solo nunca se queja, sino que se esfuerza por demostrar que ha disfrutado lo que para otro sería un deber agotador». Tomó un interés especial en el Hospital de Londres, que visitaba con regularidad. Durante sus visitas al hospital conoció entre otros pacientes a Joseph Merrick, el llamado «Hombre Elefante». Por lo general las multitudes aplaudían con entusiasmo a Alejandra, pero durante una visita a Irlanda en 1885, sufrió un raro momento de hostilidad pública cuando visitaba la ciudad de Cork, semillero del nacionalismo irlandés. Alberto Eduardo y Alejandra fueron abucheados por una multitud de dos o tres mil personas que blandían palos y banderas de color negro. Alejandra superó sonriente la difícil prueba y la prensa británica describió la visita desde una óptica positiva y calificó a la multitud como «entusiasta». Como parte de la misma visita recibió un Doctorado en Música por el Trinity College de Dublín.

La muerte de su hijo mayor, el príncipe Alberto Víctor, duque de Clarence y Avondale, en 1892, fue un duro golpe para la bondadosa Alejandra. La habitación y las posesiones personales del príncipe se mantuvieron tal como los había dejado, al igual que se hizo con las pertenencias del príncipe Alberto después de su muerte en 1861. La princesa de Gales confesó: «He enterrado a mi ángel y con él mi felicidad». La correspondencia entre Alejandra y sus hijos que todavía sobrevive indica que eran muy unidos. En 1894, falleció su cuñado, Alejandro III de Rusia, y su sobrino, Nicolás, se convirtió en el zar. Durante esos días fue un sostén para su hermana, la emperatriz viuda; Alejandra durmió, rezó y permaneció junto a ella por las siguientes dos semanas hasta el entierro de Alejandro.

Reina consorte

Con la muerte de la reina Victoria en 1901, Alberto Eduardo se convirtió en rey con el nombre de Eduardo VII y Alejandra en la reina consorte. Dos meses después, su hijo Jorge y su nuera María de Teck partieron en una extensa gira por el imperio y dejaron a sus pequeños hijos al cuidado de Alejandra y Eduardo, que adoraban a sus nietos. Al regreso de la pareja, los preparativos estaban a punto y la coronación de Eduardo y Alejandra estaba cercana. Sin embargo, solo unos días antes de la fecha prevista en junio de 1902, Eduardo cayó gravemente enfermo de apendicitis. Alejandra lo sustituyó en un desfile militar y asistió a las carreras de la Royal Ascot, en un intento por evitar la alarma social. Finalmente, la coronación tuvo que ser pospuesta y Eduardo sometido a una operación para extirpar el apéndice infectado. Después de su recuperación, Alejandra y Eduardo fueron coronados juntos en agosto: él por el arzobispo de Canterbury, Frederick Temple, y ella por el arzobispo de York, William Dalrymple Maclagan.

A pesar de haberse convertido en reina, las responsabilidades de Alejandra cambiaron muy poco y mantuvo a muchos de los servidores que tenía. La encargada de la alcoba de Alejandra, Charlotte Knollys, permaneció lealmente a su servicio durante muchos años. El 10 de diciembre de 1903, Charlotte, hija de Sir William Knollys, amaneció y halló su habitación repleta de humo. Despertó a Alejandra y la guio a un lugar seguro. En palabras de la gran duquesa Augusta de Mecklemburgo-Strelitz: «Debemos darle crédito a la vieja Charlotte por salvarle realmente la vida [a Alejandra]».

La reina volvió a hacerse cargo de sus nietos cuando Jorge y María partieron en una segunda gira, esta vez a la India británica, durante el invierno de 1905-1906. Su padre, el rey Cristián IX de Dinamarca, murió en enero de 1906. Deseosas de conservar sus vínculos familiares, tanto entre sí como con Dinamarca, Alejandra y su hermana, la emperatriz viuda de Rusia, compraron una casa al norte de Copenhague en 1907, Hvidøre, una especie de refugio privado.

Los biógrafos afirman que a Alejandra le fue negado el acceso a los documentos informativos del rey y se le excluyó de algunos de los viajes al extranjero para evitar su intromisión en asuntos diplomáticos. Desconfiaba profundamente de los alemanes y se opuso siempre a cualquier cosa que favoreciera su expansión o sus intereses. En 1890, por ejemplo, escribió un memorando distribuido a los altos ministros británicos y al personal militar, advirtiéndoles contra el previsto intercambio de la isla británica Heligoland, situada en el mar del Norte, por la colonia alemana de Zanzíbar. En el memorando señalaba la importancia estratégica de la isla, que podría ser utilizada por Alemania para lanzar un ataque o por Gran Bretaña para contener una agresión alemana. A pesar de esto, el intercambio siguió adelante. Los alemanes fortificaron la isla y, en palabras de Robert Ensor y como Alejandra había predicho, «se convirtió en la piedra angular de la posición marítima de Alemania para la ofensiva, así como para la defensa». El Frankfurter Zeitung condenó abiertamente la conducta de Alejandra y su hermana, la emperatriz viuda de Rusia, y afirmó que ambas fueron «el centro de la conspiración internacional antialemana». La reina despreciaba y le tenía desconfianza a su sobrino, Guillermo II de Alemania, en 1900 lo llamaba «nuestro enemigo interno».

En 1910, Alejandra se convirtió en la primera reina consorte en visitar la Cámara de los Comunes durante un debate. En una extraordinaria situación sin precedente, durante dos horas, se sentó en la Galería de las Damas con vistas a la cámara mientras que se debatía el proyecto de ley del Parlamento, que pretendía reformar el papel de la Cámara de los Lores. En privado, Alejandra estaba en desacuerdo con el proyecto de ley. Poco después fue a visitar a su hermano, el rey Jorge I de Grecia, en Corfú. Una vez ahí, le llegó la noticia de que el rey Eduardo estaba gravemente enfermo, regresó de inmediato y llegó justo un día antes de la muerte de su marido. En las últimas horas de Eduardo, le administró personalmente el oxígeno de un cilindro de gas para ayudarlo a respirar. Le contó a Frederick Ponsonby: «Me siento como si hubiera sido convertida en piedra, incapaz de llorar, incapaz de comprender el significado de todo esto». Más tarde ese mismo año, se mudó del palacio de Buckingham a Marlborough House, pero retuvo la posesión de Sandringham House. El nuevo rey, su hijo Jorge, pronto se enfrentó a tener que tomar una decisión sobre el proyecto de ley del Parlamento. A pesar de sus puntos de vista personales, Alejandra apoyó la decisión del rey, para ayudar a dar fuerza al proyecto de ley en el Parlamento a petición del primer ministro, pero en contra de los deseos de la Cámara de los Lores, cuando el partido reformador ganó las elecciones de la Cámara de los Comunes.

Reina madre

Alejandra no asistió a la coronación de su hijo en 1911, porque no era costumbre que una reina coronada asistiera a la coronación de otro rey o reina, pero por lo demás siguió el lado público de su vida, dedicando tiempo a sus causas benéficas. Una de las tantas causas era el llamado «Día de la rosa de Alejandra», en el cual mujeres voluntarias vendían rosas artificiales hechas por personas discapacitadas para apoyar a los hospitales. Durante la Primera Guerra Mundial, la costumbre de colgar las banderas de los príncipes extranjeros investidos con la más alta orden de caballería británica, la Orden de la Jarretera, en la capilla de St. George en el Castillo de Windsor, fue objeto de críticas, ya que los miembros alemanes de la orden estaban ahora luchando contra Gran Bretaña. Alejandra se unió a los llamados de «tumbar las odiosas banderas alemanas». Impulsado por la opinión pública, pero en contra de sus propios deseos, el rey retiró las banderas, pero para consternación de Alejandra no solo quitó «esas viles banderas prusianas», sino también las de los parientes hessianos de su madre, que en opinión de esta, eran simplemente «soldados o vasallos bajo las órdenes del brutal emperador alemán». El 17 de septiembre de 1916, Alejandra se encontraba en Sandringham cuando se produjo un ataque aéreo desde un Zepelín, pero lo peor fue lo que le sucedería a otros miembros de su familia. En Rusia, el zar Nicolás II fue derrocado y después asesinado por los revolucionarios junto a su esposa e hijos. En 1919, la emperatriz viuda fue rescatada de Rusia por el HMS Marlborough y llevada a Inglaterra donde vivió durante un tiempo con su hermana Alejandra.

