text:
SUSAN SONTAG
SUSAN SONTAG

The Making of an Icon

_Revised and Updated_

Carl Rollyson and Lisa Paddock

University Press of Mississippi / Jackson
www.upress.state.ms.us

The University Press of Mississippi is a member of the Association of American University Presses.

Copyright © 2016 by Carl Rollyson and Lisa Paddock

All rights reserved

Manufactured in the United States of America

First printing 2016

∞

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Rollyson, Carl E. (Carl Edmund) author. | Paddock, Lisa Olson author.

Title: Susan Sontag : the making of an icon / Carl Rollyson and Lisa Paddock.

Description: Revised and updated edition. | Jackson : University Press of Mississippi, 2016. | Includes bibliographical references and index.

Identifiers: LCCN 2016003042 (print) | LCCN 2016013843 (ebook) | ISBN 9781628462371 (pbk. : alk. paper) | ISBN 9781496808462 (epub single) | ISBN 9781496808479 (epub institutional) | ISBN 9781496808486 (pdf single) | ISBN 9781496808493 (pdf institutional)

Subjects: LCSH: Sontag, Susan, 1933–2004. | Authors, American—20th century—Biography. | Women and literature—United States—History—20th century.

Classification: LCC PS3569.O6547 Z876 2016 (print) | LCC PS3569.O6547 (ebook) | DDC 818/.5409—dc23

LC record available at <http://lccn.loc.gov/2016003042>

British Library Cataloging-in-Publication Data available
For Carol Klein, Marion Meade, and Anne Waldron
_Sed quid agas_? _Sic vivitur_.

What would you have me do? This is the way we live now.

—Cicero
CONTENTS

Preface

Chapter 1: My Desert Childhood (1933–45)

Chapter 2: A World Elsewhere (1945–48)

Chapter 3: Towards a Better Life (1949–53)

Chapter 4: The Life and the Project (1953–57)

Chapter 5: Quest (1957–58)

Chapter 6: Making It (1958–62)

Chapter 7: Made (1962–63)

Chapter 8: Supremacy (1963–64)

Chapter 9: Fame (1965–66)

Chapter 10: Peter and Paul (1965–67)

Chapter 11: Neo-Radicalism (1967–69)

Chapter 12: _Styles of Radical Will_ (1968–71)

Chapter 13: Ms. Sontag (1971–73)

Chapter 14: _Promised Lands_ (1973–74)

Chapter 15: "Old Complaints Revisited" (1975)

Chapter 16: Becoming a Little Posthumous (1975–77)

Chapter 17: Recovery (1976–77)

Chapter 18: The Salonistes (1977–85)

Chapter 19: _I, etcetera_ (1978–79)

Chapter 20: A Wandering Jew (1980)

Chapter 21: Susan the Apostate (1982)

Chapter 22: Retrospection and Retaliation (1982–83)

Chapter 23: President Sontag (1984–89)

Chapter 24: Pitching Susan Sontag (1986–89)

Chapter 25: "The Way We Live Now" (1987–92)

Chapter 26: _The Volcano Lover_ (1990–92)

Chapter 27: Sarajevo (1993–95)

Chapter 28: The End and the Beginning (1991–99)

Chapter 29: Recovery and Rejection (1999–2003)

Chapter 30: Finis (2004)

Coda

Acknowledgments

Notes and Comments

Works Cited

Index
PREFACE

After we proposed this biography in 1996, we wrote to Susan Sontag asking for an interview, although it seemed unlikely that she would cooperate with our project. She had spent a lifetime creating herself. The very idea of others proposing to tell her story would seem presumptuous to her. In fact, as a later chapter of this book relates, she was outraged that anyone would write her life without obtaining her permission. Still worse, how could a decent book result from the efforts of writers who did not know her? And what good is a biography of a subject who is still alive, anyway?

Some reviewers of our biography also objected to our approach, pointing out our lack of access to Sontag and decrying our treatment of Sontag as not only a writer, but also an icon. They resisted the notion that her prominence came from anything other than her writing—or they dismissed as unimportant her own image building. It did not matter to them that we had access to several archives, most notably the one Farrar, Straus & Giroux deposited at the New York Public Library. It did not matter that we had interviewed key figures in her life, many of which have now passed on and can never be consulted by other biographers. We had more than enough evidence of Sontag's rise in the literary ranks to write the kind of biography—a first biography—that would stand out no matter how many books were written after her death. But then, biography is often misunderstood by critics, who busy themselves with fiction and poetry, and do not see the relevance of biography to their studies.

We saw no point in awaiting our subject's demise—like so many undertakers of her life, who have now emerged in various memoirs—and wanted to give her a sporting chance, so to speak, to comment on our work. We were disappointed, as the penultimate chapter of this book will show, that all Sontag could think to do was vilify her biographers, demonstrating a remarkable lack of sophistication when it came to understanding how biographers operate and why they write at all. This crude understanding of biography was aided and abetted by her friends, who invented all sorts of fanciful stories about our work. Some of these fabrications appear in this narrative, because they illuminate the kind of cocoon Sontag enclosed herself in.

Now, with access to Sontag's letters and diaries, we are in a position to enhance the texture of our narrative, adding a sense of immediacy that is due largely to getting closer not only to Sontag's voice, but to the voices of her friends—including the one found in the remarkable diaries and stories of Harriet Sohmers Zwerling. But this new evidence also confirms what we already knew about Sontag. In his introduction to her diaries, Sontag's son, David Rieff, admitted, "One of the principal dilemmas in all this has been that, at least in her later life, my mother was not in any way a self-revealing person." This was exactly how we saw her in the 1990s. We did not believe that she disclosed a hidden self to a select few—or even, perhaps, to herself, except possibly in psychotherapy. She could not afford to level with herself. Her guardedness, however, should not necessarily be viewed as deceit. Some successful people fare better when they refrain from examining their own motives closely, which may explain why they cannot bear the thought of writing an autobiography. Consequently, biographers go to work on them. Sontag herself found reading biographies of her favorite authors a trial and knew exactly why she did not want to see her own life in print. "What a painful demystification of S.[imone] W.[eil] this biography is!" she wrote in her diary after reading Simone Petrement's two-volume work about the French philosopher.

What did Sontag not want to talk about? Her sexuality, for one thing, and her ambition for another. Again, David Rieff bears witness to what we learned from our research: "In particular, she avoided to the extent she could, without denying it, any discussion of her own homosexuality or any acknowledgment of her ambition." Rieff goes on to say that his decision to publish his mother's diaries is a violation of her privacy. So what seemed so awful to some in the 1990s is now pronounced, however regretfully, as revelation Sontag's son cannot avoid. It is lamentable that he should be the one to edit her diaries, but given his bond with his mother and her desire to see him as a projection of her desires and ambitions, his decision to out her seems inevitable.

In fact, although Rieff could not be expected to admit as much, Sontag was questioned about her sexuality only after the publication of our biography. Interviewers wanted to broach the subject with her, but she had been successful in branding anyone who asked personal questions as vulgar. Even the boldest interrogators desisted. For her, biography was the ultimate vulgarity, and she had plenty of friends who enjoyed playing to her prejudice.

With our access to the behind-the-scenes Sontag, we can hear her private voice. This book is now, therefore, a more intimate biography, but it is also the kind of biography it would have been if she had spoken with us and said directly what she was saying to others and to herself. We don't feel we got Sontag wrong in the earlier version of this work. What follows is an amplified and augmented portrait of an iconic and paradoxical personality never content to be just a writer, who nonetheless passionately wanted to be seen as a writer and a performer on the world's literary stage.
SUSAN SONTAG
1

MY DESERT CHILDHOOD

1933–45

One of her earliest memories—she is about four—is set in a park. She listens to her Irish nanny, Rosie, talking to another giant in a starched white uniform: "Susan is very high-strung." Susan thinks, "That's an interesting word. Is it true?"

She is "remembering" an event that occurred c. 1937, an event she describes in her _Paris Review_ interview of 1995. The park is in New York City. The nanny's name is Rose McNulty, and she is illiterate. Rosie was "like a character from a book," wrote one observer. "She was a large woman with freckled skin and fading red hair. She even had a cape to go with her white uniform." It was Susan's impression that Rosie did not know what to make of her temperamental charge. Later, Susan would describe Rosie as a "freckled elephant... who took me to Mass every Sunday and read me aloud stories in the evening paper about car accidents."

Sontag will spend her first five years in New York living with her grandparents and being cared for by relatives. What she wants to tell us is that she felt alone from a very early age. Bored with her environment, her inner life—the only one she could control—became paramount. Even at four, she claims, she was engaging in critical analysis, wondering about that word "high-strung." Sontag preferred to use the word "restless" to describe her child self, one who felt that "childhood was a terrible waste of time."

Where were her parents? In China most of the time. Jack Rosenblatt had a fur trading business, the Kung Chen Fur Corporation. Susan's parents had money, they were young, and they were very much involved with their business. Jack was only twenty-eight and his wife Mildred (née Jacobson) twenty-six when Susan was born. On the company's books Mildred is listed as president-treasurer. Jack or Jasky (as he was named on his birth certificate) had come a long way from 721 East Sixth Street in lower Manhattan, where his father, Samuel, and his mother, Gussie (née Kessler), both Jews from Austria, had begun a fur business and raised two daughters and three sons. Mildred's family, Jews from Russian-occupied Poland, was also involved in the clothing trade. Her father, Isaac, a tailor, and his wife, Dora (née Glasskovitz), raised seven children. Mildred, born at home (139 Cook Street), was the second youngest child and the only daughter.

When Susan was born, on January 16, 1933, in Woman's Hospital in Manhattan, her parents resided at 200 W. 86th Street. She was their first child. Mildred had been nervous about giving birth overseas, but not long after Susan was safely delivered, Mildred returned to China to be with her husband. Another pregnancy brought her back to Manhattan, where she gave birth to a second daughter, Judith, on February 27, 1936, in New York Hospital, where Susan, accompanied by Rosie, visited her mother. By this time, the family had a home in Great Neck, Long Island. Susan remembered its ebony swinging doors, a vestige of her parents' life in China, and Friday outings to Grandma Rosenblatt's for chicken soup and boiled chicken. And there were meals at that other Jewish favorite, Sonny's Chinese Restaurant on Queen's Boulevard, where Susan learned to use chopsticks. Susan watched her mother, on her return trips to New York, visiting knitting shops and working on cable stitch sweaters.

Susan attended her first school in the Forest Hills section of Queens. Afterward, she caught a bus on 68th Street that took her back to the Thomas Jefferson Apartments. Scraps of memory drifted back to her from this early period: walking past a boarded house on Queens Boulevard; attending the World's Fair in the spring of 1939 and seeing midgets (apparently for the first time); crying on her mother's "bony bosom" before going to bed; wanting "to be better," remembering how her mother had slapped her face. Although Sontag would favor wistful and fugitive memories of her father, Mildred Sontag, in fact, would become a lifelong object of her daughter's obsession with thwarted love. Sontag would never tire of closely observing her mother's looks and behavior: the way Mildred piled her hair atop her head; how in her mother's company she cried while watching _For Whom The Bell Tolls_ in a Manhattan theater; and seeing a play, _Life with Father_ , together when Susan was eight.

On October 19, 1938, just before midnight, Jack Rosenblatt died of pulmonary tuberculosis in the German American Hospital in Tientsin, China. He was not quite thirty-five. Mildred, staying at the Astor House Hotel in Tientsin, telegraphed Jack's father and brother Aaron the next day, and she made arrangements to begin the journey back to New York a week later. Sontag remembered that her mother waited several months to tell her that her father had died, and then was brief, saying only, "Daddy is dead," and that he had died of pneumonia. Then five-year-old Susan experienced her first asthma attack. She used a vaporizer and in a later diary listed among her earliest memories "tincture of benzoine [ _sic_ ] in cotton," an inhalant often used to treat breathing problems.

In 1939, Mildred decided to remove her small family from New York and search of a better climate for Susan. A doctor recommended Miami. Susan did not seem to mind leaving, saying she would only miss her "Gramp," who played gin rummy with her. On the train to Florida, Susan asked, "Mother, how do you spell pneumonia?" In a box, Susan carried her father's ring. Periodically she dreamed of "Daddy coming back." She could see him opening their apartment door, but that was all.

Recalling her family's brief residence in Miami, Sontag presented a brief vignette featuring a house with coconut palms. She is in the front yard with a hammer and screwdriver, trying to open one of the trees' tropical fruits. An obese black cook takes her to a park, and Susan notices a bench marked "For Whites Only." She turns to the cook and says, "We'll go sit over there and you can sit on my lap." It all seemed so nineteenth-century, Sontag told an interviewer. The city's humidity only made Susan's illness worse. Asthma is an alarming disease for anyone, but is especially frightening in children. Attacks usually occur at night, between the early hours of two and six; the child gasps for air and sometimes regurgitates sticky mucus.

Florida held no enchantment for Susan, just a fleeting memory in her diary of a tabletop Christmas tree, "silver with blue lights." She dreamed of the Lone Ranger riding in to carry her away on his horse. She cried when she was not permitted to listen to her favorite radio program. After a few months, the family left Miami. Mildred was only thirty-one when she moved her family to Tucson. In interviews, Susan portrayed Mildred as a vain, self-absorbed woman who did not know how to act like a mother, but worried instead about growing old and losing her looks. Mildred told Susan not to call her "mother" in public because she did not want anyone to know she was old enough to have a child. Susan, puzzled, wondered what her mother did with her time, for even after Jack Rosenblatt's death Mildred was absent from home for long periods, parking Susan and Judith with relatives.

It is likely that Mildred was depressed throughout Susan's earliest years. The massive change that accompanies mothering had to be especially hard on the peripatetic Mildred. Not only had she lost a husband, she had lost the income from their business, her employment, independence, and status—all replaced by the insatiable demands of young children. Alcohol provided temporary relief, a cushion, perhaps even an elevation of feeling, although the image Sontag presents is of a phlegmatic mother, too drowsy or listless to read or comment on her child's straight-A report cards. It is a familiar scene repeated in the lives of many writers who begin writing as children.

Sontag said little about her upbringing in Tucson, although she remembered that as a young child she walked along the old Spanish Trail toward the Tanque Verde foothills, where she examined the "fiercest sagueros and prickly pears." She searched for arrowheads and snakes and pocketed pretty rocks. She imagined herself the last Indian, a lone ranger. Tucson in the late 1930s occupied nine square miles of broad desert valley, with rolling foothills, unusual colors, and stunning mountains with jagged peaks. The desert is no endless sea of sand dunes. There are thorny bushes and weeds, spiny saguaros, and other trees with bright red fruits and flaming orange, spiky flower buds. When it rains, the desert blooms, the sky spreads wide with double rainbows, and the landscape looks freshly scrubbed. The British writer, J. B. Priestley, visiting Arizona in 1937, just two years before Mildred and Susan arrived, never forgot its haunting beauty: "Voices, faces, blue birds and scarlet birds, cactus and pine, mountains dissolving in the morning mirage or glowing like jewels in the sunset, the sweet clear air, the blaze of stars at midnight."

In the fall of 1939, when Mildred and Susan arrived, these desert delights were close to home. The city had a population of less than forty thousand, although as a tourist destination and military site it was growing rapidly. It had only two radio stations. Walking down the street, residents heard the same radio programs coming from the open windows of nearly every house. Tucson boasted five motion picture theaters, a few combination book and stationery stores, a symphony orchestra, a little theater, music and art programs at the university, a state museum, and a Carnegie library. The city's leisurely pace attracted outdoorsy types and—with its thirty or so hospitals and sanitariums catering to sufferers of various respiratory illnesses—health seekers. Susan's asthma improved in Tucson.

In September 1939, Susan's first full year of school began with a cloud of dust, and in this haze Susan started the first grade. In retrospect, it seemed a joke: "I was put in 1A on Monday when I was 6 years old. Then 1B on Tuesday. 2a on Wednesday. 2B on Thursday, and by the end of the week they had skipped me to third grade because I could do the work." There were no classes for gifted children. Susan studied the same subjects as everyone else: writing, spelling, reading, music, art, arithmetic, social studies, health and physical education, and elementary science. Most of her classmates accepted her. "I was born into a culturally democratic situation. It didn't occur to me that I could influence the way these kids were," Sontag later realized. She could always find common ground, saying things like "Gosh, your hair looks great today," or "Gee, those are nice loafers." Even at the age of six, however, Susan felt a need to dramatize her sense of separation from the other students, telling them that she had been born in China. She wanted to make an impression and to establish her connection with faraway places, and China seemed, she later remarked, "as far as anyone can go."

Already, at seven, Sontag had established a lifelong habit of reading through an author's body of work. To begin with, there was Alfred Payson Terhune: _Caleb Conover, Railroader_ (1907), _A Dog Named Chips_ (1931), _The Critter and Other Dogs_ (1936). Terhune's most famous series focuses on a collie named Lad and his exploits in rural New Jersey. Terhune's themes touch on right and wrong and abuse of authority, as in _Further Adventures of Lad_ (1922), where an ignorant, overbearing sheriff threatens to shoot Lad, whose adventures usually involve rectifying injustice. Anger at the unfairness and insensitivity of the adult world has often stimulated young writers and readers, and this emotion is what drew nine-year-old Susan to more substantial novels, such as Victor Hugo's _Les Misérables_. The chapter in which Fantine sells her hair made the young Susan a socialist, she would later declare.

Even more important, however, was Susan's discovery of the travel writer Richard Halliburton. One only need look at his frontispiece photographs to understand why. In _The Royal Road to Romance_ (1925), he stands in front of the Taj Mahal, turbaned, arms akimbo, at ease, with a broad smile on his face; in _The Flying Carpet_ (1932) he sits atop his two-seater plane, poised for adventure; in _Richard Halliburton's Complete Book of Marvels_ (1937), a photograph of the handsome, thirty-ish author is set next to a letter to the reader, explaining how as a boy his favorite book was filled with pictures of the "world's most wonderful cities and mountains and temples." He loved that book because it carried him away to "strange and romantic lands." Asked later what books had changed her life, Sontag gave Halliburton pride of place:

Halliburton, a young American author of travel books of the most ingenuous, 1930s stripe, was my first vision of what I thought had to be the most privileged of lives, that of a writer: a life of endless curiosity and energy and expressiveness, and countless enthusiasms. He'd climbed Etna and Popocatepetl and Fujiyama and Olympus; he'd visited the Grand Canyon and the Golden Gate Bridge (in 1938, when the book [ _Richard Halliburton's Complete Book of Marvels_ ] was published, the bridge still counted among the world's marvels); he stood on line to view Lenin's tomb in Moscow and walked on the Great Wall of China and rowed into the Blue Grotto; he'd gone to Carcassonne and Baalbek and Petra and Lhasa and Chartres and Delphi and the Alhambra and Masada and the Taj Mahal and Pompeii and Victoria Falls and Jerusalem and Rio and Isfahan and, and, and... Halliburton made me lustfully aware that the world was very big and very old; that its seeable wonders and its learnable stories were innumerable; and that I might see these wonders myself and learn the stories attached to them. _The Book of Marvels_ was a prime awakener of a good part of my own ardor and appetite.

This remembrance evokes something of the excitement Susan felt as a seven-year-old, realizing how much larger the world was than Tucson—and how small it was of her playmates, teachers, and other adults not to yearn for that larger world. Why were adults so cautious? Susan wondered: "When I grow up I've got to be careful that they don't stop me from flying through open doors."

Reading made much of the life around Susan shrink. She read about the war and imagined scenes in which Nazis or "Japs" tortured her. She remained stoical, "brave," she "could take it," putting up with her mother's silences and slaps when Susan got "fresh." In fact, her later diary records a kind of passive/aggressive warfare between mother and daughter, with one, then the other, gaining an advantage or expressing fear of the other. Sontag's vision of her childhood often narrowed to a contest with her mother—a conflict with sporadic truces and reconciliations, but no resolution.

Sontag had no place in her imagination for, say, Tucson's Pima Indians. "The folklore of the Southwest was static; picturesque even to the people who lived there," she later said.

"If you were a small kid discovering George Eliot or Thackeray or Balzac or the great Russian novels, little Indian dolls with turquoise beads sure couldn't hold a candle to the nineteenth century novel—as far as being an experience which could blast you out of your narrow framework. If you're looking for something to take you somewhere, to expand your consciousness it's going to be a great world culture." In her love of Halliburton, Sontag speaks as an enthusiast who sees a world of marvels. She longed for just that kind of companionable parent-writer, and her mother failed to measure up. "In China, children don't talk," Mildred told her articulate daughter. Mildred might, in the right mood, reminisce, telling Susan that in China "burping at the table is a polite way of showing appreciation," but that did not mean Susan had permission to burp.

So much of Susan's early life seemed fragmented. In those early years in Tucson, before Susan reached the age of ten, Mildred moved her family several times, and Susan attended several schools. What had gone before quickly disappeared. Susan never said much about her sister Judith—even in diary entries that refer to the sisters sharing a room, where Susan, in an upper bunk, tested her sister on the names of US state capitals. Judith is there—getting carsick, making a remark (not clear when) that Susan was insensitive—but also, like Susan, becoming a target of their mother's complaint that her children did not respect her and did not love her. According to Susan, Mildred said her family "offended" her.

In 1943, Mildred moved her two daughters to a neat, compact four-room stucco bungalow at 2409 on East Drachman, then a dirt road. Sontag implied that her mother, pressed for money, had auctioned off many of her Chinese mementos. The house still stands, on one edge of the University of Arizona, looking exactly as it does in a photograph taken in 1943, when the residence was brand new—except now the road is paved. Susan and her mother were the home's first occupants. How Mildred afforded the rent, supported herself and her family, and paid for household help is not clear. Perhaps there was money left over from Jack Rosenblatt's business. Sontag has said her mother taught. There is no record of Mildred teaching in the Tucson public schools, though she may have been employed in one of the city's numerous private educational institutions.

In her backyard, Susan dug a hole with the suspiciously exact dimensions of six feet by six feet by six feet. "What are you trying to do," a maid asked, "Dig all the way to China?'" No, Susan replied, she only wanted "a place to sit in." She laid eight-foot-long planks over the backyard hole to keep out the intense sun. The landlord complained, saying it was a hazard for anyone walking across the yard. Susan showed him the boards, and the entrance that she could just barely squeeze through. Inside she had dug a niche for a candle, but it was too dark to read, and she got a mouthful of dirt that came in through the cracks in her makeshift ceiling. The landlord told Mildred the hole had to be filled in within twenty-four hours, and Susan complied with the help of the maid. Three months later, she dug another hole in the same spot. Taking her cue from Tom Sawyer, who got the neighborhood kids to whitewash a fence, she conned three playmates into helping her, promising they could use the hole whenever she was not there.

Susan's hole was her hiding place, her miniature world. Her crude dugout also marked the border between "the scary and the safe," as she later put it in an article about grottos. Her cave was the equivalent of the world elsewhere, of the China where her father had died. All Susan had of her father was his signet ring, a white silk scarf with his initials embroidered in black silk, and a pigskin wallet with "Jack Rosenblatt" stamped in small gold letters. His biography, in short, remained unwritten, an "unfinished pain" in her imagination. For this kind of pain, extroverted writers like Halliburton had no cure.

Fortunately, Sontag found her first literary father early on, before her tenth year. She discovered Edgar Allan Poe. Like Halliburton, Poe conjured up a world of marvels. He wrote detective stories, hoaxes about trips to the moon and other fantastic voyages of exploration, such as _The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym_. But Poe also gave Susan her "first vision of inwardness, of melancholy, of obsessiveness, of the thrill of ratiocination, of morbidity, of a recklessly self-conscious temperament—another span of nascent avidities." Poe's writing is both adventurous and intellectual; his narrators are self-conscious and enclosed in their own worlds. Like the adult Sontag, his characters are devotees—metaphorically speaking—of grottos, those caverns of the mind. As the narrator of "Berenice" confesses, "my passions always were of the mind."

Poe, like Sontag, is an American writer who sought inspiration in Europe and in literature itself, and like her, he was obsessed with wasting diseases and death. It is not easy to catch your breath in Poe's Gothic tales, for their sense of doom is as unrelenting as their alliteration. "During the whole of a dull, dark, and soundless day in the autumn of the year..."—these sonorous, mesmerizing words from "The Fall of the House of Usher" are a literary narcotic. Poe's fiction confirmed what the therapeutic climate of Tucson tried to deny: the inescapable destiny of mortality. If that seems like a morbid discovery, it was also a godsend to a child who sensed what those around her were denying. If Richard Halliburton spoke to the extroverted pleasure of roaming the world and taking from it what you liked, Poe did the same for the introvert, demonstrating that literature could be a vehicle of transportation to other worlds and—even better—that literature could be a destination in itself. He taught her to rely on her own sensibility, ignoring any non-literary environment she encountered.

What neither Poe nor Halliburton could give Sontag, though, was a sense of career, an important concept for a child who thought of herself as being on her own, who had come to regard herself as her own authority—a common enough feeling in children who suffer from what has been variously called "father-thirst" and "father-hunger." Instead, she found her sense of mission in two books that have electrified many generations of young girls: _Madame Curie: A Biography_ and _Little Women_.

By the time she was ten, Susan had read Eve Curie's moving book about her mother. The first sentence of the biography's introduction is captivating: "The life of Marie Curie contains prodigies in such number that one would like to tell her story like a legend." Here is the complete Curie paradigm, related in Eve's ecstatic voice, a version that provides a nearly perfect plot for the arc of Sontag's life to come. Marie spends many years of poverty and solitude in the backwater of Poland. She is fired with a desire to "adore something very high and very great." Eve asks, "How is one to imagine the fervor of this girl of seventeen?" Marie becomes involved in Polish nationalism and socialism, desiring to free her country from Russian occupation and to build a better, more just society. She aspires to an education in France, the seat of learning and liberty. She writes to her sister, "I dreamed of Paris as of redemption." When Marie's opportunity comes, Eve declares, "How young one felt in Paris, how powerful, trembling, and swelling with hope!" In Paris, living in Spartan quarters, guided by her "will of iron," Marie's intense studies brought her to a state of near exhaustion. She earned two masters degrees at the Sorbonne (as Sontag would later claim to have done at Harvard). She attracts the attention of a great scientist, Pierre Curie. Like a novelist, Marie searches for new subjects to research. Together, Marie and Pierre give birth to a "new science and a new philosophy." They become joint authors, embodying the "superior alliance of man and woman, [whereby] the exchange was equal." They have children, and Marie is nearly as passionate about motherhood as she is about science. Her husband dies, and Marie dedicates herself to a "kind of perpetual giving," nursing the wounded in World War I and opening herself up to people everywhere. She is excited by the world's mysteries and marvels, which she must plumb. Above all, Marie has a sense of destiny. As Eve observes, "We must believe we are gifted for something, and that this thing, at whatever cost, must be attained." Marie persisted with a "superhuman obstinacy." As she matured, she saw the need for an international culture and relied upon her "innate refusal of all vulgarity."

Curie's is a noble story, in part because Marie would, in her daughter's words, treat her honors with "indifference," with an "immovable structure of a character," and the "stubborn effort of an intelligence." Eve quotes Einstein's remark, "Marie Curie is, of all celebrated beings, the only one whom fame has not corrupted." Here then is the origin of Sontag's desire never to be regarded as a careerist, the starting point for her adamant denial that she sought fame. To acknowledge ambition as motivation apart from achievement was anathema for a young woman who wanted to adore and be adored.

It is not just that Sontag wanted to be like Marie Curie, an international woman of renown who emerged out of a backwater to find her Pierre and Paris and give of herself to worthy causes. And it is not just that Sontag built a backyard chemistry laboratory, or that she decided she would try, like Chekhov, to combine careers as a writer and a doctor. Imagining herself finding cures, discovering a new element like radium that would be used to treat disease, was no stretch for Susan. It is Eve's evocation of a selfless career—so selfless that Marie did not look upon it as a career but as a vocation—that mattered most to Sontag. This Marie Curie resembled a mythic goddess, a figure of such austere purity that she seemed invulnerable, "intact, natural and very nearly unaware of her astounding destiny." Early on, Sontag saw herself as the product of a dichotomy. "My career is my life as something external to myself," she wrote in her diary, "so I report it to others. What is inside is my grief."

Susan strove to emulate the ideal Curie, the scientist who painstakingly stood over heavy, hot cauldrons refining ore and making her Nobel Prize-winning breakthrough. When Sontag later spoke of her writing, it would be in terms of agonizing labor, a concentration only on the work itself—not on the honors that might accrue, not on the machinery of self-promotion which she could have patented—and she reacted with hostility to any vulgar suggestion that she gave any thought to her image.

Susan would not entirely give up the idea of a medical/scientific career until she began college, but the idea of creating literature beckoned: "What I really wanted was every kind of life, and the writer's life seemed the most inclusive," she later said. The writer is free to invent and reinvent herself in a way the scientist or doctor cannot. Susan fell in love not just with reading and writing, but also with the idea of the writer. It was part of her self-consciousness project not merely to write, but to be seen as a writer: "I did think of being published. In fact, I really thought that that's what being a writer was." The impulse to write was an act of emulation and homage to the great writers she had read: "People usually say they want to become a writer to express themselves or because they have something to say. For me it was a way of being. It was like enlisting in an army of saints... I didn't think I was expressing myself. I felt that I was becoming something, taking part in a noble activity."

Where would a ten-year-old girl come upon the idea of a publishing world? Sontag did so in two novels: _Little Women_ and _Martin Eden_. She identified with Louisa May Alcott's budding writer, Jo, although Sontag was quick to add that she did not want to write anything like Jo's sentimental, melodramatic stories. Rather, it is Jo's avidity that captured Susan: "I want to do something splendid... something heroic or wonderful that won't be forgotten after I'm dead. I don't know what. I'm on the watch for it. I mean to astonish you all some day." Significantly, Jo's sense of greatness is connected to Europe: "Don't I wish I'd been there!" Jo cries. "Have you been to Paris?" Jo rejects Laurie, her childhood companion, for Professor Bhaer, an older European who welcomes her writing rather than seeing it as an eccentric tic. Susan surely spotted Jo's alienation from her family and community—despite all the talk of family togetherness. And Sontag probably saw the David Selznick production of _Little Women_ , in which Katharine Hepburn glamorized Jo's role. To be Jo, to be a writer, was to be a star.

There is more to _Little Women_ than adolescent fantasies of becoming a writer. When Jo prostitutes her talent to produce a cheap magazine piece, her father scolds her, "You can do better than this. Aim for the highest and never mind the money." Indeed, Alcott could have been writing for all budding artists, demonstrating how the writer must find her own voice and integrity. Jo becomes confused when she begins changing her stories to suit her family's suggestions. The futility of trying to please and of expecting a consensus of readers is pointed up by reviewers' contradictory reactions to Jo's work.

Even more directly, Jack London's _Martin Eden_ presents a fable of the writer's life, a naturalist's grim yet exhilarating study of individual aspiration that appealed to Sontag's somber but determined sensibility. Eden forges his own identity largely through reading books, which are treated almost literally as the building blocks of his personality. They have a tangible, tactile, erotic appeal for him. He does not merely handle books; he caresses them. Like Martin Eden, Susan wanted her writing to make some kind of impression on the world, no matter how indifferent the world seems to be. London's novel is still valuable as a kind of handbook for the freelance writer; it contains pages and pages describing Martin's feverish efforts to publish, constantly sending out manuscripts in self-addressed envelopes, and constantly receiving rejections, and then sending out the stories and articles over and over again, until something is accepted. The ratio of rejections to acceptances is daunting: For every piece that is accepted, dozens and dozens are rejected. Martin persists but ultimately perishes, a suicide.

Re-reading the novel in 1950, Sontag still regarded _Martin Eden_ as an "awakening book" and "at the same time a great affirmation." But the affirmation, she insisted in her diary, was not a "hopeful passion" of the kind one might derive from Joyce's _A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man_. On the contrary, London's book preached "despair + defeat, and I have grown up literally never daring to expect happiness," she concluded. Certainly her diaries are not the expression of a happy sensibility, and yet the soul-searching she pursued as she composed messages to herself seem to buoy her.

As Sontag later told students at the University of South Carolina, by the age or nine or ten, writing had become her mainstay. The aspiring writer produced her own four-page monthly newspaper, the _Cactus Press_ , on a hectograph: "The cheapest way of reproducing anything: you need a stencil, a tray, and gelatin. You just put the stencil face down on the gelatin, after putting the ink on the stencil. You can then put about 20 pieces of paper onto the gelatin. It reproduces the stencil. It's wonderful to use in closets. At 10 I made a literary magazine of my own and sold it to neighbors for 5 cents." Sontag smiled when telling this story, recalling how the act of publishing emancipated her. She wrote poems, stories, and at least two plays: one inspired by Karl Čapek's _R.U.R_., and another by Edna St. Vincent Millay's _Aria de Capo_. And throughout the war she wrote articles on battles such as Midway and Stalingrad, condensing what she read in the newspapers

Susan grew into a sturdily built, surprisingly sociable girl, spending her days at the El Conquistador Hotel, opened in 1928 with the support of local businessmen and community leaders eager to provide accommodation and recreation for visiting Northerners. An attractive low-slung mission-style edifice with stone arches, composite order capitals and columns with eagle mascarons, an enclosed arcade, and a central building looking like a campanile, it featured a large pool and plenty of surrounding grass for sun bathers, and the Terrace Lounge with a Palladian window gracing its entranceway. Fleeting images of this southwestern effort at enchantment appear fitfully in Sontag's diary as she remembered burning her feet on the hotel's pavement spotting movie star Paulette Goddard in the pool, watching a rodeo from the Conquistador tower, a woman poolside who gave her a bottle of beer, a friend telling dirty stories in the hotel's bathroom, getting sick in the dining room, and listening to the juke box tunes by the pool.

But by the age of twelve, she was simply biding her time, serving out the "prison sentence" of her childhood, as she calls it in her essay-memoir "Pilgrimage." It was an ordeal, but she was a good actress, a good dissembler. At Mansfield Junior High, she endured Jimmy, the "fat boy," who tormented her, and someone else who called her a "kike." She got into a fight with a girl name Jody during gym period. Algebra gave her trouble. She got to work on her first journal, collected _Classic Comics_ , and became editor of _The Sparkler_ , the school's newspaper. A teacher, Miss Kalil, lent her a book on Marx. Susan went her own way, going barefoot on buses headed downtown. Later she called her time at Mansfield a "catastrophe" she was determined never to repeat.

But as always, Susan tried to please her mother, writing funny letters that she hoped would amuse a parent who had forbidden her to read Lillian Smith's bestseller, _Strange Fruit_ , considered a controversial novel about interracial romance. Then her mother remarried. Mildred, still morose, but also still beautiful, had attracted a new mate. Susan quietly rejected him. But he did provide a new name that fit her emerging identity as a writer, and he brought with him the prospect of travel—away from the desert of her childhood and into the land of dreams: California. There, she vowed, "I will be popular."
2

A WORLD ELSEWHERE

1945–48

There is a world elsewhere. — _Coriolanus_ , act 3, scene 3

In 1945, Captain Nathan Sontag, on a "kind of furlough" in Tucson, moved into the little stucco bungalow on Drachman Avenue occupied by Mildred Rosenblatt and her two daughters. Nat Sontag was a war hero, an Air Force ace shot down five days after D-day. Wounded by shrapnel, he had been hospitalized for a year and then sent to Tucson to convalesce. Even better, Nat was handsome and cheerful. The marriage would endure. None of this meant much to Susan—although in her diary she confessed to bragging about her stepfather's wartime exploits. Both Susan and her sister took the Sontag name, a relief Judith later said, because it no longer identified them as Jewish. Susan had already taken some abuse for being a Jew.

Nat tried to parent Susan by giving well-meant advice such as, "Don't be too smart: You'll never get married." Susan had just turned thirteen, and she burst out laughing. "I don't want to marry anybody who wouldn't like somebody like me," she answered. Susan was not so much offended as she was amused, thinking, "This idiot doesn't know there are intelligent men out in the world. He thinks they're all like him." But what he said did not matter. "I was impervious. I was on the moon," she later commented.

Nat was not overbearing. He could see that Susan, in a class of her own, might have to lead a solitary life. He would become very proud of her fame as a writer. Susan was grateful that both parents "treated me as if my life was my own affair." Nat had his uses. He taught her how to drive. He sometimes intervened between mother and daughter when Mildred would bear down on Susan. She referred to Nat as "Dad" in her diary, suggesting that she eventually arrived at some acceptance of him.

Aside from her incipient literary ambitions, Sontag was reacting to a postwar society that advocated conformity, a dulling groupthink that she heard in the "jovial claptrap of my classmates and teachers, the maddening bromides I heard at home." She hated the weekly radio shows with laugh tracks, the stupid sentimental songs on the _Hit Parade_ radio program she listened to with Rosie, and the raucous announcers of prize fights and baseball games that invaded her home on weeknights and weekends. She gritted her teeth and twisted her hair, but she kept her opinions to herself.

The Sontags moved to California in 1946, settling into a pert little home, a "cozy shuttered cottage with rosebush hedges and three birch trees," perched at the approach to the San Fernando Valley. Nat Sontag, with the crisp efficiency of his military training, commandeered the patio grill, adopting the Southern California style, in which increasingly elaborate barbecues became a paean to postwar prosperity.

Susan lived in California from 1946 to 1949. One of her first discoveries was a "real bookstore," the Pickwick, which she had "tracked down" on Hollywood Boulevard. By thirteen, she had "outgrown" periodicals like the _Saturday Review_ and turned to the "fancy prose and convoluted arguments of _Partisan Review_." She read every issue, cover-to-cover, and "dreamed of going to New York City and writing for them."

At home, Susan had a room of her own. After being sent to bed and told to turn off the light, she would read by flashlight, choosing from her extensive library of comics, _Compton's Encyclopedia_ , the Bobbsey twins, biographies, Halliburton, and various Victorian classics. At the Pickwick bookstore in Los Angeles she bought a used copy of Freud's _Civilization and Its Discontents_. She hoarded books; she did not go to libraries. Books were her "household deities. [Her] spaceships." Susan had a fierce desire to possess literature and to be possessed by it. Her fervent memories of this period, with its sense of exclusivity, seem stifling. There is very little room to breathe in the den of young Susan's enthusiasm. Her passion for collecting literature even evolved into criminal activity when she occasionally stole the books she could not afford to purchase with her meager allowance. At Pickwick, she was caught stealing a copy of Thomas Mann's _Doctor Faustus_.

Susan wrote stories and journals, and she stood and conducted the music she had collected on 78-rpm records. Her high school classmate Mel Roseman remembered spending many hours at her house listening to her favorite phonograph records, especially the Mozart String Quartet in D Minor. Vivaldi's B Minor Piano Concerto was another favorite. "Music is the most wonderful, the most alive of all the arts," she wrote in her diary. Already more interested in the form than the content of art, she called music the "most pure... and the most sensual. I listen with my body and it is my body that aches in response to the passion and pathos embodied in this music." It does not take a Freudian to see, as well, the incipient sexuality of her response to her record collection. Taking ownership of what she desired and commanding art as her own would become her mission.

At the age of thirteen Susan also discovered the French writer André Gide. His journals had been published in English in 1947, although Susan may have already read some Gide in French. The image of a twenty-one-year-old Gide writing his journal is compelling. "I had always felt vaguely that I communicated my zeal to others, but that they lacked the divine spark," he wrote in 1890. And he wrote, "I must learn to keep silent... I must learn to take myself seriously... To have more mobile eyes and a less mobile face. To keep a straight face when I make a joke. Not to applaud every joke made by others. Not to show the same colorless geniality toward everyone. To disconcert at the right moment by keeping a poker face."

Susan seemed to share Gide's impulse. One of Susan's North Hollywood High School classmates remarked, "She was so focused—even austere, if you can call a 15 year old austere. Susan—no one ever called her Susie—was never frivolous. She had no time for small talk." Sontag's high school pictures give little away. She does not mimic Southern California friendliness when she poses; her face is placid, immobile, her eyes alert.

Gide was a voracious reader, the product of a "solitary and sullen childhood," high-strung and temperamental: "I am like a well-tuned harp, which sings, according to the poet's whim, a gay scherzo or a melancholy andante." He surrounded himself with a library of books, constantly picking them up and reading several of them at once. Reading and arranging these books was a sensuous, voluptuous experience. His doctrine was, "[T]he world of art is an equilibrium outside of time, an artificial health." He was attracted to characters dominated by their fate, such as Orestes, "born under the sign of Saturn." In Gide, in Sontag, journal keeping (one keeps, one does not merely write a journal) confirms one's sense of destiny. His devotion to theater, art, politics, and music made Gide the complete intellectual and artist.