Alejandra conservó una apariencia juvenil hasta la vejez, pero durante la guerra envejeció notablemente. Esto la llevó a usar elaborados velos y mucho maquillaje, los chismosos describían que parecía tener la cara «esmaltada». No volvió a realizar más viajes al extranjero y comenzó a sufrir problemas de salud cada vez mayores. En 1920, le estalló un vaso sanguíneo en un ojo, dejándola temporal y parcialmente ciega. Hacia el final de su vida, su memoria y habla se fueron deteriorando. Murió el 20 de noviembre de 1925 en Sandringham, después de sufrir un ataque al corazón y fue enterrada en una elaborada tumba junto a su marido en la capilla de St. George en el Castillo de Windsor.

Legado

Después de la boda de Alejandra con el príncipe de Gales en 1863, se inició la construcción de un nuevo parque y un «palacio del pueblo» en una colina en el norte de Londres, que incluía un centro de artes y una sala de exhibiciones pública, y que en honor de la princesa fueron nombrados Alexandra Park y Alexandra Palace. El palacio, llamado coloquialmente Ally Pally, alberga además una sala de conciertos, una sala de conferencias, un museo, una biblioteca, un teatro y salones para eventos y banquetes, de hecho, su salón de banquetes es considerado el más grande de Londres.

Alejandra fue muy popular entre el pueblo británico. A diferencia de su marido y de su suegra nunca fue castigada por la prensa. Los fondos que ayudó a recolectar fueron utilizados para comprar una embarcación de río que fue llamada Alexandra y que se utilizó para transportar a los heridos durante la campaña de Sudán, además para adaptar un buque hospital de nombre The Princess of Wales, que llevaba de regreso a los heridos de la Guerra de los Bóer. Durante la Guerra de los Bóer también fundó el Queen Alexandra's Imperial Military Nursing Service, posteriormente rebautizado como Queen Alexandra's Royal Army Nursing Corps —Cuerpo de enfermería de la Armada Real reina Alejandra—.

Tenía poca comprensión del manejo del dinero. La administración de sus finanzas se dejó en manos del leal contralor, Sir Dighton Probyn, que realizó una función similar para el rey Eduardo VII. En palabras de su nieto, Eduardo VIII —más tarde, duque de Windsor—: «Su generosidad era una fuente de apuros para sus asesores financieros. Cada vez que recibía una carta solicitando dinero, enviaba un cheque de inmediato, independientemente de la autenticidad de los mendicantes y sin que el caso fuera investigado». Aunque no siempre fue extravagante —zurcía las medias usadas para reutilizarlas y sus vestidos viejos eran reciclados como fundas para muebles—, desestimaba las protestas sobre sus fuertes gastos con un movimiento de la mano o afirmaba que no había escuchado.

Acostumbraba esconder una pequeña cicatriz en el cuello, que probablemente fue resultado de una operación de la infancia, con el uso de collares tipo gargantilla y escotes altos, con lo que estableció modas que se usarían durante cincuenta años. El efecto de Alejandra sobre la moda fue tan profundo, que las damas de sociedad incluso copiaban su modo de caminar «cojeando», después de la grave enfermedad que la dejó con una pierna rígida en 1867. Prefería sobre todo las casas de moda de Londres, su favorita era Redfern, pero compraba ocasionalmente en Doucet y Fromont de París.

El 8 de junio de 1932 —el día de la rosa de Alejandra—, se desveló un monumento llamado Queen Alexandra Memorial, realizado por el escultor Alfred Gilbert y ubicado en Marlborough Gate, Londres. En la inauguración se interpretó una oda en su memoria «So many true princesses who have gone», con música compuesta por el entonces Master of the King's Music —Maestro de la música del rey— Sir Edward Elgar y letra del poeta laureado John Masefield, el propio Elgar se encargó de la dirección musical.

La reina Alejandra ha sido representada en la televisión británica por Deborah Grant y Helen Ryan en Edward the Seventh, Ann Firbank en Lillie, Maggie Smith en All the King's Men y Bibi Andersson en The Lost Prince. En el cine fue representada por Pamela Abbott en la película de 1979, Murder by Decree, y por Helen Ryan en la película de 1980, The Elephant Man. En la obra de teatro de 1980, Motherdear, escrita por Royce Ryton, fue interpretada por Margaret Lockwood en su última actuación.

Títulos, honores y armas

Títulos y tratamientos
Por nacimiento, Alejandra fue princesa de Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg, con el tratamiento de Su Alteza Serenísima, como nieta del duque Federico Guillermo de Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg. El 31 de julio de 1853, su padre, el príncipe Cristián, fue nombrado príncipe de Dinamarca, por lo cual, como princesa de Dinamarca, Alejandra recibió el tratamiento de Su Alteza Real. Después de su matrimonio el 10 de marzo de 1863 y antes de que su marido accediera al trono fue princesa de Gales con el tratamiento de Su Alteza Real. Tras el fallecimiento de la reina Victoria, el 22 de enero de 1901, Eduardo VII ascendió al trono y Alejandra se convirtió en consorte del Reino Unido y emperatriz de la India, recibiendo los tratamientos de Su Majestad y Su Majestad Imperial.

Honores
En 1901, Alejandra se convirtió en la primera mujer en ser investida como Dama Compañera de la Orden de la Jarretera desde 1495, como tal, su bandera de armas estuvo colgada durante toda su vida en la Capilla de San Jorge del Castillo de Windsor. Algunos otros de los honores que recibió fueron: Dama de primera clase de la Real Orden de Victoria y Alberto, Dama (grande cruz) de la Orden Imperial de San Carlos, Dama de la Imperial Orden de la Corona de la India y Dama de Justicia de la Orden de San Juan de Jerusalén. Así mismo el 11 de febrero de 1872 fue nombrada dama de la Orden de las Damas Nobles de la Reina María Luisa. Además el 1 de julio de 1889 fue nombrada dama de la Orden del León dorado del gran ducado de Hesse y del Rin.

Armas
Las armas de la reina Alejandra después del ascenso al trono de su marido en 1901, eran el Real Escudo de Armas del Reino Unido empalado con las armas de su padre, el rey Cristián IX de Dinamarca. El escudo está surmontado por la corona imperial y sostenido por el león coronado de Inglaterra y un hombre salvaje típico del Real Escudo de Armas de Dinamarca.

Ancestros

Referencias

Bibliografía

 Battiscombe, Georgina (1969). Queen Alexandra. Londres: Constable ISBN 0094565600
 Bentley-Cranch, Dana (1992). Edward VII: Image of an Era 1841-1910. Londres: Her Majesty's Stationery Office ISBN 0112905080
 Duff, David (1980) Alexandra: Princess and Queen. Londres: Collins ISBN 0002166674

 Ensor, R. C. K. (1936). England 1870–1914. Oxford University Press
 Hough, Richard (1992). Edward & Alexandra: Their Private And Public Lives. Londres: Hodder & Stoddart ISBN 0340558253
 Maclagan, Michael y Louda, Jiří (1999). Lines of Succession. Londres: Little, Brown ISBN 0856054691
 Montgomery-Massingberd, Hugh (ed.) (1977). Burke's Royal Families of the World, Volumen 1. Londres: Burke's Peerage. ISBN 0220662223.
 Priestley, J. B. (1970). The Edwardians. Londres: Heinemann ISBN 0434603325
 Windsor, duque de (1951). A King's Story: The Memoirs of H.R.H. The Duke of Windsor K.G. Londres: Cassell and Co.

Enlaces externos

Reinas consortes del Reino Unido
Princesas de Gales
Princesas británicas por casamiento

Princesas de Dinamarca del siglo XIX (casa de Glücksburg)

Princesas de Dinamarca del siglo XX (casa de Glücksburg)

Duquesas de Rothesay
Eduardo 07

Casa de Windsor
Consortes reales de la casa de Glücksburg
Miembros de la Real Cruz Roja

Británicas del siglo XIX
Británicas del siglo XX
Damas de la Orden de las Damas Nobles de la Reina María Luisa
Damas de primera clase de la Real Orden de Victoria y Alberto

Damas grandes cruces de la Orden imperial de San Carlos
Damas de la Orden de la Corona de la India
Damas de la Orden del León dorado
Miembros de la Orden de familia de Eduardo VII

Personas de la época eduardiana

Nobles sordos

Discapacitados del Reino Unido
Nacidos en Copenhague

Fallecidos en el Este de Inglaterra

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


text:
8146 Джимбел (8146 Jimbell) — астероїд головного поясу, відкритий 28 листопада 1983 року.