Susan Sontag recalled that her main project at fourteen was to protect herself from the drivel of contemporary society threatening to drown her. She looked for friends who might share her dedication to what Gide called the cult of art. No one quite met Susan's exceptional standards, but there were two boys, Peter and Merrill, who shared some of her aesthetic passions and who were loners. Peter was a refugee, part-Hungarian and part-French, and Susan discovered that they could swap anecdotes about their glamorously dead fathers when they were not "rolling about, embracing, in the weeds." They bicycled and went to movies and argued about politics—particularly about the Henry Wallace third party campaign for the presidency. Peter had the virtue of being tall, a prerequisite for Susan, who usually towered over most boys. She needed to look up to her romantic subjects

Susan's other partner, Merrill, was blond, cute, and in the parlance of the day, "a dreamboat." She doted on him and "wanted to merge with him or for him to merge with me." Alas, he was shorter than she, and their passion was intellectual. Merrill shared her devotion to Thomas Mann. It is difficult to exaggerate Mann's stature in America during and immediately after World War II. A Nobel Prize winner, a prominent opponent of fascism, a man of regal and austere bearing, he had been received at the White House and lionized in the press. He spoke of literature and politics like an exiled head of state. When Mann, a private citizen, flew from Los Angeles to San Francisco, he was met by a squad of motorcycle police who escorted him to his speaking engagement at Berkeley. Not just for Sontag, but also for millions of readers, _The Magic Mountain_ was a "transforming book, a source of discoveries and recognitions." This novel, in which all the characters are exiles—as Sontag perceived herself to be—and are wasting away, was like the "exotic elsewhere" that had claimed her father's life. _The Magic Mountain_ liberated her, Sontag implied, from her mother's intimation that tuberculosis was a "shameful disease." In _The Magic Mountain_ "ideas are passions," Sontag said, finding a warrant for her own essayistic novelizing, which would suffuse _The Volcano Lover_.

Sontag, a recovered "asthma disabled child" and a "half-orphan" identified with Mann's "orphaned protagonist," Hans Castorp, the "hero after my own unprotected heart." If she was not "simple" or "mediocre" like Hans, she shared his earnest and docile demeanor. (Her mother once called her "Goody Two Shoes.") Both know how to live politely with others while carrying their solitude with them, and both are watched over by guardians who believe they know what is good for them. But what made _The Magic Mountain_ most appealing was the kind of "free, passionate conversations" that were hard to come by in Southern California—especially at North Hollywood High School.

The school's handsome arcade and courtyard had a college campus like feel. When Susan entered in 1947, it had over two thousand students. She was editor of the school newspaper, the _Arcade_ , for a year and was "Commissioner of Publications." She wrote editorials about politics and school life and reviewed movies. She argued for a bi-partisan foreign policy and dedication to the potential of the new United Nations, which would avoid the "extremes of aggression and appeasement." She excoriated the mentality of those who argued, "[L]et's drop a bomb on them before they drop one on us." She deplored anti-communist hysteria that branded every dissenter "red." She had a good sense of audience, recommending Olivier's _Hamlet_ : "[I]f any of you have any ideas that it is boring or academic, you'll probably change your mind.... There is enough melodrama and action in this picture to fill a hundred Hollywood creations." She also liked _Red River_ , "a glamorized western... featuring [Montgomery] Clift and ten thousand head of cattle." She published one enigmatic poem, evocative of her solitary sensibility, "gazing into quietness... Re-charging the breath with which I sigh the air."

But nothing of the aesthete or the saturnine characterized her other contributions. They are sober, sincere, and civic minded. Joan Kurland, Sontag's co-editor on the _Arcade_ , remembered collaborating with her on an editorial about the need for a traffic light near the school, which got the attention of local authorities, who then acceded to the editorial's recommendations. Robert Low remembered how after first period Susan would enter his classroom for long, intense conferences with her mentor, Miss Seda Garapedian, twenty-five, an advisor to the school newspaper. Susan and Miss Garapedian seemed to lose track of time and continue their talk into second period—to the delight of Low and some of his classmates, who did not mind at all that their English class would begin late. Editor Sue Sontag credited Garapedian in her valedictory: "[P]ink petunias to Miss Garapedian, our peachy-keen teacher, who has borne the brunt of our collective carelessness and fiendish senses-of-humor."

Susan was well enough known to win an election (she was one of three candidates) for the post of commissioner, which also gave her a seat on the student council. Van Hirst nominated her, noting that she had all As in her academic subjects and had done an excellent job as an _Arcade_ reporter: "She is willing to work hard for your interests and I believe Sue Sontag is the most capable person for the job." She was almost always referred to as Sue Sontag, which is also how she signed her articles.

Sue Sontag made no waves. Art Sol, president of the council during her tenure, did not remember her. Other students have a vague recollection of a very pleasant, if not terribly forthcoming fellow student. "She was my first albeit unrequited love," Mel Roseman recalled. Roseman, a senior at North Hollywood High when he knew Sontag, had no idea that she was younger than he; she seemed so mature. Fred Margolin (who never read a word of Susan Sontag's writings beyond her contributions to the high school newspaper) remembered a "good looking" Sontag as one of the few Jewish girls in the school, and someone who was "always her own person, never one of the crowd." She used to meet with Margolin, Mel Roseman, and a few other students, including a girl Margolin remembered as a very outspoken communist. "For whatever reason," Margolin said, "my memories of Susan are crystal clear. When Susan smiled, she lit up a room." He remembered that (weather permitting) she always wore a raincoat. "She would stride, she wouldn't walk. She did not need to be around people. She was very sure of herself." She did not flirt. She did not have boyfriends. She did not go out on dates. She maintained, in Margolin's words, a "masculine kind of independence." Asked if he met anyone else in Sontag's family, Margolin said no, it was "enough to know Sue."

A violinist in the school orchestra, a participant in a world friendship society, and in the Harlequin Club, Sontag at fifteen was already an accomplished public speaker. She delivered a speech about Abraham Lincoln and joined in a debate on the need for a third political party. She represented the school in the semi-finals of the World Friendship Oratorical Contest, addressing the theme "Who is my neighbor?" For all her brilliance, students did not treat her as eccentric. Most of them hardly noticed her. Did she seem arrogant? No one remembered a Susan Sontag who was in the slightest way offensive—except for physical education instructor Jane Sullivan. She recalled a "supercilious" Susan, who spent most of her time avoiding exercise. Sontag later remembered a fight she had with a classmate during gym class, and how she pretended to take a shower at the end of gym period. Her hygiene, in fact, was a cause for concern in her diaries—as if looking after her physical self was a burden and responsibility she evaded even as she resolved to deodorize herself more often.

Kurland, Low, and others remember a vibrant, largely young faculty in a progressive school. Students had extraordinary freedom to pursue their courses of study and pick their teachers. They remember the lack of prejudice, testified to by one Mexican American student at a class reunion. "You are fun to have in class (or should we say 'out of class'?)," one of her teachers wrote in a note, which Sontag kept and eventually deposited in her UCLA archive. For one assignment, Sontag wrote summaries of the chapters in _Civilization and Its Discontents_. For the required "personal comment," she observed, "I can have no possible disagreement with this first chapter. In the succeeding seven, particularly in the last few of this book, there are many points where I cannot follow Freud's logic.... I should, at some future time, like to discuss this at some length with particular reference to the question of whether ethical codes (sans religion) are an illusory concept." The Susan Sontag who would teach the philosophy of religion at Columbia University was already in evidence. When Sontag commented on chapter two, "Again I reiterate that I can only applaud the intellect and literary ability of Prof. Freud, who has reduced an immense philosophical problem to lyric dimensions," her teacher responded, "I also applaud your flair for words, Sue. You really crack the linguistic whip and make them behave!" Sontag wrote an entire book, "Saga of the Soviets," for another class. "Saga" included the following chapters: History & Government, The Land and the People, Famous Men of Russia [political figures and artists and authors], Military Defense, Russia's Part in World War II, Bibliography [Encyclopedias and the newspaper _PM_ ], Index, and Dictionary [key terms].

Mel Roseman recalled a "world for teenagers in the 1940's entirely remote from today's world," one that encouraged solitude:

There was no teen culture. Each of us lived in his/her private hell. We talked about many things that moved us deeply; we talked about many of our concerns and fears and hopes; but we didn't talk about our relationships with our families. Those, along with sex, were entirely private matters which we'd never have considered discussing even with our most intimate friends. Those topics were simply taboo, often even from our own thoughts. Perhaps that's why we were so passionate about the books we were reading and the music we were listening to.

Occasionally a teacher broke into this private world. For Roseman and Sontag, that teacher was Sophia Leshing. Susan took Leshing's English class, and Leshing invited Susan to her home. Years later Leshing introduced herself to Sontag at a book signing. "I can't tell you what she had meant to me," Sontag reminisced. "We talked a long while and we both cried. I can still remember her living room. There was a Paul Klee reproduction over the fireplace." A letter from Leshing to Sontag (March 22, 1968) reveals that in some ways Sontag thought of herself as in hiding during her high school years:

And your comment about my allowing you to talk honestly and to be yourself is the kind of reward the teacher in me gloats over.... I had said that religion was one of the things that couldn't be discussed in the classroom, but that I'd be glad to talk to you about it outside of school sometime. I don't know whether or how we ever did discuss it. Maybe you remember; but I still remember the incident as a sad one for me, for my rejecting anyone's honest question was so constricting to me.

Sontag kept this letter, now in her archive, but left no copy of her reply.

Frances Garner, a popular teacher of English and French, drama coach, and a well-traveled, sophisticated reader of avant-garde literature was another important intellectual mentor, one who became a "second mother to Susan." "She and Susan just clicked," said daughter Joan Garner Taylor. "I heard about this after I was at UCLA. My mother just raved about her. They spent a lot of time together." Susan visited the Garner home, finding a welcoming older woman attracted to the "offbeat." Frances Garner told her daughter about a Sontag who was a sort of rebel who did not have many friends, a girl who did not sit in class with hands folded following assignments mechanically. The usually guarded Sontag opened up, and Mrs. Garner learned that she had problems with her mother and was not close to her family. Mrs. Garner had no doubt that Susan Sontag would be a great success. "They corresponded when Susan was in Chicago," recalled Joan Garner Taylor. "My mother had graduated from the University of Chicago, and that was a tie between them."

Sue did not look anything like her other classmates. She was not childishly cute or conventionally pretty. No, she was "marvelously handsome: intensely dark and solemn, her eyes filled with exceptional intelligence, her thick black hair shorter and curlier than it is today, and her delicately shaped lips always poised to let loose a spectacular flood of articulate ideas that both fascinated and infuriated me," remembered writer Jamake Highwater, who had been two grades behind Sontag. Sue's eyes showed enormous empathy, a trait he found missing in his tense but fleeting and conflicted later encounters with the writer Susan Sontag. Many years later Highwater served on PEN's executive board with Sontag and found her unfriendly. As Karen Kennerly, PEN's executive director, told Highwater, Susan often got annoyed with friends and "slammed the great gate of her life in their faces." In Nancy Kates's documentary, _Regarding Susan Sontag_ , Eva Kollisch, a German literature professor who became Sontag's lover, admitted, "She was never able to know what goes on in another person. I mean, the sensitivity that we exercise in everyday life all the time, like, 'What are you thinking? What are you feeling? Where are you in this?' Susan was not a sensitive person."

Jack (Highwater was called Jack Marks by the family who adopted him) shared with Sue a love of argument and ideas. Even then, "she was tough," a supreme believer in reason. Jack was the romantic, the defender of the irrational, but "Sue wanted to drag me back into the naivety of the world of realists. She preferred Lionel Trilling's masculine, straightforward style." She was a few years older and better read. She challenged him to support his ideas, to come up with better arguments—but she usually won anyway, ending debate with a phrase like "as T. S. Eliot says." She infuriated Jack, but she intrigued him, insisting that he read "an endless list of novels and essays." She educated him, making him into a better adversary. In turn, he introduced her to a few authors, notably Federico Garcia Lorca and Djuna Barnes, both of whom, he thought, might cure Sue of her excessive reliance on logic. He won a few arguments, and when he showed her a letter he had received from T. S. Eliot (who agreed that Jack could dedicate a book to him), she was beside herself. He had really one-upped her.

Highwater remembered that Harry Shepro, chair of the social studies department, engaged Sue in political discussions. Shepro scared Jack. The cerebral teacher intimidated many students, who circulated a rumor that he had been a German U-boat commander. The characterization suited the fierce Mr. Shepro. He boldly discussed the basics of Marxism, and Sue, Highwater remembered, "seemed to thrive on these discussions." She wrote an essay on four California robber barons for Shepro's class. David Rieff was certain Shepro was his mother's favorite teacher.

In 1983, Patricia Rogart-Roth wrote a letter to the _Los Angeles Times_ honoring Shepro and his eleventh grade civics class: "He would present you with a problem and require that you arrive at an appropriate constitutional defense. Woe betide the student who did not understand that the Constitution was the greatest document ever devised by man." When a student turned in an essay on Henry Ford to fulfill Shepro's assignment to write about an outstanding American, Shepro, a Russian Jew, told him he had not done his homework; otherwise, he would discover that there were some "distinctly un-American sides to Ford." Shepro was later called before the House Committee on Un-American Activities, where he invoked the First and Fifth Amendments, with the result that he lost his tenure and his position as a teacher.

One young and attractive teacher was dating another teacher in the school. They appeared to be the "quintessential heterosexual couple." Yet one day "Miss T." casually mentioned to Jack and Sue that she was a lesbian. "She recognized that we were outsiders who would not be dismayed and would not breach her confidence. Perhaps she knew something that we did not know," Highwater, an openly gay man, recalled. Jack and Sue did not discuss their own sexuality or speculate about that of others. But they were not terribly shocked by Miss T's revelation; after all, this kind of thing was commonplace in an environment dominated by the movie industry. Miss T explained that pretending to be romantically involved with heterosexuals was a way of dealing with the world's bigotry. Her confidence in these two students exhilarated Jack. He took it as an acknowledgment of their maturity, "the same way our social studies teacher had discussed his radical political ideas."

Susan Sontag graduated from North Hollywood High School at the end of the fall term of 1948. She had entered in the tenth grade. At the end of her third semester, her principal told her that there was nothing else the school could teach her. In January 1949, a column in the North Hollywood High newspaper announced what the seniors would do after graduation. Some would be attending UCLA, some Southern Cal, some Occidental. Sue, just turned sixteen, planned to enroll at the University of Chicago.
3

TOWARDS A BETTER LIFE

1949–53

Susan Sontag had read an article about the University of Chicago in a national magazine. The school's president, Robert Hutchins, a handsome, articulate, and dynamic figure, was a "star," an educator who caught the public imagination like no other university president of his day. In the 1930s and 1940s he gave over eight hundred public addresses, arguing for the centrality of great books in the university curriculum and for the key role of philosophy, which had been eroded in an age of specialization, academic discipline building, and departmentalization. Hutchins held out the idea of a university as a home for great thinkers, broadly trained in the liberal arts. To a young woman who had steadily read her way through the list of Modern Library giants, the University of Chicago was the world elsewhere peopled by kindred spirits. Sontag later said she picked Chicago because it did not have a football team, and because all people there did was study. As one of her favorite professors, Ned Rosenheim, said, if Chicago had a football team in the high Hutchins era, it would have had to be coached by Aristotle.

Chicago would have been a striking choice for any North Hollywood High student. To many Southern Californians, Chicago represented the mean Midwest—a violent city, with a campus sinking into a slum, dominated by radicals. To send young Susan from North Hollywood High to the midwinter, harsh climate of Chicago seemed terrible to Mildred, and at the last minute she balked: "Chicago? The South Side? All you'll find there are communists and Negroes." The University of Chicago had a legacy of student activism and political involvement that only City College of New York, Columbia, and Harvard could rival.

In fact, owing to concerns like Mildred's, the University of Chicago had trouble attracting and retaining students. By the time Susan applied, Chicago had experienced a severe enrollment decline, and surveys showed that prospective students were worried about its deteriorating neighborhood. The city itself, of course, has never lost its rugged image, and the university's champions embrace it. "This is the city for us," said Ned Rosenheim, "there's a tough-mindedness in this town that's shared at the university. This is a great city that gets things done, and is characterized by energy of all kinds... and it has transferred a great deal of moxie to this university."

Students balked at this harsh, urban competitiveness, and at what they considered to be Hutchins's narrow, elitist great books approach. Hutchins hardly cared about these gripes, for, like Sontag, he was an enemy of the very idea of adolescence. Only in America did institutions of higher learning profess to develop the character and social skills of its students, he pointed out. Americans were far too sentimental about education, which should not coddle students or pretend to offer them family values. Indeed, he had been attracted to Chicago as the only first-rate university in the country that had a European ambiance.

The demanding curriculum forced on wunderkinds—some younger than Susan—generated a good deal of anxiety. As Earl Shorris, who attended Chicago at the age of thirteen, said, "[T]here was a high level of neurosis." Suicide attempts were not unusual. Any university campus—even one in a major city—can seem a world unto itself, and can generate a level of intensity that is unnerving to earnest young students. David Riesman, Chicago's eminent sociologist, acknowledged the "hegemony academic matters held" in the "enclave of the University of Chicago."

Riesman's words suggest what Chicago meant to Sontag. She wanted a world in which ideas dominated. That she was so young and might have to struggle with those ideas did not engender fear; instead, such a challenge stimulated passion. She readily admitted that she had not understood all those Modern Library giants, but the idea of intellectual gigantism motivated her. The notion of an enclave—one many students regarded as claustrophobic—appealed to a child who had excavated her own cave and wanted an autonomous enclosure.

And yet, it was not that easy to leave home. "I can feel myself slipping, wavering—at certain times, even accepting the idea of staying home for college," Sontag admitted in her diary. Because the public Sontag seldom had a good word for her mother, her private thoughts are startling: "All I can think of is Mother, how pretty she is, what smooth skin she has, how she loves me." Mildred had broken down one night, crying and choking back tears, so that Nat would not hear her. Sontag wanted to resist this emotional blackmail, but she asked herself, "How can I hurt her more, beaten as she is, never resisting?" In the end, Susan would overcome such compunctions about her own plans. Indeed, the very next sentence in her diary turns back to herself: "How can I help me, make me cruel?" This fateful sentence is the first evidence that she would come to associate her own independence with the necessity of becoming cruel to anyone who claimed a part of her. But to please Mildred, Susan agreed to attend Berkeley for the spring semester of 1949, and then to apply to Chicago for the fall. Mildred hoped the Berkeley campus, then a vision in "gleaming granite and marble splendor," would eclipse her daughter's infatuation with the corrupt and dangerous world of Chicago.

Mildred's faith in Berkeley was not misplaced. In 1937, the American Council of Education reported that the university had twenty-one distinguished departments, second only to Harvard, which had two more. Surveys in national periodicals placed Berkeley in the top five. "Well, I'm here," Susan announced in her diary. "It's no different at all." The environment itself would not contribute to her quest for "self-esteem and personal integrity." She was no happier "here" than at home. She was thinking in terms of a college teaching career, she confided to her diary on February 19, 1949—an ambition she later found unworthy, scrawling across her entry, "Jesus!"

In the spring of 1949, on a weekend visit home, an elated Sontag announced in her diary that she had liberated herself from dependence on her mother: "She aroused nothing in me, not even pity—just boredom." Measured against her own vitality, her home seemed dull and trivial. Berkeley would have to do if Chicago did not accept her. And she would spend a summer taking courses at UCLA in an eight-week session so as to avoid yet another return home. She seems to have enjoyed Berkeley more than her initial impressions suggest. She studied with distinguished critics like Mark Schorer and audited graduate courses. She attended Anaïs Nin's lecture, "The Function of Art and the Artist," admiring the writer's petite figure, delicate features, and "large questioning eyes." Nin emitted words with jewel-like precision, creating an aura that Susan imagined would disintegrate if you actually touched her. This kind of charismatic presence is precisely what Susan Sontag would later strive to create for herself on the public stage.

In the spring of 1949, Harriet Sohmers, then a junior at Berkeley working in a bookstore, watched a stunning Susan Sontag walk in. The male staff, including the poet Robert Duncan, was gay. They looked at the gorgeous Susan, then they looked at Harriet, and said, "Go get her." Harriet walked over to Susan, picked up a copy of Djuna Barnes's _Nightwood_ , and asked, "Have you read this?" It was a classic lesbian pick-up line, one that had been worked on Harriet earlier at Black Mountain College in North Carolina.

Harriet had grown up on the Upper West Side of Manhattan, and by seventeen had experimented with drugs and sex orgies, making love to a man and woman at the same time before an audience of friends. Unlike Susan, Harriet was comfortable with her sexuality and the subject of sex. In 1957, canvassing her memories of childhood, Sontag recalled throwing a tantrum in front of her mother and one of her uncles and saying she did not want to be a girl when she grew up. "I'll cut my breasts off," she declared.

Harriet Sohmers, in contrast, seems to have rolled through adolescent angst and dread without a qualm. One of her stories, "A Night Out," sums up her young self in one sentence: "I am not afraid of anything." After a slap from her mother, who rightly guesses her teenage daughter has been out all night doing drugs, Harriet calmly sits at a table and begins to write a description of her near overdose. In her story, Harriet—who unlike Susan, never felt the need to declare independence from her mother—seems untroubled and tries to hug her mother, who backs away. The unruffled daughter is not concerned by the rebuff and turns back upon herself: "So this is what it's like to be high on heroin." What came so easily for Harriet—being herself—is something Susan tried to will into existence.

Of course, Susan had read _Nightwood_ and had already imagined herself as part of the Parisian bisexual world Djuna Barnes so famously evokes with her portrait of the elusive Robin Vote, whom both men and women love but cannot fathom. The novel's narrator is an anatomist of sex by epigram, a connoisseur of style. So is the campy Dr. O'Connor, who is constantly throwing out intriguing aperçu on an impressive array of subjects, such as lesbianism: "Love of woman for woman, what insane passion for unmitigated anguish and motherhood brought that into the mind?"

Surely one reason _Nightwood_ has had such a devoted following and made such an impression on young literary minds is its insistence that "one's life is peculiarly one's own when one has invented it." The book is one of few narratives in which female readers can observe women finding themselves. The novel is liberating for adolescents in particular, because it explodes neat categories and rigid distinctions. "I'm the other woman that God forgot," Dr. O'Connor asserts. _Nightwood_ is such a fine book precisely because it is so expansive.

Harriet had a commanding presence. She was "a dead ringer for Prince Valiant with her boyish, regular features and shoulder-length, straight brown hair and bangs." Six feet tall, Harriet strode confidently, with none of that stooped, round-shouldered quality that some tall women acquire, trying to meet others' expectations on a lower level. Harriet enjoyed the "theatricality of her appearance." Like Susan, she knew she was dramatic looking and that she attracted attention. Unlike Susan, there was nothing tentative about her: "[H]er voice, too, had a rich, thrilling timbre that filled every room." Susan was taken with how easily they slipped into conversation, with Harriet recommending that Susan audit the Age of Johnson course taught by Professor Bronson, whose erudition, humor, and low, dramatic voice, seduced Sontag: "He thinks it's simply catastrophic that most people think badly of Boswell." Sontag's biographers would have to agree.

In her diary, Susan extolled Harriet's beautiful smile and seemed energized by her companion's vivacity. But Susan had trouble with the "Berkeley bohemians" who partied with Harriet. They were dull, but Susan was no better at presenting her "sardonic-intellectual-snob pose." This inhibiting self-consciousness is a marked characteristic of a writer who later frequented "happenings," as if in search of a method to induce spontaneity. Susan readily admitted that in Harriet's company she was a naïf. When Susan admired a beautiful blonde's powerful singing voice in a San Francisco bar, Harriet had to tell Susan that the performer was a man. Gradually Susan relaxed and stopped stepping on Harriet's feet when they danced. By the time the night was over, they had visited three bars, including a lesbian one where the women waiters dressed in men's clothes. Susan and Harriet got to bed after four a.m., and after some talk Harriet kissed her. Susan did not know what to do and stiffened, but the redoubtable Harriet melted away that reserve. She put the full weight of her body on Susan, who relaxed and enjoyed herself, declaring, "I knew everything then, nor have I forgotten it now." As she would later say in her diary, she had been reborn.

If Jamake Highwater remembers Sue as stoical, Harriet remembers a lonely, vulnerable, emotional Susan. Susan's intellect struck Harriet immediately, but Susan was still a "kid, a baby." And if Susan was the baby, in some sense Harriet was a surrogate mother—not a role she really wanted to play. Throughout the years of their intimacy, Harriet would often treat Susan cruelly and with a reserve reminiscent of Susan's own mother. It does not seem to have occurred to Susan that she was, in some respects, replicating she relationship with her mother. What bothered Harriet about Susan was that she sometimes behaved like a dependent. And what troubled Susan, whether she ever recognized it or not, is that Harriet was at once her liberator and her master, someone Susan looked for love and approval.

For all her intelligence, Susan was insecure. She would hold back, waiting to see what Harriet or other (mostly older) friends thought of a movie they had just seen. Susan could carry her weight in any intellectual conversation, but she was trying so hard to be an adult that the strain would sometimes show. She was young, but also brave. And Harriet had widened the world for her. Everything seemed possible. "I can do anything!" Susan exulted. Still, she pinned her hopes on Chicago, even though she vowed not to be taken in by the academic life. She was not ready to relinquish the cant of her age and become her own person, the way Byron had done. She feared what she called "regression."

A part of that regression included her own sexuality, as she admitted in her diary, referring to the "incipient guilt I have always felt about my lesbianism—making me ugly to myself." But Harriet had made Susan feel more alive than anyone ever had. Still, the life of a lesbian could seem rootless and frantic, even as Susan tried to steady herself by quoting Keats: "I am certain of nothing but the holiness of the heart's affections and the truth of imagination." A friend advised her to stop going to lesbian bars, or it would be too late for her to have a heterosexual life. That admonition comes to mind when considering Sontag's later, precipitous decision to marry Philip Rieff.

Susan was sweet and accommodating, and though this agreeableness touched Harriet and made her fond of Susan, Susan's hesitancy irritated her. If Harriet was hard on Susan, she also encouraged her: "I knew Susan would be something special." Harriet recalled a train trip together, when the company of this amazing, brilliant young woman and the momentum of going somewhere compelled her to turn to Susan and say, "You have a great destiny." It was not clear to Harriet what Susan would be. She knew, of course, about Susan's interest in literature—they talked of Thomas Mann, and of Susan's friendship with a boy in high school who had a similar literary sensibility—but it was not apparent then that Sontag would be a writer. Like Jamake Highwater, Harriet saw a Susan largely preoccupied with her academic studies, for all her talk of abandoning them.

Susan had a photographic memory. She seemed to lock in whatever she read. Harriet thought of her as carrying around whole libraries in her head. Susan could exude a surface calm, coupled with intellectual brilliance and beauty—it was overwhelming to see that combination in a woman so young. Harriet was close enough to Susan, however, to see that image occasionally fall apart; Susan had not yet had enough experience to defend herself in a sophisticated adult world. It did not take any great event to overwhelm Susan, who cried easily. Harriet in a nasty mood was enough to upset her. After that Berkeley semester, Harriet and Susan parted, still friends. They would resume in Paris what they had started in Berkeley, and Susan would have at least two other female lovers before departing for Chicago. She was surprised at her own initiative—although she professed a liking for being a passive sexual partner.

"I have been accepted to Chicago with a scholarship of $765," Susan wrote in her diary, as if composing a newspaper headline. She thought, "It's going to be even better at Chicago." In early September she departed by train, noting the fairy tale color of the landscape in Arizona and New Mexico before arriving in Chicago on September 4, 1949 at 7:15 a.m. After viewing the wonders of the West, she was appalled at the sluminess of Chicago, including the environs of the university: ugly, narrow streets, drunken and decrepit old men—and the smell! She found comfort in a bookstore on State Street reading Wilhelm Stekel, who argued that the Greeks were the only culture to recognize that humans were naturally bisexual.

Sontag took placement exams and placed out of all but six of the fourteen yearlong courses required of undergraduates. This result meant she would take graduate courses, usually reserved for a student's fourth year. Although she did not have time to concentrate on her own writing, like many aspiring writers she made lists of words, building her vocabulary.

Hutchins had been president of the university since 1929. For all his prestige and popularity with the public, he was a contentious presence on campus. The faculty had battled his flouting of departmental prerogatives and his championing of the great books enthusiast Mortimer Adler. Yet Hutchins's own personality infected the brightest and most ambitious students, remembered critic George Steiner:

The university was immensely liberating for those who wanted to work very hard, depressing for those who didn't. It was not a place in which you could just have a good time. First, the climate was too harsh. Second, you were encouraged to go fast. Hutchins despised holidays, despised breaks. He was a workaholic, and no one was ashamed of trying to be one after him. He hated sloppiness, mediocrity, cowardice; he made no secret of his standards. He made bitter enemies because of this. If you weren't up to it, get out. No bluffing. And he was very, very demanding of himself, he didn't see why he shouldn't be demanding of others. Hutchins was a high Platonic elitist, through and through.

Sontag, too, would become "Platonic" and "severe."

Devotion to ideas came first. Hutchins never did commit the university to improving the neighborhood. He was above that, above environment, detached from it. And Hutchins was at odds with the institutionalization of higher learning, with what one had to do to become a registered intellectual. He disliked the idea of grades and the division of subjects into disciplines. He believed in mastery—not in the grind of writing papers and fulfilling class assignments. End-of-year comprehensive exams would demonstrate what students had learned. This emphasis on a single proof of mastery drove some students away from the university and others, like George Steiner and Susan Sontag, to it. Steiner got his degree in a year; Sontag took less than two. Chicago was a place where you could put your accelerator to the floor.

Sontag liked what other students dreaded: the fixed curriculum. Chicago had a prescription for learning, and Sontag took it with her; her course syllabi accompanied her through the twenty moves she made following graduation. She wrote papers on Aristotle, Croce, "The Poetics," and _Oedipus Rex_. She made extensive notes on _The Republic_ , Boethius, St. Augustine, and Kant. She wrote her bachelor's thesis on _Nightwood_. She was also reading Bossuet, Condorcet, Herder, Ranke, Burkhardt, and Cassirer—and re-reading Gide.

Chicago did not teach Sontag how to become a disciplined writer. She did not spend her time composing stories and essays. Rather, she immersed herself in the curriculum, learning how to read texts closely, reveling in a class that might spend three hours on a couple of sentences. She described the Hutchins regime as a "benevolent dictatorship." She had never been happier, attending classes, concerts, the opera, and film screenings.

Sontag acquired poise, no doubt, from her theater experience at Chicago, where Mike Nichols directed her. In the classroom, one did not simply answer questions, but conducted arguments, intellectual arias that would "go on for several minutes"—like a Platonic dialogue, Sontag later told interviewer Molly McQuade. Sontag learned the Socratic method from Joseph Schwab, whom she regarded as Chicago's greatest teacher. She took his philosophy course for credit her first year and then audited the same course her second year. He was a great showman, a kind of Bogart of the classroom, one of his colleagues remembers: "He could pull a cigarette out of the package while he was talking, and he'd have the class absolutely hypnotized."

Sontag studied Plato, Aristotle, Horace, Sidney, Dryden, Johnson, and the history of literary criticism with Elder Olson. She worked on the classical philosophical texts with Chicago's other renowned professors, including Leo Strauss, and Richard McKeon, the latter a revered but also much feared figure. McKeon expected brilliance. Anything less might provoke a withering "That is a very stupid answer." Like Hutchins, McKeon believed in mind over matter. In a cold classroom he would cut himself off in mid-sentence and say to a student, "I'll wait until you take off your coat." Sontag audited his course and never said a word, she told McQuade. Students never addressed professors by their first names and professors called students "Mr." or "Miss." The school did not permit disrespect for academic authority. McKeon might have intimidated Susan Sontag, but she never challenged his right to behave like a god—her word for the professors she revered. The point was to learn.

Another of Sontag's gods was Leo Strauss, a European Jew who left Germany in 1932 to escape the impending Holocaust, settling in Chicago in 1938 after stopovers in France and England. He exemplified the manner and the mystique of a master she would later employ so dramatically in the cause of her own career. Strauss would announce, "Ladies and Gentlemen, good morning. In this classroom, the name of [Martin Heidegger] who is, of course, strictly incomparable, will not be mentioned. We can now proceed to Plato's Republic." A cult formed around the esoteric professor. He gave Hutchins's great books curriculum the deepest philosophical underpinning it would ever receive, and he thus gave students a profound reason to keep reading—not merely to master ideas, but to become a master.

Although Sontag had placed out of Humanities I and II, she audited them anyway. At the same time, she took Humanities III with a professor who would put an indelible stamp on her literary sensibility. The first day of class he wrote his name, "Mr. Burke," on the blackboard, and began talking about his approach to literary texts. He sounded familiar to Susan. After class, the shy sixteen-year-old, who rarely approached her professors, asked him gingerly if he would tell her his first name. He wondered why she had to know. Because she thought he might be Kenneth Burke. The startled professor wanted to know how she could know who he was. Well, she had read his books: _Permanence and Change, Philosophy of Literary Form_ , and _A Grammar of Motives_. "You have?" was apparently all he said. Burke was hardly a household name, even for the precocious students at the University of Chicago, and that she should have read him was simply, for both of them, "a miracle."

Burke saw a genius in the making, as he explained years later to literary critic Stanley Edgar Hyman. His pride in Sontag went well beyond the recognition of his own influence on the "best student I ever had." Recalling Burke's class, Susan would revel in the memory of having spent nearly a year on the exegesis of a single Joseph Conrad novel, _Victory_ , "word by word, image by image." Burke gave her a copy of his novel, _Towards a Better Life_ , which presents an idea of fiction as self-referential—that is, fiction that is about the making of fiction and the consciousness of its author.

But Burke did more than teach Sontag; he fathered her conception of the literary life. He told her about "sharing an apartment in Greenwich Village in the 1920s with Hart Crane and Djuna Barnes." "[Y]ou can imagine what that did for me," Sontag later said. Before she met Thomas Mann, her association with Burke made that library in her head palpable and immediate. Although Burke functioned as an academic, he was really a visitor to Chicago. Without the requisite academic degrees, he was the kind of freelance intellectual she would aspire to be a decade later. He was one of those writers who created the "idea of New York as a city of lyrical modernity, a running metropolitan romance." What is more, he straddled the same divide that Sontag would later attempt to master: "[H]e was political, but not too political, and he was immersed in the latest aesthetic discussion from Europe." He was the first man in Sontag's life to have lived and worked with women on equal terms, communicating to her his easy commerce with the militant feminism that pervaded the Village art scene in the years just before World War I. To be a socialist, a feminist, an artist—this could all be combined. Yet the combination was not without contradiction and like Burke, Sontag would seek a synthesis—what critic Christine Stansell calls a "third path between art for art's sake and art for politics' sake, between the aestheticism that was seeking the high ground of the Modernist movement and the didactic and ideological imperatives which increasingly dominated writers who remained on the left."

Burke presented, then, an awesome image of the exhilarating but also daunting career of a public literary intellectual. It would be a good while yet before Sontag, the writer, could put to use what professors like Strauss and Burke taught—let alone conceive of herself as an autonomous literary engine. Like Steiner, she found Chicago all-consuming. There was no time for her own writing, and there were few papers to hand in. Exams were multiple choice, but each choice presented an intellectual challenge of the highest order. Ned Rosenheim, a thirty-two-year-old professor and a war vet, who taught Sontag Humanities III, provides an example: "Of the following statements about Austen's Emma the one most characteristic of the platonic position would be...."

Ned Rosenheim took a personal interest in Susan. He asked her about the army jacket she wore to his class. It was her father's, she told him—not bothering to explain that she meant her stepfather. Susan did not expect her professors to be warm or to take an interest in her, but Rosenheim's solicitousness moved her. He did not cultivate a professorial air, and she regarded him with great fondness. What did she see in Ned Rosenheim? His own modest response is, "Let's be honest, I think it was the books that she read with me while we were talking about all kinds of other stuff."

Like her other professors, Rosenheim was influential because he taught Sontag how to value great texts—particularly those of Hume, Pater, and Croce, who helped hone her own aesthetic sensibility. Rosenheim, an engaging talker, appealed to Sontag's yearning to admire what she read and to feel saved by it. As Rosenheim said, with typical self-deprecation, "We were probably all a little self-righteous." Sontag was responsive in class, but by no means a showoff. She was striking, with her long dark hair and beautiful face, but she did not seem pretentious. She excited no particular notice, as far as Rosenheim can recall. Rather, it was her after class discussions with him that demonstrated her impressiveness, for she continued to think beyond her assignments.

Susan Sontag was nonetheless a phenomenon. Men outnumbered women two to one at Chicago, and most Chicago women, like the men at the university, were not physically attractive. Sontag stood out. A Sontag watcher from that epoch pictured her, long dark hair framing an oval face, as a figure gliding along quietly, rarely speaking, and exuding an air of mystery. Another Sontag contemporary at Chicago described her as lithe, with hair long, dark, and lovely. On a more mundane level, a fellow student remembered a commanding girl wearing exactly the same outfit to every class: blue jeans and a plaid shirt.

Sontag could appear and disappear at will, since Chicago put no emphasis on class attendance, and she could audit and pick and choose classes, sometimes sitting in on two different sections of Humanities III, for example, one with Rosenheim and one with Burke. In that sense, the seemingly rigid and prescribed curriculum was nevertheless consumer oriented. Rosenheim remembers he had "drifters," students who would appear in class even though they were not officially enrolled.

At the end of her first term at Chicago, Sontag went home to interrogate God, as she put it in her diary. This was not the Susan Sontag of "Pilgrimage," the fable Sontag composed that backdated her meeting with Thomas Mann to 1947, thus heightening the drama of a callow high school girl cowed by the illustrious author. As with some of her other retrospective accounts, she presents herself in "Pilgrimage" as a reluctant aspirant. One day her friend Merrill phones Susan to say that he has arranged a meeting with Thomas Mann. Susan thinks the very act of contacting Mann impertinent, and she cross-examines Merrill about how the Manns reacted to his call. The exuberant Merrill declares there has been no problem at all. Mann's number is in the telephone book. But Susan tells no one about her appointment and dreads its outcome.

In "Pilgrimage," the very idea of meeting Mann is distressing. That her grand notion of literature should sink to the level of a meeting between two high school kids—who have yet to achieve anything of note—and this Olympian writer, humiliates her. She does not want this kind of commerce between life and art—many readers of literature do not want it. Such an encounter spoils an ideal, spoils the purity of reading. It is vulgar. It reveals a low taste for biography, to some an act of revenge on the bookish.

In her memoir, Sontag then presents Mann as a grand old man of letters. To Susan, he resembles his posed photographs (unposed photographs in Mann biographies show him smiling, almost like a regular guy). He is very grave and speaks more slowly than anyone Sontag has ever heard. The conversation is halting, although Merrill and Susan get an opportunity to convey their enthusiasm for Mann's work. Susan worries that he will ask her about books of his that she has not read. He does not. He is courteous and correct and boring. He talks like a book review, Sontag reports. She is more interested in his library than in him. When he turns the conversation to what Susan and Merrill are studying, Susan can hardly bear it. What could this lofty, august man know about her dreadful high school education: drivers' education classes, teachers who assign _Reader's Digest_ , condoms that litter the school lawn, the Chicano kid who sells marijuana at recess, and the classmate who holds up gas stations?

Sontag's diary entry, dated December 28, 1949, tells a different story. She writes nothing that suggests someone else arranged the visit to Mann, or that she reluctantly went along. To be sure, she is in awe of this literary titan, who speaks slowly and precisely. But he is hardly the bore of "Pilgrimage," and Sontag is not bashful about asking him about _The Magic Mountain_. When she begins to speak about the protagonist, Hans Castorp, Mann responds by relating his personal experience to the creation of the character. She deems his remarks "banal." Exactly what revelation she was expecting is hard to say, and Mann seems, in her account, quite willing to discuss contemporaries like Joyce and Proust, whom he treats with great respect. Mann felt a little uneasy dealing with important questions in English, he confessed, and what, anyway, could he possibly say to Sontag, for whom literature was a world in itself, a world elsewhere. "Wherever he [Mann] was, it was where-I-was-not. Europe," she remarks in "Pilgrimage." She did not want her Thomas Mann to be part of the world in which her mother collected Early American furniture and enjoyed the Southern California sunshine. So Sontag returned to overcast mid-winter Chicago and her cocoon.

In the spring of 1950, Sontag, still in communication with Harriet Sohmers, learned that her erstwhile lover was sailing for France, intent on spending at least four months in Paris. Sontag traveled to New York City and spent a day or so with Harriet. They made love, Harriet remembered, but she did not recall much more about a meeting that occurred more than sixty years earlier. Harriet was setting off for the very place that already meant so much to Susan, the world of Gide and Proust, but it evidently still seemed out of reach for this seventeen-year-old prodigy, who returned once more to Chicago.

If she heard about a class or a professor who sounded interesting, she would simply show up. That is how she first came to see Philip Rieff, an instructor of sociology. Peter Haidu, a high school classmate who also attended University of Chicago, told her, "You've got to hear this guy." Haidu extolled Rieff's way of putting Marx and Freud together. It was the December of her second year, 1950, and she turned up in Rieff's class, Social Science II, at the urging of a friend.

Philip Rieff was a Chicago product, born in the city in 1922, and attending its public schools. Rieff's parents, poor Lithuanian immigrants, settled first on the city's west side with other struggling newcomers to America, but then moved to the more affluent north side when Joe Rieff advanced from his job as an apprentice butcher to owning his own market. Moderately successful, the couple could afford the services of Ada, a weekly cleaning lady.

Graduating with a BA from the University of Chicago in 1946, Rieff became a graduate student and instructor the next year. He looked older than he was and acted the part, too. He was not an imposing man physically, but he had a formidable, superior air. He was descended from a famous rabbi and conducted classes that required close readings resembling Talmudic commentaries on texts. Rieff could be as recondite as Burke and as withering as McKeon. Graduate students who could take the pressure to perform became disciples; the rest—cowed and resentful—remember an arbitrary authoritarian. He would sometimes corner a student in order to find out exactly how much he or she really knew. He expected students to perform extemporaneously. One student—we will call her Miss Smith—once tried to mask reading notes as a spontaneous answer. In a sotto voce aside to the class, Reiff remarked, "Miss Smith will now read to us from her marginalia."

Rieff was formal. Going to lunch at his house meant being greeted by a maid in uniform. He was not religious. One of his colleagues said Rieff was the type of Jew who could discourse about Jewishness while eating Westphalian ham. Steeped in literature, Rieff taught a one-semester course on social theory concentrating on Kafka, one of Sontag's gods. One student later called Rieff "intellectually paternal." Earning his approbation meant being enlisted in an esoteric discipline; Rieff would later claim that there were only seventeen people in the world who could read his jargon-dense, abstruse work. Sontag would later disparage him in her diary as "thin, heavy-thighed" and "balding." He talked "snobbishly, bookishly, and called me 'Sweet.'"

That day in November 1950, Sontag was late for Rieff's class. She had to walk across the room to the only empty seat—it was a dramatic entrance for a dramatic looking person. After class ended, she was the last to leave. Rieff had positioned himself by the door, and as she exited, he grabbed her arm and asked her name. She began to apologize, saying she had only come to audit the course. "No, what's your name?" he pressed her. "Will you have lunch with me?" She did, and recorded in her diary that he was giving her the opportunity to do some research for him in sociology and religion. "At last the chance to really involve myself in one area with competent guidance," she confided to her diary. On December 2, she announced their engagement in her diary without comment. On January 3, 1950, she declared, "I marry Philip with full consciousness + fear of my will toward self-destructiveness." He was twenty-eight; she was seventeen.

Sontag often repeated the story that she married Rieff ten days after meeting him. Her diary documents a somewhat less dramatic and ambivalent sequel to their first encounter. Kierkegaard—especially in his seminal work, _Fear and Trembling_ —seems to have informed her view of human choice, and of her own choices. The title of the Danish philosopher's book is taken from Paul's epistle to the Philippians, in which he urges, "[C]ontinue to work out your salvation with fear and trembling." The starkness of Sontag's single sentence about her decision to marry stands out among the clutter of reading lists and praise for professors like R. S. Crane and E. K. Brown. Sontag's surviving diaries suggest she suppressed, destroyed, or failed to confront her misgivings about the marriage until some time after the couple moved away from Chicago and their first heady period at the university.

In Rieff's class, Sontag rarely spoke, and her silence only enhanced her air of mystery. Rieff dominated the class of fifteen students with flashy teaching, and with his own air of mystery. But of course there had to be some gossip, as Sontag knew. "Oh, have you heard? Rieff married a 14-year-old Indian!" whispered one student in class. With her long dark hair, imposing carriage, and Western temperament, she seemed a noble savage.

Rieff wanted sole possession of this beautiful woman. He wanted much more, however, than just a lover and wife. When he proposed, he outlined a program for marriage: "When I proposed to Susan, it was in the name of our children." With her penchant for the "earnest, the strenuous," Sontag found his proposal appealing. Fifty years later, she confessed that for the first time she had heard herself called a woman, and it thrilled her to be sought by a man who knew he wanted her the moment he heard her voice. Certainly this kind of romance was new, nothing like her encounters with female lovers—especially Harriet, who had treated her like a child. When she suggested they sleep together, the old fashioned Rieff replied, "We'll marry first." Judith, the only Sontag family member to attend the "very small wedding," recalled, "We went afterwards to Bob's Big Boy for a hamburger. She and I were giggling a little. We each caught the other's eye, and that was it."

A year later, just after she had turned eighteen, she "burst into sobs" when she read _Middlemarch_ for the first time and "realized not only that I was Dorothea but that, a few months earlier, I had married Mr. Casaubon." Dorothea mistook Casaubon, that dogged laborer on "The Key to All Mythologies," for a genius; instead, she got a reactionary pedant. As in many marriages in which one or both partners realize a mistake has been made, it took Sontag years to come to terms with her painful blunder. And in spite of misgivings, she continued to refer to her husband as her first great love. If he was bookish and unworldly, he was also, unlike Casaubon, passionate.

After Sontag married Rieff, the two lived off campus at 6227 Ingleside Avenue. They were like operatic lovers, talking nonstop. Even when Sontag's bladder ached and she had to relieve herself, Rieff followed her into the bathroom, still talking. Sontag and Rieff enjoyed an exclusive world only a few were elected to share. Doris Rieff, the wife of Philip's younger brother, remembered that "on a rare visit my husband and I took Susan and Philip out to dinner. Susan looked stunning in a black dress with her hair pulled back. During dinner they talked to each other and later shared a cigar. I remember feeling this exclusion and thought I must not be 'smart' enough."

Sontag felt that Rieff was the first person who had ever really talked to her. And she thought she would have a family that she could shape according to her desires. Rieff had in mind a conventional 1950s family setup, but Sontag did not take his name. In the heady atmosphere of Chicago, the implications of Rieff's traditional proposal eluded Sontag. As she later admitted in a rather oblique fashion, "I was too young to have noticed and become confused by the peculiarly loose, ambivalent way in which this society demands that one stop thinking of oneself as a girl and start thinking of oneself as a woman."

But more was at stake than simply behaving like a woman. In February 1951, Sontag wrote to Harriet Sohmers, now living in Paris, to announce her marriage to someone "important" but also to declare her love for Harriet. "It is a transcendent fact," Sontag declared, telling Harriet that the couple would come to Europe in June. In July, Sontag wrote Sohmers from Paris, giving no address but asking Harriet to meet her near Notre Dame. "I cannot see you with my husband's knowledge," Sontag stipulated. A disgusted Harriet commented in her diary, "She has obviously, foolishly told him about our connection, my influence on her, and so on; so, of course, he never wants to hear of me again." The meeting did not occur, but Sontag's bifurcated sensibility made her commitment to Rieff—however intense—problematic.

In the spring of 1951, Sontag got her BA. Rieff, still writing his dissertation, accepted an assistant professorship at Brandeis University for the 1952–53 academic year. Sontag, pregnant by January, enrolled in the graduate program at the University of Connecticut in the fall of 1953. Why she chose this particular school is not clear, especially since attendance there meant an awkward commute from Cambridge (where the couple settled) to Storrs, Connecticut. Harvard, where Sontag later earned a masters degree, was a better choice. But some Chicago students who obtained their BAs in two years had trouble getting accepted into the best graduate schools. Connecticut, with a less prestigious program than Harvard's, offered Sontag a teaching assistantship as well.

Of this period with Rieff, Sontag would later say, "We were together all the time." It all happened in a rush—the way they wanted it to happen.
4

THE LIFE AND THE PROJECT

1953–57

David Rieff was born in Boston on September 28, 1952. It was a difficult birth, and Sontag wanted to be "knocked out, not to know anything." She later recorded in her diary, "David was big (like me)." Her own birth had been similar, and like her mother, she stayed in bed for a month afterwards. She didn't nurse David, just as her mother did not nurse her. In retrospect, Sontag said with wonder, "[I]t never occurred to me to nurse him."

Rose McNulty, Sontag's own Irish nanny, helped take care of David. The family lived in a tiny house near Harvard Yard. David, named after Michelangelo's sculpture, was meant to be a masterpiece. Sontag liked to fuss over him. She did not want to "miss out on this great experience of being a mother," she later said. But for the first six years of David's life, Rosie was the primary parent. "Periodically, David and Rose came for extended visits with the Rieff grandparents," recalled Doris Rieff.

Mildred visited the family when David was about eighteen months old. She told her daughter, "Oh, he's charming. And you know I don't like children, Susan." Her mother's words recalled to Sontag her own childhood alienation, and she determined to provide a warmer and more stimulating environment for David. Reading Simone de Beauvoir's _The Second Sex_ during her pregnancy, Sontag certainly took to heart de Beauvoir's observation that "Every child is born a god... every mother entertains the idea that her child will be a hero." Early on, David was exposed to thinkers such as Herbert Marcuse, who would visit the Rieff-Sontag home. Sontag remembered that David was only two or three on the day he marched around the breakfast table saying, "Hegel, bagel. Hegel, bagel."

David's anxious parents would inquire of each other, "The baby, how's the baby?" Sontag worried about David's attachment to her, given how much time he spent with Rosie. When he told his mother that he would marry her if his father died, she was moved to tears and told him it was the "nicest thing" he had ever said to her. At only four years of age, he already knew the difference between a sarcophagus and an esophagus, she noted in her diary. He was already having discussions about God with her, questioning what it could mean for God to be described as a person. God was more like a principle, his mother suggested. Then he could be everywhere, David surmised, and that was good. "That's just right," his mother said as she put him to bed.

In the autumn of 1953, Sontag enrolled in the graduate English program at the University of Connecticut at Storrs. A woman of quiet self-confidence, she had the best mind in her department. Like other graduate students, she taught English composition. Dressed conventionally in skirts, blouses, and flats, she wore little makeup. She paid little attention to her long hair, giving an impression of slight disarray. During the week she lived in a dormitory; on the weekends she returned to Philip and David in Cambridge.

Sontag did not find the program at Connecticut stimulating. The professors seemed mediocre, and she left after a year without a degree. Observers of Susan Sontag in the next few years provide pleasant, fleeting images of her auditing classes at Brandeis (including one on the philosophy of science) and walking in Harvard Yard, radiating irresistible sexuality, intelligence, and openness.

In the fall of 1954, Sontag began taking English classes at Harvard, and the following year she enrolled in the graduate program in philosophy. Although for years reference books would list her as having two masters degrees, in fact she earned only one, in philosophy. She studied under eminences such as theologian Paul Tillich, and in 1956 (at the time of her preliminary examinations) her department ranked her "first among nineteen Harvard and Radcliffe doctoral candidates." Harvard contributed nothing like the guidance she received at Chicago. "Harvard was a superb university, but still, an ordinary university, with a big menu and no 'right way,'" she later told an interviewer. It did introduce her to a "whole new dimension of teaching... doing a long paper and having your professor give you a close and careful reading with comments."

In her first year at Harvard, she wrote papers on Machiavelli, Castiglione, Sir Thomas More, and her reading on utopias, with notes on Elizabethan literature and Stuart drama. At the end of a November 19, 1954, English 115 exam on medieval literature, she wrote, "Time! (I hope I haven't imitated the prolixity of Pandarus." Her instructor replied, "What you do is excellent, but you were indeed over prolix." No grade is visible on the exam. Her English 123b Stuart drama exam was marked "very good." Her January 25, 1955 paper, "Some Notes on the Repudiation of Intellect," written for a class on nineteenth- century American literature, was deemed a "pure joy to read." Her instructor added, "and thank you for it. But, my dear girl, just because we are intelligent, let us not fall into the easy gambit of indicting whole eras!" The academic mind bridled at the kind of sweeping generalizations that would become a hallmark of her provocative essays. A year later, her paper, "Ethically Insoluble Dilemmas" (January 5, 1956), earned a B+ and this comment: "Interesting & original. But you don't convince me." Both of her blue book exams on Plato (March 14 and November 8, 1955) received an A-.

For a course on German classical philosophy, Sontag's paper, "Hegel's Philosophy of Religion and the Religion of Philosophy," was given an A, together with this critique:

A competent analysis which gives evidence of an ability for careful interpretation and critical evaluation. Your interpretation of the "relation" between philosophy and religion in the later Hegel would seem to be fundamentally sound, and your criticisms well supported. However, you might have achieved a greater degree of explicitness and clarity in your discussion of the meaning of "Spirit" in Hegel. You have not made it clear precisely what status the "Absolute Spirit" has in Hegel's system. You make a distinction between "Spirit" and "finite Spirit" but do not fully develop this distinction. Also—and this is a subsidiary point—you speak of theology as being closer to the arts than to the sciences. You might have developed this further as it would seem to be a relevant factor in your criticism later in your paper.

Do these grades and professors' comments matter? They do, but only insofar as they show what Sontag would have had to accomplish in an academic career, where the rigor of her ideas would have been subjected to a kind of refinement that, in the end, she did not wish to pursue. A case can be made as well for suggesting that submitting herself to academic protocols might have subdued Sontag's penchant for brilliant and suggestive phrasemaking, as opposed to the tedious elaboration that is the bane of collegiate writing. A case in point is her B+ paper on Melville's _Pierre_ , dated April 29, 1955, which provoked the comment, "I personally was annoyed by the opening bugle calls." Here is an example of an offending bugle call: "Pierre is the only 'Dostoyevskian' novel in our literature. As a psychological novel of character and fate, it is much more explicitly profound than anything of Hawthorne." Her over-the-top assessment received this rebuke: "After reading your essay, I cannot understand why the novel is profound & as a whole cannot see its explicitness." That she could have prospered in academic life, however, seems indisputable. "Some Aspects of the Psychoanalytic Theory of Poetry" was awarded an A- and the comment, "A well ordered paper."

The range of Sontag's studies provided her with an extraordinary background that helps to explain the encyclopedic range of her essays. Her papers are full of extensive notes on Aristotle, church history, Aquinas, Spinoza, Leibniz, metaphysics, Milton, Kant, Locke, Hume, and British empiricism. Her only weak point was history. Her March 1957 paper on historical explanation seemed uninformed. "I suspect you've never met a historian!" her instructor remarked.

Friends recall "a brilliant player with ideas, original and fearless, her comprehension so quick it was a joy to play with her." Dressed in a brown suede jacket, wearing her glossy black hair long, Sontag would drift into class late, sitting in a front seat saved by a friend, Henny Wenkart. One time Sontag glanced at the notes on Wenkart's clipboard. "You're always making out marketing lists on the edge of your paper," she complained. This intrusion of the mundane into the intellectual seemed to irritate Sontag.

Sontag gravitated to that most charismatic of professors, Jacob Taubes. This professor of religion, with his rumpled suits and his lousy posture, was not a great-looking physical specimen. Perhaps no taller than five foot six, he had a weak chin and a small, elfin face. But he had expressive hands, impeccable vocal delivery, and a mesmerizing manner. He could speak without notes, and he seemed to enter directly into the lives of the classic writers he discussed. An expert on St. Paul, on the Gnostics, and on the development of early Christianity and its cults, this learned man could startle by suddenly switching to discussion of a contemporary writer like Jean Genet, making the ancient and the modern worlds a seamless whole. Students felt he had the power to possess other lives. He would fasten on a student, telling him which Baudelaire poem he would like, which he would not. He could buy a student a present that suited him better than any present the student could buy for himself. If a student disagreed with him, Taubes would acknowledge the merits of the student's position, and then use it as a way to expound on his own views. Consequently, students always felt in dialogue with Taubes, sensing that he embraced them mentally and physically. As one student put it, "Talking to Taubes about the weather was like a page from _The Magic Mountain_. Everything was so metaphysically fraught. For you were there for him in ways that you were not for any other professor. Even if you wanted to, you could not rid Jacob Taubes from your consciousness." Outsiders envied his acolytes, but they also were relieved not to be sucked into his vortex.

Born in Vienna in 1924, and the scion of its chief rabbi, Taubes was a rabbi himself, educated in philosophy and history in Basil and Zurich, where he obtained his doctorate. He had been a fellow at the Jewish Theological Seminary of New York and the Hebrew University in Jerusalem before becoming a Rockefeller fellow at Harvard. A brilliant lecturer, Taubes was also a reckless sensualist. He believed in making love to many women. He could meet a woman and after his first four words put his hand on her in a commanding way that amazed observers.

In the front row of his class sat three women. They all had long hair, they all wore long skirts, and they all looked wonderful—like they had just emerged from the Negev desert. They were Susan Sontag, Elsa First (who would become a prominent New York psychiatrist), and Susan Taubes, Jacob's wife. Susan Taubes was an enchanting beauty. "What dark woman in what film noir?" responded one Taubes student who was asked to describe her. And Susan Taubes understood her impact. "I don't know anybody who is not in love with me," she wrote to her husband. But this very attractiveness seemed to cut her off from others, "[T]he result [is] that I don't have a single friend, only scenes + complications. I am not a playful woman + I suffer." If this is an exaggeration, it is also a reflection of her state of mind; she was a woman who seemed to Morris Dickstein, one of Jacob's students, both "iridescent" and "fragile."

The two Susans were especially close. They had both grown up as solitaries not much interested in boys and lacking adolescent obsession with her own looks. They wanted to "remain apart, to be left alone." Both rejected society's idea of what a woman should be. Both sought her own idea of herself, which to begin with was tied to marriage to a charismatic professor. "I think of you in awe and trembling," Susan Taubes wrote to her husband. In her correspondence he seems a Greek god, acting with a willfulness that sometimes exasperates but also enchants her, leading to exhortations to "my mysterious Jacob."

For both Susans, Jacob Taubes addressed the problem of what to believe, infusing the search for knowledge with a religious and a rational intensity. He explored the phenomenon of gnosis: the intuitive apprehension of spiritual truths, which led to an esoteric form of knowledge sought by the Gnostics. Early Christianity, with its conception of the fall from Eden, elaborated on the Gnostic idea that humankind has separated itself from nature and from the unity of the cosmos that the Greeks prized. Man discovered himself during the Roman Empire, Taubes said, by experiencing himself as an exile. Gnosis revealed man's alienation from the cosmos. Taubes could trenchantly see through and denounce the Gnostics, while still evoking the romance and the thrill of Gnosticism. He was fascinated with St. Paul's arguments against the Gnostics, and also with the remnants of Gnostic thinking in Paul's teachings. Paul was the case of a religious charismatic warning others against charismatics.

From Taubes Sontag would absorb an imaginative sympathy for opposing ideas and the ability to enter simultaneously into conflicting mindsets. Taubes battled against "complacency and indifference," aiming to "refute commonly asserted ideas." He was a provocateur, as the editors of his papers point out. Taubes presides, for example, over the dialectic of Sontag's essay "Against Interpretation," in which she maintains a tension between the ideas of content and style.

Sontag also devoted herself to _Freud: The Mind of the Moralist_ (1959), the book that would establish Philip Rieff's reputation. It had become their baby every bit as much as little David. Husband and wife blended the aesthetic and intellectual, throwing in references to Nietzsche and Hawthorne, Marx and Matthew Arnold. They rejected Freud's view of women, suggesting that his misogyny was not merely a foible, but a major flaw shared by other great figures in modern philosophy, literature, and psychology, such as Nietzsche and D. H. Lawrence. Like them, Freud divided the sensual from the intellectual, perpetuating the view that intellectual women were less feminine and had masculine minds, and thereby consigning one half of the human race to a passive role.

Yet Rieff was at heart a conservative: "I was a traditional man. I thought marriage was for having children, a traditional family. I just couldn't adjust to the kind of family life she wanted. You see, there are families and anti-families. Ours was the latter, I suppose." For all his doubts about Freud, Rieff held a rather romantic, even worshipful view of him. He defended Freud, both as man and thinker: "Freud needed a standard Jewish marriage, in which the wife is queen and keeper of a standard Jewish household. From the bridgehead of tradition, Freud the theoretician invaded the whole rotten empire of the family, without running the ultimate risk of cutting himself off from the devout practice of its creed." Must Freud have anchored himself in the traditional in order to subvert it? Surely this is wishful thinking that says more about Rieff than about Freud. He expected Sontag to behave like a conventional faculty wife, which meant that after dinner, men would separate from women to smoke, drink, and discuss politics and academic affairs, while their wives made do with small talk. Unable to accept her exile, Sontag crossed over to the group of startled males who, by her account, learned to tolerate her participation.

Like her own mother, Sontag wanted to pick up and go when she liked. She wanted to be free to leave David with Rose or Philip or his family—as she had been left:

I did have the idea that I'd like to have several lives, and it's very hard to have several lives and then have a husband—at least the kind of marriage that I had, which was incredibly intense; we were together all the time. And you can't live with someone on a twenty-four-hour-a-day basis, never be separated for years and years and have the same freedom to grow and change and fly off to Hong Kong if you feel like it... it's irresponsible. That's why I say that somewhere along the line, one has to choose between the Life and the Project.

She seems to have had in mind poet William Butler Yeats's famous line about the writer's need to choose between perfection of the life and of the work.

Sontag did not regret her marriage. In fact, her sister Judith recalled that during her visits the couple "seemed totally close. Inseparable. How much of it was intellectual and how much was not—there had to have been at some point somewhere a physical attraction. And they certainly acted like there was. They really just acted like they were one person." But marriage was only one of Sontag's models, and she found it too confining: "I was lucky enough to have a child and be married when I was very young. I did it and now I don't have to do it anymore." Although she told one interviewer that she remained faithful to Rieff during their marriage, gossip in Cambridge had it that Rieff had not made a satisfying sexual partner. It was a "complicated marriage," said one of Sontag's tactful fellow students.

In 1957, Susan Sontag, twenty-four, received her master's degree in philosophy from Harvard. With the powerful recommendation of Paul Tillich, she was awarded a fellowship by the American Association of University Women to spend the 1957–58 academic year at St. Anne's College, Oxford, in preparation for writing her dissertation on the "metaphysical presuppositions of ethics." Philip Rieff was awarded a fellowship for the same period at the Center for Advanced Study in Behavioral Sciences at Stanford. Little David accompanied Rieff and Rosie to California.

There was no talk of divorce. This was not even a trial separation. Rieff and Sontag do not seem to have permitted themselves the thought that their marriage might be ending. Even in her diary, Sontag refrained from exploring what their marriage now meant to them. Instead, the diary includes gnomic statements like, "In marriage, every desire becomes a decision." She did, however, complain about the way marriage dulled feeling through constant repetition, with the "best of it" aiming for the "creation of strong, mutual dependencies." Her language, so academic in tone, seems a kind of camouflage, although a certain futility crept into her journal jottings: "Quarrels eventually become pointless, unless one is always prepared to act on them—that is, to end the marriage." The couple often lapsed into angry silences. By November 1956, she observed that marriages endured owing to the "principle of inertia." In January 1957, she wrote more directly about not feeling free throughout her six-year marriage, and references to quarrels begin to proliferate. Perhaps wishing to understand what brought her to the point of marriage, and why she remained married, she began making notes about her childhood. She ended with a set of rules to follow now that she had turned twenty-four. These include working on her posture, writing her mother three times a week, eating less, writing for at least two hours day, and teaching David to read. She was counting on Oxford to see what she could do for herself away from the "feathered nest." She was not herself with other people, or even with Philip, she admitted. But what was she when all alone? She could not say. It then occurred to her that at least at first, this loss of her own personality, subsumed in marriage, had been pleasant and easy. Now she was uneasy and disappointed in herself.

As in the case of the husband and wife in Sontag's story "Baby," the very intensity that brought Sontag and Rieff together also drove them apart. In her diary entry for March 27, 1957, she declares, "Philip is an emotional totalitarian." The story's protagonists agree: "It's good for people to get away from each other once in a while." A similar thought made its way into Sontag's diary, a reference to Rilke's comment that married love could survive only by acts of separation and return. Husband and wife said little to one another and parted in "tears and sexless embraces," and in vague and vacuous talk. Their breaking apart, Sontag recorded in her diary, still seemed "unreal."

On hand to see Sontag sail off to England was Jacob Taubes, who waited an hour to greet her at the gangplank. She was quite moved by his appearance and kissed him. He continued to wave as she sailed out of sight. Taubes died in 1987, and until then he remained a powerful presence in Sontag's life.
5

QUEST

1957–58

At St. Anne's College, Oxford, Sontag studied with luminaries such as philosopher A. J. Ayer and novelist Iris Murdoch. Sontag was preparing to write her dissertation on values and ethics, but it soon became clear that she had little interest in her program of study. Neither the teaching nor the British ambiance had a lasting impact on her. Oxford was best known then for its contributions to analytic linguistic philosophy. But for a student of the French, and of continental literature, Oxford could not have seemed more alien—although Iris Murdoch had published _Sartre: Romantic Rationalist_ (1953), and continued to take an interest in her student after Sontag left the university.

At the end of the decade, women were just beginning to breach the ramparts of male preserves. American women like Sontag and Sylvia Plath, who found themselves among English academics, were greeted with contempt or condescending curiosity. An intelligent woman was advised, "The main thing is to think like a man." In this suffocating male milieu, Sontag was a towering and exotic presence. She makes a cameo appearance in fellow student Judith Grossman's novel _Her Own Terms_ (1988) as a "tall, slim, androgynous figure, dressed all in black, with dark hair, olive skin, and a classically handsome face." Sontag seemed to Grossman to be some kind of cross between a dark lady and a dark prince of Denmark. She never wore a simple black dress, and she did not fit the conventional idea of a female. Her fellow students knew they had never encountered anyone like her before. A female undergraduate watched Sontag stride past in straight black trousers and wondered where she got her clothes and her face. "Was it South America? The Hindu Kush?" Sontag seemed very tall and very dark, dressed in her American version of guerrilla clothing, accentuated with thick scarves. What was she? German? Jewish?

The men speculated: Was she layable? She was the brightest woman they had ever met, and she held her liquor as well as they did. Sontag appeared alone and unattached, and they immediately started to vie for her. The only one to really claim her attention was Harold Solomon, a fellow graduate student. He seemed a surprising choice. Solomon was a loner, difficult to engage. But like Sontag, he was studying philosophy. With everyone else she kept an ironic distance. She listened more than she talked, creating an atmosphere of "pronounced skepticism." Everyone tried to impress her, because even when she did not say anything, her presence was powerfully alert. You did not want to make a fool of yourself. This poised American had no rough edges; you would not catch her at a disadvantage. She had tremendous control.

During the early winter of 1957–58, Sontag invited Grossman to her lodgings. Grossman went, feeling honored, but also puzzled. Grossman was then a budding poet of twenty and no philosopher. She found conversation difficult, as she had not read most of the books Sontag had with her. Sontag complained about the cold, saying she always wore pajamas under her clothes to keep warm—and then she turned up the hem of her black trousers to prove as much. Grossman could tell that Sontag was already disenchanted with England, with its "sadly arrogant provincialism, and sexism heavy all over." Sitting on the couch, Grossman seemed to discern a note of romantic warmth in the situation, until Sontag showed her a photograph of little David back in America. "[T]he shock absolutely flipped things for me," Grossman recalled. "I assumed that I was mistaken, that she must be heterosexual. But in any case a mother, to my understanding then, was sexually out of the question—not to mention the disturbance I felt at seeing the child in the photo, still so young." Grossman gathered that Sontag felt very attached to David and missed him. About her husband she said nothing at all. He was not in the picture.

Sontag fascinated her English acquaintances because she seemed so much her own woman. Divorce in America was a more relaxed matter than it was in England. To leave one's husband, to go off on one's own, seemed quintessentially American but almost unthinkable in England. To Grossman, Sontag in black, from shirt to skirt, strode in a kind of "action uniform." She was on a quest, "intensely directed, as if she knew what she wanted before she had met it." And yet, in her diaries, another person emerges, self-chastising, calling herself lazy, vain, and indiscreet, and laughing when she was not really amused. Often in her diaries Sontag reprimands herself for talking too much. She tries to bear down on her writing and find her own voice. She tries to discover a community that can serve as an antidote to academia. She seems attracted to the idea of bohemianism, even though she calls it a "peripheral" phenomenon that could not survive without its opposition to a "solid intelligentsia." Bohemians could only thrive in enclaves around such places as the University of Chicago, Greenwich Village, and Black Mountain College. She also contemplated the themes of love, death, and the femme fatale in Wagner and D. H. Lawrence. In fact, she dreamed a scenario in which she went about with a huge wound in her left side, dying.

When Sontag left Oxford during the Christmas holidays to study in Paris, Grossman said the departure left a vacuum. Sontag's English cohort felt rejected, although there had been nothing dismissive about her air. She just vanished. Harold Solomon committed suicide in the spring. To Grossman, the event seemed something like thunder following Sontag's passage—a final confirmation of the force she embodied. Solomon was perhaps the first of several men undone by their obsession with Sontag.

Grossman's friend, Elaine Scarry (author of _The Body in Pain_ ) asked Sontag if she minded her fictionalization. No, she told Scarry, it rather amused her. To journalist Zoe Heller, Sontag described her brief British interlude as a lark, in which she "gadded about on a bike in a gown" and met "interesting young chaps." She called it "being young in a way that I had never allowed myself to be before—it was the first proper student life I'd ever had, even though I was married and a mother by then. In fact that year [it was only about four months] in Oxford was the end of the marriage."

Paris, of course, meant landing in _Nightwood_ , the city as "abject carnival, a kind of human menagerie. Those who wander this city want, impossibly, to be what they desire." Sontag did what one would expect: She read expatriate writers like Hemingway, struggled with the language, stared at the city's grand architecture, pursued sensual adventure, and browsed in bookstores. She found a room in the Latin Quarter on the rue Jacob, not far from the Sorbonne, where she was supposed to continue her PhD project on ethics. The urban Sorbonne suited her far better than the sedate, almost bucolic Oxford. The solemn Parisian students appealed to her. They lived in shabby hotels on tight allowances from their families (there were very few state scholarships). They did not work—"waiting on tables or washing dishes would have been beneath their dignity." They had plenty of time to argue in cafes, finding complexity in the simplest matters. Known as "l'esprit de contradiction," the mantra of the period was, "Oui, mais c'est beaucoup plus complique que ça."

Saint German-des-Prés was not exactly Greenwich Village, Sontag observed on her arrival in December 1957. She missed the "shared comedy of being Jewish," a revealing comment for a writer who rarely said much about her ethnic background, but who seemed comfortable writing about it in her diary. Irv Jaffe, a journalist in Paris, met Sontag at a New Year's Eve party and gathered that she had separated from her husband because of temperamental incompatibility, and that she had a five-year-old boy living with Rieff and his family. She still seemed to be on good terms with them, but had found Rieff a bit too academic, old fashioned, and conventional for her. Jaffe knew the couple had been working on a book together—in fact; he remembered Sontag picking up galleys of _Freud: The Mind of Moralist_ at the American Express office in Paris.

Sontag and Jaffe went to restaurants (never anything fancy) and sat through many movies together. He remembered her wanting to watch westerns. "Let's go, it will be a lot of fun," she would urge him. In fact, films were her primary way of relaxing. She was never funnier than when she went to old Hollywood movies. Anyone who accompanied her to a movie remembered an easy-going, fun-loving Susan. Jaffe realized many years later that Sontag's attraction to those movies grew out of her interest in the camp sensibility—the concept that would later make her name. He liked Susan because she was so light-hearted, alert, and observant. In her diary, she expatiated on film as the "novel in motion," subverting the rationalism of the literary response, itself a subjectivizing medium. She spoke passable, American-accented French. "I reely wuz speeking French. For owers 'n owers," she noted in her diary on January 2, 1958. She and Jaffe went to hear Simone de Beauvoir lecture at the Sorbonne. They were impressed; they were critical. Sontag disliked de Beauvoir's high-pitched, nervous delivery. In the years to come, Sontag would polish her own public speaking into a poised and powerful platform performance.

Susan contacted Harriet Sohmers, then working for the _Herald Tribune_ in Paris. Harriet appears as the "finest flower of American bohemia," in Sontag's diary. Harriet, the object of Susan's "romantic need and longing," now seemed more attractive than ever. "And physical beauty is enormously, almost morbidly, important to me," Sontag confessed. But she did not want to identify herself as a lesbian. Harriet, Susan told her friend Annette Michelson, was a temporary "vice." Michelson—probably as much as Harriet—introduced Sontag to the Paris cultural milieu, a new world for a young woman who had been immersed in American academia.

Away from Rieff, away from academic protocol, Sontag re-created herself in her journal. She was shocked when she illicitly read Harriet's own journal entries, which read like a rebuff. "I dislike so much about her," Harriet wrote, "the way she sings, girlish and off key, the way she dances, rhythmless and fake sexy. I got annoyed with her for having an upset stomach at the Eiffel Tower and also at the cinematheque last night. Poor kid! I don't really think I'm attracted to her at all, but then, she says she loves me, and I need to hear that right now!" And, after all, "what a beauty she is!" Harriet admitted. But Susan also seemed so vulnerable and insecure that Harriet distrusted her lover's extravagant wooing: "Is she honest? I can't really believe she means what she says." So much of Harriet's reaction to Susan seems tempered by a nagging suspicion of pretense and posturing. Susan's importuning stimulated Harriet's expostulations: Susan was nice even when the sex was bad, but Harriet didn't like her smell—and judging by her own diary, Sontag was lax about her hygiene.

In contrast, Harriet yearned for Irene, "my real and only love." María Irene Fornés, who would figure importantly in the lives of both Harriet and Susan, was cute and petite, with a nice face, "fair-skinned against a frame of short dark hair, slightly freckled, with big brown eyes that might be described as frank." Irene nevertheless kept her own counsel, sometimes breaking off communication with her lovers, enticing but also exasperating Harriet and later Susan. In bed with Susan, Harriet, forgetting herself, called out "Pupi," her pet name for Irene, then beginning a new life in New York. To Harriet's annoyance, Susan tried to comfort her, "throwing her big body over me protectively. How heavy, how brusque she is!" In every way, seemingly, Susan was the opposite of Irene. But Harriet could not let go, lie back, and "enjoy being loved" because of her "jealousy reflex." She envied Susan's appeal, which left every man and woman "wanting her."

Harriet's harsh verdict on Susan became, in Susan's journal, a divagation on the cruel honesty of journals, which were meant, in her view, to be read furtively by others. She felt no compunctions about having done so herself. Reading and interpreting Harriet's journal was also part of Susan's lifelong quest to turn life into literature. So Sontag tried writing fiction about her marriage to Rieff, creating a Dorothea Brooke-like character stymied by a passionless marriage that also deprived her both of an opportunity to define herself, and to express her sexuality. These story fragments seem part of an effort to build up her "puny" I, an ego that had to roar like an artist rather than succumb to the sanity of the mere critic. It is surprising that Sontag, a reader of Oscar Wilde, did not take to heart the message of his fortifying essay, "The Critic as Artist," opting instead for the jejune notion of the critic as parasite.

Although Susan felt she had a deep attachment to her son—and although she looked forward to sharing much with him as he grew older—she admitted that as long as she knew he was well taken care of, she did not miss him that much. She rarely dreamed about him, even though in his company she was adoring, even doting. But she seemed to be one of those parents best equipped to enjoy her child after he had achieved a certain level of maturity. For all her seriousness, at that moment Sontag craved the experience of "being gay and forgetful." Only her husband's letters, "piteous, tender, sentimental," recalled the married life she had forsaken. She worried about him. He had been fired from Brandeis (her diaries are full of injunctions to herself not to talk about Brandeis). But when she returned home she would not retract her decision to leave him.

Sontag and Sohmers, a couple again, traveled through Europe and to Morocco. As Alice Kaplan notes in _Dreaming in French_ , the couple seemed not to notice that France was falling apart, soon to lose its Algerian colony. The history of French oppression would receive an oblique acknowledgment five years later in Sontag's novel _The Benefactor_ , in which her French protagonist sells his mistress into slavery. Sontag's "landscape was what went on in her head," Kaplan notes. "At the Prado," Harriet reported, Susan "discoursed at length on Bosch and just now, explained that women are the backbone of the Church. I find these textbook dissertations of hers unbearable!" Susan, quite aware of Harriet's impatience, noted in her diary, "She always takes issue with my ideas, with what she takes to be my intellectuality. She assumes she's the anti-intellectual."

Whatever troubled Susan about Harriet, much was evidently forgiven owing to the "superb sex" Sontag extolled in her diary. Photographs of the couple in Paris, Spain, and Greece show Sontag at twenty-five, but looking eighteen. In Paris, her smile is almost broad; she is a slouchy, gawky girl on a field trip to the museum, admiring a Picasso. Harriet and Susan leaning on a brick wall in Spain present a picture of camaraderie—but with the darker Susan smiling less. In Greece, her pose seems still more solemn. Leaning against a pillar, she begins to resemble the later dramatic, classical Sontag.

Everyone, regardless of sex, fell in love with her, Harriet remembered. In Germany, one man thought she seemed like an exotic cat. Men followed her. In Paris, Harriet introduced Susan to all her friends. Susan was charming. She was shy. She was also enjoying her holiday. Harriet thought Sontag relished this time away from the responsibilities of motherhood; she was so young when she had had her boy. She helped Harriet with a new job, translating for a technical magazine. She was sweet about it. To Harriet, Susan still seemed very young and vulnerable, emotionally not much different from the Susan she had known nine years earlier. Similarly, in her diary Sontag presented herself as an innocent abroad wanting her innocence to be violated. Harriet remembered Susan saying, "I have to learn to be more angry." In her diary, Susan complains that Harriet mocks her, even as Susan longs to elicit her love. Harriet complains that Susan is moody, selfish, and temperamental. They broke up and reunited, celebrating by making love. The worst of their estrangement felt like a crucifixion to Susan. And yet, the very thought of going back to her old life now seemed impossible. "One's got to get rid of the exclusiveness of married love," she declared, even though, she had to admit, "I desired Philip tremendously during the first year." But it came as a relief to her when he wrote saying he had accepted a position at Berkeley. His move made her break with him easier to enforce.

Although Susan believed the impact of the split with Philip would devastate him (and he would never quite recover from it), he was also the kind of man she called a "male virgin," bound by family and temperament to the notion of a "domestic sanctuary," a form of sentimentality she had come to despise. The "marital wars," as she called them, had worn her out, and she welcomed her new world as a liberation. Harriet was there to tutor her on the vagaries of lesbian love. These lessons included accounts of Harriet's three-year on-again, off-again, affair with Irene, who sometimes treated Harriet just as roughly as Harriet treated Susan. Rough-and-ready romances were a new experience for Sontag, who had to build up considerable emotional scar tissue to withstand the hurt she recorded in her diaries.

By May, sensing how put out Harriet was with her, Sontag offered to move out of their room in the Hotel Sainte Marie-Gallia. Harriet lamely countered, "I'd rather you didn't." And so, their troubled affair continued. Susan tried to soothe Harriet with "sweet love," and yet Harriet still could not give herself to this new partner. She attacked Susan for her "awkward use of her hands," then acknowledged her unkindness and admitted she was put out because of all the attention Susan attracted. It was like being overshadowed by an eclipse. Susan was dismayed by Harriet's "brittle demonstrativeness," but also acknowledged her own "gaucherie—my idiotic attempts to elicit her love. Suffocating not to talk, to make things clear; suicidal to talk, causing her either to lie (what she's been doing) or to be honest." Susan summed up Harriet: "Egotistical, edgy, mocking, bored with me, bored with Paris, bored with herself." At times Susan would get worked up enough to consider shaking or slapping Harriet—anything to make her lover really look at her. Susan pictured herself as a character in _Nightwood_ who "watches all night long in fear and anguish."

Europe represented a kind of unregulated curriculum for Susan Sontag. She had had literary and intellectual mentors like Burke and Taubes, but she had known no writer near her age who could help immerse her in the contemporary cultural scene. Then Harriet introduced her to the thirty-year-old Alfred Chester. Sontag sat at his feet. He exuded an authority and openness that elicited candor from his friends. Chester had published a volume of short stories, _Here Be Dragons_ (1955), and a novel, _Jamie Is My Heart's Desire_ (1957), as well as a pornographic novel written under the pseudonym Malcolm Nesbit for Olympia Press. He was ascending into the "hanging gardens of literary celebrity," to use Cynthia Ozick's evocative phrase. He had been in Paris since 1951 and could introduce Sontag to writers who published in _Commentary, Partisan Review_ , and the _Paris Review_. He knew George Plimpton and Robert Silvers, founding editors of the _Paris Review_ and, later, the _New York Review of Books_. Silvers, another one of the University of Chicago tyros, had published Chester's first book in France.