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Астрономічні об'єкти, відкриті 1983
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text:
Edward Snowden interview: 'Smartphones can be taken over'
dinsdag, 13 oktober 2015 - Categorie: Artikelen
Bron: www.bbc.com/news/uk-34444233
Smartphone users can do ''very little'' to stop security services getting ''total control'' over their devices, US whistleblower Edward Snowden has said.
The former intelligence contractor told the BBC's Panorama that UK intelligence agency GCHQ had the power to hack into phones without their owners' knowledge.
Mr Snowden said GCHQ could gain access to a handset by sending it an encrypted text message and use it for such things as taking pictures and listening in.
The UK government declined to comment.
Mr Snowden spoke to Panorama in Moscow, where he fled in 2013 after leaking to the media details of extensive internet and phone surveillance by his former employer, the US National Security Agency (NSA).
He did not suggest that either GCHQ or the NSA were interested in mass-monitoring of citizens' private communications but said both agencies had invested heavily in technology allowing them to hack smartphones. ''They want to own your phone instead of you,'' he said.
Mr Snowden talked about GCHQ's ''Smurf Suite'', a collection of secret intercept capabilities individually named after the little blue imps of Belgian cartoon fame.
''Dreamy Smurf is the power management tool which means turning your phone on and off without you knowing,'' he said.
''Nosey Smurf is the 'hot mic' tool. For example if it's in your pocket, GCHQ can turn the microphone on and listen to everything that's going on around you - even if your phone is switched off because they've got the other tools for turning it on.
''Tracker Smurf is a geo-location tool which allows GCHQ to follow you with a greater precision than you would get from the typical triangulation of cellphone towers.''
Peter Taylor's film Edward Snowden: Spies and the Law also covers:
. The contentious relationship between the British government and social media companies. The intelligence agencies and the police want the companies to co-operate in detecting terrorist content but the programme learns that not all companies are prepared to co-operate to the extent that the agencies would like.
. Documents leaked by Mr Snowden that appear to show that the UK government acquired vast amounts of communications data from inside Pakistan by secretly hacking into routers manufactured by the US company, Cisco.
'Necessary and proportionate'
Mr Snowden also referred to a tool known as Paronoid Smurf.
''It's a self-protection tool that's used to armour GCHQ's manipulation of your phone. For example, if you wanted to take the phone in to get it serviced because you saw something strange going on or you suspected something was wrong, it makes it much more difficult for any technician to realise that anything's gone amiss.''
Once GCHQ had gained access to a user's handset, Mr Snowden said the agency would be able to see ''who you call, what you've texted, the things you've browsed, the list of your contacts, the places you've been, the wireless networks that your phone is associated with.
''And they can do much more. They can photograph you''.
Mr Snowden also explained that the SMS message sent by the agency to gain access to the phone would pass unnoticed by the handset's owner.
''It's called an 'exploit','' he said. ''That's a specially crafted message that's texted to your number like any other text message but when it arrives at your phone it's hidden from you. It doesn't display. You paid for it the phone but whoever controls the software owns the phone.''
Describing the relationship between GCHQ and its US counterpart, he said: ''GCHQ is to all intents and purposes a subsidiary of the NSA.
''They the NSA provide technology, they provide tasking and direction as to what they GCHQ should go after.''
The NSA is understood to have a similar programme to the Smurf Suite used by GCHQ on which it is reported to have spent $1bn in response to terrorists' increasing use of smartphones.
Mr Snowden said the agencies were targeting those suspected of involvement in terrorism or other serious crimes such as paedophilia ''but to find out who those targets are they've got to collect mass data''.
''They say, and in many cases this is true, that they're not going to read your email, for example, but they can and if they did you would never know,'' he said.
In a statement, a spokesperson for the UK government said: ''It is long-standing policy that we do not comment on intelligence matters.
''All of GCHQ's work is carried out in accordance with a strict legal and policy framework, which ensures that our activities are authorised, necessary and proportionate, and that there is rigorous oversight, including from the secretary of state, the interception and intelligence services commissioners and the Parliamentary Intelligence and Security Committee. All our operational processes rigorously support this position.''
The government believes Mr Snowden has caused great damage to the intelligence agencies' ability to counter threats to national security.
Mr Snowden maintains he has acted in the public interest on the grounds that the surveillance activities revealed in the thousands of documents he leaked are carried out - in his words - ''without our knowledge, without our consent and without any sort of democratic participation''.
Watch Peter Taylor's film: Edward Snowden, Spies and the Law on Panorama on BBC One on Monday, 5 October at 20:30 BST or catch up later online.

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


text:
Bishop emeritus, Stephen Blaire, 77, dies
Panda Express plans to open Lathrop store
Lathrop residents could have another fast food option if the Planning Commission gives its approval when they meet next week.
Panda Express – the Chinese fast-food restaurant that currently operates a restaurant near Highway 99 in Manteca and another near the Stadium Center off of the Highway 120 Bypass – is proposing a 2,200 square foot restaurant on a nearly one-acre site off of Old Harlan Road just south of Lathrop Road.
The Lathrop Planning Commission is scheduled to meet on Wednesday, January 16 at 6 p.m. inside of the council chambers at Lathrop City Hall – located at 390 Towne Centre Drive.
Proposed on the site of an old nursery business, the eatery will include a drive-thru lane and will be accessible to vehicle traffic via Old Harlan Road and by pedestrian traffic by W. Lathrop Road. No vehicle traffic from W. Lathrop Road into the parking lot of the business, if approved, will be provided or permitted.
As a condition of approval, the developer will include frontage improvements along both W. Lathrop and Old Harlan Roads – to include curbs and gutters and a sidewalk – and the site improvements will include paving, landscaping, and trash enclosures. There will be 40 parking spaces available – the city's municipal code requires one parking space for every two seats in a restaurant and one space for every employee on a maximum working shift – and two of them will be dedicated handicapped parking spaces. The site itself is currently three parcels, and the project is conditioned to include a lot line adjustment and merger so that the restaurant will stand on its own legal parcel.
The project will also include the dedication of 1,609 square feet of property along the northern portion of the project to accommodate the future widening of W. Lathrop Road. The busy thoroughfare is only two lanes wide traveling east from I-5 until just east of the proposed project site, and then becomes four lanes wide until traffic reaches to eastern side of the first railroad flyover bridge past Woodfield Estates.
The Lathrop Manteca Fire District has already signed off on the project. Comments received from the South San Joaquin Irrigation District, the San Joaquin Council of Governments and the San Joaquin County Environmental Health Department have been received and consolidated into the list of conditions for the restaurant.
The Lathrop Planning Commission meets on the third Wednesday of every month inside of the council chambers at Lathrop City Hall – located at 390 Towne Centre Drive – at 6 p.m. For additional information, or to obtain a copy of the planning commission's agenda, visit the City of Lathrop's website at www.ci.lathrop.ca.us.
To contact reporter Jason Campbell email jcampbell@mantecabulletin.com or call 209.249.3544.
MAYOR: MANTECA SERVICES STUCK IN THE 60s, 70s, & 80s
CATCHING THE TRAIN
Manteca Unified COVID cases hit record with 185
Council weighs proposed office/warehouse


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text:
Luka Doncic is one of the NBA's most exciting players, and perhaps the best European talent to influence the game. This is his story.
Luca Doncic, pictured here in 2017, joined Real Madrid as a 13-year-old in 2012
Luka Doncic smiled and slowly nodded as the 15,000 inside Real Madrid's WiZink Center erupted around him.
His long, looping three-point shot had seemed to hang in mid-air, leaving fans open-mouthed as they tracked its progress; long enough, straight enough, sure enough. The ball rippled through the net.
The rivalry between Real Madrid and Barcelona is known the world over as one of football's fiercest, and El Clasico burns red hot in basketball, too.
Doncic's long-range buzzer-beater at the end of the third period against Barcelona in December 2017 was as spectacular as anything Lionel Messi and Cristiano Ronaldo produced on the football pitch. Then aged 18, he was already being described as the most promising prospect Europe has produced.
His numbers in that game – 16 points, six rebounds and seven assists – were modest by his own standards. But the poise and precision, the confidence behind that knowing smile, were signs he would soon outgrow the EuroLeague. The teenager's potential seemed boundless.
Within a year, Doncic was producing similar moments of breath-taking magic in the NBA. He earned Rookie of the Year honours at the end of his first season with the Dallas Mavericks and, before the coronavirus pandemic brought the 2019-20 campaign to a halt, was averaging a near triple-double of 28.7 points, 9.3 rebounds and 8.7 assists, elevating himself into MVP discussions, now aged 21.
Now 21, Doncic is preparing for the resumption of the NBA season with his Dallas Mavericks team-mates
Doncic has stood out as an elite talent since taking his first steps in competitive basketball at seven years old. Those who know him never doubted he would shine on the game's biggest stage.
Just maybe not quite this soon.
Basketball was a constant in Doncic's early life. His father Sasa played professionally in Slovenia, Croatia and France, and his godfather is the former San Antonio Spurs, Minnesota Timberwolves and Toronto Raptors centre Rasho Nesterovic. The young Doncic would sit behind the basket while his father played, sneaking on to the court at half-time to practise his jump shot.
When Sasa Doncic joined Olimpija in 2007, Luka also signed for the club and was placed among kids his age in the Under-10s group. The move brought him under the tutelage of Grega Brezovec – but only very briefly.
"I was his coach for exactly 16 minutes," Olimpija's basketball school coach says.
"He was much better and taller than other kids his age, and even though he was much better than the others, he was always a great team player and leader. It was noticeable that basketball is in his blood."
Doncic was moved up to train with the club's Under-12s team the next day. Two years later, by the time he was 12, his name was eliciting excited whispers from Europe's major scouts. He was a constant, dominant presence at youth tournaments in Slovenia and, when Olimpija's select Under-12s or Under-13s would venture abroad, he'd put Barcelona, Lazio and countless others to the sword.
Already comfortably over 6ft tall, he was physically domineering, a smooth, technical operator with the ball in his hands, orchestrating attacks and unleashing streaks of scoring. Despite his smiling demeanour, he was fiercely competitive.
"All the moves you see him doing now in the NBA we saw in Slovenia when he was younger," says Olimpija's head of youth basketball Lojze Sisko, who coached Doncic from the age of 11 to 13.
"Of course, now he's bigger, stronger and faster, but how he's playing, how he's reading basketball – all that we saw in Ljubljana."
By now several major European teams were tracking the young Slovenian. Montepaschi Siena made a concerted effort to prise him from Olimpija, but a rival offer proved impossible to resist. A five-year deal at Real Madrid. Doncic was 13.
Doncic would make his first-team debut at Real Madrid aged 16
Much like his early experiences in Ljubljana, he quickly found himself playing among children three or four years his elder in the Spanish capital. It was one thing to shine against older opposition in his homeland, but to do so for Madrid, who regularly faced the best of European youth basketball, further signalled his special talent.
In 2014-15, a season in which the 15-year-old Doncic split his time between Madrid's Under-18s and senior reserves, he was named the MVP of the Next Generation Tournament – the youth equivalent of the EuroLeague – after helping Madrid overcome Crvena Zvezda in the final.
"I remember his feet being pretty big for his size," says Joe Arlauckas, the former Madrid forward who now covers the club as a commentator. "From the people I knew at the time around there, everybody really talked him up. But every year there are three or four kids that they talk up and three or four don't make it. I didn't at that point expect to hear much more about him."
Arlauckas' scepticism was soon erased and one moment in particular convinced him. It came when Doncic was beginning to appear for the first team, at the end of the 2014-15 season, at the age of 16.
"I remember it perfectly," Arlauckas says. "It was a shot taken in the warm-up and the rebound came off. The way he was able to jump up, catch the ball on its way down and dribble it behind his back, single-handedly, over to his left hand. It's something that you don't see even the top pros doing.
"The way the ball was attracted to his hand like a yo-yo, and his sense of where the ball was and how to get to it – I attribute it to basketball knowledge, but there's a talent to it and a lot of work that goes into developing that hand-eye coordination.
"From that moment, I fell in love with him."
In January 2016, with several first-choice guards – including star man Sergio Llull – out injured, Doncic was drafted in by coach Pablo Laso to start a game against CSKA Moscow.
Kyle Hines, the Russian club's two-time EuroLeague Defensive Player of the Year, remembers first encountering the Madrid prospect, and how quickly opposition coaches learned to respect his ever-developing skills.
"My coaching staff was familiar with him but personally I wasn't," Hines says. "What I remember prominently was we were playing the game and our coach was like, 'He can't shoot. He's not going to shoot.' I remember him telling our guards that we're going to go deep on him to force him to shoot."
The advice proved to be misguided. Doncic hit three consecutive three-pointers in two second-quarter minutes.
Doncic made an impression on Hines, one of the European game's toughest in defence
"People were saying he can't do this and he immediately stepped in," Hines continues. "He didn't react like he was 16 years old. He had a command about the team and a confidence within himself. I don't think anybody at 16 years old is able to come and play with the poise that he did, especially for a team like Real Madrid that every year are competing for titles."
It wasn't all smooth sailing though. Inevitably, having been thrust into elite basketball at such a young age, Doncic was inconsistent, and his errant performances would occasionally draw coach Laso's ire – the three-point triple-salvo against CSKA, for example, came moments after a few choice words during a timeout.
The way Doncic responded to such reprimands, however, spoke volumes about his ability to shoulder responsibility and quickly confine moments of poor form to the past. In one turbulent game against Turkish side Darussafaka, Doncic could be seen crying as he sat on the bench.
"You see the desire. You see he's human," Arlauckas says. "He took a rapping from his coach, and he played terrible in that game. But he came back the next game and played a good game. You see the resilience that you look for in a kid like that."
In the summer of 2017, Doncic swaggered on to the international stage, representing Slovenia in the EuroBasket tournament with his confidence augmented, having been named the EuroLeague's Rising Star of the previous season.
During the knockout phase, hosted in Istanbul, he scored 27 points to ease his nation past Latvia and current Mavericks team-mate Kristaps Porzingis in the quarter-final. And the 18-year-old followed that up two days later with 11 points, 12 rebounds and eight assists as Slovenia upset a Spain side replete with NBA stars in the semis.
In the final against Serbia, an ankle injury forced him off in the third quarter, but his part in Slovenia's unbeaten, nine-win run to the title will be remembered as one of the great individual displays by a teenager in European basketball history.
Doncic, front, centre with selife stick, celebrates with his 2017 Slovenia team-mates
"I think winning that gold medal gave him confidence," Arlauckas says. "I hate to use the word maturity because he was 18 at the time, but he really became mature as a player. It's his mentality.
"When he came back and his first game out of the box was a career high, I just shook my head and said, 'How long can this go for?' His second game out of the box was a career high again. I said, 'OK, I'm done trying to prognosticate and doubt this kid. He's always going to be better than any prediction I come up with.'"
That summer's EuroBasket also, inadvertently, gave Doncic the chance to establish himself as Real Madrid's key man. Spain international Llull, Madrid's starting point guard and the previous season's MVP, suffered an ACL injury in a pre-tournament friendly, ruling him out for most of the 2017-18 campaign. Doncic would step in to fill the void.
"It was his team. It was his job to put the team on his shoulders," Hines says. "Seeing him do that at 18, leading them through the entire season, with some of the plays he made and some of the things he was doing, was spectacular.
"A lot of times teams were trying to be super-physical with him because they were looking at him like he's this kid. But he didn't back down from anybody. When they challenged him, he challenged them right back.
"That season, I recognised he had a lot of things that other talented players don't have. Wherever he goes, wherever he plays, I knew he'd be successful."
By the end of the campaign, Doncic had carried Madrid to a record 10th EuroLeague title, becoming the youngest player to win the overall MVP award, while also retaining his Rising Star honour and adding a Final Four MVP crown. Having declared in April for the 2018 NBA draft, he would take his game to basketball's biggest stage fully formed, no longer a vaunted prospect but a bona fide, NBA-calibre star.
Doncic's Mavericks resume their season against Houston Rockets
"He's won Rookie of the Year. Right now, he has Dallas in a poised position to do well," Hines says of Doncic's performances to date with the Mavericks, who traded the rights to fellow point guard prodigy Trae Young and a future first-round pick to acquire the Slovenian from the Atlanta Hawks immediately after the 2018 draft.
"He's already been an All-Star. And he's not even 22 years old. He has the potential to be even greater."
Arlauckas concludes: "You're looking at a kid who, in a very short period of time, can be the number one player in the world. He can go that far."
Previous In the past two weeks, the US recorded more than 915,000 new cases of coronavirus — that's more than the cases reported across the country for the whole month of June.
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Nikita Kucherov is setting records for the Tampa Bay Lightning in the postseason. What matters is that the Lightning are three wins from the Stanley Cup after a 3-2 win against the Dallas Stars in Game 2 of the Stanley Cup Final on Monday.
Up to 90 whales have died after becoming stranded in a remote bay in southern Australia, with rescuers warning the mission to save another 180 still stuck will prove "challenging".
Tragic end for 'world's unluckiest man' Paul Murphy