Chester had the face of an infant—hairless, rosy, and doll-like. He had lost all of his body hair during a childhood illness, and the depilatory results made his features look fattish. Painfully self-conscious about his baldness, he wore a wig variously described as yellowish-orange and ginger-colored. He seems to have fostered an outrageous gay/Jewish flamboyance (to go along with? to counter?) his bizarre appearance. His ambition stood out. Coming from Brooklyn, he talked like a Gatling gun, "the toe of the next sentence stumbling over the heel of the last." A bohemian, he organized his life around being a writer. He never worked at anything but writing. He thought of ingenious schemes to get his mother to support him (for example, announcing a fictitious marriage so that she would send a wedding present), and to bilk landlords (securing a hard to get rent controlled apartment by showing up in evening clothes, pretending to be a millionaire with an architect who was going to renovate the place). Chester did whatever he deemed necessary to avoid nonliterary employment, and his escapades gave writers and editors sensational material to dine out on for years. To Sontag, who had never thought it possible to be a writer without a connection to some kind of institution, Chester was a revelation. Everything Chester said to Susan Sontag stayed with her as though she had made a tape recording of it. She watched Chester's every move, in the manner of young aspirants who scheme to supplant their mentors.

To many, Chester seemed destined for greatness, but he would never become a literary light. Instead, he would enjoy a four-year meteoric rise and fall in New York. The fame he sought disgusted him. He grew more disgusted when he saw Sontag achieve fame and power—and then treasure her victory. His career repays study and is an important feature of poet Edward Field's fascinating memoir, _The Man Who Would Marry Susan Sontag_ (2005). Field's book shows Chester exploring how Sontag became the phenomenon he so bitterly envied and reviled.

Field, who has done more than anyone to revive Chester's reputation, tried to engage Sontag, asking her for letters from Chester and for reminiscences. She remained silent, replying only once to say she could not cooperate. In the absence of Sontag's testimony, Cynthia Ozick's brilliant memoir, "Alfred Chester's Wig," will do. In 1946, Ozick and Chester attended the same composition class at New York University. He was eighteen and already consumed by "literary passion." She begins her reminiscence with the conceit that Chester—really the idea of Chester—is eternal. He "stands firm," as if on one of her mind's "impermeable platonic islands." He represents, in other words, the pure idea of literary striving: "He wrote energetically snotty reviews that swaggered and intimidated—the kind of reviews that many young men (and very few young women) in the Fifties and Sixties wrote, in order to found a reputation." Here is a sample sentence from Chester's demolition of John Rechy's _City of Night_ in the _New York Review of Books_ : "The episodes are so gracelessly, clumsily written, so stickily, thickly literary; in his determination to boil every last drop of poetry out of pederasty, Rechy ends up with nothing but a pot of blackberry prose." After reading this review, Gore Vidal called Chester a monster—but also a master, a practitioner of the "black art."

As Ozick realizes, "Every new half-decade sprouts a fresh harvesting of literary writers, equally soaked in the lust of ambition, equally sickened (or galvanized) by envy." Writing to a friend after his relationship with Sontag had soured, Chester spit out, "How dare you say 'your friend S. Sontag?' You rat, she is my enemy. She is everybody's enemy. She is The Enemy." Such extreme language would seem to undermine Chester's reliability as a witness, but as Ozick's essay acknowledges, his rages were an honest response to literary life. Chester died in Israel in 1970. His memory remains vivid for those who knew him personally because he never lost his edge or his anger. He never mellowed. He remained, Ozick observes, "single-mindedly literary."

An allusion to Sontag slips into Ozick's essay when she mentions the published portion of Chester's unfinished novel, "The Foot." This fragment contains fictionalizations of his writer friends. Paul Bowles, for example, becomes Peter Plate. Ozick also mentions Mary Monday, but does not identify the real life model, clearly Sontag, whose German surname translates as Sunday. Ozick points out that in "The Foot" Mary Monday has a double, also named Mary Monday. Chester's letters refer to Sontag's two-track personality (the noble literary figure and the "cynical whore"). The latter might be said to have been born in France in 1958, when Sontag realized how valuable it would be to have a persona, a second Sontag, a dummy version, so to speak. She even wrote a short story, "The Dummy," employing precisely the same conceit: the idea of having a second self who can be seen to be living one life, while that self's original is free to live quite another.

In 1958, Susan Sontag seemed to Alfred Chester—and to Harriet Sohmers—still something of an ingénue. But Sontag was studying André Breton and his surrealist confreres, who were interested in the figure of the artist, of the creator behind the work. They provided a link with Walter Pater and Oscar Wilde (writers Sontag had studied in Chicago with Ned Rosenheim), who created a style inseparable from the idea of the aesthetic personality. For Breton, the "creator and the work were inextricably bound.... The artist's first and most important creation... was himself."

Sontag immersed herself far more deeply in the French intellectual and cinematic world than other Americans living in Paris in the early postwar years. Novelists like Norman Mailer and James Jones befriended French writers, to be sure, and learned much from Sartre's existentialism. But Sontag stood virtually alone in her efforts to speak the language of French philosophers, novelists, and film critics. She absorbed the French intellectual interest in American popular culture, and was already beginning to form her notion of an aesthetic that cut across the categories of high and low culture—categories American critics such as Dwight Macdonald and Clement Greenberg upheld. When she began to write her landmark essays in the 1960s, she brought a continental sophistication to American criticism that changed the terms of intellectual and cultural debate. Whereas predecessors such as Lionel Trilling and Edmund Wilson limited themselves to literature, history, and general cultural discussions, Sontag would demonstrate an understanding of all the arts. Informed by a trained philosophical mind, she argued for what she would call the "new sensibility." She brought to the discussion of the contemporary scene the same seriousness she devoted to classic works of literature.

But the French manner captivated Sontag on more than one level of ideas. Indeed, she observed how writers such as Louis Aragon and André Malraux meticulously polished their images and created personal mystiques. With writers like Aragon and Breton, she saw how artists of the avant-garde absorbed leftwing politics, making everything about the artist's image seem progressive and daring—even though fitful alliances between the Communist Party and the surrealists, for example, were absurd and bound to fall apart. No matter. The idea, the platonic conception of the engaged artist, thrilled Sontag. It excused any amount of contradictory and self-defeating behavior. In France, in 1958, Sontag witnessed a small, close-knit group of writers, intellectuals, and filmmakers making a major impact on their society. They were an elite caste, and she was thrilled by the idea of acquiring a similarly high status.

Susan and Harriet spent a good part of July in Greece, visiting the Acropolis, watching the blue sky gleam through the ruins, enjoying the food (stuffed zucchini and eggplant, marvelous fish), temples surrounding by the deafening sounds of cicadas, and the museums. Susan extolled the "fantastic mountains and pinkish cliffs" and the smell of pine trees. Still bothered by Susan, Harriet told her off, and Susan simply said she would be leaving soon. As the summer of 1958 drew to a close, Susan returned home to tell her solid and reliable husband that the marriage was over.
6

MAKING IT

1958–62

Rieff met Sontag at the airport when she returned to the States. They embraced. They walked to the car. Before he could put the key in the ignition, she asked him for a divorce. They sat. They wept. It was over. The blow devastated Rieff. "Philip adored Susan," his sister-in-law recalled, and the idea of a divorce embittered him. An intense man, he behaved like Coleridge's ancient mariner retailing the wedding guest with his tale of woe. He seemed to be hemorrhaging internally. Professor Daniel Aaron of Harvard spent a day trying to console his colleague.

Sontag, then twenty-six, reclaimed six-year-old David and arrived with him in New York in late August 1958. Harriet noted in her diary that a letter from Susan reported that her first days in New York were "painful." After so much sun and atmospherics in Greece, Sontag sobered in the "ugliness of New York.... Awful smells of the street, and dirt." Sontag remembered having only two suitcases and $70, but she later insisted, "I was thrilled. I was like Irena in _The Three Sisters_ longing for Moscow. All I could think was New York! New York!" Whatever the troubling adjustments, Harriet noticed that Susan had stopped her daily letter writing, "a sign she is starting to enjoy her New York life." By late October, Harriet had arrived in New York and was living with Susan, then just beginning to suffer through what would became a fraught divorce. She would not accept any child support or alimony from Rieff, even though she was entitled to both under the community property laws of California, where she had sued Rieff (then at Stanford) for divorce. Her attorney told her he had never had a client who rejected what the law entitled her to, but Sontag was declaring her independence.

Sontag had done little work on her dissertation in Europe. She reported to the American Association of University Women, her fellowship sponsor, thanking the organization for supporting her research year, "a most valuable one for me, perhaps the most valuable single year of my academic life," and for supporting women scholars in general. Her dissertation was a "dropped stitch that you just have to go back and pick up." She said she wanted to complete it soon. But she never did. Art historian Annette Michelson, Sontag's friend, expressed surprise that Sontag did not complete her PhD. Too many writers, Sontag told Michelson, had been destroyed by the academic regimen. Like Sylvia Plath, Sontag eschewed the grind of the academic calendar, the grading of papers, the backbiting politics and jockeying for position.

It was exhilarating to be on her own, finding a place to live (she settled for a small two-room apartment 350 West End Avenue) and a job. She made do for the first six months with an editorial position at _Commentary_. Her intelligence and striking looks impressed Martin Greenberg, an editor there. The two went out for drinks, sometimes discussing the magazine's contributors. But Greenberg realized that the magazine meant no more than a temporary job to Sontag, who wanted to write and would begin her first novel soon. Even so, working at _Commentary_ stimulated her to think of the "[i]mpress of Judaism on my character, my tastes, my intellectual persuasions, the very posture of my personality." Although she seldom reflected on her Jewishness, she knew it was there. She even made notes about Jewish holidays, words, and institutions like Hebrew University and the Weizmann Institute.

Greenberg pointed her out to art critic Hilton Kramer, then visiting the _Commentary_ offices. Kramer saw a very attractive young woman wearing a cotton housedress, the kind his mother put on to wash the dishes. It was almost provocatively drab. While _Commentary_ staff members hardly looked the height of fashion, they had a certain sophistication—and here was this arresting woman in plain dress. "It almost seemed an affectation," Kramer observed. In any event, Sontag found the job a bore and did not see herself as cut out for an editor's monotonous daily routines. Besides, an office was hardly the place for a woman on the make, one who could confess in her journal to being a name-dropper. And she was, letting everyone in the _Commentary_ office know she was a friend of Allen Ginsberg.

Right from the start, Sontag did what many aspiring writers do in New York: She cruised parties looking for new faces. On occasion Richard Howard accompanied her. A devotee of French literature, a translator, poet, critic, and literary politician extraordinaire, Howard had a Truman Capote-like capacity for sizing up the competition. Indeed, he had photographer Robert Girard pose him in a languorous Capote-like attitude: Stretched out, a New York literary cat—but with a harder look than Capote—Howard appears less seductive and more wily, more in control. He called Sontag a "natural" at cultivating influential literati: "She could be very, very nice—even seductive—to people she wanted something from. She just could not talk to stupid people."

For the academic year 1959–60, Sontag found teaching positions in philosophy at Sarah Lawrence College (in Bronxville) and City College. This harried life left her looking haggard at times, as Seymour Kleinberg, a friend from graduate school at Connecticut, noticed. But she might have quoted a line from Alfred Chester: "It's delicious this agony of trying to find one's way, one's own way." And, anyway, the City College classes were "good." Sarah Lawrence was another matter. Sontag berated herself for being late to class and coming unprepared. Benzedrine kept her going during this peripatetic period.

For guidance, Sontag looked to Alfred Chester, who in February 1959 had returned to New York, and to Harriet Sohmers, who stayed at Sontag's West End Avenue apartment that summer. Sontag threw a welcome home party for Harriet, who remembered getting "insanely drunk," slipping on the parquet floor while dancing, and falling flat on her face, breaking her nose. The party ended with Susan taking Harriet to the emergency room at St. Luke's Hospital.

The party for Harriet marked the dramatic beginning of a relationship that would mark Sontag for life, an affair she would never get over, even after experiences with many other lovers. Harriet introduced Susan to María Irene Fornés, who had not only been Harriet's lover in Paris, but who was also a fond friend of Alfred Chester. (Fornés had returned to New York from Paris in early 1958.) Born in Cuba in 1930, she immigrated to the United States with her mother in 1945. At nineteen, she thought of herself as a painter, and by 1954 she was in Europe pursuing her art and, like Sontag, immersing herself in the movies. Then in Paris, she saw _Waiting for Godot_ and became an aspiring playwright, saying she would rather talk than read. Sontag naturally liked what she called the "autodidact" in Fornés, as well as Fornés's surprising style, which was at once "delicate and visceral." She "could use four-letter words at a tea party... without ever being accused of not being a lady." This vivacious, even cuddly looking woman could be mistaken for an easy mark, but an incident at a Greenwich Village party in the early 1960s demonstrates her other side: Apparently a masher screamed, then "[held] up a bloody hand tattooed with teeth marks, Irene's teeth marks."

What made Irene so attractive, Sontag believed, was her foreignness. Irene was not a New York type intellectual and not Jewish, and to love her gave Susan "a great release." Like Sontag, Fornés was "dramatically beautiful," to borrow Edward Field's words. "She had the large soulful eyes of a madonna." She and Harriet had lived together at the Hotel de Poitou on the rue de Seine before Sontag arrived in Paris. Alfred became, in Harriet's words, the "essential go-between" when she and Irene had their "many passionate battles." Alfred was openly gay, and though his tone could be bitchy, he loved these three bright, ambitious women. Indeed, he became obsessed with Sontag and thought he should marry her. He doted on Irene, quoting her wisdom. Edward Field remembered Alfred punctuating conversations with "Irene says." For a time in New York, the three adoring women formed a circle around Chester not so different from the one that surrounded Jacob Taubes.

But the tension of deceit troubled these three women. Sontag and Fornés did not tell Sohmers about their love affair. Even after she learned of the affair, Harriet retained her deep feeling for Irene, and she grew angry with Susan, who, for some time, had been shuttling between her and Irene. By all accounts, Irene made a wonderful companion, one with extraordinary feelings for women. Irene liked to dress up and look beautiful, and she had a gift for making other women feel desirable, too. Sontag's passion for Fornés occurred in the context of what might be called the Reichian fifties, when the writings of Wilhelm Reich suffused the work of Norman Mailer and other Sontag contemporaries. Reich was all for sex as a liberating force, with the orgasm serving as a creative, dynamic force. Or as Sontag put it in her diary entry for November 19, 1959, "The orgasm focuses. I lust to write." With Harriet, Susan had been submissive and imploring, but with Irene, Susan was demanding: "My love wants to incorporate her totally, to eat her. My love is selfish." And she was connecting her desire to write with her homosexuality, which she described as an identity she would use as a weapon to "match the weapon that society has against me."

Sontag forged her view of herself as an intellectual and dissident when she acknowledged (only to herself) her lesbianism and how it made her an opponent of the status quo. That she could never openly express this aspect of her liberation meant that it could only function as a subtext, driving her to withhold the passionate parts of herself that could have informed her writing about camp, AIDS, and so much of her early fiction, which remained oblique and dissociated from the gay life she had chosen. In her diary she confessed to feeling guilty about "being queer." She feared public humiliation. Philip Rieff, she noted in her diary, was "publicizing it [her lesbianism] to everyone all over the world." She wished to hide her sexuality, to make it "invisible."

Alfred Chester found the Sontag-Fornés duo fascinating, although he could sound peevish about the way they picked his brains. He wrote to his friend Edward Field, "Susan is getting on my tits & Irene is probing as always. Women are such pests." Yet he thought them better company than most of the men he met in gay bars. By August, Chester was reporting to Field, "The marriage of Susan & Irene is beginning to have the look of most marriages. Susan is unloving. Irene loves & suffers." Sontag's diary confirms Chester's observations: As with Rieff, she noted, the arguments with Irene were lasting longer, followed by days of "pained silence," and then a covering over of the trouble by "mutual consent." The Susan Sontag others perceived as bold and sensual, she saw, in the privacy of her diary, as tentative and even maladroit, saying "excuse me" when she made a wrong move during sex. "The reason I'm not good in bed (haven't 'caught on' sexually) is that I don't see myself as someone who can satisfy another person sexually."

Sontag mused about the nature of love after reading Stendhal, wondering what it was about Lady Hamilton that made great men love her. More than thirty years before _The Volcano Lover_ was published, she already had fixed on a female figure as a cynosure. If it was a role Sontag herself aspired to, Philip Rieff was threatening to sabotage her ambition by suggesting she was no less than an unfit mother. He was teaching at Stanford and had custody of David for the summer, but he planned to take his son with him during a Fulbright year in Germany. Sontag suspected, in Chester's words, that Rieff was "running away" with the child. It was no secret in the Rieff family—or to their friends—that a "major reason for the divorce was the change in Susan's sexual orientation," as Doris Rieff, the wife of Philip's younger brother, put it. Indeed, Philip thought he could brand Susan an unfit mother because she was a lesbian. Then, to Alfred Chester's amusement, Susan and Irene appeared in court in "dresses, high heels, and makeup." As Chester told Edward Field, the judge sided with Sontag because he could not believe these women were lesbians. But the damage had been done: A New York Daily News article headlined "Lesbian Religion Professor Gets Custody" only confirmed Sontag's determination never to acknowledge her sexual orientation in public. If lesbians were seldom prosecuted, homosexuality remained a punishable offense, and Sontag scrupulously avoided identification with a minority culture that would have stigmatized her writing and her career hopes.

David got physically ill when boarding planes to see his father in California. He resented his father's efforts to turn him away from his mother. "We had a sort of symbiotic relationship," David told Zoe Heller. "A lot of that was because there was only 19 years between us. I was aware that it was very different from the relationships most kids had with their mothers. In the end, separation was difficult and probably took too long." They lived in what David later deemed "amiable squalor." Harriet Sohmers remembered that Sontag could be stern with her high strung and moody son. But he was always by her side. She had him on her lap, she claimed, when she typed her first novel. She took him to neurology lectures, concerts, parties. Susan and David were "passionately wrapped up in each other," Jonathan Miller recalled. A New York editor visited Sontag at her apartment and saw young David joining in conversations with the adults. Edward Field, an Alfred Chester partisan, nevertheless observed that Susan was an attentive mother.

Sontag filled David's room with toys, but she conceded that pouring all her need for "family connection" into him made it difficult for him to be a child and, later, to grow up. David said that he did not enjoy his childhood: "I tended more to think of it as a sentence and puberty as parole.... A writer friend once said of me that I come from an intellectual somewhere but a geographic and ethnic nowhere. And I guess I agree with that. I don't feel any deep loyalty to the place where I live." Like his mother, Rieff, a journalist, is constantly on the move. He wants to be out there, on the cutting edge; perhaps he writes about refugees because, like his mother, he is one.

Indeed, Sontag's and her son's interest in Cuba, its revolution, and its leftist, anti-Batista refugees grew out of the circumstances of their own early precarious existence in New York. They lived in a Hispanic neighborhood with a Cuban playwright, Irene Fornés, and befriended the Cuban poet Heberto Padilla. Cubans babysat David. He fondly reminisced about "two natty queens from next door who used to appear almost magically and whisk me away to a Cuban restaurant [Victor's] on Amsterdam Avenue for those thick tropical milkshakes called batidos." Mother and son would spend June through September of 1960 in the new Castroconverted Cuba, where David cut a little sugar cane and Sontag inspected revolutionary culture.

This Cuban adventure occurred just a year after Castro's first triumphant trip to the United States, during which he presented himself as a democratic revolutionary. He even told a Princeton audience, "I advise you not to worry about Communism in Cuba. When our goals are won, Communism will be dead." Luminaries such as _New York Times_ correspondent Herbert Matthews (who had partnered up with Ernest Hemingway during the Spanish Civil War) and sociologist C. Wright Mills (who had popularized the term "New Left") touted Castro's bona fides. To many on the Left, the bearded revolutionary seemed a countercultural hero.

In the fall of 1960, twenty-eight-year-old Susan Sontag began teaching in Columbia's religion department. Her syllabus for Religion 102 reflects her impressive range:

Post-Biblical Judaism

Islam

Early Iranian & Vedic religion & Zoroastrianism

Brahmanism, Indian Buddhism & Hinduism

Native Chinese Religions

Buddhism, chiefly in China & Japan

Sontag was under the supervision of Jacob Taubes, then a newly appointed faculty member, but also a towering, isolated figure. He was practically a department of his own, with junior faculty members like Sontag sometimes grading for him and sometimes teaching their own sections of his large lecture classes. Cultural critic Morris Dickstein, then a Columbia student, assumed Sontag and Taubes had had an affair, although Sontag was close to Susan Taubes, Jacob's wife, and both women, along with Irene, formed part of a reading group of writers. "All of us were madly in love with the mysterious and articulate Sontag," Dickstein writes in his memoir, _Why Not Say What Happened_. Sontag herself seemed to wonder at her connection to Taubes, writing in her diary, "[He's] P[hilip's]replacement."

Taubes's gnostic power resided in the impression he conveyed of knowing what eluded others, of anticipating a changing world. He had perfect timing, since the times were about to erupt in what is now simply called "the sixties." The world was—to borrow a phrase from Dickstein's highly praised book—at the gates of Eden. True changes made a break with history; they were, as St. Paul argued, apocalyptic. There could be a new people of God (Christians), or in secular terms, a new political world, which might well mean violence and revolution. "As an apocalyptist I can imagine that the world will be destroyed," Taubes wrote. He later told his former student Richard Tristman that he had become a Maoist. Sontag would shortly promulgate her own New Left agenda of revolutionary change writing in support of Castro's cause.

At the end of Sontag's first term, she seemed exhilarated: "Marvelous classes... I feel great tenderness for about a dozen of these kids." Students found her cordial and perhaps more informal than most professors. Essayist Philip Lopate, then a student at Columbia, shied from the Taubes-Sontag axis, expressing an aversion to charismatic professors. And yet he could not resist showing one of his stories to Sontag. As he sat in her office in Philosophy Hall, she exuded a "hearty self-confidence and brio." To Lopate, she appeared "too big, too tall for her chair, her arms and legs dangling superfluously." He could tell his Dostoevskian story, with its psychological probing, did not appeal to her. She was not like other professors, who prefaced their criticism with compliments. She went straight to the point: He had cluttered his story with too many unessential details. Lopate knew she welcomed student writers, but he was not writing the kind of experimental prose she favored.

Sontag spent her weekends and a summer writing her first novel, tentatively titled "Dreams of Hippolyte." By the spring of 1961, she was ready to show a section of her unfinished novel to a publisher. Somehow, she managed to arrange an interview with Jason Epstein, the powerful Random House editor. He turned the book down, suggesting that perhaps Robert Giroux at Farrar, Straus might take it. Giroux, soon (in 1964) to be made Roger Straus's partner, had edited some of the greatest figures in modern literature, including T. S. Eliot, George Orwell, Flannery O'Connor, Edmund Wilson, and Robert Lowell, and had been crucial in building the publisher's prestigious list. He had been willing to take chances on first novels, such as William Gaddis's lengthy and abstruse _The Recognitions_ (1955). Giroux had moved to Farrar, Straus in 1955 after fifteen years at Harcourt, citing among other reasons, Roger Straus's "publishing flair." Straus, who came from a wealthy family, could afford to look upon publishing as a long-term investment. He sought to build a portfolio of renowned foreign authors and promising American newcomers. In editor Jonathan Galassi's novel, _Muse_ , Straus appears—barely disguised—as Homer Stern, whose authors were for him "what paintings were to his richer relations: living, breathing collectibles, outward and visible signs of his inward and spiritual substance."

On the strength of Epstein's suggestion, Sontag went to see Giroux. Her first words to him were, "Jason Epstein told me you're the only editor in New York who will understand my novel." Giroux found her gambit irresistible. She had simultaneously flattered him and dispatched Epstein, who apparently had not understood the book. Giroux saw only the first section of the novel, but on the basis of its brilliant beginning, he offered Sontag a Farrar, Straus & Giroux contract, which she signed on May 24, 1961.

Sontag told many versions of how her first novel was accepted for publication. None of them square with this account, which is based on a detailed letter dated July 1, 1981, from Giroux to Sontag, a letter for which there is no reply in the Farrar, Straus & Giroux files. He was responding to Sontag's speech at a PEN gathering to honor Straus's and Giroux's contributions to publishing. She delivered an encomium to her publishers, citing her own first experience with them, entering their "wonderful shabby offices" on Union Square West, leaving her first novel in a Sphinx box (used then as storage for typing paper) with a note to the fiction editor. Sontag remarked that in her naivëté she supposed that each publishing house had only one fiction editor. She counted herself very fortunate indeed that her manuscript somehow got taken up by Robert Giroux, "the Fiction Editor," who a few weeks later offered her a contract. In his sly, amusing letter, Giroux wrote to set the record straight, saying he was thinking of writing his memoirs, and that as a start, he was going to write an article about editing authors' first books. He observed that her memory was so at odds with his that he thought he should check with her. For good measure, he added that her story did not tally with "another witness's remembrance." Giroux then described the setup at Farrar, Straus. Since he was not a fiction editor but the editor-in-chief, Hal Vursell would have logged in an unsolicited manuscript. Giroux then gave an account of Sontag's contacting him, as detailed above. The other witness Giroux mentioned is probably editor Cecil Hemley. Giroux doubted the commercial value of Sontag's work, but when he showed the partial manuscript to Hemley, who "absolutely flipped for it," Giroux told Farrar, Straus historian Boris Kachka. "He was so enthusiastic that he asked if I would let him be the editor," Giroux recalled. Wanting to encourage Hemley, Giroux agreed.

Sontag's self-mythologizing is not so different from the fantasies other writers purvey about their careers. Most beginning writers dream of being "discovered," of dispensing with the need for self-promotion, and of a publisher who will accept them immediately as promising prospects. Sontag's story preserves, for her, a kind of innocence, a purity she always wanted to believe in, a purity that functioned as a kind of bulwark against her cunning, ambitious side. In creating this discovery myth, she made her testimony exemplary, the wish fulfillment of every aspirant to literary fame. Through this myth she becomes an embodiment of her readers' fantasies.

Roger Straus soon saw Sontag as not so much a talented novelist, but as a woman of letters who would rival and perhaps surpass figures such as Mary McCarthy, the only woman in the circle of New York intellectuals clustered around _Partisan Review_ in the 1930s and 1940s. By 1961, Sontag was producing her first provocative essays. She would write with authority not only about film, philosophy, literature, and history, but also about the avant-garde in New York and in Europe. Sontag had the serious European flavor of a Hannah Arendt, but also the good looks, confidence, and energy of an American bringing news of the contemporary scene to an audience avid for a change from the stultifying cultural atmosphere of the Eisenhower era.

The flamboyant Straus sensed that Sontag's appeal to both men and women would be extraordinary. Her poise bespoke a woman seeking her place in history. She had a sense of destiny. Straus was signing up a cultural force, not just an individual writer. He wanted to play a major role in literary New York, and he was a showman. Boris Kachka captures the Straus effect: "Every time a camera appeared, he seemed reflexively to strike a bold, Apollonian pose or, later in life, a teeth-baring smile almost as broad as his armspan, the latter fully extended to embrace everyone within the frame." That all-encompassing Straus sweep brought the world to writers—and especially to Susan Sontag, who knew how to take the stage. Once Susan Sontag met Roger Straus, she had it made.
7

MADE

1962–63

Roger Straus was smitten. By the end of April 1962, he had read the first eighty pages of "The Shrinking Man: Dreams of Hippolyte," and he planned to show this "wonderfully inventive" book to publisher Fred Warburg in London. Sontag became a showpiece at his parties. The distinguished American critic Edmund Wilson first met her on March 20, 1963, at a Straus affair. Either he did not catch her name or could not be bothered to remember it, for he noted in his journal "a handsome girl from California who is one of Roger's new writers." Wilson never warmed to Sontag. In 1968, he confided to his journal, "I never have much conversation with Susan Sontag. Roger can't quite forgive me because I am not impressed by her." Wilson, once married to Mary McCarthy, doyenne of the New York intellectual _Partisan Review_ pack, disliked Sontag's writing, which he found far-fetched, pretentious, and esoteric.

Sontag met McCarthy sometime early in 1962 and jotted down in her diary a brief impression, noting McCarthy's grin, grey hair, and "blue print suit." Observing that this was the author of _The Group_ , a best-selling novel about eight Vassar graduates, Sontag summed up the encounter: "Clubwoman gossip.... She's nice to her husband." What McCarthy made of Sontag in this first meeting has not been recorded, but in _Dreaming in French_ , Alice Kaplan notes that by August 11, 1964, McCarthy was writing to Sontag with helpful advice on which writers to cultivate in Paris. McCarthy, vouching for Sontag, had also contacted Sonia Orwell in London and other important figures in the greater European literary world. Even so, McCarthy and Sontag never developed much of a rapport, as McCarthy's biographer, Frances Kiernan notes. Kiernan's interview with Sontag elicited this salvo: "Mary came into the room like an aircraft carrier."

The same could have been said of Sontag. Straus built her career, making certain that the novels, for example, were always in print and marketed abroad. He secured translations for virtually every Sontag essay or story. No detail seemed too trivial. The account of this all-encompassing care is taken not just from interviews with Farrar, Straus employees and authors; it also comes from the publisher's files housed at the New York Public Library. As Boris Kachka reports in _Hothouse_ , other Farrar, Straus authors also received special treatment, but Susan Sontag was super special. Although Sontag's first modest advance of $500 reflected the publisher's regular terms, new novelists could not expect a publisher—then or now—to act also as an agent for magazine pieces, stories, and anything else that came from the writer's pen. Roger Straus's commandeering of her career excited gossip linking the publisher and his author sexually. Alfred Chester put out the word to Paul Bowles with characteristic earthy candor: "Susan is going to be terribly famous soon because Roger Strauss [sic], her publisher, is mad about her (he is very hot for lesbians) and is going to make a big thing of her very boring novel." In _Muse_ , Jonathan Galassi depicts the kind of scene that linked Straus erotically to Sontag: "They were sitting side by side on a banquette, wearing matching black leather jackets and exuding a bonhomie that felt faintly postcoital."

The dapper Straus—with the muscle of a Hollywood producer and the savoir-faire of a dandy—was a perfect match for Sontag. He was not a litterateur, but he had good taste. He liked to brag about his discoveries and to brand them. Sontag had arrived with a novel that spoke of French sophistication and European culture. It was sure to attract Straus, who had been able to build an impressive literary list by acquiring European authors on the cheap and gaining for them small but dedicated audiences in the United States. That Sontag's first books would not make much, if any, profit for Farrar, Straus & Giroux really did not matter. She was a long-term investment. In return, Sontag was a loyal author, offering Straus an exclusive; she would never publish with anyone else. Whether they did, or did not have sex is immaterial. Straus never got over his infatuation with the idea of Susan Sontag, the queen of the New York literary scene.

At the same time, Straus, a shrewd judge of quality, fervently believed in Sontag's genius. He would have the courage to remain committed to her work even during her dry spells, relishing her provocative, controversial style, and always willing to rewrite book contracts as her interests changed and she delayed delivery of her books. Every author dreams of having a publisher as devoted as Straus, and Sontag almost never wavered in her appreciation of his efforts on her behalf, which lasted until the very last stages of her career. To her, it was a great compliment that he included her on his list of distinguished authors. By the early 1960s, Farrar, Straus & Giroux already had seven Nobel Prize winners on its list, including T. S. Eliot, Knut Hamsen, and Herman Hesse. Straus maintained living quarters in Stockholm and lobbied strenuously for his authors.

A publisher celebrated for his sartorial splendor, Straus had always been intensely concerned with appearances, with image, and he realized that Sontag would present well and set the right tone. He suited the stereotype of the literary lion, sporting (as one profile of Straus puts it) "natty ascots and salty language." As Sontag preferred to see him, Straus was "a showman, but also a man of principle." While many profiles of Straus emphasize his belief that a book's literary quality should "stand on its own," the Farrar, Straus files show that the firm supported Sontag with patronage letters, publicity releases, and personal appearances—the whole panoply of modern promotion.

Sontag's first novel, retitled _The Benefactor_ , was not a breakout novel destined to attract a big audience. If Sontag had approached the owner of New Directions, James Laughlin, famous for his advocacy of difficult modernist work, she would not have received the promotion or the image-making treatment that Farrar, Straus accorded her. A New Directions author, be it Ezra Pound or Tennessee Williams, was presented plain, without fanfare, receiving little more than brief mention in a one-column black-and-white ad in the _New York Times Book Review_ and in smaller venues.

At a Farrar, Straus party in the spring of 1962, Sontag realized her dream of writing for _Partisan Review_ , the journal in which her intellectual idols (Lionel Trilling, Hannah Arendt, Elizabeth Hardwick, Clement Greenberg, Dwight Macdonald, and many others) had published landmark essays. Even with the magazine's influence waning in the early 1960s, it still represented to Sontag the world of intellectual endeavor that she had been preparing to enter since discovering _Partisan Review_ in a Los Angeles bookstore. Editors of mass circulation magazines like _Time_ still looked to _Partisan Review_ to provide advance word on new cultural fashions and on political and social issues. Sontag walked up to one of the journal's editors, William Phillips, and said, "How do you write a review for _Partisan Review_?" Phillips said, "You ask." She said, "I'm asking." He said, "O.K." The disarmed Phillips responded immediately to this "immensely attractive and impressive" young woman. He had never heard of her, but she emanated intelligence. He could see it in her eyes, in her whole face. He had also been drinking and wondered if she had caught him at a weak moment—but he preferred to think he had spotted a new talent.

Alfred Chester's friends—wary of Sontag, whom they thought robbed Chester of his ideas and traded on his influence—tell a different version of how she was published in _Partisan Review_. They remember Chester, disgusted with the New York literary hothouse, handing off his assignments to Sontag—or rather, recommending that she become a reviewer for the journal. Sontag's recollection is that Phillips wanted her to continue Mary McCarthy's theater chronicle, which Sontag did, although only half-heartedly, quitting the venture after publishing a few reviews. Chester had turned down the offer to succeed McCarthy, saying he did not feel like squeezing into her "old girdle." He was seeing a good deal of Robert Silvers, then about to launch the _New York Review of Books_ , and Chester took Sontag along with him. For brief periods, Sontag stayed with Chester in his Sullivan Street apartment. She got on Chester's lowercase nerves: "susan became excruciatingly demanding and i gave her up. stopped phoning her. what a pill." Chester and Sontag waged terrific battles, interspersed with truces and reconciliations. He felt used, suspecting Sontag of climbing over him to get to his connections. "I had a gigantic fight with Susan over a piece of chicken the other day and all the TRUTH came out. I have hated her for four years and only endured her because of Irene," he wrote to Paul Bowles.

Chester suspected that she would be able to take anything she wanted from him. When she visited him in Mexico in February 1963, he feared she would tempt his male lover, Extro, who took to calling her "la Susanetta." Even when Sontag complimented Chester, he was suspicious. To Edward Field, Chester confided, "Susan said she was at the National Book Award dinner the other night and everyone talked about me. She goes everywhere."

Sontag's first review in _Partisan Review_ , an assessment of Isaac Singer's _The Slave_ , revealed her impressive grasp of modern thought and literature, and her ability to focus on important questions. It provides insight into both her conception of the novel she was writing, and to the ground she would stake out as a literary polemicist. Here is her debut sentence: "The typical modern novel is 'psychological' in that the world it presents is really a projection, a bodying forth of the self (or selves) whose analysis constitutes the subject of the novel." In such novels the world, as an objective reality, hardly exists. Indeed, in Kafka, in Borges, in the French new novelists, not even the characters are "there"—that is, they have no objective existence, but instead stand for "disembodied emotional and intellectual struggles." Little wonder such "post-classical" novels of psychologizing and verbal inventiveness yield a narrative that reads like a nightmare, Sontag concludes.

In a single paragraph, Sontag establishes a compelling tone of authority, based on wide reading and an incisive ability to synthesize diverse material. She is also working out the problem she posed for herself in _The Benefactor_. Her narrator, Hippolyte, attempts to live through his dreams, which are often nightmares in which he is dominated and tortured. His dreams are the art he makes of his life, and his desire is to make his life conform to the immediacy and sensuousness of dreams. Like Sontag's idea of art, Hippolyte's dreams are self-contained, which is to say that like Sontag he fancies himself to be self-invented. He does not want to explain away the pleasure and pain of his dreams, but to make himself more conscious of them.

Sontag seemed to offer a provocative introduction to a strictly mental, intellectual adventure. Where could she possibly take a man who seriously—and with great sophistication—wanted to turn his entire life into dreams? The sixty-one-year-old narrator recalls absorbing adventures reminiscent of Poe's grotesquerie. This was not at all the kind of first novel one would expect an alluring twenty-eight-year-old woman to write.

Sontag worked on her novel on weekends and during the summers of 1961 and 1962. After years of struggling with unpublishable stories, she found that her novel just seemed to flow—as if she were taking dictation. Richard Tristman remembered that Sontag gave him her work for a critical reading. Overwhelmed by its brilliance, he did not know what to say. When she asked him about it, he could offer only praise. She seemed disappointed. Tristman felt he had let her down. In Tristman's experience, most people who asked for criticism could not take it. Sontag's utter seriousness about the enterprise of writing impressed him.

Her mentor, Kenneth Burke, wrote to congratulate Sontag after receiving an advance copy of _The Benefactor_ : "Fantasies of any sort are rare. Good fantasies are necessarily much more rare. And this is an exceptionally good fantasy." He complimented her intelligence, her ingenuity, her inviting mix of narrative and aphorisms—and he corrected her grammar, citing page numbers where he spotted errors. In fact, Sontag had modeled her novel on Burke's own _Towards a Better Life_ , first published in 1932. _Towards a Better Life_ is a monologue—or as he would have it, a series of arias—in which his main character, John Neal, laments, rejoices, beseeches, admonishes, moralizes, and rages against the world and the status quo. Neal is like Hippolyte, a narcissist concerned with perfecting himself.

Sontag's "fantasy" seems derived, in part, from her early reading of Poe, whose settings remain indefinite, a projection of the imagination. Like Poe, Sontag turned her imagination away from her own surroundings. Like Hippolyte, she was not interested in naming her habitat, in giving it color and depth, because it had no substance for her. Having rejected both Arizona and California, and having traveled to Europe looking for the literary life, she had, _au fond_ , nothing to reckon with but her state of mind. Hippolyte never names the city he lives in. He simply calls it the "capital." It is obviously Paris, but he turns it into a generic place. Similarly, the Spanish Civil War becomes the "civil war that was raging at the time in the country to the south." The well-read will have no trouble playing intellectual parlor games with the novel. Its first readers wondered, for example, whether the homosexual cruiser/writer, Jean-Jacques, was based on Jean Genet. Critic Sohnya Sayres has also made a suggestive case for seeing Jean-Jacques as a variation on Antonin Artaud, the subject of a later Sontag essay.

If Jean-Jacques—Hippolyte's mentor and tormentor—resembles anyone, it is Alfred Chester, who did indeed adore Genet, and who did go mad, like Artaud. As Michael Feingold noted in the _Village Voice_ , "Chester carried in himself two of the great polar elements on which most 20th century art is based: He was an intelligent homosexual—that is, a man perpetually conscious of life as a series of roles or poses to be taken on; and he was a madman—a visionary." Like Alfred Chester, Jean-Jacques has two first names, although the hyphenation creates one name in French. He and Hippolyte argue about both the trivial and the profound. Like Chester confronting Sontag, Jean-Jacques challenges Hippolyte: "You are a self-made _object-trouvé_. You are your own idea, thought up by yourself." Jean-Jacques acknowledges, ruefully, that Hippolyte has been, in a sense, his invention, but now Hippolyte declares his independence—as Sontag would from Chester. Jean-Jacques demands of Hippolyte, "My _object-trouvé_ is climbing down off my shelf?" When Hippolyte expresses regret over Jean-Jacques's attitude, Jean-Jacques repeats Alfred Chester's conclusion: "You don't need me anymore."

Jean-Jacques goes to bed with Hippolyte once, as Alfred Chester said he did with Susan Sontag. Chester's long story, "The Foot," reads like a reply to _The Benefactor_. "The Foot" concerns what Chester called the "situational I," an identity that could not be fixed, but only captured in a surreal novel, _I, Etc_., which he planned to write. When Sontag published _I, etcetera_ , she had appropriated more than a title. Like _The Benefactor_ , her short story collection would become an unacknowledged homage to Alfred Chester and perhaps, as well, an exorcism of his influence.