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Rajasthan GK Question in Hindi Sample Paper 118: Rajasthan General Knowledge Sample Question Paper with Collection Question No. 2631 to Q.2640 of Rajasthan GK Questions under GK Quiz in PDF @ Rajasthan GK Sample Papers. Rajasthan General Knowledge (GK) and General Studies (GS) Questions from various examinations of Rajasthan Govt. and central Govt Examinations.
Q. 2632 26 जनवरी को गार्ड आफ ऑनर का नेतृत्व करने वाली पहली महिला कौन है ?
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Home › News › Review Of The Battle Of Badr
Review Of The Battle Of Badr
By Discover The Truth • March 7, 2016
Shaykh Allamah Shibli Nomani
Having given a bare description of events, we now proceed to a critical examination of the question whether the battle of Badr was a defensive measure against the Quraish or, as generally stated by historians, a high-way robbery directed against a trade-caravan.
I know there is a difference between history and a court of law, and that history narrates its facts not quite in the same manner as a court of law adopts to write down its verdict. I also admit that my duty is to narrate facts and not to write down a judgment. But there is an occasion when a historical event has assumed the nature of a law suit, and I am forced to deviate from the usual style and deal with the issues on the lines of a legal judgment.
In doing so, I fear naught if all the historians and biographers stand arrayed against me. It shall soon be evident that truth, single-handed, may conquer a host. In order to ensure continuity in the line of thought, we must first tell our readers what, (in the light of our researches) was the real situation.
The fact is that the whole of Mecca was crying for revenge at the death of Hadramu. This had led to petty skirmishes and each party was living in dread of the other. As usual in such circumstances, rumours take wing. At this time Abu Sufyan travelled to Syria at the head of a big trade caravan. He was still in Syria when a rumour was bruited abroad that the Muslims were planning an attack on the caravan. Abu Sufyan despatched a messenger post-haste to Mecca to inform the Quraish, and Quraish started making preparations for war. In Medina it was believed that the Quraish were bringing up a huge army to attack the city. The Prophet (p) decided to take defensive measures; and thus took place the battle of Badr.
In order to decide the issue, let us first state the principles uncontroversially accepted by all of us. They will serve as established fundamentals in the progress of our discussion. They are as follows:
1. If a fact has been described by the Qur'an in clear words, no contradictory report, from whatsoever source, shall be deemed reliable.
2. Due regard shall be paid to the grade of authenticity in which each book on traditions has been generally placed.
It is generally agreed that when the Prophet (p) came to know that the Quraish had set out from Mecca with great preparations, he turned to the Companions and sought their views. The Muhajirs were highly enthusiastic in volunteering themselves; but the Prophet (p) was anxious to know if the Ansar were willing. Sa'd or some other respectable Ansari realised the situation and stood up, and thus addressed the Prophet: 'Is it we you mean? We are not the sort of people who had told Moses to go himself with his God and carry on the fight, while they would sit where they were. By Allah, if you order us, we will plunge down into sea or fire.'
It is also agree that there were some of the Companions who hesitated to take part in the battle. The Holy Qur'an says:
'Though a party among the believers were averse.' Quran – 8:5
Historians and traditionists generally accounted for the Prophet's anxiety to know the views of the Ansar, by reference to the promise given by them at the time of Bai'at (oath of allegiance) at Mecca. There the Ansar had promised to oppose the enemy if Medina itself was attacked. They were not pledged to give battle out of Madina. The crucial point in our controversy is the location of the place where the consultations took place. Historians say that the Prophet (p) had mind to attack the trade caravan when he first set out from Medina, but when he had gone a distance of a few stages he came to know of the approach of the Quraish army. It was then and there that the Prophet (p) called the Ansar and the Muhajirs to ascertain their views. All that followed took place here. But, transcending the writers on Sira (biography) or any other source whatsoever, we have the testimony of the Qur'an, which we must all accept in humble submission. The Quran says:
'This is like what time the Lord had caused thee to go forth from thy house for a party among the believers were averse. Disputing with thee respecting the right cause after it had become manifest, as though they were led forth unto death while they looked on. And recall what time Allah was promising you one of the two parties that it should be yours, and ye would fain have that the one without arms were yours; whilst Allah besought to justify the truth by His words and to cut off the root of the infidels.' – Quran 8:7
According to the rules of Arabic grammar, the Wa'u occurring in the phrase 'Wa Inna' in the above passage is 'Wa'u Haliyah' or consequential, which makes the flinching of a group from battle, a simultaneous occurrence with the setting out of the Prophet (p) from Medina and not with a later time when he had marched off some stages. Wa'u Haliyah Or the consequential Wa'u denotes that the time when they hesitated was no other than the time they were coming out of their houses.
2. The foregoing Verse clearly indicates that it was a time when the Muslims could expect either the trade caravan or the army coming from Mecca. Historians allege that it speaks of the time when the Prophet (p) had reached Badr. But we know that by the time the Prophet (p) reached Badr, the trade caravan had safely passed off. In these circumstances how could God promise to place at their disposal one of the two-the trade caravan or the Quraish army. Thus it is evident that according to the Qur'anic verse the consultations were held at a time when either of the two could be attacked that is, the time when the Prophet was still at Medina and when a trade caravan was reported to be on the road under Abu Sufyan, while a Quraish army fully equipped for battle, on the march from Mecca.
3. Another point that deserves to be noted is that, of the two bodies of infidels spoken of in this verse, one is the trade caravan and the other a force splendid and equipped Ghair Dhat Shaukatah, namely the Quriahs army advancing from Mecca to give battle. The verse also clarifies that a section of the Muslims were in favour of an attack on the caravan, which God disapproved in these words.
'And you would fain have that the one without arms were yours; whilst besought to justify the truth by His words and to falsify the false even though the guilty ones were averse.' – Quran 8:4
On one side are those who want to attack the caravan and on the other is God who wills to establish the truth with His word and uproot infidelity altogether. Which side would the Holy Prophet take? I shudder at the thought of the answer to this question, if it should accord with the statements of our historians and traditionists.
4. Let us now consider another aspect. The prophet (p) is marching out of Medina with the best force he could muster. Three hundred Muhajirs and Ansar he commands-including Ali, the future victor of Khaibar, and Amr Hamza, the top-most warrior, each of whom is by himself a match for a whole army. With all that that (as clearly mentioned in the Qur'an) some of the Companions feel their hearts sinking for fear as though they were being driven into the jaws of death. The Qur'an says:
'While a party among the believers were averse. Disputing with thee respecting the right cause after it had become manifest, as though they were led forth unto death.' – Quran 8:4-5
If the object was merely to attack the trade caravan, why then this fear, this fidgety feelings, this evasive attitude. Many a time before this, as the historians report, batches of men had been despatched to pillage the caravans. None of them had ever been injured. Why should this particular caravan inspire so great a fear that a good many of them, in spite of their numbers, are seen drooping down unnerved? Decidedly it proves that the approach of a huge army had been reported to the Muslims before they left the city.
5. The Holy Qur'an has yet another verse regarding this affair. It was revealed at the time when the Holy Prophet (p) was still in Medina as expressly reported in Sahih Bukhari (commentary on Sur Nisa or the Women). The verse runs thus:
'Allah with their riches and their lives. Allah hath preferred in rank the strivers with their riches and their lives above the holders-back, and unto all Allah hath promised good.' – Quran 4:95
Sahih al-Bukhari quotes here comment of Ibn Abbas who said that those who did not participate in the battle could not be equated with those who participated. Sahih al-Bukhari adds that the verses when first revealed made no exception in case of those suffering from physical disability. Abdullah Ibn Maktum, when the verse was reported to him, came to the Prophet (p) with a request to be excused as he had lost his eyesight. Then and there the words 'except those who are disable' were revealed to be appended. This makes it certain that while still at Medina the Muslims had come to know that they were going not to attack a trade caravan, but to measure swords and lay down their lives.
6. Regarding the Quriash pagans who came from mecca to fight at Badr, the Holy Qur'an says:
'And be not like unto those who came forth from their homes vaunting and to be seen of men and hindering others from the wy of Allah; and that Allah is the Encompasser of that which they work.' – Quran 8:47
Next to the Qur'an is the status of the Hadith. A number of books on traditions give brief or detailed description of Badr. Barring the report narrated on the authority of Ka'b ibn Malik, I did not come across, in my study of these books, a ingle report saying that the Prophet (p) had set out for Badr in order to intercept the trade-caravan. The report of Ka'b Ibn Malik is worth discussing in the following facts:
1. Ka'b ibn Malik himself had not been a participant in the battle of Badr, hence he does not report from personal observation.
2. The motive behind the report is to under-estimate the importance of Badr so that he might forgive himself for his absence. That it was an eventful encounter may best be judged from the fact that the Qur'an called it the 'Day of Proof or Decision', and promised absolution from sins to those who took part in it.
The participants in this battle were always highly honoured, and received the highest pensions in the days of Umar. To be called a Badri (participant in the battle of Badr) was a special mark of honour.
The report of Ka'b Ibn Malik is as follows:
'From Ka'b who says: I never kept away from accompanying the Holy Prophet (p) in any battle except that of Tabuk and the Ghazwa of Badr, the which too I missed and no displeasure was shown to any who did not join it for the Holy Prophet (p) had set out in search of the caravan, but God brought the two forces face to face unexpectedly.'
Against this there is a report on the authority of Anas mentioned by Muslim. It runs thus:
1. Anas reported that when the Prophet (p) came to know of the approach of Abu Sufyan, he held consultations and sought advice. Abu Bakr spoke, but the Prophet (p) was not attentive to him. Then Umar, followed Abu Bakr and the Holy Prophet (p) was again not attentive.
Then Sa'd Ibn Abada stood up and asked if the Prophet wanted to know their views. On oath he declared that if he ordered them to jump with their horses into a river, they would do it, and if he ordered them to go up to Bark –al-Ghammad, they would go. Anas said that on hearing these words the Prophet (p) invited people to take part in the battle. They started and stopped at Badr.
2. The first to arrive was an advance party of the Quraish, which included an Abyssinian slave of Bani Hajjaj. The Muslims arrested him and asked him the whereabouts of Abu Sufyan. He said he knew not where Abu Sufyan was, he could only say that Abu Jahl, Shaiba and Umayya Ibn Khalaf were coming. At this he was beaten again and would again promise to give a clue.
But again when they stopped beating him, he said that he knew nothing of Abu Sufyan, but that Abu Jahl and the other chiefs were coming. The Holy Prophet (p) was offering prayers and had to intervene saying.
'By God who has my life at His mercy, when he tells a lie you leave him.'
The first part of this report says that when the Prophet (p) came to know of the approach of Abu Sufyan, he consulted the Companions and desired help from the Ansar. Now it is agreed on all hands that Abu Sufyan's arrival had become known in Medina.
It follows that Medina was the place where the Prophet (p) sought help from the Ansar. Had this taken place outside Medina, as mentioned in books on Sira, how could the Ansar be there? The same part of the report says that after having consulted his companions, the Prophet (p) invited the people to battle.
If the version of the books on Sira be accepted then the order of events would be that the Ansar, contrary to their custom and promise, first marched out to take part in the fighting, then the Prophet, (p) ascertained their views, and then he asked them to join the battle-obviously an insane statement.
The second part of the report clearly indicates that through revelation or some other source, the Prophet (p) had come to know that it was not the trade-caravan they had to face but a force of fighting men. It is quite possible that other people might have not known it.
In this report there is yet another knot to be undone. If the Muslims had the knowledge of the approach of Abu Sufyan and knew nothing of the Quraish army, why would the Prophet be at pains to call in the entire Muslims strength? If the narration of facts, instead of beginning with the 'On hearing of the approach of Abu Sufyan', had been with 'On knowing of the approach of the infidels of Mecca', that would have been more in keeping with the circumstances. Imam Ahmed Ibn Hanbal in his Musnad, Ibn Abi Shaiba in his Musannaf, Ibn Jarir in Tarikh and Baihaqi in his Dala'il have all recorded the event with the words substituted as above and also declare it to be the correct version reported by the hero of Badr, the lion-hearted Ali Ibn Abi Talib. '
'On the authority of Ali who says that when we came to Medina, we got fruits to eat and they did not agree with us. We fell ill. The Holy Prophet (p) would often inquire about Badr. When we got the news that the pagans were coming, the Prophet (p) set out for Badr. Badr is the name of a well and here we reached before the arrival of the infidels.'
This version clearly states that the Prophet (p) had set out, when he had been informed of the advance of the Quraish and that he ordered a halt when he had come to Badr. This report makes no mention of the trade caravan.
With these texts before us no further argument is called for. The following facts may, however, serve to set at rest doubts, if any:
1. All the expeditions sent from time to time by the Prophet (p) to harass the caravans of the Quriahs had comprised from twenty to two hundred men, but none of them had ever included a single Ansari. The historians explicitly mention this fact and feel called upon to do so, as the Ansar had not committed themselves to fight outside Medina. Consequently, it is obvious that the Ansar should not have been there with the Muslim army in case it had merely aimed at falling upon a trade-caravan.
On the contrary we find that the Ansar constituted the major portion of the Muslim force on this occasion-out of 305 only 74 being the Muhajirs, and the rest Ansar. This is then a conclusive argument establishing the fact that the Quraish had already been reported to be making for Medina before the Muslims moved from the city. It was for this reason that the Prophet (p) addressed the Ansar for it was now time to itillize their services.
2. The caravan route to Syria passed close by Medina. The tribes living between Mecca and Medina were mostly under the domination of the Quraish. On the other hand the Quriash had no influence over the tribes living between Medina and Syria. If the trade-caravan had been the target, the Muslims ought to have advanced towards Syria. That the caravan was coming from Syria and the Prophet (p) was in the know of the fact, yet he marched out in the direction of Mecca, instead of going towards Syria, only to learn that the caravan had made its escape and he was to measure swords with the Quraish, is simply unthinkable.
3. The chronological order of events is this:
(a) The Quraiysh wrote to Abdullah Ibn Ubayy that they should turn Muhammad (p) and his companions out of Medina or they would come to Medina and destroy them all. (already mentioned on the authority of Sunan Abu Dawud).
(b) Abu Jahl told Sa'd Ibn Mu'adh that he had given shelter to their enemies, and if he had not been promised protection by Umayya Ibn Khalaf, he would have killed Sa'd.
(c) Kurz Ibn Jabir raided the grazing fields belonging to the Medinites in Jamadi al-Thani of the 2nd year of the Hijra; and made off with the Prophet's camels.
4. Next month the Prophet (p) deputed Abdullah Ibn Jahsh to watch and report the movement of the Quraish.
5. Abdullah Ibn jahsh, against the directions of the Prophet (p), pillaged a small caravan of the Quraish, killing one and taking two of them prisoners. Let us keep in view all that the Quraish had done to the Muslims in Mecca, and note that their craving for revenge had known no abatement. They had written to Abdullah Ibn Ubayy that they would come to Medina and destroy them and the Prophet both; and then Kurz Fihri had attacked the pasture lands of Medina.
Then Abdullah Ibn Jahsh attacked their caravan and two of their dignitaries were taken prisoner, which was adding fuel to fire. But the Quraish put up with all that and did not think of any sort of revenge. Only when the Prophet comes out to loot their caravan which carries the entire investment of the Meccans, do they feel forced to come out for defence. Even then at a short distance from Badr, when they come to know of the same passage of the caravan, their leaders, including the commander-in-chief, Utba, suggest that it is no use fighting and they had better turn back. Is this presentation of facts in keeping with the revengeful spirit of the Quraish, or does it do credit to a Prophet's character as a Messenger of God?
6. Most of the historians state that people did not show much enthusiasm when they were asked to advance against the caravan. Then thought it was neither a true battle nor a religious war, but simply a bid for booty: hence only those who sought material gain joined the expedition. But facts point the other way.
Leading personalities and warriors of note among the Ansar were out to a man. Need and indigence, if there was any, was to be met with among Muhajirs; but the Ansar were twice as many as the Muhajirs.
7. Those who came forward with a willing response to the call of the Prophet (p) included Abu Bakr, Umar and Miqdad, from the Muhajirs, and Sa'd Ibn Ubada from amongst the Ansar. Sa'd Ibn Ubada could not participate in the battle of Badr and was unable to leave Medina. Thus it must be concluded that Sa'd made his reply in Medina where it was already known that the Quraish were on the march for an attack. The fact that the consent of the People was sought at Medina follows as a logical corollary.
8. The assertion that the Prophet (p) did not meet with a unanimous response when he called upon people to start for Badr, that there were some who flinched from it as they knew that it was not a religious war, but only a raid for plunder, and so they were free to go or stay back, are not confined to historians; some books on tradtions tell the same tale. Tabari has it in these words:
'People have reported that when the Prophet heard of Abu Sufyan's departure from Syria, he called the Muslims and informed them that a caravan of the Quraish, was coming laden with the wealth of the Quraish, and he asked them to proceed in its direction for God might perhaps grant them something out of it as booty. People evinced their readiness but some of them shrunk from it, thinking that the Holy Prophet (p) would not have to fight.'
This statement contradicts the explicit text of the Qur'an, which says that those who felt disinclined did so, not because they were not ready, but because they saw death staring them in the face. The words are:\
'And a party among the believers were averse. Disputing with thee respecting the right cause after it had become manifest, as though they were led forth unto death while they looked on.' – Quran 8:5-6
9. The books on tradition and history all say that a mile away from Medina (at a place known as Bi'r Abi Ghabah) the Holy Prophet (p) reviewed the Muslim army and ordered Abdullah Ibn Umar and others to return back as they were below fifteen years or had not attained majority. Had it been the object to raid the caravan, the youngsters should have done it better. In fact they had a religious war on hand, which was a sacred duty, obligatory only for adults. Minors were therefore, ordered back as ineligible for it.
10. Hafiz Ibn Abd al-Barr, in Isti'ab, reports that on the occasion when the Prophet (p) advised the Muslims to attac(k) the Quraish, Khaitama, an Ansari, asked his son, Sa'd, to let him go, while he (Sa'd) should stay there to look after the women. 'Respected Sir,' said the son, 'I should have surely given you precedence over myself on any other occasion, but here is a chance for martyrdom; I will not forego this privilege.'
They had to draw lots and Sa'd won. He went to the battle and was killed. This makes it decidedly certain that it was going to be a religious war, not a highway-man's business; they were coveting the honour of martyrdom.
THE REAL CAUSE OF THE GHAZWA BADR
It was the characteristic of Arab race to start a bloody war whenever a man from a certain tribe got killed at the hands of another. Huge hosts swarmed up from both sides and blood ran in streams. These wars continued for years, whole tribes were destroyed; but the fighting knew no end. The Arabs were not generally literate, yet the name of the murdered was preserved, written down on a price of paper, and passed on to succeeding generations.
Little children were taught to remember it so that they might take a revenge when they grew up. The horrible wars of Dahis and Basus each of which continued for almost forty years and claimed thousands of lives, were fought for no other reasons. The Arabic word for such a revenge was 'Thar', a word that looms large in the national history of the Arabs.
As already mentioned, Amr Ibn Hadrami had been slain in an encounter with Abdullah Ibn Jahsh. Hadrami was an ally of Utba Ibn Rabi'a and Utba was the chief of the whole Quraish community. Badr, and all the battles that followed, were in consequence of revenge for this man's death. Urwa Ibn Zubair, the son of A'isha's sister, has explicitly stated in these words:
The cause that led to Badr and all the battles fought between the Prophet (p) and the infidels of Arabia, was, as stated by Urwa Ibn Zubair, the death of Amr Hadrami, who was slain by Waqid Ibn Abdullah Tamimi.
A general mistake that leads to fallacious view of facts is the presumption that Badr was the first battle fought against the infidels. As a matter of fact several engagements had actually preceded it. '
'Urwa Ibn Zubair wrote a letter to Abd al-Malik, the opening sentence of which was: Abu Sufyan Ibn Harb was coming from Syria with seventy riders all of whom were Quraish.'
This was reported to the Prophet (p) and his companions. Hostilities had already broken out between the two parties, and a few persons from the other party including Ibn Hadrami had been slain and some taken prisoners…… And this had been the event that had led to war between the Prophet (p) and the Quriash. This had also been the first occasion when losses were mutually inflicted; and this encounter had taken place before Abu Sufyan departed for Syria. (Tabari, p. 1285)
The best way to arrive at the truth is to see what the other side had to say. Such evidence is rarely found, but fortunately, it is available in this case. Hakim Ibn Hizam (a nephew of Khadija), who was still an unbeliever had come with the Quraish army. He was five years older than the Prophet (p) and had been friendly to him in the pre-ministry days and continued to be so even when the Prophet (p) had entered upon his mission. However he did not embrace Islam till the conquest of Mecca. Ibn Hakim was a Quraish dignitary, held the office of Rifada, and owned and managed Dar al-Nadwa. He lived till the days of the Caliph Marwan Ibn Hakam.
Once he went to see Marwan, who received him with great honour. Marwan left his royal seat, sat by his side and asked him to relate the events at Badr. Having described the preliminary details, he said,
'When the Quraish had encamped, I went to Utba and said to him, 'O' father of Walid, won't you like to win a life-long fame? How is it possible? Asked Utba, and I answered, You see, the Quraish demand from Mohammad nothing more than blood for the blood of Hadrami, and he was your ally. Why don't you pay his blood-money yourself and let all your people march back home-ward. Utba liked this proposal, but Abu Jahl did not consent to it. Abu Jahl called Amir Hadrami, the brother of the deceased Hadrami, and said that he should stand out and invoke the aid of the nation, for he had his chance of vengeance close at hand. According to Arab custom, Amir Hadrami cast off his clothes and cried, 'Oh Amr Hadrami, Oh, Amr Hadrami, Oh Amr Hadrami!' (Tabari, pp. 1314-1316)
The first man who came into the battle-field was this Amir Hadrami. Hakim Ibn Hizam and Amir Hadrami were both non-believers, when Badr was fought. Utba and Abu Jahl, the leading chiefs died infidels. When persons of consequence, such as these, regarded the battle of Badr as a revenge for Hadrami's blood, we need not care if other, born hundreds of years after the battle, believed that it had been the outcome of an intended plunder of the caravan.
THE ESSENTIAL POINT
The fact thus stands definitely established that the battle of Badr was not the sequel to a plundering expedition.
But it is our duty to explain how the entire body of biographers mistook a fact so patent and manifest, and why in books like Sahih al-Bukhari, we meet with statements that the original case of the battle was the attack planned against the trade-caravan.
As a matter of fact, in keeping with the rules of military campaigns, it was seldom disclosed where expedition was to be sent and why. In Shahih al-Bukhari (Ghazwa Tabuk) there is a report on the authority of Ka'b Ibn Malik, a well-known companion, who reports that:
'Whenever the Prophet (p) decided on a Ghazwa, he would speak of some other place.'
The commentators of Sahih al-Bukhari have explained that on such occasion the Prophet (p) used ambiguous and double meaning words. I do not feel inclined to accept this interpretation of the word as a general rule. However it can be gathered from a survey of events that on certain occasions the real object was so ambiguously expressed that people were left making different conjectures.
It is how Sa'd Ibn Khaithama might have come to know before-hand, on the occasion of Badr, that a fighting force, not a trade-caravan, was to be handled; while on the contrary, in sahih al-Bukhari on the authority of Ka'b Ibn Malik himself we meet with a report to the effect that on the occasion of Badr only the trade caravan was the objective.'
We have already pointed out that an occurrence reported by a narrator (not expecting the companions), is, in many cases, not the objective truth, but the interpretation of the narrator himself, that is, he reports as he viewed it. This is what happened in the case of Badr. No wonder then that the Companions guessed differently, and the guess in accord with the general temperament of the people got current.
CONSEQUENCES OF BADR
The battle of Badr had manifold effects on the religious and political conditions. In fact it was the first step of Islam towards progress. The powerful grandees of the Quraish, each of whom stood like a wall of steel in the way of Islam, were all wiped off. On the death of Utba and Abu Jahl, the Supreme leadership of the Quraish devolved on Abu Sufyan, which paved the way for the Umayyad ascendancy; but the hay-day of the power of the Quraish was over.
In medina Abdullah Ibn Ubayy Ibn Salul had been till now a declared infidel. He now made a show of crossing over to Islam, though throughout life he remained a hypocrite and died as such. The tribes of Arabia that had watched the trend of events were overawed, though not won over. Side by side with the favourable turns, the hostile forces also showed new developments. The Jews had entered into a pact to remain aloof. But the decisive victory at Badr roused their jealousy, which they could not rein back. …
Till now the Quraish had to lament the single loss of Hadrami. After the battle of Badr every Meccan house went into mourning and each Meccan child thirsted for revenge. The Ghazwa of Sawiq and the battle of Uhud were the outcome of the vehemence of this feeling. [1]
[1] Sirat -un- Nabi [Sallallahu Alaihi Wasallam] By Shaykh Allamah Shibli Nomani (r.a) – volume 2, page 35 – 53
Tagged as: BATTLE OF BADR, CARAVAN, Islam, Madinah, QURAYSH
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Be sure to stop by the Elicit Herbal Chew tent this weekend at Texas Motor Speedway for the Duck Commander 500. If you are in the area and needing some Elicit Chew, we will be just outside the speedway in the large white tents. First 10 people to tell Will and the crew "52 Rocks" get a free can! We will be rooting for Joey Gase in the green and blue #52 Xfinity Series NASCAR as he competes in the O'Reily Auto Parts 300. Joey is looking for a strong finish this weekend as he is gearing up for his 2015 debut in the NASCAR cup Series race in Chicagoland. Gase is currently running a full Nationwide Series schedule for Jimmy Means Racing and is a great driver to watch. Please keep it safe this weekend, enjoy the racing and cheer the #52 car on to a win!