Like a Poe narrator, like Susan Sontag, Hippolyte spends his childhood in solitude and melancholy. He is "inspired by the prospect of becoming learned." He has a university education, but his most serious learning comes from his own voracious reading. For him, as for Sontag, the real revolutions are "revolutions of feeling and seeing." His first philosophical article ("important ideas on a topic of no great importance") is prophetic of Sontag's "Notes on 'Camp'" and its reception. Hippolyte's work provokes "controversial and excited" discussion in the "general literary world." It provides him with an entrée into the intellectual salons. He aspires, like many of Poe's narrators, to the unutterable—that is, to silence; indeed, he is a devotee of the aesthetics of silence, which will shortly become one of Sontag's key terms and, later, the cynosure of her first two films. He is bisexual and "dreams of love and domination, in both the masculine and feminine style." He contributes a few ideas on camp—although he does not use the term—when he observes the "comedy of roles which is the homosexual encounter." Jean-Jacques tells him, "Everything you do is you. You are incapable of doing otherwise." Or, as Hippolyte admits, he is an "utterly self-elected man."

That last phrase is reminiscent of an observation by a Sontag friend from the early 1960s, who saw the same kind of self-attachment, whether Sontag was at home committed to her writing, or at center stage promoting her work. Indeed, Hippolyte, though a recluse, also becomes attracted to film acting because it affords an experience like being a spectator of one's own dreams. Sontag would go him one better by directing her own dreams. Hippolyte's film director is a Scandinavian called Larsen; it must have seemed like destiny at work when Sontag was invited to make her first two films in Sweden. Hippolyte even seems to foreshadow Sontag's book on photography, pronouncing, "Life is a movie. Death is a photograph."

As critic Robert Adams puts it (NYR, October 17, 1963), Hippolyte is a "connoisseur of himself." He is the first of many such characters, culminating in the Cavaliere in _The Volcano Lover_. Hippolyte is acquisitive. He collects things and people for his dreams because, as Sontag vouchsafed to an interviewer, consciousness is a "form of acquisition," a devouring of the world for one's own dreams. Like Sontag, Hippolyte speaks of his family only in vague terms. He never even reveals his surname. He is reticent because he does not want family or history to hamper his dreams, to stymie his illusion that he is autonomous. And yet, like Sontag, he cannot resist seeking out father figures.

Farrar, Straus files show that the firm thought it had a winner. After all, the novel came with the backing of several powerful novelists and critics. As the publisher readied the book for publication in September 1963, it began to amass tributes:

THE BENEFACTOR is certainly a talented, alarming, nightmare—C.G. Jung out of Voltaire. Clearly it was not composed by any Miss Susan Sontag, whose existence I doubt in any case. It is a damned disquieting, queer, un-American piece of good work. (John Barth)

This is a considerable achievement for a first novel, and a particularly refreshing one by contrast to the breast-beating and exhibitionism to which most beginning novelists, in this country at least, are prone. (Frederick Morgan, _Hudson Review_ )

I just finished Miss Sonntag's [ _sic_ ] novel and I think it is extraordinarily good. My sincere congratulations: you may have discovered there a major writer. Of course, she is quite original and she has learnt to use her originality in the French school. Which is fine. I especially admired her strict consistency, she never lets her fancy go wild, and how she can make a real story out of dreams and thoughts.... I really was delighted! And I shall be glad to come to the publication party. (Hannah Arendt)

For an all-purpose blurb, though, Elizabeth Hardwick wins the prize. Her air of stately superiority verging on the cumbersome strikes a mandarin tone uncomfortably like the wooden prose of the novel: "Susan Sontag is the new writer who most interests me. She is intelligent, rather grave, and strikingly able to write about serious subjects in a felicitous manner." Writing to Catharine Meyer at Harper's just days before the novel's US publication date, Lila Karpf of Farrar, Straus cited Arendt's judgment and added, "[W]e have discovered a major writer.... We think Susan Sontag will quickly be ranked with such writer-critics as Mary McCarthy and Elizabeth Hardwick."

With such wonderful blurbs, it is noteworthy that Farrar, Straus decided to use none of them for _The Benefactor_ book jacket. Instead it offered the mystique of Susan Sontag herself. Harry Hess's photograph of her is spread across the back cover. It is one of the most perfectly composed shots ever to adorn a first novel. And shot is the appropriate word, for the photograph resembles a film still from a late 1940s film noir. The camera captures Sontag in three-quarter profile, with the light shimmering off her leather jacket, making her nose look a little broader than usual—a Gallic touch. She is wearing makeup, which accentuates her full lips, her deep dark eyes and brows. In close-up, her eyes are fully open and concentrated. Her erect posture suggests alertness. She is sensual but not sultry.

Under the leather jacket with turned up collar, she wears what appears to be a woolen jacket with a scarf wrapped around her neck. The photograph half-exposes and half-conceals her in layers of hard and soft material. Her dark hair—parted low on the left side—is cut just above her turned up coat collar and both frames and clings to the side of her oval face, creating a self-contained aura. The v opening of her jacket flares out toward her shoulders, making the turned up collar look almost winglike, as though it were part of a flight jacket. Carolyn Heilbrun suggested that Sontag's dust jacket picture on _The Benefactor_ made her look like the "woman aviator who parachutes through the greenhouse roof in Shaw's 'Misalliance.'" This is an author ready for action, with every component of her image in order and at her command. Sontag, the student of theater, cinema, and photography, had mastered the form. Kenneth Burke thought it "quite an idealization." To Sontag, Burke wrote on July 25, 1963: "[T]he good, scientifically accurate photograph should contribute greatly" to the novel's success.

John Bright-Holmes of Eyre & Spottiswoode, the firm that had decided to bring out _The Benefactor_ in Britain, liked the French tone, the German surname, and the jacket photograph, which made Sontag, with her "slightly Mexican cast of features," an exotic novelty.

Sontag would be an author who traveled well. Her Farrar, Straus & Giroux author's questionnaire, dated April 21, 1963, contained a customary question: "Will you be available for newspaper interviews, radio appearances, speeches before clubs, a short piece or two on a special subject connected with your current book?" Sontag's response was far from customary. In the middle of an otherwise blank page she wrote a single word: "Anything."

The front jacket cover, with its illustration of an ornate, grillwork peacock-feathered fan, and the back cover's tour-de-force author photograph, say everything about the dignified, yet erotic style that Sontag and Farrar, Straus & Giroux cultivated. Sontag brought glamour to the idea of being an intellectual, making it easier for men to accept her as a beauty with brains. For women, she evoked an ambitiousness that could be both sexy and serious. Sontag's image began to appear in the glossy magazines. A whole generation of women would get to know Sontag from her photographs accompanying mentions of her as an authority on the contemporary scene. It is in fact arguable that more women and men knew Sontag as a "name" than as an author they had read. Sontag profited from a change underway at magazines such as the _Ladies Home Journal, McCall's_ , and _Vogue_ —all of which were "reimagining themselves," as Judith Hennessee, Betty's Friedan's biographer, puts it. Editors at these magazines became more hospitable to writers with controversial ideas.

Roger Straus wrote personal letters to important intellectuals like historian Arthur Schlesinger Jr., then at the White House as a Kennedy advisor, averring, "I can't remember when in the last fifteen years I have sent you a novel which I hold in such high esteem." Schlesinger was an apt choice. He served a president whom Norman Mailer said had the personality of a great box office actor. And the Kennedy administration did much to promote intellectuals not merely as policy makers, but as fashionable actors in a new, swinging style. Such individuals could include, on the one hand, the presence of poet Robert Frost at Kennedy's inaugural, and on the other hand, Marilyn Monroe, at Kennedy's last public birthday celebration in Madison Square Garden.

Two months before _The Benefactor_ 's autumn publication, Farrar, Straus & Giroux had tried to jump-start public reception by submitting an excerpt to the _New Yorker_. Calling Sontag "wildly talented," Paula Diamond of Farrar, Straus commended the "most original and unusual first novel we've ever done." Of course, its very "off-beat, highly literary nature, and extreme stylization, would not please everyone." Sontag revised a section specifically for the magazine, but _New Yorker_ editor Robert Hemenway replied that the novel was "pretty far from anything that might work for us."

Roger Straus called the novel's reception "mixed," and he put a good face on the "heavy review space" it was getting. In _Partisan Review_ , a rather opaque Richard Howard spoke of prose as "varnished and desiccated as that of Constant, say, or of Stendhal in _Armance_ , though here the shellac crystallizes much too often (for those writers) into aphorisms, one of the author's irresistible inconsistencies." Granville Hicks, stationed for many years at _Saturday Review_ , seemed baffled, but he lauded Sontag's "unmistakable talents, her great care, her thoughtfulness." He ended his assessment by giving her the "benefit of every doubt." Richard Adams in the _New York Review of Books_ , which would become a publication venue for much of Sontag's writing, deemed _The Benefactor_ a "bold, flawed, impressive piece of work." Another accolade came from James B. Frakes in the _New York Herald Tribune_ : "This is a very special book, written with care, polish, daring, and certainty. Very sure. Very tough."

The novel needed more reviews like that, confident and commanding. If John Wain praised Sontag's "adroitness" and "delighted skill" in the _New Republic_ , he also coined a condemning phrase that stuck. Wondering what it was about her formal and colorless style that bothered him, he suddenly got it: "Of course! It is translator's English—the sort of composite idiom one gets from great Continental novels one first meets in translation during adolescence." Roger Sale repeated the judgment in the _Hudson Review_ , which the adolescent Sontag had read in southern California, aspiring to appear on its pages in rather different terms.

But the letters she received from two distinguished authors mitigated the mixed reviews. George Lichtheim, a writer on Marxist subjects, had met Sontag in Cambridge in 1959 and wrote her on August 23, 1963, "France has done its work. I have followed the adventures of your Candide with a good deal of amusement and a touch of envy." Even better, novelist John Hawkes sent her an encomium:

Your absolute commitment to a new understanding of the novel form, the remarkable consistency of your extreme detachment, the lovely brilliance and firmness with which you hold to the beauties of the irrational, the sheer range of comic invention in this novel, the sheer novelistic sympathy which you exact from your fiction, and above all your discovery of a pure language—all this is wonderful indeed.... I feel that I've been reading the prose of a truly gifted innovator, and I do want to thank you for this experience.

Hawkes notwithstanding, Farrar, Straus hoped for greater enthusiasm from reviewers and readers. By the end of 1967, the novel had sold only eighteen hundred copies in hardcover, although an Avon paperback, published in January of 1965, sold 33,750 copies over the next three years. Less than two weeks after issuing the first hardcover edition of _The Benefactor_ , Straus was advising Sontag to make her next book a collection of essays. He sensed her gift for literary polemics would win her a larger audience. In the early sixties she sounded oppositional. In the fall of 1963, at a panel on "Literary Criticism Today," she challenged critic Dwight Macdonald, saying he did not understand writers of her generation. She went on to suggest that critics such as Lionel Trilling and Edmund Wilson—the latter she called "over-rated"—were through. Publicly, a disgusted Philip Rahv (co-editor of _Partisan Review_ ) remarked, "Middleclasscisism a la Trilling is out, perversion is in." To Mary McCarthy, he added, "Susan Sontag. Who is she... Above the girdle, the girl is a square."

To an older generation of critics, such as Lionel Trilling and Philip Rahv, it seemed that Sontag favored writers like Simone Weil and Jean Genet, who sought extreme states of subjectivity. As critic Liam Kennedy remarks, Trilling warned against identifying with writer-heroes whose conception of freedom included separation from society itself. Sequestering the self, Trilling worried, would lead to self-destruction. Even though Sontag has sometimes been classed as the last of the New York intellectuals, and has frequently cited Lionel Trilling as an early model, she had an ambivalent relationship with Trilling, his wife Diana, and others of their generation. Just as many of these thinkers represented the old Left, Sontag came to stand for much of what came to be called the New Left. Her brand of literary criticism abandoned the New Criticism that dominated the two decades preceding her advent. Unlike the New Critics, she seldom spent whole essays on great works of literature, preferring a rather sweeping overview of literary and cultural trends, and giving the impression of being a harbinger of things to come, rather than merely a conservator of literary tradition.

Sontag was willing to engage mass society in a way that an earlier generation of intellectuals would have found unthinkable. In their era, there would have been no place for a Susan Sontag who was a trained philosopher—a commentator on contemporary culture, and a product of it. Sontag, as both emblem and exponent of her times, became the prime topic of reviewers' responses to her books. Her task was made easier in the climate of postwar America, which saw the expansion of a college-age generation brought up on both popular culture and the university curriculum. Susan Sontag's books themselves, in trade paperback, would take a prominent place on university bookstore shelves. A college student in, say, 1969, was more likely to have known about Susan Sontag than a college student would have known about Kenneth Burke in 1949.

Already, Sontag was making great friends and great enemies. One aggrieved editor deplored her "highbrow-lowbrow swanking, and her JAP [Jewish American Princess] diabolism. She intimidated people by a thuggishness of personal style (the boots & blackness...) and apodictic pronouncements." She had an entourage: "[A] feminist gang, and middle class women in general, loved (the right word is 'adored') her gangster style, now perhaps passé." At one party in the early 1960s, Sontag showed up with two "lieutenants." Sontag made her appearance memorable by grinding a cigarette out on the living room carpet.
8

SUPREMACY

1963–64

_The Benefactor_ is dedicated to María Irene Fornés, but by January 1963, when Sontag delivered the novel to Farrar, Straus, Fornés was feeling abandoned. Read against the backdrop of Sontag's life, the novel seems an exploration of the relationships she had savored and renounced. Alfred Chester watched, dismayed, as his beloved Irene suffered, swinging from joy to a disturbing calm. By February 1963, she was no longer living with Sontag, but spending extended periods with Chester. He felt for Sontag, too, observing that both women seemed miserable. In March 1963, both took to confiding their troubles to Chester, and not surprisingly he was getting different stories. He tended to side with Irene, but he also doubted some of what she said, feeling that her anger at Susan distorted her account. Susan got angry at Alfred and Irene for excluding her from their tête-à-têtes, but Alfred and Irene only seemed more secure in their alliance, with Irene taking comfort in Alfred's harsh characterizations of Susan's duplicity: "She (Irene) had thought all these years that she was the only one who could see through Susan and that everyone else was taken in." The Sontag-Fornés relationship continued to play itself out. "They're still lovers but seldom," Chester wrote to Field in early April 1963. But by the end of the month he announced, "Susan and Irene ne sont plus. It officially ended yesterday, and Irene is holding up courageously."

Chester, as always ambivalent about Sontag, had a sort of reconciliation with her in late May, when he finally decided to accept Paul Bowles's invitation to join him in Morocco. By then, Sontag had become for Chester an embodiment of what he thought of as "New York's literary jungle"—to use the words of Chester's friend, Norman Glass. Chester despised the "vulgar publicity tricks and the sordid struggle for power. He described a world in which one had to be a gangster or a film star in order to become a successful writer." In 1959, Chester had arrived in New York feeling like "King Shit," he said, but he departed disgruntled, casting a very cold eye on what he thought was Sontag's scheming. He watched keenly to see how her first novel would be received.

Chester later said that Irene Fornés blamed him for breaking up her relationship with Susan. He denied the indictment, but if it were true, he said, he could not have done a better thing for Irene. His suspicions about Sontag could well have had a corrosive effect on Fornés, yet she seems to have had her own doubts about Sontag, as Sontag had about her. But Chester, a man with a gift for making and destroying friendships, bears some responsibility for the breakdown. As Cynthia Ozick said, "He is the first, most wound-bearing layer of my emotions." Norman Glass, quoting La Rochefoucauld's _Maximes_ , said Chester committed the "unpardonable sin: he wounded other people's _amour-propre_." Yet Sontag stood by her relationship with Chester—whatever her misgivings—for another year (well into 1964), and would make a public defense of his work. It was a debt he felt she owed him, but it was also a generous gesture she would come to regret.

Writing to Harriet Sohmers from Morocco, Chester asked, "Is Susan famous? Jane and Paul [Bowles] couldn't read her book, it seems." Susan Sontag was not yet famous, although she was getting there. One sign of her emergence was her appearance in February 1963 in the inaugural issue of the _New York Review of Books_ , later called the "country's most successful intellectual journal." Sontag concurred: "American intellectual life—poor, fragmented thing that it is—would be vastly poorer had it not been for the _Review_ and the model that it gives for how to write for a generally educated audience." The country had never seen the likes of a popular intellectual forum, looking more like a newspaper than a little magazine, with intellectual headliners doing a lot more—it turned out—than reviewing books. With its first issue, it became a kind of exhibition catalogue for American intellectuals, with the reviewer as the star.

NYR issued from that entrepreneurial book genius, Jason Epstein, who invented the packaging of classics in Vintage and Anchor paperbacks. Epstein was a Columbia classmate of poets Allen Ginsburg and John Hollander. Epstein and his wife, Barbara, fomented the notion of the _New York Review_ over dinner on the Upper West Side of Manhattan with writer Elizabeth Hardwick and her husband, poet Robert Lowell. Sontag entered the magic circle endorsed by Elizabeth Hardwick, matriarch of New York intellectuals. Hardwick became for Sontag the very model of how an outsider becomes an insider. Like Sontag, Hardwick had always been besotted with literature, and from her "earliest youth determined to come to New York." Born in Lexington and educated at the University of Kentucky, Hardwick was an avatar of the "provincial in Balzac, yearning for Paris," as Hardwick herself put it to Hilton Als when he interviewed her for his loving profile of her in the _New Yorker_. Like Sontag, she had a troubled, complex relationship with her rootless mother, who had "been in too many places, had lived in too many houses"—to borrow a phrase from Hardwick's first novel, _The Ghostly Lover_. Born in 1916, Hardwick received a master's degree from the University of Kentucky, then enrolled in a doctoral program at Columbia, dropped out, and wrote for _Partisan Review_ and married Robert Lowell.

The couple reminded poet Derek Walcott of such Victorian pairs as the Brownings and the Carlyles. Lowell and Hardwick established a salon at their 67th Street apartment, where Walcott observed the "friendly malice with which the work of colleagues was dismissed by the guests. Whole reputations crunched out like butts." When Hardwick made the move from _Partisan Review_ to the _New York Review of Books_ , her writing, Als observes, had a "freer, unbridled quality, and one senses that Epstein and Silvers encouraged the particularities of her voice." Hardwick found a home at the _New York Review_ —and she also created an opportunity for Sontag that editor Robert Silvers knew how to exploit. Only three years older than Sontag, Silvers had matriculated at the University of Chicago at fifteen and graduated in two and a half years. He was a "fantastic, fanatical, brilliant" editor, Sontag said. "He is fascinated by people of distinction and power, and they all enjoy him," _Paris Review_ editor George Plimpton added.

Silvers, according to his brother, was by the age of five an avid reader. He rivaled Sontag in having a virtually photographic memory. He shared her "our crowd" mentality, associating with "a pretty tight circle of New York intellectuals, Oxbridge worthies and a select group of outriders," editor Gerald Howard observed. Silvers returned from Paris to the United States in 1959 to become an editor at _Harper's_. Philip Nobile, the _New York Review_ 's first historian, claimed that magazine's inner circle had taken a blood oath not to discuss its initiation ceremonies. The contrast between the closed nature of this corps and its putative belief in open intellectual discussion is remarkable. It was this sort of cliquishness that caused Chester to flee Manhattan for Morocco in 1963.

In early 1964 Susan Sontag received a _Mademoiselle_ merit award and was photographed (looking closer to twenty than thirty) in full make up, wearing all black, leaning against a blank wall. She is captioned the "Writer," occupying a space all her own—just as another merit award winner is the "Movie Actress," and still another the "Athlete." She was about to embark on a course that would catapult her almost overnight to literary stardom. Once again, it was Alfred Chester who showed her the way. On March 9, 1963, W. H. Auden published a review of Oscar Wilde's letters in the _New Yorker_. An excited Alfred Chester wrote to Paul Bowles and to Sontag, alerting them to the piece and calling it "very daring."

Chester recognized the importance of role-playing and the advent of a public style that Wilde brought to the artist's life. The circumspect Auden treated the nexus between sexuality and art obliquely, never referring to his own experiences. Instead, he focused on Wilde as both artist and artiste, writer and performer, in order to come to this generalization near the end of his essay-review: "The artist and the homosexual are both characterized by a greater-than-normal element of narcissism, though neither has as much as the performing artiste; it is only likely that among artists and artistes as a class a higher-than-average per cent will also be homosexual, compared with many other professions."

The word for Wilde's style was camp. He had found a way to write and to be seen performing as a writer with a gay flamboyance. Whatever else the vexed and much discussed term means, camp is an act that calls attention to itself, that plays with public perceptions of roles. This is why Sontag prefaced "Notes on 'Camp,'" (published in _Partisan Review_ 's fall 1964 issue) with the dedication, "[T]hese notes are for Oscar Wilde"—as if she might be explaining to Wilde the complex of factors out of which he arose, and in which he flourished and fashioned a powerful idea of the modern artist as star.

Auden's essay portrays a Wilde who made himself an immense social success while dispensing daring opinions by the sentence. As Auden put it, "[A] performer is truly himself only when he is in a sympathetic relation to an audience." His downfall came when he decided to make an issue of his integrity, to risk exposure of his homosexuality. It was one thing to be suspected of such behavior, to be gossiped about, but quite another to challenge the public to accept his denial of that behavior. Wilde was camp so long as he seemed to masquerade, to put on a performance, so that a certain ambiguity could remain. In camp, it is never clear whether a put-on is just a put-on, or meant to be something more serious. The performer has it both ways: Mae West is a woman; she is also a woman pretending to be a woman. She remains a constant tease. In court—as Wilde learned to his everlasting sorrow—camp cannot survive: A verdict has to be rendered, whereas camp is an endlessly postponed verdict.

Alfred Chester, with his dirty wig and his openly gay affect, could not play the half-revealed/half-concealed game that is camp. But the beautifully beguiling Susan Sontag could—particularly since she was willing to pursue what Chester loathed: social acceptance. Wilde could play the bohemian, but he also fashioned a public persona that brought in as much as a $1,000 a lecture during his American tour—a sum that in today's terms would place him among the top celebrity draws. Similarly, Susan Sontag could pursue the lesbian life she liked in the world's capitals, and associate herself with the avant-garde, but she also crafted a role acceptable to _Mademoiselle_ and Roger Straus. Although "obviously tolerant," Boris Kachka observes, Straus wasn't "exactly keen on the new openness." Kachka quotes the publisher's response to an exposé of Somerset Maugham's gay love life: "[R]evolting... let all the little queers do all their little lip smacking."

Sontag threaded the needle—on the one hand, suffering Straus's misogynistic slang, saying he was the only "person in the world" who could call her "Baby" and get away with it—but she violated the protocol of his parties by refusing to follow the women upstairs after dinner. "That was that," said Straus's wife, Dorothea. The tradition broken, the women never again were in purdah. Sontag was accruing power, with Straus bestowing $1,000 on her just before publication of _The Benefactor_ , and then loaning her another $1,000 in early 1964, when she found her first great subject, producing her "notes" on camp.

Sontag originally intended the essay to appear in a glossy magazine, presumably to give her ideas maximum exposure. In December 1963, she discussed the idea of the essay over lunch with Arnold Ehrlich, a senior editor at _Show_. He said he wanted to publish the essay, but he did not. Instead, she published the essay in _Partisan Review_ with its circulation of less than ten thousand, yet her work proved provocative enough to earn her, in William Phillips's words, "overnight" fame.

The opening sentence of "Notes on 'Camp'" is a wonderful come-on: "Many things in the world have not been named; and many things, even if they have been named, have never been described." This gambit is quintessential Sontag, the definer of phenomena, the philosopher who will explain the curious term she has put in quotation marks. It has never been discussed, she announces. Never? Well, Christopher Isherwood did spend a "lazy two-page sketch" on it in his novel, _The World in the Evening_ , she admits. The bold statement—followed almost immediately by qualification—is prime Sontag. Scholars of camp, of course, can trace its beginnings back to the eighteenth or nineteenth century. A less provocative writer would have spent more than a few sentences trying to pin down the term's origins. Indeed, in a letter to _Partisan Review_ (Winter 1965), critic John Simon did precisely that: "Miss Sontag might have profitably begun her lengthy tribute to 'camp' by quoting a lexicographer. Thus Eric Partridge's _Dictionary of Slang_ defines the noun as 'effeminate, esp. homosexual mannerisms of speech and gesture,' and the adjective as 'homosexual, Lesbian.'" But of course, this is precisely what Sontag wanted to avoid: any hint of pedantry, any introduction of the notion of homosexuality before she had completely immersed her audience in the fascinations of camp.

Second paragraph, and another sentence prophetic of the full-blown Sontag: "I am strongly drawn to Camp, and almost as strongly offended by it." Sontag uses the first person, but her self-references are fugitive, a tease, just like a camp performer's. This divided attitude pervades nearly all her writing, which is marked by what she labels here as "deep sympathy modified by revulsion." Such statements slyly sustain a tension between being caught up in her material and transcending it. She also wants it made clear that she is doing something terribly difficult: snaring a sensibility, which is not governed by reason but operates by virtue of a "logic of taste." Straining to express the ineffable, she has to remain "tentative and nimble." Hence notes—not a sustained, fully developed essay.

The notes are like theses nailed to the door of contemporary culture. Sontag lists examples of the canon of camp, from Tiffany lamps to _Swan Lake_ to King Kong. Composer Ned Rorem reported that Sontag had help assembling her list of camp artifacts, based at least in part on writer Elliott Stein's one-room fifth-floor walk-up in Paris. Stein plastered his walls with portraits of starlets and comic strip characters. He exhibited a Tiffany lampshade, a font for holy water, and photographs of muscle men. Rorem, a painstaking chronicler of the intersection of life and art, concluded, "Susan Sontag told me, circa 1966, that Elliott's room, no less than his pince-sans-rire rhetoric, was her chief source.... Since there is no record of Susan telling this to anyone else, I'll give Elliott credit where it's due." This vision of Stein, smiling and ironical, suggests he may have contributed to her portrayal of Hippolyte as well.

Camp becomes a Sontag vehicle for advancing her notions of style and artifice: that art itself is not mimetic, a copy of the world, but an emanation of the artist, a kind of magic. Camp is about appreciation of texture, sensuous surface, not content, not subject matter. Camp is drawn to the androgynous and to the strongly exaggerated or corny because they are constructs which suggest life is a stage, a theater, a construction of the self. Camp is, in short, the aesthetic view of the world, and is, Sontag points out, especially appealing to coteries and urban cliques, which spy "behind the 'straight' public sense in which something can be taken... a private zany experience of the thing."

Camp also appeals to Sontag because it is a form of control and assimulation. Camp, she suggests, promotes the integration of homosexuals into society by making them appealing owing to their playful interpretations. Until his trials, Wilde did well because he offered social criticism as entertainment. Auden argues that when Wilde no longer found himself socially acceptable, his creativity waned. He needed the largest possible audience, one that cut across classes and could take in the British aristocracy and American miners—whom he had no trouble entertaining during his American lecture tour. This socially acceptable avant-gardism is Oscar Wilde's legacy to Susan Sontag. Unlike her benefactor, though, she would not make the mistake of forcing her public to witness a trial or risk exposure of her private life.

On December 11, 1964, a two-column, five-paragraph summary of "Notes on 'Camp'" appeared in _Time_. One word in bold, Taste, followed by a word in quotation marks, "Camp," made Sontag an instant intellectual celebrity, conferring on her a status she managed to maintain through decades of social change. _Time_ , calling Sontag "one of Manhattan's brightest young intellectuals," reprised the history of dandyism, quoting Sontag lavishly. The constant references to her, as well as to the term, suggested that she owned it—or better yet, that she dared to own it. For as _Time_ put it, "And if this somehow suggests homosexuality, Miss Sontag is not one to deny it." To a mainstream, mass circulation news magazine in 1964, even aligning oneself closely with the camp sensibility seemed bold. Certain sentences in "Notes on 'Camp,'" clearly caught _Time_ 's attention: "Camp is the answer to the problem: how to be a dandy in the age of mass culture." Sontag was not merely describing camp; she became the very definition of how to be distinctive, a thinker who knew how to snare the contemporary sensibility. But John Simon, in a letter to _Partisan Review_ , slyly noted that Sontag's "catalogue reads very much like _Harper's Bazaar_ 's 'Chic is...' or _Vogue's_ 'People are talking about...' or any of numerous similar tabulations of what is 'in' and what is 'out.'"

Yet for her colleagues at _Partisan Review_ , for readers of literary quarter lies, and for the college-educated, Sontag had also done something wonderful. As William Phillips observes in _A Partisan View_ , she had come to terms, "if only obliquely and somewhat playfully, with a world of popular taste and entertainment." To be sure, there had been others, like Clement Greenberg and Dwight Macdonald, who had published provocative essays on kitsch and mass culture, but they took an aloof approach. Sontag seemed absorbed in what she described, thus ending, Phillips notes, the "adversary attitude to the products of popular and commercial culture." Sontag's style transcended the terms of the old arguments and heralded a "new way of looking at the objects of our culture." Phillips's most telling phrase captured the role that Sontag would continue to perform throughout the 1960s and 1970s: She had a "capacity for surmounting the ordinary terms of the arguments." Phillips himself had doubts about her position, but he realized that nothing like Susan Sontag or her way of presenting an argument had ever before appeared on the American scene. The camp essay, Phillips concluded, seemed the "result of an immaculate conception."

Sontag, then thirty-one, had become a star—not merely for her readers, but also for her fellow writers. On October 1, 1964, George Lichtheim had come courting, embarrassed by his poetic, if silly letters. "I even had tears in my eyes," he confessed. She shied away from his advances, but he clung to the idea that at least they could be friends now that his "insanity" was "over." Seasoned writers gushed in her presence. Charles Jackson, author of the celebrated _The Lost Weekend_ (which had become a memorable film starring Ray Milland), wrote that he was dazzled by her smile and that he had talked "too anxiously, like a green girl." Hearing her on a radio broadcast, he noted that William Phillips was of course intelligent and Arthur Miller "all-wise," but they seemed old news compared to her: "You were spirited—no pose—clear—and your audience (this one member of it, at least) understood you, if that doesn't sound too patronizing."

Sontag looked and behaved like a star. "She was so full of herself," remembers a couple—we will call them the Wildes—who saw her shortly after her instant fame caught up with her on a lecture tour. She was sitting behind a desk in a Berkeley professor's office, a group of students clustered around her. The Wildes entered and sat down. But they could never really converse with her. Someone would be just about to say something, and the phone would ring. Sontag would pick it up and say, "Yes, this is she." She would have a conversation and hang up. Then someone would lean over and begin to speak. Sontag proved difficult to engage, treating the Wildes (one of them a novelist about her age) kindly but offhandedly. Then the phone would ring again. "I remember thinking this is what it is like when you get to be famous," one of the Wildes remembers. Indeed, Sontag's new stature suited her well. "She was like Elizabeth I. She did not have a ruff, but she had everything else."

Sontag now made grand entrances into Farrar, Straus & Giroux's grimy Union Square offices. Like her stand-in, Pepita Erskine in _Muse_ , Sontag had become the publisher's "quintessential" author, "insistent" on her own "impeachability." "Everything had to stop for her, a former copy editor remembered. "We would put aside whatever else and we would work with her." Just how high and mighty Sontag had become is reflected in a message Iris Murdoch sent regarding a "sad letter from George Lichtheim." He was quite wretched because Sontag had gone silent. Murdoch hoped Sontag did not mind Murdoch's passing on news of the "poor chap," who was in distress. He was so "down-hearted. So please forgive me for adding my please to his, that he might be written to!"
9

FAME

1965–66

In 1965 and 1966, Susan Sontag seemed to be everywhere. She was "almost as famous now in Britain as in America—and it seems impossible to pick up any literary weekly or little magazine there without coming upon an article by her or, at least glancingly, about her," Alan Brien wrote in the _Spectator_. He was taken with her "pixie face under a Rolling-Stone pompadour." In person she seemed "neither the beatnik Boadicea of her writing nor the precocious girl-scout of her television appearances." This tall, tough-looking woman—cheerful, forthright, and a "rapid-fire talker"—denied "any intention of patenting her own individual, clotted, pedagogic, polymathic, parodiable style of criticism."

For the "People are Talking About..." column in _Vogue_ (June 1966), featuring "Sontag and Son," David, now fourteen and attending a French Lycée in Manhattan, appeared in a John Lennon cap—reflecting the vaguely nautical look Lennon sported at the time—and a herringbone tweed jacket, with arms folded, sitting hunched over a table. Mother Sontag has her right arm around his shoulder and her hand gripping his right arm. He is, in fact, her right hand man. He, too, is a thinker and has an "acute sense of his times." _Vogue_ called him an avid reader of books on the Boxer Rebellion and the Albigensian Crusade, a teenager who also discoursed (that is the word) about movies of the thirties and actresses like Kay Francis.

Irving Penn's photograph pictures a Sontag who appears to have borrowed Natalie Wood's hairdresser and makeup artist. The short hair of her book jacket photograph has grown into a glamorous, shoulder-length softness. Penn shoots this mother and son as fashion idols, with a head-on look that accentuates their dark, large-eyed, wide-open Sumerian stares. This image of the intellectual as mother suited the times—still a good six years away from the flowering of a new feminist movement. Sontag could appear to be titillating, but at the same time, she had a nurturing side that reassured women—certainly women who read _Vogue_. Sontag was very proud of her son, and like any mother liked to show off her progeny. What is more, she was a single mother who had relied on her own ambition and shrewdness to support herself and her son. If Sontag exuded glamour, it was glamour with guts. In her diary, Sontag admitted, "[S]o now people think David + I are sister + brother, + that pleases me immensely, turns me on." It had been the same with her youthful, narcissistic mother, who loved being mistaken for her daughter's sister.

Penn's composition makes striking viewing when aligned against Diane Arbus's classic shot of Sontag and son taken for _Esquire_ (July 1965). In the latter, Sontag—a worried, almost tortured expression on her face—clings to David, her body and head resting against him, as he, an effeminate-looking twelve/thirteen-year-old with long bangs—leans into her. They seem a single unit. Sontag's hair is barely combed, and her clothing is casual, consisting of a turtleneck sweater and jeans, half-covered by a long overcoat. David, in his Carnaby Street clothing, is definitely the sportier item.

David, "mascot of the trendy left wing," consorted with Warren Beatty, Jasper Johns, Tom Hayden, and Jane Fonda. He later called himself a "child born in Harvard Yard and brought up in Andy Warhol's factory." Arbus seemed to capture his disgruntled sense of himself as a child pressured to excel, reading _War and Peace_ at eleven and weeping because "he knew he would never write so well." If Sontag looks unhappy in the Arbus photograph, she has a right to, because the fight to keep David had been grueling. She told Richard Tristman that she had been forced to take a Rorschach test. But she managed to retain custody of her son. Although Sontag and son seem inseparable in both photographs, David remembered that by the age of fourteen he was spending much of his time alone. Like his mother, he was out the door at fifteen, traveling through Europe and the Middle East on his own.

The conflict between David's parents seems only to have strengthened his identification with his mother; he remained estranged from his father for more than twenty years. Often out at New York events or following a European travel itinerary that would exhaust all but the hardiest of travelers, Sontag maintained her mystique, even for her son. If she was not a caring mother in terms of domestic arrangements and day-to-day routines, she was supremely caring when it came to sharing access to her own quest for greatness with her son. If he felt intimidated by what she expected of him, he also felt gratified to be allowed to travel in her company. Being in her orbit gave him an extraordinary sense of entitlement. But like even her closest friends and lovers, he would never know exactly what Sontag thought about her fame, or why she wanted her sexuality closeted. Although her diaries reveal her thoughts about sex, they scrupulously avoid discussion of her decision not to come out.

What to say about her sexuality may have troubled Sontag in part because she remained so conflicted about what it meant to her and to others. Her diary entries in the summer of 1965 lamented her nearly five years with Irene Fornés and recounted the manipulative hold of a lover who dominated her, then withdrew in silence like Sontag's mother. Even worse, Sontag believed she was "no good in bed." David was, his mother admitted, a lifeline. "If I hadn't had David, I would have killed myself last year," she wrote on August 24, 1965. A brief affair with Richard Goodwin, a former Lyndon Johnson speechwriter and Robert Kennedy associate, elicited a single diary entry: "[A] whole new continent of neurosis sailed into view." Even so, she found Goodwin's association with the powerful irresistible, and noted his advice about who you could trust: It had to be someone with integrity, an astute observer of others, and not a gossip.

Sessions in therapy with Diana Kemeny and heart-to-heart talks with filmmaker Noël Burch had apparently done little to salve Sontag's anxiety, or to alleviate what she called her masochism—perhaps elevated by constant recourse to Dexamyl, an amphetamine she remained addicted to until well into the 1980s. At the same time, Kemeny and Burch pointed out Sontag's sadistic streak, which got expressed in her contempt for other peoples' weaknesses, even as she pretended that she was not "aggressive or competitive at all." In private, in her diary, a more vulnerable Sontag made a brief appearance: "Under Diana [Kemeny]'s tutelage, I'll find my dignity, my self-respect." To do so meant, in her words, not thinking about the past, about her upbringing in California. Sontag had to go on "destroying my memory" and the "drivel" of her first fifteen years that had ruined her, so that she was not "mad enough, not obsessed enough." Among the artists who were mad enough she listed "Sylvia Plath" in quotation marks, as if Plath had become not a person but a character, a theme Sontag wanted to explore in her novel about her own disintegrating artist, Thomas Faulk. Sontag's real energy, she believed, was in her commitment to the present. She could have had such thoughts in mind when she noted in her diary:

Sylvia Plath:

Poet—

Husband, father

Two children—

Suicide—

Was the poet who famously could not release herself from the past, from family obligations, an object lesson for a Susan Sontag without strings?

No sooner had Sontag achieved fame than she wished—like Garbo—to escape it, to back away from articles like Mary Ellmann's "The Sensational Susan Sontag," which appeared in the _Atlantic Monthly_ in September 1966 Ellmann began, "In the land of _Vogue_ , People are Talking About Susan Sontag." In the spring of 1966, Sontag wrote to William Gass, expressing her embarrassment that her blurb for his novel, _Omensetter's Luck_ , had been featured prominently on the front of the book jacket. It looked like she was setting herself up as "someone's patron," whereas she had assumed her name would appear on the back as one of many writers who praised the book.

In 1966, Sontag turned down an offer from _Esquire_ to do a monthly film column, calling the magazine "pretty loathsome." Writing on August 11 to Roger Straus she noted, "I don't want to be the new Dwight Macdonald any more than I want to be the new Mary McCarthy, estimable as these worthy people are." She declared her intention to run from any kind of "pop-celebrity fame." Her letter to Straus crossed in transit with his dated the same day. Straus thought better of _Esquire_ , observing that while Sontag might not want to steal time from writing her novel, there was no problem with "you should pardon the expression, your image."

Straus's use of the word "image" touched a sore point. Sontag simply could not acknowledge that she now had a public persona, that to certain women and men she was a kind of heroine whose example permitted an expanded range of cultural discussion and behavior. Her readers (including those who only read about her or saw photographs of her) delighted in the image of a woman who could be seen to be doing, to employ that sixties cliché, "her own thing." Sontag disliked becoming the latest hot tip in _Time_. She told her readers in the preface to the paperback edition of _Against Interpretation_ , "I was not trying to lead anyone into the Promised Land except myself." Such statements bespeak what Leo Braudy, in _The Frenzy of Renown_ , calls the "Lindbergh syndrome," the desire of the famous to "relinquish their fame only partially: to achieve fame because you fulfill the desires of an audience for a hero and then to deny that the audience or the times have anything to do with your fame. You deserve it only for your pure self, which you will dispense in increasingly tiny droplets to the faithful." Sontag wanted to be left alone: "As long as I have solitude and a place to work... as long as I'm published and have enough money for books and movies and the opera, I'm perfectly content.... I don't see why anyone would look for... publicity. I know quite a few movie stars and most of them are confused and unhappy." She did not say why her movie star friends were "confused and unhappy." Was it because of too much publicity, or too little? According to two of Sontag's close friends who were interviewed by biographer Peter Schreiber, she had an on-and-off affair with Warren Beatty in the late 1960s. She seemed to enjoy the attention their public appearances together excited. At the same time, he kept her waiting while he preened in the bathroom.

For the famous, what is enough and what is not enough is constantly shifting in a dynamic Sontag would not address. To recognize the fluctuations of fame, as Braudy shrewdly observes, is to admit the element of theatricality. Sontag would have had to say that she enjoyed the perks of fame, which include, in Braudy's words, the "glow of being observed and appreciated by others." But to admit that one craves adulation puts one in the audience's debt. As long as Sontag remained silent about her relationship to her audience, it was free to admire her—and she was free to savor its applause. The comparison with Garbo becomes inevitable given Sontag's own admission, to herself, that she wanted to "be Garbo," which meant absorbing Garbo's manner and gestures. This was more than admiration; it was "longing"—even sexual passion, "the sequence of my homosexuality."

Sontag suspected that Jill Johnston, an art and dance critic—and by 1959 a columnist for the _Village Voice_ —was about to publish an article about Sontag's sexuality. Sontag phoned Johnston, hurling all manner of insults and managing to convey her horror that Johnston might out her. Sontag had become agitated, Johnston remembered, because Roger Straus had warned her of the dire consequences of such an article.

Actually, Johnston never had any objection to Sontag "remaining a closet lesbian." Johnston herself did not come out as a prominent lesbian activist until 1971. She noted that politicized lesbians and gays have wanted "those of any influence and renown" to come out, but Johnston believed that the "still precarious even dangerous position, both legally and socially, of lesbians and gay men," made the desire to remain hidden understandable. She acknowledged that the literary and art community was well aware of Sontag's sexual orientation, but this was a "family" type of knowledge: "Everyone in the family 'knows,' but no one is supposed to mention it (except in the context of a rumor mill), much less go abroad with it." Johnston documented this world of "privileged information" in her book on Jasper Johns. For her part, Sontag enjoyed, for a brief period, an affair with him, observing in her diary his "formidable reticence—it's awe-inspiring plus his argumentativeness."

Johnston noted that Sontag had much in common with the closeted gay men discussed in her biography of Jasper Johns:

Successful before Stonewall [1969], they could only have had reason to think subconsciously at least, that they had much to lose by coming out after Stonewall provided a consensus for doing so. Another way of putting it: Any controversial (sexual) political identity was liable to threaten their publicly affirmed identity as artists and writers. Susan, of course, became politically identified with liberal left causes that were acceptable.

The fear of marginalization had its intellectual roots in figures like Leo Strauss. He argued that the great philosophers concealed as much as they revealed, and that certain truths—spoken too boldly or openly—as Socrates and Spinoza demonstrated, led to death or at least to ostracism.

In the pre-Stonewall world, very few women discussed lesbianism openly. The word itself was not spoken in Lillian Hellman's controversial play, _The Children's Hour_ (1934), and the homosexual drama at the heart of the play had to be transformed into a heterosexual triangle for the Hollywood film version, _These Three_ (1936). A child of the 1930s and 1940s, Sontag could see that not much in the culture had changed, although William Wyler, the director of _These Three_ , included the lesbian theme in his remake of _The Children's Hour_ in 1962. But what does Martha do in the play when she acknowledges her sexual attraction to Karen? She kills herself. Lesbianism is a moral and physical affront to normality. It is treated with revulsion. In fact, Martha and Karen are guilty of nothing, but it is the very idea of homosexual congress that isolates them, destroys their lives as teachers and their reputations in the community. Could Susan Sontag take a chance on seeing how much had changed?

At a turning point, Johnston and Sontag took entirely separate paths. Johnston moved towards explicitly dealing with her sexuality and its political implications in _Lesbian Nation_ (1973). To Johnston, Sontag's writing was "too abstracted from the human interpersonal concerns that have preoccupied me." Yet their paths would continue to cross, with Johnston observing Sontag as a "celebrity buff; we were all influenced by media selections for star status," Johnston admitted. She added, "but I believe Susan, like, say, Jasper Johns, was particularly smitten by celebritydom. I have had my doubts that she is a people person at all, i.e. that persons per se are interesting to her. Anyhow it was her brand of fame and my onrushing credentials along that line that brought us together."

In July of 1964, artist Joseph Cornell watched Susan Sontag on television excoriating the educational system. Riveted by her image, he confided to his journal that she made him "momentarily inspired." A shy, retiring man, cooped up with his invalid brother and domineering mother in a home on Utopia Parkway in Queens, Cornell found an outlet in visits to theaters and opera houses, where he lurked outside stage doors, first observing female performers and then turning them, literally, into icons in his work. A devotee of divas, Cornell selected Sontag as one of his obsessions. His elaborate and exquisite boxes were themselves frames or stages on which he situated his dancers, singers, movie stars, and, now, Susan Sontag. He assembled for Sontag what his biographer Deborah Solomon calls a "fan package," which included a copy of _Monsieur Phot_ , his 1933 surrealist film scenario. Solomon says Sontag was "charmed." Her letter to Cornell sounds straightforward enough: "Dear Mr. Cornell," Sontag wrote on December 12, 1965. "Thank you very much for your letter, and your gift of the film script. I was very moved and delighted by both."

Five weeks later, on January 19, 1966, Cornell visited Sontag, then living on Washington Street in Greenwich Village. Recording the details in his diary, he mentioned a Jeanne Moreau photograph on the wall—as if, Solomon cannot resist adding, he were "getting two stars for the price of one." A week after the visit he again mentioned meeting Sontag in his diary, as if commemorating a historic event. Three days later he called her and had a "decent talk." Decent does not sound very exciting, not exactly like what Cornell might have wanted from his icon. Or is it the business of the icon to remain at least slightly aloof? Cornell does not say he was disappointed. But Solomon says, "[F]or all his affection for her, Sontag could not take Cornell quite seriously as a suitor." Sontag told Solomon that the sixty-year-old Cornell seemed frail and exhibited a transparency common among the aged. She assumed he did not have a sex life, and she was right. He continued to write about her in his diaries, to telephone her, to write her letters (some of which remained unsent). He talked her up to friends, extolling _Against Interpretation_. Many of the camp items she listed in her essay— _Swan Lake_ and Greta Garbo, for example—had already been subjects of Cornell boxes. He reveled in the world of artifice, of theatricality. But Sontag would greet her appearances in his art with mixed emotions. Her camp essay positions her outside looking in; Cornell's boxes reverse this image. Sontag admitted that on her visits to Utopia Parkway she was uncomfortable. She called it a "great privilege" to be asked to this artist/recluse's home, but the implication that she was a part of his world might have increased her unease. Yet she returned, again and again, and Cornell gave her parts of his collections, including photographs and film stills and other mementos.

Cornell assembled several collages in homage to Sontag. One focused on Henriette Sontag, a nineteenth-century diva. These two Sontags are not from the same family, but Cornell reveled in the idea of the pair, of doubles, which accentuated, Solomon observes, the "dreamy feelings of identification that made him their double as well." Only one collage has Sontag center stage. _The Ellipsian_ , as Cornell brilliantly titled it, is based on the book jacket photograph for _The Benefactor_. Solomon's description of the collage reveals that Cornell anticipated the goddess or priestesslike quality that reviewers of _Against Interpretation_ would soon remark about, although Cornell's evocation of the icon is more reverential: The "photo of Sontag—torn at the edges to suggest the passage of time—occupies the upper right corner of the page, from whose heights she stares into space with cool self-possession. A scrap from a chart of the solar system and penciled circles endow her with an otherworldly dimension." Publicity, theater, religion, myth—they all make up Cornell's version of the "new sensibility," which Sontag would say, in _Against Interpretation_ , delights in the sensuous, in surfaces, and—although she would never admit as much—in the stylish photographs of Sontag herself. But enchantment can easily give way to disenchantment. Solomon concludes with the report that Sontag was amazed when a young man introducing himself as Cornell's assistant requested that she return the two boxes the artist had given her.

Cornell's enthrallment with Sontag was typical of the public infatuation with her that was already underway by the time her second book, the collection of essays called _Against Interpretation_ , appeared in early 1966. She was titled "Lady on the Scene" ( _New York Times Book Review_ , January 23, 1966), and her work became symbolic of "Swingtime" ( _New York Review of Books_ , June 9, 1966)—to cite just two of the book's more influential reviews. In the former, Benjamin DeMott, who had plenty of qualms about Sontag's arguments, nevertheless deemed her "a genuine discovery." Sontag's book collects twenty-six essays, culled from the several dozen she published between 1961 and 1965. Section one presents her critical credo in "Against Interpretation" and "On Style." Section two concerns her studies of artists, critics, philosophers, and anthropologists. Section three consists of her take on modern drama. Section four is her dissection of film (science fiction, the avant-garde, and the European New Wave). And section five includes her evocation of the new sensibility as exemplified in camp and "happenings."

A stunning back-of-the-jacket photograph graced this encyclopedic performance. Novelist Charles Jackson addressed her as "La Belle Suzanne," and added, "I'm not kidding—not when I look at that stunning photograph. Gosh what a good-looking girl you are—do you know it at all?" Her inscription thrilled him: "To Charles, Affectionately, Susan." He was "proud to know you, proud of your rapid rise, proud of the staggering intellect of yours that floors me even while I admire."

This time friend Peter Hujar built on the iconography of Harry Hess's _Benefactor_ photograph. Sontag is pictured with chin-length hair, a low side part, a turtleneck sweater. She is wearing makeup, again accentuating her full lips, her deep, dark eyes, and her dark brows. But Hujar added his characteristic brilliance to this effigy. He shoots her with eyes cast down, but with her lips wearing an almost enigmatic Mona Lisa-like expression. He compresses this image into a close-up tighter than Hess used, so that the photograph is cropped well above Sontag's waist. The background is a neutral light grey, and her face is turned just slightly more toward the viewer than in Hess's three-quarter profile. Her lighter colored jacket—perhaps suede—and her hair, which is combed away from her face, also contribute to the effect of lightening Sontag's image while still preserving her air of mystery. Other, less attractive poses were rejected for the jacket photo. One that Farrar Straus & Giroux distributed with the press materials for the first edition shows a Hujar take of Sontag against a stark white background, looking older (with circles under the eyes and laugh lines), standing with hands apparently clasped in a three quarter-length pose that seems static. DeMott in his _Times_ review shows how jacket and text converged:

The haunting image is that of a lady of intelligence and apparent beauty hastening along city streets at the violet hour, nervous, knowing, strained, excruciated (as she says) by self-consciousness, bound for the incomprehensible cinema, or for the concert Hall, where non-music is non-played, or for the loft, where cherry bombs explode in her face and flour sacks are flapped close to her, where her ears are filled with mumbling, senseless sound, and she is teased, abused, enveloped, deliberately frustrated until...

What is revealed, DeMott suggests, is the solemn Sontag, the "self-lacerating Puritan" radically juxtaposing herself against the phenomena of culture in a "vivacious, beautifully living and quite astonishingly American book."

With press like that, it hardly mattered that Eliot Freemont-Smith in the _New York Times_ complained,

[S]he did not creep modestly and hesitantly into the intellectual scene.... Instead, she burst from nowhere amid something like a tickertape parade... throwers being her publisher (Roger Straus, Jr.) and the somewhat brassy, assertive and valuable junior members of the _Partisan Review-New York Review of Books_ cultural coterie.... Instead of being announced, she had been proclaimed.

That Sontag was sensational and controversial is what mattered. Tom Nairn in the _New Statesman_ (March 24, 1967) only made her seem more formidable when he deplored her image as "a cult leader one wants to be in with... a prophet of the contemporary ineffable." Similarly, Robert Phelps in _Life_ worried about Sontag's "peculiar ambition to be regarded as an emblem, to present her trials, tastes, committals as themselves expressing a truth greater than any even she can yet know—her generation's truth which others will have to perceive."

Reviewers pointed to the influence of Edmund Husserl, the great European phenomenologist who believed that significance grew out of the description of phenomena, not out of converting phenomena into the terms of some other kind of analysis, such as Freudianism or Marxism. Thus Sontag counsels, again and again, an immersion in art, in the experience of art, and not in the intellect, which tries to make something out of art. The trouble with her position, as many reviews took satisfaction in pointing out, is that she was herself an enthusiastic interpreter of the art she liked, not just a devotee of it.

Sontag's work is not insensitive to that objection. Critic Ihab Hassan has called "Against Interpretation" and "On Style" essays that "refuse dating, refuse obsolescence, because they address a timeless human impulse: to interpret and appropriate the world." She is right to be wary of interpretation, what she calls "open aggressiveness, an overt contempt for appearances" that subverts art into selfish purposes. "Against Interpretation" argues that contemporary critics concentrate on content, ignoring style and form, which constitute the signature of the artist. Yet Sontag knows quite well that western criticism and philosophy since Plato and Aristotle cannot forsake the content/form distinction, even as critics argue that the two are inseparable and only treated as distinct for purposes of criticism. She contends (in a passage often overlooked by her critics) that analysis of content has not only been useful, but essential during certain periods. But in her age, critics have gone content-mad. She writes a polemic to redress the imbalance between form and content, to tug the discussion closer to style, to call a moratorium on the eager hunting for hidden meanings, for symbolic patterns—to declare, as Gertrude Stein did, "a rose is a rose is a rose."

Sontag promulgates a kind of therapy, an antidote to the psychologizing that had infected both the academic and the journalistic discussion of art for more than twenty years. Reviewers, thinking of themselves as a sophisticated gendarmerie of literature, bridled at her prescriptions. Alicia Ostriker in _Commentary_ (June 1966) complained about Sontag's "refusal to carry any line of reasoning through to the end." Peter Brooks in _Partisan Review_ (Summer 1966) lamented her "failures of logic, language and historical understanding." These are the typical failings of polemics, which are not measured, academic considerations of a subject. As Irving Howe noted in his attack (also a polemic) on Sontag in "The New York Intellectuals," she was the product of a generation of provocateurs who had contempt for transitions. Leaps of logic were prized, not punished.

In a friendlier tone, Kenneth Burke expressed similar qualms. No one realized better than her teacher that in _Against Interpretation_ she had, in some ways, diminished herself:

I salute its intelligence and penetration and general alertness.... The gazettes for which you wrote necessarily demanded that you cut corners. Ideally, your book could have repaired the damage. Too often, you ask us to accept your judgment on your authority, whereas in a book-length work you might have given us more chances to decide for ourselves. For instance, go back and look at your "Marat/Sade/Artaud" item. And think of a poor devil down here, far from headquarters, walking on a beach that is much the way it always was. He is told how good the language is, and how wonderfully incantatory, etc.—but what if somebody around the corner asked him to say how?

Burke worried that so much display of intelligence came at the cost of a certain rigor.

Jack Behar in the _Hudson Review_ (Summer 1966) identified the historical moment that was so receptive to Sontag. She came on the scene when the great figures of modernism like Joyce and Eliot had been absorbed into the universities and cultural life of the country. Irving Howe announced in "The New York Intellectuals," that philistinism had been conquered; the vulgarity of mass culture had been put in its place by the likes of Clement Greenberg and Dwight Macdonald. Most of the 1930s radicals still around had moved away from Marxism and toward anti-communism and bourgeois culture—even if, like Howe, a few tried to keep the hope of socialism alive.

Sontag saw herself as emerging out of that _Partisan Review_ world and transcending it. It would have been unthinkable for Greenberg or Macdonald to train their intellects on science fiction the way Sontag did in "The Imagination of Disaster," still one of the key critical guides to science fiction film. But to Sontag the new sensibility was about precisely that ability to move between high and low, the so-called elite and popular or mass cultures of the day. She did not see herself as undiscriminating, although Howe and others regarded her positions as ruinous to the precious distinctions between high and low art they had worked for decades to establish. Her dismissal of contemporary criticism as philistine was a deliberate provocation—and to some minds, a gross distortion. As Jack Behar observed, nowhere did she actually name the philistines she had in mind. Who were these critics who wallowed in content? They were straw men. To name names would have inevitably led to qualifications in her argument, to those dull transitions she wished to avoid, to the plodding, if truthful, claims of history.

Yet Howe himself acknowledges that by the mid-1940s both Greenberg and Macdonald had exhausted what they had to say about popular culture. Their arguments, their categories, were static. Sontag excited attention by perceiving a dynamic between Beckett and the Beatles. As she argued in the last essay of _Against Interpretation_ , there was one culture, one sensibility—not two, as C. P. Snow argued, contrasting art and science, or high and low, as the _Partisan Review_ critics had maintained. But Howe mistook Sontag when he judged that her argument obliterated distinctions between good and bad art. The culture was one, certainly, but Sontag, as she reiterated in countless interviews and in a retrospective essay on _Against Interpretation_ , never thought of herself as advocating an abrogation of aesthetic standards. True, when she lapsed into the mantra about the appeal of sensuality, spontaneity, surfaces, and textures, the language she used made her sound to Howe and others as if she were recommending superficiality and anti-intellectualism, a "do your own thing" mindlessness. She caricatured Matthew Arnold's belief in literature as a criticism of life, as moral uplift, and set it aside in favor of a new sensibility that valued new "modes of vivacity." This was the kind of vague phrase that riled Howe. Thirty years later, Sontag would gloss her program as a brief for a "more alert, less complacent seriousness." But without some definition of content, Howe had trouble taking her seriously. What exactly was there to be serious about? If almost anything could be turned into an object of serious study, then what did the term serious really mean? To Howe, Sontag had to be rejected as "a publicist able to make brilliant quilts from grandmother's patches."

Howe attacked Sontag's eclecticism, sarcastically lamenting, "[I]f only one could learn to look upon intellectual life as a variety of play." He deeply distrusted Sontag's and the _New York Review_ 's deference to intellectual and political fashions. A writer who had gone through a painful journey from Marxist true believer to a stoic commitment to the worth of bourgeois democracy, Howe was appalled that Sontag and her patrons seemed ready to "abandon traditional precepts for a moment of excitement." Sontag was now writing for periodicals like _Vogue_ and _Mademoiselle_ , unimaginable acts for an intellectual of the 1930s, one who would even have had qualms about publication in the _New Yorker_. She seemed to have thrown herself into what Howe called the "absorptiveness of modern society." She was part of a new generation Howe deeply distrusted because it was "attracted to the idea of power." That Sontag had been published in _Partisan Review_ reinforced Howe's concern about the journal's conflict between upholding standards and embracing the moment. According to Phillips, Rahv wanted to reject Sontag; Phillips—no matter his qualms about some of Sontag's ideas—fell into her arms.

Sontag became a heroine for a new generation with intellectual ambitions precisely because she extended the range of what it meant to be serious. She did not compartmentalize culture. To publish in both _Vogue_ and _Partisan Review_ was not hypocritical; instead, this flexibility reflected an energetic, bold woman who could appear in any venue she chose. Susan Sontag's great gift to American culture was her demonstration that the world of intellect could be found everywhere. To be sure, some saw her behavior as self-promoting. Nevertheless, her desire to speak to an audience far larger than Lionel Trilling or Irving Howe ever imagined addressing seemed laudable to many. Susan Sontag helped to change what both _Vogue_ and _Partisan Review_ published.

And yet, as advanced as Sontag might have seemed at the time, a trace of her inherent conservatism—which was not then well understood—lingered. Biographer Peter Schreiber reports that when the _New York Review of Books_ stopped publishing her for a time because, in his words, she seemed "too extreme," she "complained bitterly about it to her friends Richard Howard and Roger Straus as well as to William Phillips" at _Partisan Review_. She was still writing, in effect, from an elite perspective. Unlike Sylvia Plath, she had no ambition to write for the masses. Sontag could never have begun a novel, as Plath did, by calling it a "pot boiler." And Plath did this without any sense of embarrassment. But then, she was not advocating a program of cultural appreciation; instead, she simply concentrated on her own writing and all the kinds of writing she wanted to master. Just how did those crime novelists construct such entrancing plots? Plath wanted to know, so she quizzed a pulp fiction writer about their methods. This was the kind of writer's nuts and bolts question that Sontag, on her lofty perch, was unable to observe or take an interest in.

In _A Partisan View_ , Phillips reports that he tried to bring the generations together, inviting elements of the old and the new sensibilities to meetings that finally only exacerbated differences. And yet at one _Partisan Review_ soiree, "Irving Howe said he was so charmed by Susan that he forgot she was his political adversary." Howe's attack on her in "The New York Intellectuals" turns him into a kind of Ulysses, striving mightily to resist Sontag's siren song.

Sontag's intellectual "fathers"—to borrow Liam Kennedy's term—worried over her vanguard position in a new generation for whom the "world seemed to be opening up." And Sontag, via Farrar, Straus & Giroux, was doing some of the opening. By the fall of 1965, subsidiary rights had sold a thousand copies of _Against Interpretation_ to the Mid-Century Book Society. In February 1966, Dell acquired mass market and trade paperback rights. As of the end of 1967, the book had sold over ten thousand copies in hardcover, a very respectable showing for a work of criticism. The Delta trade edition paperback had sold 21,994 copies by May of 1969.

Farrar, Straus followed a protocol that publishers of other literary figures, such as Norman Mailer, William Styron, and James Baldwin pursued. Trade paperbacks would often be adopted for college courses; the cheaper mass-market editions were aimed at general readers. The author became a personality available for appearances on television and in other mass media. Of course, the author as celebrity was nothing new, but the older means of promotion—the lecture tour and advertisements—were now augmented by an author's tour, which included interviews in media outlets every time a new book or controversial essay appeared. Sontag preferred newspaper and periodical interviews. She made no effort to become a television personality or a media debater along the lines of Norman Mailer and Gore Vidal. And she had a model to follow. She vowed in her diary "[t]o give no interviews until I can sound as clear & authoritative as Lillian [Hellman] in the _Paris Review_."

Indeed, Sontag charted a more precarious course than most other writers of the time. Not only had she rejected the idea of becoming a columnist for _Esquire_ , she refused, in most instances, to work on commission or have editors dictate her subjects. After her initial bout of reviewing in the early 1960s, she by and large eschewed the steady income it could have provided. When she had to, she did piecework to pay the bills, but she was remarkably courageous in pursuing ideas that had no immediate economic payoff. Similarly, she could easily have become a pundit; when she did appear on television, she was forthright, well spoken, and charming, with the delivery of a professional speaker. But for the most part, she declined such opportunities.

Sontag had another option open to her. She could teach. Although she would occasionally teach a course, give a lecture, or take a brief writer-in-residence position, she refused most jobs she felt would hamper her independence as a writer. In 1964, she quit teaching at Columbia. Teaching, she would say, had been a pleasure, but it was different from writing—more explicit, and not as exciting and daring. "I would pitch my tent outside the seductive, stony safety of the university world," she reminisced in her 1996 preface to _Against Interpretation_.

With the stalwart Roger Straus committed to publishing her, Sontag had no reason to continue with an academic career. In early 1966, when Paul Flamand of Editions du Seuil considered dropping Sontag from his list because of _The Benefactor_ 's poor sales, Straus made a "special plea," pointing out that she was devoting full time to completing a new novel, and that _Against Interpretation_ had already sold thirty-eight thousand copies with a mass market paperback offer and "great review space." Straus advised, "Hang on to her, if you can," since she was "one of the most interesting writers we have in the U.S."

Sontag reciprocated Straus's efforts by informing him about authors like Walter Benjamin, whom she recommended that Farrar, Straus publish under its Noonday Press imprint. When Straus heard of other authors he thought were likely publishing prospects, he often sought out Sontag's opinion. She did not confine herself to literary interpretation, but rather sized up market conditions, so to speak, so that Straus had some idea of what kind of sales he could expect among the intelligentsia. Theirs was an extraordinary collaboration between author and publisher that resulted in the publication of much fine work that might otherwise have entered American culture more slowly. In this respect, Sontag used her fame to further the careers of other writers such as Elias Canetti, Danilo Kiš, Robert Walser, and Roland Barthes. She did so realizing that the times provided her with a unique opportunity not only to promote herself, but to shift American culture toward a more international perspective. As Sontag put it in her 1996 preface to _Against Interpretation_ , the sixties was a delightful decade for opportunists: "[T]here were new permissions in the air, and old hierarchies had softened, had become ripe for toppling."
10

PETER AND PAUL

1965–67

In April 1965, Susan Sontag wrote Alfred Chester in Morocco to say she wanted to see him. Would he like to see her? Chester called it a "very strange twisted letter that makes you wonder why she wants to come here. Really to see me? Is she doing an article? Is she afraid I will become famous and powerful and be her enemy? I will try to fathom her black sinister depths." But Sontag had proven herself a friend of Chester's work. At his urging she had written a letter to the _New York Times Book Review_ (May 31, 1964), taking issue with Saul Maloff's review of Chester's short story collection, _Behold Goliath_. Besides attacking Maloff's literary judgment, Sontag accused him of homophobia, and ended with an encomium: "There is a great range in 'Behold Goliath,' and at least half of the stories (above all the remarkable title story) seem to me beautiful achievements."

In Tangier, Chester had found some solace away from New York's literary precincts. "The whole literary thing including Susan makes me want to vomit and I haven't even any kif to make me feel amused about it," Chester wrote Edward Field. Sontag's imminent appearance set off a series of musings for Chester:

Do you think great fame and power will always be just out of our reach? I don't think Susan's celebrity is so strange. Remember, there is a millionaire behind her, she is beautiful, she says things or thinks things that really couldn't upset the establishment, and that whole dead New York liberal literary crowd was dying for a new face. Or voice. Remember what they were offering me? I am glad now I rejected that world. Oh, a letter for Susan came from Straus, and holding up the envelope to the light I could read some of it. (I am too lazy to steam it open.) Her book _Against Interpretation_ , which I assume is essays, is apparently coming out in the fall. She will be here next week. I have had two letters and so has Paul and we compared them and roared with laughter as they go together so interestingly. A woman, Paul kept saying, she's a woman. Naturally. I think she is trying to make us compete for her. I still wonder why she is coming.

As soon as Sontag arrived, Chester felt spied upon. "I feel as though Susan was taping my hysterical babblings," he confided to Field. In his calmer moments, Chester reflected, "I don't know if Susan is really a rat. I think she is just very much at home in the world." She was, but as she admitted in her diary, "I'm attracted to demons, to the demonic in people." She referenced her ex-husband and Irene Fornés, and while she did not mention Chester, he fit the category of "people with their own generators."

Paul Bowles, an aloof but commanding figure, took great pleasure in Chester, finding him wonderfully entertaining in conversation. Chester believed Bowles to be the only one in Tangier who was on his level. And Bowles received many of the literary greats, members of an avant-garde drawn by the exotic life he evoked in his fiction. Sontag set herself up in the Minzah Hotel, Tangier's most elegant, for several weeks. As Edward Field reports, her stay stimulated "irony mixed with admiration. Where else would Susan Sontag stay?"

Confronted with Sontag the successful, Chester girded himself, fearing that she would lure away his bisexual Moroccan boyfriend, Dris, although there is no evidence that she did. She tried kif, and it made her drowsy and unable to follow conversations—just the opposite of Dexamyl, which sharpened her senses even as it put her on edge. To her diary she confided that she had not felt so disoriented since her first week with Harriet in San Francisco.

Bowles told Field that Sontag came to tea and announced that Chester was crazy. "Of course," the unflappable Bowles replied. "We're all crazy here in Tangier." "No Paul," Sontag insisted, "I mean Alfred's really crazy." One of Chester's friends described him as "snappish... almost as if he were slightly rabid." His specialness eroded as Sontag dined with Bowles and without Chester. Sontag told one of Chester's friends, Ira Cohen, that Chester had proposed to her and that she was afraid of him, afraid even of physical attack. His nonstop talking annoyed her. He seemed hysterical, and she wondered in her diary, "Was he ever wise? Or has he lost his wisdom?" She viewed her previous admiration for him as impossible now that she had so much more respect for herself. In her younger days, she wanted to be bullied and to feel the lash, to so speak, of her superiors. Their very rejection of her, she reasoned, was proof of their superiority. She left Tangier pronouncing an anathema on the "international homosexual style," which she deemed mad, ugly, and unhappy.

Right after Sontag's visit, in the fall of 1965, Chester admitted to Field, "Susan's visit was catastrophic. I didn't entertain her at all because I was nuts, out of myself or induced, I don't know.... Her visit is impossible to describe." She had read his new novel, _The Exquisite Corpse_ , and said she liked it, but a bitter Chester doubted her, since Farrar, Straus had turned it down. In November, a couple of months after Sontag's visit, Chester wrote to Harriet Sohmers, "By this time you've probably seen Susan. I don't know for sure if she was here. Paul says she was and others do too. There was a dark lady, much less lovely than our Sue, and dressed like you, and with your belly, who hung around a lot in early September. I don't believe this was Susan." The letter can be taken as evidence of Chester's confusion—but also as evidence of his conviction that Susan Sontag had become unreal, a figment not only of his imagination, but of her own.

Gore Vidal, who never met Chester, called him a "monster," whose life was a "fascinating black comedy." But Vidal also regarded Chester as a "master," a "Genet with a brain." What Ozick calls ventriloquism—Chester's ability to ape other literary styles—Vidal termed his "leaking into other people," which was coupled with an inability to "pin down his own personality." Perhaps, Vidal speculated, this shifting sense of self, along with drugs and drink, made Chester mad. Yet, Vidal concluded, "Chester's voices (among them not the least his very own) command our attention, make us laugh even as we make the sign to ward off the evil eye."

Sontag put up with a lot before excommunicating Chester. His other friends forgive him, too. They describe a sweet, endearing, and helpful side rarely on display in his correspondence. He liked to be catty. A severe critic of himself, he detested Sontag's unwillingness to examine her motivations, even to concede the complex psychology of her conduct. Indeed, _Against Interpretation_ is replete with jibes at the psychological. There are no hidden depths, Sontag asserts in her title essay: "The mask is the face." She hates the idea that an individual can be an instance of a psychological type; such notions alienate the self from its own humanity, she argues in "On Style." She wishes to be as autonomous as a work of art—and as resistant to interpretation. She extols Robert Bresson's films because he does not try to understand his characters; they are opaque. "Why persons behave as they do is, ultimately, not to be understood," she asserts. Bresson is an artist precisely because he preserves human mystery; his films develop not the psychology of souls, but their physics. Bresson is a great describer, an anthropologist, Sontag argues.

The trouble in Tangier paid down any remaining debt Susan Sontag might have owed Alfred Chester, but he did not realize—or he refused to acknowledge—the extent of her disaffection. Returning to New York in early 1966, he had difficulty finding a publisher for _The Exquisite Corpse_. Then Richard Kluger, a new editor at Simon and Schuster, decided that this surrealistic novel deserved a chance. Kluger had been the editor of the _New York Herald Tribune's Book Week_ , where Chester had published what Gore Vidal praised as "sharp and mordant" reviews. Chester was a tough sell, but Kluger's skeptical boss, Robert Gottlieb, gave him the go ahead anyway. Kluger, who had published Sontag in _Book Week_ and had met her at Roger Straus's soirees, knew of her defense of Chester in the _New York Times Book Review_ and wanted her to supply an endorsement. Kluger had no idea of the fracas in Tangier. Over drinks at the Plaza in January 1966, he discussed his enthusiasm for Chester's new book with Sontag, who said she liked it, too. Kluger thought she rated it more highly than he did. Several months later he called her to solicit a blurb and was surprised at both her reluctance and the form it took: "I am tired of playing den mother to America's homosexuals."

Like a number of other women—especially those in the art world—Sontag had become integral to the lives and careers of male artists, although unlike her, most of the others did not emerge as artists with their own followings. Sontag, having served a kind of apprenticeship under Chester in Paris and in her early years in New York, now reversed the roles, attracting gay artists like Paul Thek (1933–88) and Peter Hujar (1934–87), with whom she would go through the same cycle of acquisition and disburdenment that she had experienced with Chester. Kluger, not wanting to hear a final rejection in Sontag's voice, said he hoped she would reconsider when he sent her the galleys for the book in the fall of 1966. She replied that she did not want to have anything to do with the book. Kluger persisted in thinking "the door was still open, at least a little."

In the fall, Kluger put together a collection of quotations under the heading "what the critics said" about Chester's previous book and included the final sentence from Sontag's letter to the _Times Book Review_. Kluger then wrote to Sontag, still hoping she would write a fresh blurb for the new book. She responded by saying her feelings about Chester were "pure anguish." She had loved him very much, but since he had returned to New York, she had found him impossible, and her "disinterestedness" had run out. She regretted not being able to do Kluger this favor, because he was "honorable in a special way."

When Sontag saw an advance copy of the jacket, she exploded and called Roger Straus, complaining that Kluger quoted her _Times_ letter as a blurb. Straus put the worst possible light on the situation, complaining to Kluger's bosses that Kluger had invoked Sontag's name even though she had told him she did not like _The Exquisite Corpse_. Kluger could not remember her ever expressing a reservation about the book, although she made it clear that her personal relationship with Chester had soured. The jacket copy was rewritten, and Kluger was made to feel that he had done something "dishonorable." He wrote to Sontag, relating his understanding of what had happened. He concluded, "For my part, I think you are being more than a little willful and I am not grateful to you for having helped me launch my publishing career with this undeserved rebuke."

Sontag's rebuttal, dated February 1, 1967, referred to the "record" Kluger had established by copying his letter to others, including Roger Straus. She now felt obliged to defend her position. It was simple and Kluger knew it: She did not want to be associated with Alfred Chester. She did not deny that she had liked the novel. But she objected to Kluger using her name as an endorsement of all of Chester's work. She resented his saying that she was "wrought up" about Alfred. It was only the book jacket that had angered her. She found his "insinuations" about her irrationality "impertinent." As to why she did not call Kluger directly, but instead brought in "Daddy" (as Kluger later referred to Straus), she said she "wanted something done fast." Books were being shipped out. For her, this was not a psychological issue, and not a quarrel or "misunderstanding." She simply wanted her name off the jacket. She was sorry that Kluger felt "personally offended." She was not angry with him, only surprised at his "lack of judgment, or carelessness, or whatever it was."

Kluger regarded Sontag's action as a rewriting of history. After all, her letter about Chester had been a part of the public record. Certainly she had a right to sever her connection with Chester. But if there was nothing "personal" in her reaction to Kluger's use of her name, then why object to its use in connection with a writer she had admired and whose work she still respected? Curiously, she did not deal with Kluger's remark that he knew Sontag was "tired of having your name batted around by so many people for so many shallow reasons." He had approached her because of her avowed respect for Chester and because she was a "big name."

Alfred Chester could not let go of this big name without putting her into a novella, "The Foot," which explores the nature of the two Susan Sontags who become Mary Monday, dogged by her double. Sontag/Monday is startled to see herself. It is as if Chester is saying: If she would only stop for a moment and look at herself! If she could only watch what she is doing! But then the sly but candid narrator turns on himself: What was he doing sitting at a table with Mary Monday? Chester was disgusted with his own complicity in a world that created Mary Monday, a "gorgon-headed beauty." The Gorgon, or Medusa, a monster in Greek mythology, had a "round ugly face, snakes instead of hair, a belt of the teeth of a boar, sometimes a beard, huge wings, and eyes that could transform people into stone." She had two sisters, doubles of herself. Chester's allusion to classical mythology is oxymoronic: Sontag is a beautiful monster, one that fascinates the spectator even as it forms part of the imagination of disaster. To gaze upon her turns one cold as stone. She is at once desire and the death of desire. Nowhere in Chester is Sontag's attraction/repulsion for him more vivid—or more obscene. The narrator goes on to report that one Mary Monday lives in the "city of New York where she sticks combs up her ass to induce her intellectual activity. As always she lives with her son Joseph."

The other Mary Monday remains in Morocco, walking hand in hand with her double, forsaking Manhattan, forsaking glamour. "No returning to the world of mirrors," where the two Mary Mondays "led separate identical lives." In Morocco, the image and the woman will fuse, as they do in Chester's sentence: "They were a woman who had suffered only in the spirit and were unprepared for the torments of a dirty, bug-ridden hotel." The two Mary Mondays, in other words, are the person and her image of herself. They can be discussed separately, but they are one. The coming together of the two Mary Mondays makes them think that perhaps they are free, that they have transcended the person/image dichotomy: "They discuss the possibilities of this line of reasoning, for Mary Monday is nothing if not an intellectual, a theorist." For his part, the narrator is frightened of the doubling in his own life, confessing, "I am afraid of who I am behind my own impersonations." But the incorrigible Mary Monday forsakes her double and fucks—rather indifferently—a man, whom she later discovers was apparently fucked at the same time in her hotel room by her double. Thus the "separate identical lives" remain intact. The mnemonic Mary Monday is Chester's brilliant platonic conception of Susan Sontag's nemesis, relentlessly attracted to the pursuit of the perfect idea/image of herself.

Alfred Chester's maniacal dissection of Sontag's separate selves converges with George Lichtheim's upset over "coping with your many faces. You have dropped me because you feel somehow that there is nothing further to be got out of me." In David's presence Sontag had turned down his invitation to a luncheon in an expensive restaurant by saying, "I cannot be bought," adding (with what seemed to Lichtheim like a sneer), "You must be rich." What was behind her constant, earnest expressions of "I mean what I say"? He described a person very like the Mary Monday of Alfred Chester's fiction: "[O]ne cannot be sure one is always dealing with the same person." For months Sontag had been friendly; now, suddenly, she was not. This was more than mere moodiness. The changes he described had occurred in a ten-day span. Who was she? "The top-booted girl who wandered around the Village with me in the rain... the elegant young woman whom I was then permitted to escort to fashionable restaurants," or the girl who walked into her parents home in San Mateo, "not only enchantingly beautiful, but tranquil, relaxed, well-dressed, well-mannered, polite and considerate." On an outing along the California coastline, he had been mesmerized by her lovely voice when she said, "Look, horses." He had felt "transfigured. Time stood still. The sea, the sky, the hills, the grazing animals, the car in which we sat, were all part of the same fairy tale." He had also seen her sadness, which he described in terms that remarkably close to what she said about herself in her journals. The yearning in Lichtheim's letter is palpable and reminiscent of a letter Alfred Chester wrote from Tangier: "I'd like to say I love you. I'd love to believe that you're real and that you'd go adventuring with me."

Chester's complaints about Sontag, like George Lichtheim's, were reified in a plaintive letter from Don Eric Levine: "As far as maturity in friendship goes I think I can give you lessons.... When a friend is down, no matter how repugnant his condition may be, first you help him up. When he raises a hand you don't ignore it—unless you know it's going to pull you down too (was that the case?)." In her diary, Sontag adverted to friendships with Levine and others that were "fraught with hazards." She had a penchant for "violent thirsty impulsive intimacy with people." These relationships would build to a bursting point; then she could stand it no longer and would withdraw—not completely, but enough to cause friends to feel abused. Levine was not the first to accuse of her an inability to empathize: "Because you have no relation with your parents must you undermine the little relation I have with mine? Do you want friends or cohorts." This last thrust alluded to the accusation that Sontag collected people and then dropped them when they were no longer useful. Levine thought he had been doing as Sontag wished: "Are you angry that I never tried to make love to you? But I so desperately wanted & want to avoid the pattern you kept warning me about—Friends to, lover to, well, sort of a nostalgic closeness."

In the late 1960s, Sontag believed that she was beginning to break this approach-avoidance pattern. She continued to correspond with Levine and enjoyed a very different kind of rapport with film scholar Noël Burch, who wrote to her, "[Y]ou are perhaps the only person with whom I have ever had a totally unreserved communication." Actor and director Joseph Chaikin suggested how hard it was to maintain a friendship with Sontag that did not, at some point, turn into a romance:

You know I feel generally much easier with you mainly because I altered something in my mind with you. I mean when I would think of you as my "girlfriend" it fucked me up all the time.... There is nothing I wouldn't like to do with you of what we have done or might do but I don't think "sweetheart" and it's all better. It's a bad thing to think of someone as a prospective anything. It confines and makes a wall. I adore you and deeply appreciate you and find you beautiful and sexy. But finding you so no longer means I must worry.

The array of personalities parading themselves before Sontag is best glimpsed in her correspondence, which includes friends like Elliott Stein, who liked to lighten his exchanges with ribald forms of address such as "dear cutie-pants," "Dear Cutysnatch," and "Dear Poopchik." And he had fun with some of her more portentous pronouncements. Praising a piece she published in the _Tulane Drama Review_ , he admitted he "broke out in a huge wince on reading that you believe Gertrud a 'minor masterpiece.' What the fuck is that? How can there be such a thing? It is one or it isn't. I hate dragging her into it, but I think the dictionary's on my side, too."