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/user/1/#!/popular
/user/1/#!/recent

Why would something like this happen considering those urls are relative and don't have #! on them to indicate ajax content and is there a way to prevent this?

A: If those URLs are available on all pages, it will simply add them.
So, if I would go to: User 1 and there are again Popular there pages, then it's logical that Google loads: /user/1#!/popular
You might want to know that I've solved this puzzle with a script that's on Github: https://github.com/kubrickology/Logical-escaped_fragment
Simply build your AJAX pages with: __init()

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaStackExchange


text:
Ignatius Mouradgea d'Ohsson (* 31. Juli 1740 in Konstantinopel; † 27. August 1807 in Bièvres) war ein armenischer Orientalist, Historiker und Diplomat in schwedischen Diensten. Er wurde als Ignatius Muradcan Tosunyan als Sohn einer katholischen Familie geboren. Sein Vater war Dolmetscher an der schwedischen Botschaft und sein Sohn folgte ihm in dieser Karriere. 1768 wurde er Oberster Dolmetscher, bei seiner späteren Erhebung in den schwedischen Adelsstand nahm er den französisch klingenden Namen d'Ohsson an. Er lebte viele Jahre in Frankreich.

Constantin d'Ohsson, Verfasser einer berühmten Geschichte der Mongolen, war sein Sohn.

Werke
 Tableau Général de l'Empire Othoman. 7 Bände. Firmin Didot, Paris 1788–1824.
 deutsch: Allgemeine Schilderung des Othomanischen Reichs. Gekürzt und übersetzt von Christian Daniel Beck. 2 Bände. Weidmann, Leipzig 1788/1793 (; ).

Literatur
 Carter Vaughn Findley: Enlightening Europe on Islam and the Ottomans. Mouradgea d'Ohsson and His Masterpiece. Brill, Leiden 2019, ISBN 978-90-04-37725-7.
 Elisabeth A. Fraser: "Dressing Turks in the French Manner". Mouradgea d'Ohsson's Panorama of the Ottoman Empire. In: Ars Orientalis. Bd. 39 (2009), S. 198–230.

Weblinks
 UGAB Magazine numéro 5 – 2e trimestre 2000
 The Armenian Community In Sweden
 Findley: Mouradgea d'Ohsson and His Tableau général de l'empire othoman (engl.) (PDF-Datei; 146 kB)
 Literatur von und über Vater und Sohn D' Ohsson im Katalog der SUB Göttingen
 Ignatius Mouradgea d'Ohsson

Orientalist
Historiker
Dolmetscher
Person (Istanbul)
Person (Osmanisches Reich)
Geboren 1740
Gestorben 1807
Mann


text:
Youth of May (2021)
I know I should not have come. Whenever I think of you, I know that I will eventually cause you pain. But I want to be with you… And stay by your side. Can I come closer, Myung Hee? – Hwang Hee-tae
Youth of May Synopsis: Hee Tae becomes the pride of Gwangju when he enters Seoul National University College of Medicine with top marks. His best friend Kyung Soo, an avid pro-democracy activist, insists that they open an illegal clinic for students on the run from the government. One day, a factory worker is injured during a protest. In exchange for the costs of discreetly transporting himself and the factory worker to his hometown, Hee Tae must go to a meeting with a potential marriage partner arranged by his father. At this meeting, Hee Tae meets Myeong Hee, a nurse persevering through the hardships of life. She only agrees to go to this meeting in place of her friend Soo Ryeon, because she needs to come up with the airfare to go study in Germany. However, Myeong Hee and Hee Tae end up falling in love. In May of 1980, amidst the heated passion and cries for democracy that reverberated throughout Gwangju, Hee Tae and Myeong Hee find themselves in a twist of fate. (Source: Viu)
Lee Do-hyun as Hwang Hee-tae
A Medical student who has a sly and mischievous side, but is determined and goal oriented underneath. Although Hwang Hee-tae entered Seoul University's medical school with top scores, he postpones his graduation due to a trauma. Hee-tae appears to be carefree and lighthearted, but he's a figure who is more thoughtful than anyone else on the inside.
Go Min-si as Kim Myung-hee
A nurse three years into her career, Kim Myung-hee is a fighter who has already gone through all sorts of hardships in her young life. When facing injustice, she isn't afraid to stand up to her superiors at the hospital, and no matter what difficulties life throws her way, she determinedly chases her dream. Additionally, despite her relatively young age, Kim Myung-hee is a responsible breadwinner who works hard to scrape a living and sends money to her younger brother back home. After crossing paths with Hee-tae, Myung-hee begins to change in subtle ways and shows new sides of herself.
Lee Sang-yi as Lee Soo-chan
He is a businessman who works at a trading company after returning from his studies in France. With a three-years age gap, he is the oldest child, who places more importance on family than on himself. Lee Soo-chan relates with Myung-hee because she similarly faces hardships as the head of a household.
Keum Sae-rok as Lee Soo-ryeon
A law student who desperately fights for social justice, because she feels responsibility for coming from a wealthy family. Lee Soo-ryeon is longtime friends with Kim Myung-hee. While trying to help her friend with her dream, she finds herself starting an unexpected relationship with someone that leaves her conflicted.
Genre: Melodrama / Period drama
It premiered on KBS2 on May 3, 2021 until June 8, 2021 for 12 episodes
K-DRAMA FEELS
Youth of May is a historical melodrama done right
The series will make your heart flutter but at the same time suffer.
What makes this drama unique is the depth of emotions that the actors portrayed so well. Everyone really became their characters and left such a strong and deep impression on me as a viewer.
This drama will make you fall in love with Hwang Hee-tae's charming personality and look up to the Kim Myung-hee's hardworking and selfless personality.
Even if it's not the ending that I wanted, I still love the ending.
This 12 Episode drama is worth my time. A must watch series.
My Overall Rating – 8.5/10 (A heart-wrenching and bittersweet drama and it had the perfect length to finish it in an amazing way without including unnecessary or filler scenes.)
Have you watched Youth of May? Let me know your thoughts in the comments below!
FANGIRL RECOMMENDS
Melodrama – Encounter (2018)
Lee Do Hyun's Drama – 18 Again (2020)
Go Min SiK-dramaKeum Sae RokKorean DramaLee Do HyunLee Sang YiYouth of May
Full House (2004)