Sontag was attracted to image-makers, especially to photographers. In her introduction to Peter Hujar's _Portraits in Life and Death_ (1976), she contends that photographs "instigate, confirm, seal legends. Seen through photographs, people become icons of themselves." The idea of instigation (what are her polemical essays except instigations and icons of Susan Sontag as thinker?) led to her engagement with photographers like Hujar and later Robert Mapplethorpe, who provided exquisite images of her, thus helping to articulate her manner of becoming strikingly visible to the world. _Portraits in Life and Death_ includes a shot of Sontag, "supine, from the diaphragm up, seemingly captured in a dream-like gesture, not by the lens, but by amber or mummification; half Mary Tyler Moore, half Nefertiti." This description is taken from a website titled "Why I Hate Susan Sontag" and is only one example of readers who find Sontag pretentious and yet difficult to dismiss. Another reader of the same Hujar photograph evokes Sontag almost as a meditation, "wearing a simple ribbed turtleneck sweater," reclining on her back, "relaxed, clear-eyed, clearsighted." The two descriptions convey an Egyptian equivalent, the repose of a goddess. In her stillness, she resembles—as do other of Hujar's living subjects—his portraits of the preserved corpses in the catacombs near Palermo. Hujar seems to be searching for just that point in life where we can glimpse death, that final stillness. His photograph of Sontag recalls a query in _Death Kit_ : "When does death become perceptible?" Hujar uses Sontag to illustrate the question. Sontag would use Hujar's perception to elucidate her novel. Indeed, one of Hujar's photographs of the catacombs graces the cover of the Anchor Books edition of _Death Kit_.

Hujar should be better known, say his friends and devotees of his photography. That he is not has to do with his rejection of fame, of maneuvers that must be performed to attain celebrity. Like Alfred Chester, Hujar wanted recognition, perhaps even stardom, and he liked to consort with stars. "He loved divas, gossip, drama, scandal," his friend Nan Goldin remembered. Like Sontag, Hujar wanted a command of his persona and of his art that would rivet an audience's attention. Gallery and coffee house owner Helen Gee remembered a very young Peter Hujar slipping his prints under the nose of the famous photographer Imogen Cunningham, who was seated at a table, eating. But Hujar also disliked politicking on behalf of his photography, disliked even taking advantage of opportunities offered to him by those who had already arrived. Felicity Mason, a movie publicist and an influential force in the art and literary worlds, introduced Hujar to renowned photographer Cecil Beaton. "I understand that you are a very fine photographer," Beaton said to Hujar, who replied, "I hear the same about you"—and walked away. It was a funny story Hujar liked to tell his friends; it was also a bridge he had detonated, blocking his way to fame. Alfred Chester would have appreciated the gesture, but Cecil Beaton was no one to shrug off—especially when he was nice to you.

Stephen Koch, a Sontag intimate, met Hujar in her living room in 1965. Koch, who later became Hujar's executor, met a "tall, handsome, polite, remote, exact" (the words could almost be describing Sontag) young man.

Hujar had just spent a day photographing Jayne Mansfield, and he treated everyone to an intricate, dramatic account of the scene, describing her body, her movements, the way she dressed. Hujar was a sexually charged man, and he could talk about sex brilliantly. In his up moods he would include listeners in his world. "There was something about him that invited a personal intimacy. He was very allowing," recalled his friend, the writer Vince Aletti. Men and women easily fell in love with him. Men and women confessed their most intimate secrets to him. "He allowed people to be themselves." He had, in other words, the transparency that Sontag always admired in great works of art. Called a "human tranquilizer" who "hypnotized his subjects," Hujar made everyone feel he was that person's best friend—or at least that he wanted to be.

But for all his sociability, Hujar was, like Sontag, a "profoundly alienated person." Abandoned by his parents, he was brought up by grandparents, and by sixteen he was on his own. Like Sontag, he made his career by becoming "unusually articulate." Although he could be "slightly ironic, a bit sweet and witty," his photographs portray a melancholy sensibility that suited Sontag. And he had pet theories about fame: for instance, that an especially disproportionate number of famous people had first and last names beginning with the same initial.

Like Sontag, Hujar had developed an aesthetic that encompassed a wide range of Western art. One Hujar friend (who prefers to be quoted without attribution) said,

Style and self-assurance show up in his work early on. He understood what he was doing in ways that only first rate artists do. He understood what the problems and challenges were. He wanted photographical portraiture to have the same qualities he admired in painted portraits. He avoided humanizing emotions, the smile, the frown, the deep look of brooding, the intellectual look. He said he wanted none of those. He liked the art when the subject simply gazed calmly back at the painter. That often revealed the most. He wanted their faces at rest, with the same kind of unaffected, unacted expression as paintings gave.

Hujar's aesthetic might almost be labeled "against interpretation." Certainly he is against forcing any kind of content on his subjects, or the "humanizing" that Sontag would later deplore in _On Photography_ , where she faulted the famous _Family of Man_ show and touted Diane Arbus, who shared with Hujar a frank, straight-on style of portraiture.

Absent from Hujar's aesthetic, however, is an appreciation of artifice—a key term in _Against Interpretation_ , a book that attacks faith in reality, in pure classicism, in the notion that the artist imitates what is there. Sontag is troubled about the mimetic because it puts the artist in a secondary position as a recorder, not an originator. Photography is especially suspect—she can never quite bring herself to call it an art—because it is a mechanism of reflection. It is the very apotheosis of mimesis—or so it is often regarded, although this notion is debunked in _On Photography_. Artifice, on the other hand, is the essential ingredient of art, because it is by definition made up. Art cannot be confused with nature. Art as artifice is not a slice of life.

Art, in fact, is its own environment. This was the idea that brought Sontag to artist Paul Thek—or brought Thek to her. In July 1979, in a notebook list of the most important things in his life, Thek listed Sontag as number two, just after his painting. A few months later he writes in a notebook:

Hujar—dreary, morbid, show-off

Sontag—bright, lively, active; ill at ease

etc etc etc etc etc

A friend of both Hujar and Thek said Hujar never got over his breakup with Thek, whereas Thek seemed to go on happily from affair to affair—gay in every sense of the word, yet attracting a hoard of women, whom he was always promising to marry. In any case, Thek seemed to identify Sontag with the persona of her short story collection, _I, etcetera_ , a protean, topsy-turvy self engaged in seeking and shedding, acquiring and disburdening. Thek loved her ambition, her European savoir-faire. His greatest successes as an artist would come in Europe, and he and Sontag would meet in Paris often. Partisans of Peter Hujar see Thek and Sontag as two of a kind, cold and ruthless, set on determined quests for greatness and recognition. Hujar, in contrast, was cozy and warm.

The trouble began when Thek broke Hujar's "triangle rule": "If you're A, never repeat to C, what B has told you about C." Paul did exactly that when Peter complained about Susan. Peter said that Susan was cold, completely lacking in humor, pretentious. He went through a catalogue of Susan's character defects. Paul told her everything. She then called Peter and said, "I understand that you think I am..." Peter later admitted to a friend (who requested anonymity here), "I was stunned. I couldn't deny any of it. They were my exact words. What could I do? But she is humorless."

Peter and Paul served as Sontag's apostles of art. The two men had visited the Capuchin catacombs near Palermo in the early 1960s. As Ann Wilson put it, the "catacombs were, in their eyes, a sculptural installation created with all the physical relics of death which embodied in its metaphor the belief that the mortal artifact of the body is a visible relic referring to the Resurrection." Thek's installations—many of which have perished—revived the religious idea of death, a memorializing of mortality that pervades _Death Kit_ (1967), Sontag's second novel, and provided the seamless content and style of _Portraits in Life and Death_.

Although Sontag's attention turned toward her essays, which quickly established her reputation, it was always her intention to write another novel and to be the kind of writer devoted more to fiction than nonfiction. In fact, she abandoned more than one long work of fiction in the four years between the appearances of her first and second novels, and some of this aborted work would be refashioned into the stories of _I, etcetera_ (1978). She planned but could not execute a novel about a painter, Thomas Faulk, modeled perhaps on Jasper Johns. She had stayed with Johns in his South Carolina house, where he spoke of art in prescriptive sentences that Sontag copied into her diary: "If you do not change your mind about something when you confront a picture you have not seen before, you are either a stubborn fool or the painting is not very good." He thrived on the modernist credo of making it new: "I am trying to check my habits of seeing, to counter them for the sake of a great freshness. I am trying to be unfamiliar with what I'm doing." But the artist-hero of Sontag's novel never jelled.

Not until she conceived another novel that extended the themes of _The Benefactor_ could she complete the work. _Death Kit_ reads like a resumption of _The Benefactor_. Diddy in _Death Kit_ is a kind of Alfred Chester narrator, looking at a double of himself. He narrates his life in the third person: The tip-off comes when he lapses occasionally into references to "we," meaning Diddy and his view of himself. The book is his artifice. He inhabits his dreams as much as Hippolyte lives in his. "Events" in _Death Kit_ are actually Diddy's hallucinations in the final minutes of his life (he has committed suicide). Sontag makes him a failed novelist who loses the manuscript of his fiction about the Wolf-Boy, a first-person narration about a hirsute creature who shuns but yearns for human society after he learns that he is the offspring of apes. Diddy recovers the Wolf-Boy story in his dreams (which, remember, are dreams within the dream he is having in his dying moments). The story is obviously a commentary on Diddy's own estrangement from society and from his animal nature, his instinct for survival. Diddy's death dream is an attempt to repeat his life and to get it right the second time. His tragedy, like ours, is that there are no second chances. So when he speaks of "we," he means all of us.

Writing as a willed activity intrigues Sontag. The writer as a self-made construct thrills her. Critics who like her second novel praise its form—its ingenious dream-within-a-dream properties—while admitting that Diddy is deadly dull. (See Theodore Solotaroff's insightful review in _The Red Hot Vacuum_.) Not only is Diddy dreaming—making the whole novel unreal—Sontag implies that he is unreal, merely a literary confection. Diddy (or Didi, as Tony Tanner points out in _City of Words_ ) is the character Vladimir's nickname in Samuel Beckett's _Waiting for Godot_. Like Didi, Diddy seems paralyzed. He wishes to move, but he stands still—or his life does, at any rate. He is a man of action only in his dream, itself brought on by his suicide. Diddy is also another double for Sontag. He remembers a childhood spent on Drachman Avenue in Tucson, the site of the Sontag home. Diddy has a plainspoken nurse, Mary, who is reminiscent of Sontag's Irish Rose. He is lonely and isolated, sharing his imaginative world with a doll, Andy. But when Diddy feels injured, he wounds his doll, which is called a "familiar, diminished double." To alleviate his own depression, he invents a cousin, Ann, transferring ownership of Andy to her, and thus allowing her to express the tears and the grief for Andy that the stoic Diddy will not shed for himself.

There are other autobiographical echoes. Sontag creates a brother for Diddy, just as she had a sister, Judith. But Diddy's brother, Paul, is the Sontag genius, a musician who becomes famous overnight. Diddy dies at thirty-three, Sontag's age when she completed the novel in 1966. With its ending set in a charnel house/catacomb, _Death Kit_ reflects Sontag's lifelong fascination with tunnels and caves (her natural homes). She even pictures Paul reading by flashlight under the covers, just as she did when young. Diddy can only imitate his more famous brother and feel unauthentic, "not being in his life." He cries out, "I want to be seen." Like Diddy, Sontag tries to watch herself. In an episode set in Tucson, she depicts herself, a black-haired, skinny twelve- or thirteen-year-old girl climbing a mountain toward the Wolf-Boy, Diddy's fictional creation. This is Sontag's fictional effort to come to terms with her own desire to be seen, as well as with her estrangement from society and family. The girl has a dog with her called Lassie. He is the companion of that lonely little girl who read all those dog books written by Alfred Payson Terhune. The girl stops her climb just before reaching the Wolf-Boy in his cave. In her "sneakers, blue jeans, a red checked shirt, and a fringed leather jacket probably bought at the tourist store on the Pima Indians reservation south of Tucson," she is a curious, ambiguous figure. Part tomboy, part Indian, part tourist, she pauses at the precipice as her parents, suddenly aware of her climbing the cliff, call her back. Will she obey? the narrator (Wolf-Boy, Diddy, Sontag) asks in this triple-screened autobiographical passage. Will she "place her own self-esteem over the parents' self-pitying anxiety for her safety?" Yes and No. She does climb down, but only after muttering, "Oh, hell!" and "Okay! Okay!" It is Sontag in situ, compliant and resistant, a Diddy herself, dreaming of release from her bondage, making up the story that will set her free. It is to her great glory that she will be able to write the story of her own life, but it is also an extraordinary burden. As Diddy says to himself about his story of the Wolf-Boy, "No one should be burdened with inventing his own nature from scratch."

When Diddy visits the charnel house/catacomb at the end of the novel, which is a vision of the world as a repository of death, he finds no corpse dated later than 1933, the year of Sontag's birth. She suggests that an awareness of death is a form of knowledge that is redundant—it is everywhere visible to us—yet it is precisely what we seek to avoid. In her diary, she linked her awareness of death with her father, who died at thirty-three, Diddy's age. She also explicitly connects Diddy with Daddy, as she tells herself the novel constitutes acceptance of her father's death. "Did he?" was the question she formed in her mind as a child, when death seemed unreal, her father was far away, and her mother was absent—that is, unresponsive to her daughter's questioning. In writing the novel, Sontag concluded, she could finally answer her own question: "It's finished. Daddy did die."

A dream is a division of the self—as is a novel. As Hippolyte says in _The Benefactor_ , "I am crawling through the tunnel of myself"—his dreams, his novel, his death. The structure of _Death Kit_ in other words, is a house of Usher, its final charnel house evocative of Hujar's photographs of the Palermo catacombs. As Tony Tanner suggests, "[E]nvironment proves to be intractable, closing in on Diddy like the walls on Edgar Allan Poe's prisoner." Ultimately, Tanner concludes, the "centre of consciousness is the house of death." During the composition of _Death Kit_ , Sontag reminded herself to see several Poe films, including the Roger Corman version of "Ligeia" and his take-off from Poe, _House of Wax_ with Vincent Price. "Get Poe stories!" she instructs herself in her diary.

Gore Vidal was impressed with the novel's ending, but as Solotaroff says, Diddy is never quite believable as an "experiencing subject." Critic Elizabeth Holdsworth calls Diddy and his predecessor, Hippolyte, "existential abstractions of modern man." We do not care enough about them, and even in formal terms, Sontag's structure does not hold up. "It is more figure than carpet," Solotaroff judges. The gestalt (the whole, figure and pattern) does not cohere. _Death Kit_ is tautological: It is what happens inside of one head and denies us—in critic Cary Nelson's words—"any sense of historical or social context."

Sontag never called her second novel a failure, but she conceded that after _Death Kit_ she lost confidence in herself as a novelist. She tried several times to complete another novel, but another quarter century passed before she published one. How could Sontag have done better? It is a mystery as to how a writer converts his or her experience into living fiction. In _Mystery and Manners_ , Flannery O'Connor quotes Joseph Conrad's formulation that the artist "descends within himself, and in that region of stress and strife, if he be deserving and fortunate, he finds the terms of his appeal." Like Diddy, Sontag "tries to force [her] way through the terrible questions to some endurable, stoical vantage point. Expunge the glittering agony. Find a cool quiet place where [she] can sit in safety": the cave.
11

NEO-RADICALISM

1967–69

In Roger Straus's words, _Death Kit_ , published in late August 1967, received "very very mixed" reviews. Some he thought malicious, for they took aim not at the book but at Sontag herself. Upset over Denis Donoghue's treatment of the novel in the _New York Review of Books_ , Straus wrote to Robert Adams, a _Review_ regular, suggesting that since he liked the novel he might write a letter to the journal taking issue with Donoghue. Adams evidently declined the invitation. Straus never hesitated to call reviewers and their employers to account. Thus he wrote to an editor at the _New Republic_ , protesting "that ridiculous review perpetrated by Elizabeth Stevens."

But Straus liked the extensive review space given to _Death Kit_. The publisher's heavy advertising campaign paid off. It had been his strategy to publish early in the fall season "ahead of the mob," as he put it. Even discount stores like Korvettes carried the book and were running out of stock before the official publication date. The Literary Guild made the novel an alternate selection and had generated its own large print run. The book went into a third printing. By September 19, it had sold fourteen thousand copies, with twenty thousand in print, a very respectable showing for a literary novel, if not a financial bonanza for the publisher—or the breakthrough book that Farrar, Straus & Giroux hoped for. Even so, Sontag constituted a long-term investment and a prestige item, as Straus and his staff kept reminding foreign publishers and agents. Lila Karpf, who negotiated many of the foreign sales and transactions, wrote, "We handle all of Susan's book transactions very closely from New York at her special wish. When I say 'we' I mean particularly Roger Straus, for his and my relationship with Susan is close, and that is the way she wants it." Karpf worked hard not merely to get Sontag published by reluctant houses, but to increase her advances. When English publisher Eyre & Spottiswoode failed to do well with _Against Interpretation_ , Straus used agent Candida Donadio to broker a new, more lucrative contract with Secker and Warburg for _Death Kit_. Similar deals were made in Spain, Holland, Sweden, and Germany. Straus's letter to an Italian publisher in late March 1967 is typical: "I have exceedingly good news. Susan Sontag has completed a new novel entitled _Death Kit_... In a word, it is superb. I must go further than that and say to you that this truly is an important and original novel that I feel confident will be a success not only in the United States but throughout the world." He made sure that only the most intelligent and well-read editors, such as Maurice Temple Smith and John Bright Holmes in England, dealt with Sontag's work.

Sontag had reached the point that Norman Mailer identifies in _Marilyn_ , when a personality seems to crash through a publicity barrier; there can be no return to an unacknowledged life. As English agent Laurence Pollinger put it now to Roger Straus, "Susan is always news." Sontag complained about her reputation as the "'with it' girl," but then she expressed her disappointment that her author photograph appeared inside the back flap, reduced in size, rather than spread across the back of the jacket as it had been for _The Benefactor_ and _Against Interpretation_. What a pity, since she had benefited from the services of famed photographer Philippe Halsman, who can be credited with one of the quintessential Marilyn Monroe portraits, taken in 1952 just as she was about to achieve stardom.

Here Halsman portrayed a sultry, sixties Sontag, with her dark hair long and flowing in a three-quarter open facial shot taken from the right. She seems clothed in her dark hair (no garment is defined), which courses along her right jaw line before sloping down at a geometrical slant. The photograph is a perfect counterpart to the stark front cover featuring Sontag's name in black block letters outlined in white, with the novel's title in white letters, enveloped by the black background—Sontag in chiaroscuro. Sontag noted to Straus that putting the photograph on the back jacket flap instead of the back cover made the photograph look "awfully black." The black-and-white balance she wanted had been diminished.

Appearing next to Benjamin DeMott's review of _Death Kit_ in the _New York Times_ , Columbia University professor Carolyn Heilbrun's article, "Speaking of Susan Sontag," analyzed the woman portrayed on her book jackets. Heilbrun surveyed the publicity—the _Mademoiselle_ award and notice, the Irving Penn _Vogue_ photographic layout of Sontag and son—and noted that jokes were being made about Sontag's alliterative name. Sontag had participated in the "great American sport: have it and eat it too." She was already adept at "reaping the establishment's rewards with the right hand, damning the establishment with the left." Sontag gave an interview to the _Washington Post_ (January 8, 1967), for example, in which she declared that from now on she would not appear on television, and that there would be no more interviews—but she granted over a hundred interviews afterwards. Sontag had become an inescapable brand name, Heilbrun concluded: "When I first began reading about Susan Sontag I thought: 'My God, she is Marilyn Monroe, beautiful, successful, doomed....'" Poet Richard Howard called the Penn photograph "glorious... though there is a touch—in you, at least—of that austerity that made George Eliot say that she looked like a cross between Dante and an old Red Indian."

In his review of _Death Kit_ , Theodore Solotaroff, pinned down Sontag's mythic status and contradictory appeal:

[C]ultural hero or villain, the lovely brave Minerva of a genuine new underground/avant-garde or the glib bootlegger of the latest wave of French modernism, East Village Pop, and other modes of the higher unseriousness. Like the celebrity that Miss Sontag appears to court with her left hand and disclaim with her right, her critical stance somehow managed to be both matter-of-fact and outrageous: a tone that gets under the skin in much the same way that those dust-jacket photographs of her—poised, striking, vaguely sinister—either seduce or repel.

Sontag had steeled herself so as to appear aloof but still enticing. She admonished herself, "I smile too much." For fifteen years she had been telling herself just that, trying to break away from the conformity of family life, the "Mother-and-Judith in me."

Stories about Sontag were already legion in literary circles, for she had become a figure of envy, admiration, and fantasies of all sorts. Poet James Dickey, universally acknowledged as a world-class mythomane and womanizer, liked to claim that he had coupled with Sontag and thereby inspired a few pages of _Death Kit_. "That scene in the tunnel when Diddy fucks Hester—It was me! One hell of a long night, that was, boy, lemmee tell you," Dickey chortled.

Until 1966, Sontag had confined herself largely to aesthetic matters, but in February of that year, she emerged, alongside Norman Mailer, Bernard Malamud, William Styron, Robert Lowell, and other figures of the arts, as a political activist, adding her voice to a "Read-in for Peace in Vietnam" at Manhattan's Town Hall. She spoke of writers who were "choking with shame and anger" because "a small nation of handsome people" was being "brutally and self-righteously slaughtered" by a "grotesquely overarmed" superpower claiming to uphold liberty, while actually indulging its self-interest. What if the North Vietnamese had struck Sontag as ugly, venal, and militaristic? In _Trip to Hanoi_ , the Vietnamese's physical beauty and grace, their simple lives and slogans, constitute what Leo Marx calls a "New Left pastoral," a rebuke to American corruption.

By the end of 1967 Sontag had been arrested at a three-day anti-war protest, briefly jailed, and then released for a court appearance in January 1968. The protest had been part of "Stop the Draft Week" in New York City. She had been one of 264 people arrested, including Dr. Benjamin Spock and writers Allen Ginsberg, Grace Paley, and Jane Jacobs, at the Whitehall Street induction center. They had blocked the entrance and ended up in a crowded jail cell. Although this demonstration had been peaceful, the process of arrest and incarceration—however brief—was frightening. Yet Dot Lane, one of the protestors, remembered a perfectly composed Sontag, looking "beautiful and interesting," engaged in a friendly conversation with Jacobs.

In _Trip to Hanoi_ , Sontag calls herself a "neo-radical"—in other words, a radical reborn in a new age. There had been a huge gap in her political consciousness, one that lasted from 1947 to 1967. In her "precocious political childhood," she had read leftist newspapers like _PM_ , and writers like Corliss Lamont and the Webbs (both apologists for Russia). Besides campaigning for Henry Wallace, she had watched Eisenstein films at the American-Soviet Friendship Society. But then in the subsequent Cold War years, the American Communist Party had seemed moribund to her, a "philistine fraud," repeating hackneyed phrases about capitalism and imperialism. Embarrassed and bored by the stale rhetoric, the very antithesis of the aesthete's vaunted new sensibility, her political imagination had shut down. Then the anti-war protests, and the examples of the Cuban and North Vietnamese revolutions, stimulated her to recover her "historical memory." Once again, she felt comfortable employing words like capitalists and imperialists; she had come home, in other words, to her first set of radical convictions.

In 1966, Sontag had responded to a _Partisan Review_ questionnaire that queried writers about "What's Happening in America." She included this item in _Styles of Radical Will_ (1969) as a preface to _Trip to Hanoi_ , launching her attack America as the "arch-imperium of the planet." The spoiled environment, the frenzied consumerism had made thinking Americans neurotic or mystical as they sought to transcend the mire of materialism. Whites had simply wiped out the Indians and taken the land. Hence, "The white race is the cancer of human history."

Sontag deplored the "tawdry fantasy of the good life that culturally deprived, uprooted people" have imposed on the country's landscape. Cross the Hudson, she wrote, and one would find most people simply wanted to obliterate anything that stood in America's way. America had not merely taken a wrong turn, Sontag concluded. No, it was doomed. The only hope was its protesting youth, who were "alienated as Americans"—apparently the only patriotic attitude that Sontag found acceptable.

In May 1968, at the invitation of North Vietnam, Sontag, the journalist Andrew Kopkind, and Cornell professor Robert Greenblatt—all prominent anti-war protestors—made a two-week visit to Hanoi. They had a stopover in Vientiane, Laos. "Try not to idealize that place," a United States Information Service official cautioned the group, remembered Kopkind. But from the outset Sontag seem unable to check her desire to please the North Vietnamese, to make a "good impression—to get the best mark of the class." It is a telling phrase, revealing how competitive she felt towards the other writers on the trip. In her diary, at least, she realized her hosts were her patrons, rewarding her for efforts on their behalf. She did not seem troubled by this quid pro quo.

In _Trip to Hanoi_ , Sontag mentions meeting a USIS official but provides no details. He was Perry Stieglitz, recommended to Sontag by his friend, Mary McCarthy, who had visited Hanoi in March. Stieglitz had first come to Laos in 1959 on a Fulbright Fellowship, and he had married the daughter of Souvanna Phouma, premier of Laos during the years when the Viet Minh from North Vietnam invaded Laos in support of the communist Pathet Lao. In Laos, Stieglitz could only regard North Vietnam as an aggressive power, although he also recognized that America was making "enormous mistakes in our international policies, particularly in Vietnam." Stieglitz remembered that Sontag found it hard to be civil to a man who could not engage in an "outright condemnation of America itself."

Stieglitz, having read and enjoyed Sontag's writing, had looked forward to their meeting. He hoped they could discuss North Vietnamese imperialism, but he realized as soon as she walked into his house with a "condescending attitude" that an exchange of views would be impossible. He found Sontag so angry at her own country that she would not listen to his account of how the North Vietnamese pursued their own century-long desire to dominate Southeast Asia. When presented with a welcome ring made out of the aluminum from American fighter jets, Sontag proudly wore it as a token of support for the North Vietnamese. Mary McCarthy had also been presented with such a ring but reacted in horror, because the gift represented to her the American lives that had been sacrificed in the war. McCarthy—hardly less outspoken against the war than Sontag—nevertheless had a friend in Stieglitz, whom she respected, even if he did not share her views.

For Stieglitz, Sontag's visit was summed up by her appraisal of his record collection of Baroque music. She turned to Kopkind, and asked him if he remembered when this period music was "'our' music." What a shame, she seemed to be telling Stieglitz, that he did not know that Baroque was now "out." Asked to recall her visit thirty years later, Stieglitz could think of only one word to add to his published account: "phony."

_Trip to Hanoi_ is less shrill and more observant than "What's Happening in America." It troubles Sontag, for example, that every North Vietnamese she meets speaks in the same style employing the same jargon. The role-playing and stage-managing that characterized her two-week tour also bother her. The idea that she is a showpiece, paraded as an example of the anti-war movement, makes her uncomfortable. The process is infantilizing, for she has no opportunity to exercise her intellect. The North Vietnamese actually seem like children, parroting a line, speaking in Marxist simples. Although Mary McCarthy wrote to Sontag praising _Trip to Hanoi_ , McCarthy also noted, "[Y]ou underestimate the Vietnamese intelligence. Also their theoretical grasp... I did not feel like an adult in a childish simplistic world when talking to those men, though that certainly applied to our friends of the Peace Committee."

Sontag describes the North Vietnamese as moralistic, pietistic—exactly the kind of content-driven fanatics that she excoriates in her essays. They have no style; they lack irony. Worse, North Vietnam is sexless: no kissing, no public display of affection. Starved of her sumptuous vocabulary, her craving for the sensuous, Sontag is depressed! After five days, she regards her failure to adjust as just that: _her_ failure, her inability to transcend her complex Western consciousness.

Even here, though, when she seems most humble, she presumes that her consciousness includes the world of the Vietnamese, but that their consciousness cannot comprehend hers, for their concerns are elemental—having to do with survival, not with the choices available in a bourgeois society. To accept this formulation is to accede to Sontag's illusion that she understands why the North Vietnamese are as simple, uniform, programmed, infantilized, and sexless as she says they are. She attributes much of their rigid and austere mentality to the war. They need to pull together, to think of society first, to modify their actions to abet the country's survival. Their collective sameness she takes not as an example of regimentation in an authoritarian society, but as a democratization of society, bringing together people from the country and the city in a "people's war." In contrast with fat Americans, the slim North Vietnamese are frugal and fastidious, making every item count—turning everything, including parts of shot-down American planes—into salvageable goods. Sontag's North Vietnamese are reminiscent of those noble savages, the Native Americans, who found a use for every part of the buffalo they hunted: "It was my impression that the Vietnamese, as a culture, genuinely believe that life is simple." They are joyful—no glum existential agonists in North Vietnam. And once Sontag realizes that her hosts have "virtues that thoughtful people in this part of the world simply don't believe in any more," she relaxes and is happy. She might as well be filming _Nanook of the North_. She lauds the way the North Vietnamese "genuinely care" about downed American pilots, providing more meat for them because they are "bigger than we are." Not a word about torture. Not an inkling that simplicity, lack of irony, deficiency in style and aesthetic concerns is the hallmark of Sparta, a culture of martial discipline that can make Athens, no less than America, seem bloated and wasteful.

Sensing that she has been carried away by her rhetoric, Sontag pauses to consider whether she has succumbed to the "ideology of primitivism" and the pastoral ideal, which drives twentieth-century intellectuals who have embraced agrarian revolutions. No, she counters, "truth is truth." She witnessed it. Through her direct experience she has earned the right to say that North Vietnam "deserves to be idealized." To arrive at this conclusion, Sontag sets up a false dichotomy. She contrasts her formerly "abstract" idea of North Vietnam with what she "actually saw." Is a stage-managed two-week trip even roughly equivalent to what might be learned from reading history? Did the intellectuals who visited the Soviet Union in the 1930s for a few weeks or even months get it right? Sontag extols North Vietnam as a "truly remarkable country" and the typical North Vietnamese as an "extraordinary human being." These people are "'whole' human beings, not 'split' as we are." Sontag's quotation marks around whole and split signal the weakness of her polemic, as if on some level she suspects that she has broken faith with her own intelligence. She equates simplicity with wholeness. She takes refuge in phrases like, "It is my impression that." But no mollifying phrases about her "brief, amateurish foray into Vietnamese reality" can ameliorate the arrogance of _Trip to Hanoi_. The book is a projection of her imagination—the same one that created doubles in her fiction and lived a double life—and now had discovered a society that required no dissembling.

Near the end of _Trip to Hanoi_ , Sontag describes her re-entry into what she considers American-dominated Laos, and she draws a picture of Vientiane that disturbed Perry Stieglitz:

She observed "servile, aggressive pedicab drivers," although the Lao pedicab drivers are known to be unusually pleasant and gentle. She saw many "Cadillacs driven by American businessmen and Laotian government officials," but there were at most two Cadillacs in the city, and no more than a half-dozen American businessmen. She "passed the movie theaters showing skin flicks to the GIs"—which is the most remarkable of all because the Lao culture would never permit such films to be shown, and the American soldiers, the GIs of whom she writes, had left Vientiane fully five years before Sontag arrived.

In a final irony, in 1975, when North Vietnam finally conquered the South, among the books banned by the new regime were those written by Susan Sontag.

Sontag's next political commentary, an article called "Some Thoughts on the Right Way (for Us) to Love the Cuban Revolution," appeared in the April 1969 issue of _Ramparts_ , then the leading New Left publication. More than just a paean to Cuba, the essay analyzed America and American radicalism. Sontag judged the country to be a pre-revolutionary state and made much of distinctions between the old and New Left, the latter having forsaken the former's rather stodgy psychology and unimaginative adaptation to American mores, if not to the political status quo. Sixties radicals in contrast were groovy rockers, grass smokers, sexual liberators, freaky dressers, and all around misfits who made a virtue of maladjustment to American life. In brief, the New Left was "more intelligent and more sensitive and more creative than the so-called Old Left." Sontag admired the new style, but also cautioned that it could hardly change American society in fundamental ways. The New Left was too anarchic, too divided, and too willing to adopt Cubans as fellow revolutionaries without understanding their uniqueness.

Sontag conceded that "many of their freedoms [in Cuba] seem constricting to us." For example, pornography and private business were both outlawed. So much for the pornographic imagination that Sontag would explore in her next collection of essays, _Styles of Radical Will_. If American radicals tended to think of society as the enemy, in Cuba it was just the opposite: Society's strict enforcement of a group ethic was good. It had liberated the energies of the Cuban people—not to be like the insurgents of the New Left, but faithful party members. She saw a spontaneity and sensuality in its people that were absent in "our own white, death-ridden culture." She explained that Cubans are not "linear, desiccated creatures of print-culture."

In _Trip to Hanoi_ , Sontag acknowledged a couple of North Vietnam's atrocities: forced collectivization and purges of dissidents. In _Ramparts_ , she mentions "one bad moment" two years earlier when several thousand homosexuals in Havana were sent to rehabilitation farms. Compared to America, a "cancerous society," Cuba had developed a convincing patriotic rhetoric. The very things American radicals rejected, militarism and traditional schooling, were positives in revolutionary Cuba, a country just beginning to develop itself. In other words, it was wrong to apply the same standards to America and to a nascent socialist society. In _Political Pilgrims_ , Paul Hollander notes that the flaws in communist systems like Cuba's are always justified on "programmatic grounds as problems of growth, transient aberrations, measures of self-defense, or trivial blemishes rendered insignificant by the overall context and to be vindicated by the future." Hence, Sontag notes the public attack on Heberto Padilla, an apolitical writer, but adds that no Cuban writers had been imprisoned or prevented from publishing.

Two years later, Sontag would join a chorus of protest over Padilla's treatment, discovering that Castro did persecute and jail writers, along with thousands of other political prisoners. In 1968–69, however, she not only temporized about Cuban communism, she shilled for it. In a collection of tributes to Ché Guevara, martyred in his attempt to foment revolution in Bolivia, she expressed not only her "personal grief," but also her approval for the cultivation of his "romantic image" as an antidote to the "life-style of American imperialism." It was good for American and European radical youth to idealize Ché. The new "still imperfect and emerging socialist society" of Cuba offered "revolutionary options," she declared, endorsing Ché's brand of exporting revolution to other countries. True, Cuba had neither a free press nor an independent judiciary, yet it stood as "in some respects the most genuinely democratic country in the world today." The clash of absolutist pronouncements and their qualifiers that makes a muddle of _Trip to Hanoi_ continued.

Historian Alan M. Wald reports that "during the 1960s Sontag had supported the election campaigns of the Socialist Workers Party (SWP) and had even met with party representatives to discuss the possibility of joining the party." The meeting was set up by radical activist Ralph Schoenman, who was seeing a good deal of Sontag at the time, and also befriending her son, David. Schoenman had been Bertrand Russell's secretary, calling himself "Secretary General of the International War Crimes Tribunal" that Russell sponsored in order to condemn US actions in Vietnam. Schoenman, considered an adventurer in some radical circles, and himself a candidate for SWP membership, was sent on a mission by the SWP, along with Leslie Evans and George Novack, who had played a major role in the Dewey Commission hearings that cleared Trotsky of the accusations made at Stalin's Moscow purge trials. At Sontag's apartment, Schoenman performed the introductions, and then Novack pitched the SWP as the party of Lenin and Trotsky. He added that the SWP was also prominent in the National Mobilization Committee to End the War in Vietnam, which had called for the November 1989 March on Washington. The SWP "virtually controlled the Student Mobilization Committee," Novack told Sontag. Skeptical, she asked her recruiters how they could be so influential if she had heard so little about them. Novack replied that the Young Socialist Alliance (YSA) had made important gains on American campuses, recently expanding into the South, where it established new chapters in Atlanta, Birmingham, Austin, Houston, and other cities. Sontag then called David into the room and questioned him about the YSA. Had he ever heard of it? No, he said. That ended the recruitment drive.

En route to Cuba in late December 1968, Sontag gave a talk about her trip to Hanoi at the National University of Mexico City. She had been preceded by a series of Marxist lecturers who had politicized the atmosphere in the aftermath of the massacre of October 2, 1968, when some two thousand demonstrators in Mexico City, protesting the army's occupation of the university, had been beaten, shot, and jailed. "Scores of bodies were trucked away and firehoses washed the blood from the cobblestones," according to a _New York Times_ account (September 14, 1998). The killings enraged the younger generation and shocked Mexico, which experienced an event comparable to what occurred in Tiananmen Square in China in 1989. Sontag spoke to a militant, anti-American student audience of perhaps a thousand bodies, crammed into a room with seating for four hundred. No matter what she said, it did not seem radical enough. Under a ruthless fusillade of questions about the war and American foreign policy and attacks on her arguments, she broke down and wept. She recovered quickly, but when it came to the Vietnam War, the writer who was admired for her control, who commanded the speaking platform with such aplomb and serenity, lost her composure.
12

_STYLES OF RADICAL WILL_

1968–71

By 1969, Susan Sontag had secured extraordinary visibility, appearing in Paris, Prague, London, Berlin, Helsinki, Mexico City, Hanoi, Havana, and Stockholm—not to mention her many lecture dates at American universities. She met with her foreign publishers, agents, and writers, establishing an intricate network of international contacts. _Trip to Hanoi_ , published as a separate book in 1968, received an encomium from Lillian Hellman, a figure much admired in Sontag's diaries: "Vietnam is a splendid book.... Be pleased with yourself."

In the fall of 1969, Sontag published her second collection of essays, _Styles of Radical Will_. It contained her landmark essays, "The Aesthetics of Silence" and "The Pornographic Imagination." She also included her best work on film, "Bergman's _Persona_ ," a work that is tied closely to the style and content of the first two of her films, _Duet for Cannibals_ and _Brother Carl_. Her decision to include her political essays, "What's Happening in America (1966)" and "Trip to Hanoi," provoked harsh reviews that treated her not just as a writer, but as a public figure. Even John Leonard, a critic usually sympathetic to Sontag, pointed out in _Life_ how facile, how unproven Sontag's premises about "modern capitalist society" were. Even granting her argument that America was founded on genocide, it was hardly the first empire to act so violently. Why did she repeat Marxist simples? What about what the North Vietnamese had done to Thai, Meo, and Mung ethnic minorities? "She may have gone to Vietnam, but she never really left the solipsistic thicket of her questions, nor stopped singing the same song," Leonard concludes. In the _Spectator_ (December 12, 1969), Jonathan Raban called Sontag's essays "symptoms rather than critiques of the society they purport to describe." Peter Berek in _Commonweal_ (October 10, 1969) said Sontag combined the "enthusiasms of the huckster with the zeal for novelty of a garment manufacturer," echoing Gore Vidal's feeling that Sontag's quest for the new novel reflected "not so much the spirit of art as it does that of Detroit." Nevertheless, _Styles of Radical Will_ consolidated Sontag's place as one of the great contemporary essayists. Her second collection was more probing and less programmatic than _Against Interpretation_. Her best essays stake out a view of certain subjects (especially film, pornography, and art) that continues to stimulate discussion among critics, in the classroom, and among general readers.

In early 1969, Sontag moved from a Greenwich Village apartment to a Riverside Drive penthouse. In the Village, she had rented a typical cramped affair, with a narrow entrance hall, a small living room jammed with bookcases and walls hung with film stills, and a bare minimum of furniture. On Riverside Drive her penthouse sat atop a large, dark, prewar apartment building. The atmosphere was austere, with dark wood floors, little furniture, and a few photographs (Garbo, Dylan, W. C. Fields), but most of the walls were bare and white. Even with a fine view of the Hudson River, the scene was like that of a monastery. The ascetic Sontag did not crave luxury—not that she could have afforded it, anyway. Money was always a concern. Farrar, Straus & Giroux advanced her modest sums against future earnings. She could command lecture fees of $1,000 or $1,500, plus expenses (her asking price would escalate to over $3,000 in the 1970s and 1980s). Roger Straus negotiated and made the arrangements, an unusual thing for a publisher to do, since publicists or lecture agents usually handled such business. But working the lecture circuit was tiresome, and it took Sontag away from writing. So she reduced the frequency of her appearances, inevitably shrinking her income.

Unlike disciplined writers who write every day no matter what, Sontag liked to go out and could be easily distracted. Activity-filled schedules blocked her from doing serious writing, as did her tendency to read many hours at a stretch. She would pick up small grants from private and public agencies, but they did not add up to a comfortable existence. She had no health insurance. But she still managed to pursue the life of an independent writer with admirable determination—and often with a lack of grace, for she hated to be beholden to the universities that paid her lecture fees and demanded her time.

When Sontag visited Brown University in the late 1960s, for example, she made it clear to her escort, Laurence Goldstein, editor of the _Michigan Quarterly Review_ , that she did not like making personal appearances. "Then why do it?" Goldstein asked. "Why else, for the money," she explained—"as if to a simpleton," Goldstein added. She wanted to see an early Picasso at the Rhode Island School of Design and then hurry off to her early evening flight back to New York. She was polite, if not gracious, with the organizers of the panel on which she was to appear, and she signed a few copies of _Against Interpretation_. After the panel discussion, Sontag sprang from the stage and said to Goldstein, "Let's get going." Her surprised hosts caught up with her and asked about her attendance at the reception—so many people wanted to meet her. No, Sontag said, she had read her contract carefully, and it said nothing about a reception. One of the exasperated organizers responded that surely Sontag would at least speak briefly with members of the audience who had come specifically to see her? No she would not, Sontag replied, and urged Goldstein and her driver to leave. Goldstein realized that Sontag's behavior at Brown was hardly unique: "She was the first, but certainly not the last New York celebrity I would meet, in Providence and afterward in Ann Arbor, who would perform the minimum possible work on their visit, then take the money and run. She clearly considered her behavior a brave act of self-preservation in a philistine environment. In this view she was, as she often liked to be, a minority of one."

What seemed rude or ungracious was also a form of self-protection. Susan Sontag was not Marilyn Monroe. She did not want to give all of herself to her fans. She did not want to think that she had fans. She did not want to consider that she owed anyone a performance, except the performance of being a writer. To say she was appearing for the money, that she was not beholden to anyone, may seem arrogant and ungrateful, but it created a separate space for her, a way to express her authentic self. She had become a writer precisely so she could explore life as she chose, and she did not want to resign herself to the conventional gestures of the lecture circuit.

Sontag was not happy. The years between 1963 and 1969 were heady but also disheartening. She longed to do better work, to write better fiction. She regarded her public persona as a hindrance, although she could not stop feeding the media that perpetuated it. In the intensely competitive atmosphere of New York City, she was amassing literary capital even as she labored to hide the process of becoming the public Susan Sontag. She had to be her own sort of writer. Yet she found no way to check her own posturing with a sense of irony about herself. Some stars handle stardom with self-deprecating humor. Sontag never saw the point. Why pretend to be less than she was? Instead, she got angry, exercised her power, or withdrew into melancholy.

Sontag seemed to have an overwhelming need to assert her moral authority in a culture she deemed corrupted by the values of the marketplace. For example, she sent a hostile response to a telegram from Gladys Carr, an editor at Prentice Hall. Carr inquired whether Sontag might be available to write a book on the avant-garde. Carr considered this a special project that Sontag might be willing to take on, even though Farrar, Straus & Giroux was her regular publisher. Sontag replied by reaffirming her exclusive tie to Farrar, Straus—and for good measure told off Carr, observing that the telegram and its wording reminded her of the offensive tactics of the "world of business and journalism," which were inappropriate in the "realm of serious books and ideas." Sontag sent a copy of her reply to Roger Straus with the comment, "This may amuse you. I've probably scared the shit out of poor Miss Carr." In fact, Miss Carr got angry, replying that the telegram was meant only as an inquiry, not an offer. "And were I not so young and relatively unschooled in the ways of the 'world of business and journalism,' I suppose I would have been better prepared for your cynical and ungracious reply."

Sontag's expressions of petulance hid a personal sorrow and turmoil that she could not share outside a very small circle. She had never gotten over her love for María Irene Fornés. In retrospect, she realized that her years with Irene were as close to a "marriage" as she was ever likely to get. She was lonely. In her calmer moments, she discerned a pattern. It had been necessary to marry Philip Rieff. She deemed their union, "in its own terms, an immense success." She praised her own judgment, which made her enter so quickly into an arrangement that was part of forming a "new being"—but one that ultimately could not develop further without the divorce. Harriet Sohmers had then performed wonders in destroying Sontag's "worldly ignorance." And finally, Irene Fornés had transformed Sontag's "subjectivity"—by which she seems to have meant that Fornés had driven her deeper into self-analysis, "a true initiation."

Sontag wanted to give to her friendships what she often lacked in her love life: a true sense of reciprocation, of what H. G. Wells yearningly called a "lover-shadow," a double that helped to complete herself. Since breaking up with Fornés in 1963, Sontag had had lovers and suitors, male and female: L in New York and C in Milan, Rome, and Naples, and others in New York whose full names and lives can be documented and analyzed by her authorized biographer. To Sontag, her lovers seemed to lack something essential that she had experienced only in her "marriage" to Irene. And yet that marriage had broken up, in Sontag's view, because of her need to cannibalize others—although, paradoxically, she did not think they were diminished in the process.

To actor/director Joseph Chaikin, who became, for a time, Sontag's soul mate, she wrote about her "nightmare-ridden, stubborn, melancholy Jewish character." The legendary Chaikin, a member of the Living Theater, and a stalwart in New York's avant-garde since the mid-1950s, was, in Sontag's view, a melancholic like herself. She sent him loving letters from her destinations all over the world, confiding to him the details of her own quest for love, recording her failures and frustrations. She is open and vulnerable in this correspondence (much of it dating from the late 1960s and early 1970s), and passionately concerned about Chaikin's moods. She wants him to be good to himself. She is newsy, telling him about her experiences with Polish director Jerzy Grotowski and British director Peter Brook. She wants Chaikin to call her, she misses him, she wants to see him, to have him stay with her, to embrace him with all her heart. They are so alike, she says, "frenzied, restless doers." The letters to Chaikin open a vein and ventilate feelings otherwise carefully concealed, even from the lovers she had had since Fornés.

From the vantage point of 1969, Sontag looked back and wrote to Chaikin that it seemed to her that since her split from Fornés she had lived in a perpetual state of "mourning and anxiety and petrification." Fearful, immobilized by states of apprehension, maintaining her air of command was the only way she knew to surmount an increasing sense of discomfort with what she had become. Her hectic travel schedule seemed to express her conviction that there was no one to stay home for, except David, who had became the intense focus of her affections—too intense, she realized, and she welcomed male friends who acted as a kind of buffer.

Chaikin wrote to her while she was in Sweden, "I've seen a lot of David lately. He's very well and it's lovely to see him. He is manifestly home sick for you and came to me... I feel toward him like that and it's very satisfying to answer that in any part." David often stopped by the Farrar, Straus & Giroux offices to visit Roger Straus, who gave him money and sent news of him to Sontag, who was usually somewhere else. David, when he was not traveling on his own to Canada, or Mexico, or Peru, accompanied his mother on her forays as public figure and world traveler. The consequence for David was a failure of focus; he could not settle down. He had literary aspirations (Farrar, Straus & Giroux would place some of his early stories in magazines), but he was also daunted by his mother's example and found her too seductive to rebel against. "David isn't as precocious as I was as a child, + this bothers him," Sontag wrote in her diary.

In Sweden, Sontag finally had an opportunity to make her own film, a project that evolved out of serving on the juries of both the Venice and New York film festivals. She had been looking for a filmmaking venue, she told interviewer Edwin Newman in 1969. Goran Lindgren, managing director of Sandrews, a Swedish film company established in 1937, obliged by offering to fund her first film. She signed a Sandrews contract on May 29, 1968. In Sweden, as in so many other European countries, Farrar, Straus & Giroux had made Sontag a name to reckon with. And then, it was the sixties, in Sweden as elsewhere a time of great experimentation and permissiveness. In 1963 the Swedish Film Institute had been established to promote quality in the country's cinema, and Lindgren had had several international successes.

Lindgren soon realized that Sontag had "very definite ideas about which people she wanted in her film." Of course, Sandrews helped her with casting, and Peter Hald, then in his mid-twenties, was assigned as her production manager. What Lindgren—then turning forty—and Hald found attractive in Sontag was her grasp of the contemporary and her seemingly encyclopedic command of world cinema. The opportunity presented to Sontag seemed "quite extraordinary," Hald observed, but "given the time, the political movements, it was not so strange." Sontag was a radical at a time when you had to be radical to be accepted as an American in Sweden, he stressed. _Trip to Hanoi_ would be published in book form in Sweden in early 1969 as Sontag was editing _Duet for Cannibals_. Sandrews realized that her work would not attract huge audiences or turn a profit, but the firm was committed to making both mass market and art house films.

Sontag told interviewer Mel Gussow that she had been on the sets of many films, had worked as an extra, had acted in school, and had learned a good deal from her friend, director Mike Nichols. As knowledgeable as Sontag seemed in her talks about film—how deftly she handled press conferences, Hald remembered—she knew very little about how to make a film, and there was not much give-and-take among cast and crew, or opportunity for Sontag to learn her craft. She had written a script beforehand, and it was Sandrews's obligation to help her fulfill her vision. Not that Sontag was overbearing; it was more a matter of the Swedes wanting to support her. With no improvisation to speak of, none of the kinds of happy accidents that she admired in her essay on Godard's films occurred. Sontag explained little about her characters, but then she was not asked to justify her writing. Hald enjoyed her energy and focus, but he did not find her an especially articulate director. She was quite unable, in one instance, to convey why a certain actress's performance disappointed her. At the time, Sontag gave interviews in Sweden and in the United States in which she expressed great happiness about working in film as a collective enterprise. She hoped to do many more cinema projects.

Like her fiction, Sontag's films seem willed. In part, that impression arises because they are about the will and the way it functions in life and in art. She emulates Romanian philosopher E. M. Cioran, the subject of an essay in _Styles of Radical Will_. Cioran advocates a spiritual strenuousness that requires us to "sever our roots" and become "metaphysically foreigners." Sontag's essay on Cioran perfectly captures her own willed existence. She embraces a thinker who counsels extrication from the world and from domestic commitments in order to experience life as "a series of situations" that leaves the consciousness free to explore its own labyrinth. What Sontag loves most about him is his elevation of the "will and its capacity to transform the world."

_Duet for Cannibals_ explores a brief moment in the political career of Arthur Bauer, a German radical who has been associated with Brecht, and who seems to be on the run, fearing both surveillance and attempts to poison him. His convictions are vague. At the beginning of the film one of the four main characters, Ingrid, is tacking up a poster of Bauer on walls that also feature a picture of Hugo Blanco, a Peruvian Trotskyist, an NLF flag, and photographs of the black athletes who gave the black power salute at the Olympics in Mexico City in 1968. The newspapers in her apartment remind us that the film is set in the period of the Kennedy assassination and the Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia. During this time of paranoia, Bauer travels incessantly, alluding to important meetings, exchanges of information, and the need to compose his memoirs—to establish the record of his career, since his life is in danger. Indeed, he fears that if he is not murdered a fatal disease will overcome him. Ingrid and her lover, Tomas, regard Bauer as a great man, and they welcome the opportunity for Tomas to serve as his secretary.

This basic information is revealed situation by situation. Every scene is a new story, a shifting mood. When the idea of a continuous reality intrudes, narrated in a third- or first-person voice, it sounds stilted and artificial. Thus Ingrid says, "Bauer asked Tomas to come at 6 p.m. tomorrow. And afterwards they would make a schedule for the work." Then Ingrid speaks in her normal voice to Tomas, telling him she loves him. They are two former students living in a typically messy sixties apartment. She puts on _Der Meistersinger_ , which moves Tomas to ask, "Getting me in the mood for Bauer?" In Wagner's opera, Hanns Sachs sees that his beloved Eva loves a younger man, and Hanns decides to act as her go-between, furthering the interests of his rival—making him, in fact, a master singer so that he can become a husband worthy of Eva. Sontag twists this Wagnerian theme into a vision of life as a precarious round of power plays and politics. The aging, though still handsome Bauer welcomes Tomas as a collaborator, encouraging him to take care of his disaffected but attractive young wife, Francesa. Then Bauer turns on Tomas, accusing him of seducing his wife and thwarting Bauer's efforts to compose his memoirs and carry on his political work. Tomas is perplexed. Bauer keeps inviting him to become more intimate, and then Bauer accuses Tomas of betraying his trust. Tomas does fall in love with Francesca, but later the film reveals that Francesca has been playing Bauer's game—that is, pretending to be alienated from Bauer so as to attract Tomas's sympathy. Her role-playing pleases Bauer, who likes listening from a closet as his wife and Tomas make love. Ingrid, who has become increasingly upset that Tomas spends all his time with the Bauers, is seduced by Bauer in turn, and comes to work for him as cook and nurse to Francesca. Eventually, Bauer, Francesca, and Ingrid make a threesome in bed, and Tomas becomes the excluded one. When he tries to return to the fold, Bauer and Francesca stage an elaborate ruse that leaves Tomas thinking she has committed suicide, and Bauer, in front of Tomas, appears to take his own life. Yet when Tomas leaves the Bauer residence with Ingrid, the Bauers stare down at him looking impassive, remote behind a window, unreadable.

The inconclusive ending bothered reviewers. Sontag declared to Edwin Newman that she wanted the film to cause anxiety. She succeeded. It is impossible to say what Bauer's problem is because Sontag's script resists explication. Does he throw up his food because he fears it is poisoned, because it is poisoned, or because he suffers from an eating disorder causing him to gorge himself and then regurgitate? This compulsive eating has its parallels in Tomas's heavy smoking. He cannot control it. He says, "I want to stop smoking." Ingrid says, "Then why don't you?" Tomas answers, "A question of stronger and weaker forces, isn't it?" The line might be applied to the whole film, to its reading of art and life as a question of stronger and weaker forces, of what prevails. Bauer lives for power, and for that reason his principles do not matter. He is utterly arbitrary; he can be charming or cruel and change mood abruptly. He can be ingratiating or seductive, menacing or pathetic. This bewildering range of behaviors is less bewildering if the viewer realizes—as Molly Haskell did in the best American review the film received—that what is always at stake is power and how to get it. It can be grabbed, it can be coaxed, it can be summoned in an incredible variety of poses or games. It all depends on how much one is a believer in what Ingrid calls the "power of the will"—a phrase she employs as she hands Tomas a cigarette.

Put another way, this is a film about discipleship. Biographer Jerome Boyd Maunsell observes that Sontag entered her marriage to Philip Rieff as a follower and became swallowed up in his work. Tomas wants to work for a great man, who must test the disciple's loyalty on every level, from the trivial to the profound. Sontag, given her own participation in a variety of triangles, is rather adept at filming a power-mad world. Compared to the naïve politics of _Trip to Hanoi, Duet for Cannibals_ is a cynical work. It idealizes and rationalizes nothing. The problem is that the film is thesis-ridden. Since it is about the many forms of domination—erotic, pornographic, political—Sontag deliberately, even perversely, refuses to give her audience any reason to care about Bauer or the other characters as individuals. Of course, this is her very point: Identifications oversimplify the problem of human relationships, which is not just a matter of personality, of psychology, of sociology and so on. Power has its own rhythm, which is a seesaw of emotions, an operatic scale that bursts the bounds of the decorum that most films observe.

With Bauer in the closet, overhearing Tomas and Francesca making love, with Ingrid in the middle of the bed between Bauer and Francesca, the only missing couple is Bauer and Tomas in bed or in the closet, making love or watching Ingrid and Francesca make love. These are options in the world of this film, since an infinite variety of couplings is possible. Or, as Sontag says in "The Pornographic Imagination," "[B]isexuality, the disregard for the incest taboo, and other similar features common to pornographic narratives function to multiply the possibilities of exchange. Ideally, it should be possible for everyone to have a sexual connection with everyone else." Bauer is the father of younger characters who idolize him. They also try to reject him, so he constantly tries to amuse them by varying the terms of their exchanges, erotically intertwining all of them.

Sontag puts her own extraordinary experience as both master and disciple into this massive show of how power devours everything. Just as Sontag saw herself "being cannibalistic in all my relations," feeding on friends to gather her "treasure," Bauer devours his food, his friends, his lovers, his allies. Fixated on her theme, Sontag, no less than her characters, sees nothing else. Bauer is a radical, opposed to the oppression of the status quo, yet his dissent is merely another exercise of coercion.

Although one reviewer identified Bauer as an example of a bad radical, given the abuses of authority this film mercilessly exposes, it is hard to see how there could be a good radical. Bauer is so bent on manipulation that he is comic, and many reviewers treated _Duet for Cannibals_ as a black comedy. This reaction surprised Sontag, she told interviewer Mel Gussow, but she grew to like it—perhaps because it made her film more endurable—even enjoyable—without undermining her desire to remain inconclusive.

Bauer has formed a brood akin to what Sontag experienced in the Taubes clique at Harvard and Columbia. Taubes cultivated an air of esoteric knowledge—intellectual and sexual—of the sort that emanates from Bauer. Although Sontag was rumored to be involved with Taubes sexually, according to Morris Dickstein in his memoir, the ambiguity of her position in the Taubes circle is reminiscent of the grouping around Bauer. Drawn to these powerful characters, Sontag paid tribute to them while simultaneously taking their measure. _Duet for Cannibals_ ends when it has become stifling, when both the Bauers and their young protégés realize that they are on the point of suffocation. Sontag herself found the film claustrophobic, she told Mel Gussow. She had exhausted the subject of power—or perhaps it is better to say that she had wanted to loosen its grip.

In the spring of 1969, Susan Taubes drowned herself in the Hudson River. She had just published her first novel, _Divorcing_ , a study of one woman's effort to break the power of her charismatic husband. Sontag would never get over the shock of that death, which seemed as willed as Sontag's desire to live. If she had ever been drawn toward the idea of suicide, Taubes's death had shown her how terrible such an act of self-annihilation could be. In her story "Debriefing," Sontag provides one of her rare, fully reported descriptions of a character. Julia has Susan Taubes's slight figure and sensuous, long reddish-brown hair. Her birdlike body gives her an ethereal air, as if she could take wing at any moment. It is an "absent body," remarks the story's narrator. Thwarted in her desire to make connections between things on every level—even between one leaf lying beside another in Central Park—Julia is starving herself and withdrawing from the world. The narrator thinks it unwise to ask questions that have no answers—or no answers that the questioner can be certain are right. But it is Julia's persistent search for a nexus that propels the narrator's own reverie about how, or why, people and events cohere. If Julia's questions about connection cannot be answered, what is to prevent one from concluding that the world is random, that individual lives bear no relation to each other, that understanding one Doris (there are several in the story) does not lead to understanding the others. Of course, the obverse is equally disturbing: If one Doris does inevitably lead to another, and a deterministic pattern is established, then the concept of individuality itself is vitiated. The story is a debriefing in that, as in _Duet for Cannibals_ , affiliations are sought but they are frustrated. The title is ironic, for we do not obtain the information that debriefings are supposed to yield. There is no sense of closure, no happy ending.

Julia has a psychiatrist father (like Susan Taubes, who had a psychiatrist father who shows up as a character in her novel _Divorcing_.) When he calls Julia, the narrator answers that Julia is not home. He is not fooled because he knows Julia goes nowhere. But she would have gone out, the narrator responds, "if she'd known you were going to call." This closed-in world, immune to therapeutic intervention, will reappear in Sontag's second film, _Brother Carl_ , in which the "childish" Julia of "Debriefing" is replaced by both a mute child and by an adult, both of whom take refuge in a cellar reminiscent of Sontag's own childhood caves.

What binds the two Susans, and the "I" and Julia of "Debriefing," is "pessimism of the intellect." But the "I" of the story, like Sontag, believes in self-preservation, in the "optimism of the will." The narrator imagines herself swooping like a bird to pull her drowning friend out of the river. But Sontag, no less than the narrator of "Debriefing," lacked Julia's spirit. When so many are out of touch with their lives, why does it have to be Julia who actually takes her own life? the narrator wonders. Sontag, more earthbound—and sturdier—than the other Susan, pictures herself (or her "I") as a Sisyphus, clinging to a rock and shouting, "Stand back!" Susan Taubes's suicide left Susan Sontag feeling terribly alone, but determined to persevere.

After the May 1969 premiere of _Duet for Cannibals_ , Sontag spent a summer in Italy pondering what she had learned about film and in thrall to Carlotta del Pezzo, who was still involved with another lover, Beatrice. For her part Sontag was eager to commit herself to this new love, a duchess and a glamorous celebrity ranked in Sontag's diary alongside Warren Beatty and Richard Goodwin. Carlotta was also formerly a heroin addict, described by Beatrice to Susan as "fragile." Carlotta had trouble reciprocating Susan's desire for a great romance. Sigrid Nunez, one of David Rieff's lovers, who lived for a time with him and Sontag, later met Carlotta, a fey figure prone to depression and catatonia. It did not help much for Sontag to tell Carlotta, "Don't you see that you are the author of your life?" If Sontag persisted, and Carlotta held on, it is perhaps because Susan kept them going for a while by strength of will.

But the distance between the lovers widened when Sontag left for Paris to attend to her film's premiere, and then returned to New York in September to begin writing her next shooting script. Film critic Richard Roud, privy to the details of Sontag's love life, tried to buoy her:

My god, this is _high drama_. Sorry to camp it up, but your letter left me agog, amazed, aghast. The great thing, it seems to me, is that you love. Slightly less important is that you are loved. Least important of all is the unpleasantness you are going through. (This sounds terribly Puritan/butch, but it's true, honestly, however boy-scouty it may sound.) It must be awful after all these years to have found what you were looking for only to have to hot-foot it to Paris to sit it out. Worse still, not even sit it out, because you won't be seeing Carlotta at the end of it, only coming back to New York.... Elliott [Stein] and Noël [Burch] will help, perhaps?... Well, as soon as you get back here [NYC] I'll take you in hand.

The drama continued. Sontag wrote to Carlotta, "[P]assion, hope, longing, suffering, paralysis in work, magical chastity, innocent (still), joy at the feeling of being loved, being patient waiting for our life together to begin." By early 1970, "phase three," as Sontag termed it, had begun; Carlotta could not be Susan's cynosure, and Sontag told herself that she had to stop pressuring her lover. Carlotta did not want to feel like a dependent or to be expected to come to New York. Carlotta had been attracted to Sontag's "cool" side, and Sontag dreaded showing any of her own neediness. And still, according to Sontag, Carlotta collapsed. A conversation with Stephen Koch did not help, since he advised Susan that no one could advise anyone else, really, and it was not possible to change her nature. At best, Sontag could keep some of her desire to control the affair in abeyance. And Koch notwithstanding, she conducted what she called a seminar about her affair with Carlotta, consulting among others Don Eric Levine and Joseph Chaikin—and she went back to work.

By December, Sontag had completed her shooting script, and by mid-January she was in Stockholm again assembling her crew and picking locations. Just as Sontag's first film is a kind of parable about power, her second is an allegory about making art. Sontag calls Carl, a retired dancer, a "holy fool." Laurent Terzieff, who plays Carl, was reminded of Nijinsky and his troubled relationship with Diaghilev. Carl's mentor/nemesis is the director Martin Ericsson, who has done something terrible but mysterious to Carl, but who is determined to redeem himself and to rescue Carl from his silence (Carl speaks very few words in the film) and from his withdrawal from the world. As Sontag suggests in "The Aesthetics of Silence," the only way for the artist to maintain integrity is to remain silent. Words are a potential betrayal, a misinterpretation, a distortion, and an exploitation of the artist by the artist. Of course, to seek complete silence is to inhabit a kind of living death—or death itself, the result that Diddy and Susan Taubes and Julia choose.

Brother Carl dramatizes the fluctuating relationship between two women, Lena and Karen. At first, Lena seems to be the strong one. She is a theater director taking Karen on a badly needed vacation, for Karen is involved in a tortured marriage that has produced an autistic child, Anna. But Lena is the truly vulnerable one. She brings Karen to her ex-husband, Martin, whom Lena still loves and to whom she tries to give herself once again. She wants to recreate her love for Martin by drawing on Karen's strength. She tells them, "How good we are together. I love you both so much." But Martin rejects Lena and gravitates toward the troubled but resilient Karen. Karen, Martin says approvingly, is unfinished and has a drive to complete herself. Karen herself says—as Sontag said—"I want to be what I admire." Consequently, Lena feels isolated and moves toward the silent Carl, who is ambivalent about her attention and rejects her sexual advances. The abandoned Lena suspects that Martin and Karen are in love and drowns herself.

Brother Carl presents, in the screenplay's words, the "very image of the person who is excluded." He walks into the water several times, as though to drown himself. He plunges his head in the bath for an excruciatingly long interval as Martin bathes him. He withdraws into a cave recess with Anna. Carl—everyone's brother, so to speak—is meant to alert us to the tragedy that we all sense is going to happen. But—like Lena, and like Sontag with regard to Susan Taubes—we feel powerless to stop the inevitable. Karen's first reaction to Lena's death is the same as the narrator's reaction to Julia's suicide in "Debriefing": "How could she be so stupid!" Karen's anger, like that of the "I" in Sontag's story, gives way to grief and to a question, "Don't you think she'd see now what a stupid thing it was? She'd be sorry now...." A remorseful film, _Brother Carl_ desperately wants to relieve itself of guilt and the consciousness of death.

The child-like Carl, seemingly the most vulnerable character, survives, drawing a blanket over himself like a tent, living in an earth cellar with old books, Indian blankets, and the kind of miscellany of objects that Sontag surrounded herself with in her childhood retreat. Later he digs a hole, as though he were fashioning his own grave. But he does not lie in it. He seems an emblem (to use a Sontag word) of the artist, withdrawn into silence and eloquent on the subject of human isolation and mortality. As a fellow isolato he is able to reach Anna. At the end of the film, he takes her to the sea—not to drown her as Karen, Martin, and Peter (forming another Sontag triangle) fear—but to transfer his energy to her by lying down on her and then rolling over, stiffening like a corpse. Anna finally speaks: "He's heavy." Suddenly she feels the weight of the world, of what Carl has done for her, and she has to express it. This "miracle" seems rather puzzling and mysterious on screen—as a miracle should, Sontag would no doubt say. It defies explanation; it also seems factitious, just like the resurrected marriage of Karen and Peter. Anna's rebirth is somehow meant to relieve Karen, who said earlier, "Lena's death is heavy. I'm carrying it and I can't put it down." In the film's final shot, Karen falls to her knees and folds Anna in her arms. It is a heavy, unbearable ending.

It is difficult not to believe that the now burdensome figure of Carlotta del Pezzio did not inflict itself on the film's ending. Susan struggled with Carlotta's pessimism. As melancholy as Sontag could get, she nevertheless saw herself as a product of history who could change her course, whereas Carlotta seemed mired in a view of her own nature that she was powerless to change. Too often Carlotta had called upon Susan to exercise her "parental talents." The gentle Carlotta had beauty, wit, and intelligence, but she could not measure up to the high seriousness of the commitment Sontag was looking for. Sontag assessed part of the problem as cultural: Unlike herself, Carlotta simply did not think in terms of projects and tasks. Carlotta's aristocratic mentality is perhaps what caused her to say she was "decadent," Sontag speculated. All the activity in New York City had overwhelmed Carlotta. The very idea of life having purpose seemed to defeat her, even as it drove Sontag, and her overbearing seriousness made Carlotta say Sontag lacked a sense of humor. And yet they remained together, off and on, for nearly two years, because Susan still felt exhilarated in Carlotta's presence. Carlotta was not burdened by the projects Susan thought so seriously about, and Susan admired her lover's spontaneity. But then, quite abruptly, Sontag announced the end of the affair. "It's over—just as suddenly, mysteriously, arbitrarily, unpredictably as it began," Sontag cried—and continued to cry, longing, still, to seduce Carlotta once again. But at best, Carlotta could only be an intermittent lover, and Susan wanted much more and from this woman she loved "more than anyone in my life."

Then Sontag met renowned actress/producer Nicole Stéphane. With Stéphane, she was "very attentive, affectionate, not at all her usual assertive, almost aggressive self." But Sontag had to humbly accept second place in a ménage à trois, since Stéphane was still involved in a sixteen-year relationship with a possessive lover. Stéphane was a glorious actress hailed for her brilliant performance in _Les Enfants Terribles_ (1950). In that legendary film, directed by one of Sontag's favorites, John-Pierre Melville, and based on Jean Cocteau's celebrated novel, Stéphane plays Elisabeth, a girl who nurses her injured brother Paul in a passive-aggressive relationship that is as intimate and suggestive as Elizabeth and Alma's in _Persona_. Critics have called this brother/sister love incestuous, and like _Persona_ the couple in _Les Enfants_ can be seen as shifting superior/inferior aspects of a single self, and of male and female. One critic of Melville's film puts it succinctly: Elisabeth, "although lovely, has a determined strength of body and spirit that gives her an almost masculine air in contrast to the soft, passive quality of the otherwise virile Paul."

Stéphane seemed to walk off the screen and into Sontag's life. That Stéphane was also a Rothschild and a Jew who had been in danger of being deported during the war, made her the kind of exile Sontag sought. Stéphane had appeared in an earlier Melville film, _Le Silence de la Mer_ (1949), looking, as one critic describes her, "rather like an abstract force, a living piece of sculpture in the French mold, like some personified image of feminine virtue—nobility and courage—seen in the Louvre or the Academie: sturdy with short hair that looks blown back, a strong, short nose, intense eyes, a firm, small mouth, strong and shapely legs." Sontag reveled in surrendering herself to Stéphane, who became not only Sontag's lover, but also her film producer. Stéphane was, in fact, one of only two female producers in France, as Sontag proudly pointed out in a 1972 interview.

The Sontag Stéphane saw was, in Sontag's own words, a transformed figure. When she was married to Rieff, nothing was of that much importance except the intellectual life—which included shaping a strong, ambitious self that was the antithesis of her mother. Clothes, flowers, and the like had no place in that era for a woman who dressed in drab browns, blacks, and greys. But now she cultivated her femininity, appreciating beautiful clothes, dancing, parties, and bright colors. She embraced the curvature of objects, as though she had been on the treadmill of a strictly linear world.
13

MS. SONTAG

1971–73

The fusion of Susan Sontag, Women's Lib and _Vogue_ magazine is one of those inevitable astrological conjunctions that outline the pattern of our culture in one bright electrical display—illuminating the coalition that now exists between intellectual personalities, chic radical issues and the fashion marketplace.
—Robert Brustein

After completing the editing of _Brother Carl_ in January 1971, Sontag spent two months in Paris. She lived with Nicole Stéphane, whose address became her own. As Sontag told an interviewer in May 1972, she had become a part of the Parisian intellectual scene. Her first ten years (1958–68) of intermittent residence in the city had been as an outsider, an American among Americans, but now her circle became almost exclusively French. She had even secured Sartre's old apartment at 42 rue Bonaparte, where he had lived between 1942 and 1962. Situated behind the Place Saint Germain, Sontag could see the Church of St. Germain from her living room window, as well as the Deux Magots, which Hemingway and other famous writers had frequented.

Simone de Beauvoir signaled Sontag's new status by giving her gratis the film rights to _L'Invitée_ , de Beauvoir's first novel, with Stéphane as producer. Sontag expected to make her filmmaking career in France, not knowing how to raise money as an independent director in the United States, and not evincing any interest in making the compromises she supposed would be necessary if she sought American studio backing for her films. If France did not foster feminists or independent filmmakers, it nevertheless provided a narrow zone of opportunity that Sontag could capitalize on. France, like other European countries, had welcomed writers, such as Alain Robbe-Grillet, who also became directors.

Farrar, Straus & Giroux had promoted Sontag's reputation as a filmmaker by publishing her screenplays at home and abroad, and by planning a "Susan Sontag on cinema" book, a collaboration with another film critic/filmmaker. Sontag's first choice was the British writer Richard Roud, with whom she occasionally stayed on her visits to London. Later, she opted for a Parisian colleague, the avant-garde filmmaker Noël Burch. But Sontag's screenplays were a tough sell. The cinema book never jelled, and the film of de Beauvoir's novel never got made, apparently because Stéphane told Sontag such a film would hurt her career. Sontag accepted a $5,000 advance from a production company to produce an original screenplay, "The Year of the Ox." She later gave up her contract, and the head of production had to dun Sontag and Roger Straus—even threatening legal action—to get back the advance, which he returned in $1,000 increments.

The film projects, the novel that Sontag always seemed on the verge of producing, her lecture appearances and interviews, and the mixed but gratifyingly widespread reviews of _Styles of Radical Will_ all sustained a sense of ubiquity. In fact, Sontag had—with regard to her writing—moved into a "quiet period," to borrow a phrase from Lila Karpf. This period would last from the summer of 1969 until the early summer of 1972, when Sontag wrote to Roger Straus, "I'm back in the race to become The Most Important Writer of My Generation and all that shit." She had returned to writing short fiction and to her groundbreaking essays on photography.

Sontag published a radical document, "The Third World of Women," in the spring 1973 issue of _Partisan Review_. The piece derived from her responses to a questionnaire submitted to her the year before by _Libre_ , which was, in her words, a "Spanish-language, political and literary quarterly with a loosely Marxist orientation." The article's truculent tone is startling, rivaling only the stridency of "What's Happening in America." While Sontag reaffirms her support for revolutionary socialism, she declares that no government purporting to adopt Marxist principles has ever liberated women—which in her lexicon would mean not merely establishing equality under the law, but enforcing a power-sharing scheme between the sexes. Sontag regards women as a threatened species, vulnerable to attack on the street in virtually every part of the world. She scorns liberal panaceas. Simply working for equality under the law will always mean that women will lag behind, for men have demonstrated their refusal to part with power. What ruling class has ever voluntarily reduced its own strength? Sontag asks. True change will only occur when women force men to change. The choice for change is just that stark, since the "very structure of society is founded on male privilege," Sontag declares.

How will women achieve power? They will have to labor for it. Every woman should work, Sontag insists: "It must be expected that most women will work." Until women have the means to support themselves, they will never be free. "Liberation means power," she reiterates. Work also entails a psychosexual attack on the hegemony of "genital heterosexuality." A "nonrepressive" society, she explains, will be androgynous, for it will steadily subvert the differences between the sexes. This "depolarization" will lead to a redefinition of women's roles, so that they will no longer think of themselves first as "potential sexual partners." Instead, sexuality will be "diffused." In "The Third World of Women," Sontag predicts that in a liberated society, "[H]omosexual choices will be as valid and respectable as heterosexual choices, both will grow out of a genuine bisexuality." She identifies the enemy: "machismo."

She then turns her article into a tactical manual. She enjoins women to take to the streets in protest. No marching men, please. Women should learn karate, whistle at men, attack beauty parlors, and organize campaigns against sexist toy companies. She endorses "militant lesbianism." Women should run their own abortion clinics—Sontag was one of several prominent women who revealed they had undergone abortions and signed the _Ms_. magazine "Abortion Law Repeal" petition in 1972. Women should sue mainstream women's magazines, conduct male beauty contests, run feminist candidates for public office, deface billboards demeaning to women, retain their own names, renounce alimony, and in general raise hell wherever male privilege and female subordination are in evidence. No matter how extreme, how rude, how shrill they are, women should persist with a "guerilla theater" that acts out against sexist standards. Reform can only ameliorate, but radical agitation can fundamentally change the conditions that determine women's lives.

But that is not all. Women have to realize that the family, by its very nature, holds women back. It incarcerates women in their homes, makes them unfit to compete in society, and fosters a "guilt-producing factory, and a school of selfishness." Sontag is even opposed to every home having a washing machine. Even if every family could afford domestic help, it would not liberate women from an acquisitive consumer society bent on devouring itself and everything else. The family is not a refuge but a prison, where women are kept in line by the homogenized messages seen on television sets now dominating living rooms everywhere.

Sontag had never linked her own success to a feminist agenda, or even to a feminist reading of history. Surely some personal statement was in order? What kind of example had Susan Sontag set? What drove her sense of urgency? And where had that urgency been all along? How did she view the choices she had made? How did she arrange her domestic life? What kind of family did she have? Women awakened by feminism in the late 1960s and early 1970s craved autobiography, examples of lives that they could learn from. Lillian Hellman made a new career for herself with her seeming candor about her own mixed-up, on-again, off-again years with Dashiell Hammett. The title of her first memoir, _An Unfinished Woman_ (1969), appealed to a new audience of feminist readers. Hellman was hard on herself for her failings, but also glorious in her feistiness. She had been vulnerable, but she was now strong and candid—bluntly admitting that she was unfinished, meaning not simply incomplete, but also ambitious to go on, to triumph.

Sontag was not alone in feeling the pressure of a feminist resurgence that linked the personal and the political—that insisted the personal was political. And like other women writers, she felt called upon to issue her own manifesto. Indeed, what engaged woman would not want a statement from Sontag about her level of engagement? Toward the end of "The Third World of Women," Sontag turns to herself: "I would never describe myself as a liberated woman. Of course, things are never as simple as that. But I have always been a feminist." Then she provides an autobiographical précis, beginning with her dream of becoming a biochemist and winning the Nobel Prize, inspired, of course, by reading the biography of Marie Curie. Then she discusses her desire to be a doctor and then a writer—never dreaming that because she was born female she would be blocked from achieving her ambitions. Her family life she declares "minimal" (she calls it "subnuclear" and dismisses it in half a sentence). This unconscious feminist ascended through the academic ranks, married at seventeen, keeping her own name, then divorced her husband, rejecting her attorney's "automatic bid" for alimony—even though she was "broke, homeless, and jobless at that moment and I had a six-year-old child to support." She remembers feeling offended when people harped on her single parent status and how hard it must be. After all, this was the life she had chosen. She did realize that her place and her position were exceptional. Becoming an exception gave her certain advantages, which she "enjoyed as my right." But, she concludes, "I know better now."

What did Sontag know now? She knew that a woman with talent and drive made it because she had "greater visibility," like the "nigger in a room full of whites," as she told interviewer Victoria Schultz. The women's movement had taught her to view her own success in a political context. She criticized women (implicitly including herself) who had not seen that their success actually confirmed the male prerogative to grant exceptions. Indeed, in her experience, successful women were misogynistic, actually preferring the company of men. She even went so far as to say that "most women who pass as being 'liberated' are shameless Uncle Toms, eager to flatter their men colleagues." The essay ended with a call for successful woman not to maintain "good relations with men" at the cost of "betraying her sisters."

When Sontag was writing her manifesto, she was also writing letter reports to Roger Straus, her male champion, who was, she assured him, never far from her thoughts. She always missed him when she was away from New York, her letters say. But when she came home to Farrar, Straus & Giroux, the women, the underlings, felt her contempt. Even as she advised women to sue mass circulations women's magazines, Sontag was publishing in them, in fact trying to place a piece called "A Moveable Doom," a study of the "double standard of aging," which _McCall's_ rejected as strangely impersonal and dated. Certainly by some feminist standards Sontag had shown enormous courage and resourcefulness—even if during her marriage to Rieff she had had the domestic help that she said society could do without. But she was not forthcoming about how she had played a male game. She stuck safely to generalities about women such as herself. Most importantly, her "visibility" was not merely a function of being an "exception." She had worked to make herself visible, but that kind of work is not even hinted at in "The Third World of Women."

Feminism was not an issue that Susan Sontag could afford to ignore, but she also did not want to engage with it personally. Jill Johnston could see as much. Johnston introduced Sontag to movement heavies: Gloria Steinem, Brenda Feigen-Fasteau, Phyllis Chesler, Kate Millet, and others. Johnston hoped Sontag would become involved: "She had us up to her penthouse at Riverside Drive where we sat around CR [consciousness raising] style, discussing superficial feminist things." CR intrudes in "The Third World of Women," but Sontag never went beyond this one fling. Indeed, her view of feminists, and her relationships with them, seemed to fluctuate with the fortunes of the movement. Vivian Gornick, who met Sontag almost a decade later, felt during their fleeting encounters at parties and other events that her reception depended on how well her own brand of feminist writing fared on the New York literary stock exchange. When Gornick's shares rose, Sontag seemed welcoming; when the market dropped, so did Sontag's level of attention.

Jill Johnston is a fascinating figure to compare with Sontag, for Johnston, at that time a militant lesbian feminist, performed what Sontag could only urge others to do. Johnston is like one of those doubles that Sontag plays with in her novels, stories, and films. An art and dance critic in the late '50s to mid-'60s, Johnston at one point had as a lover dancer Lucinda Childs; later in the 1980s, Sontag would become another of Childs's lovers. But Johnston made the personal political, the private public. She was not afraid to look extreme. Sontag would not risk the marginalization that radical behavior virtually guaranteed. Sontag's mainstream allure—no matter that the literati knew she preferred women—was heterosexual.

Until the rise of the women's movement, Sontag's success had occurred in a vacuum, in the sense that neither she nor the culture was forced to think hard about what her success as a woman meant. Sontag entered New York in 1959, at the end of the Old Left's period of dominance. She consorted with New York intellectuals who had not taken feminism or most women writers very seriously. As late as the early 1960s, Lionel Trilling had dismissed Virginia Woolf, declaring she did not deserve serious consideration as a canonical author. Except for Mary McCarthy, the thirties generation of women authors like Josephine Herbst and Zora Neale Hurston was largely forgotten. Women writers of Sontag's generation might receive good reviews and respectful treatment in the academy, but they simply did not function as exemplary figures—to borrow one of Sontag's favorite terms.

Sontag's exemplary quality made her chary of acknowledging any identity that would make her a minority. It can even be argued that her combination of sexiness and braininess made it easier for a generation of men to cope with the increased intellectual assertiveness of women in the 1970s. For these reasons and more, she and Straus were concerned about her sexual orientation becoming known to her audience—concerned perhaps that such knowledge would destroy the illusion of sexual availability to men that made her intellect acceptable.

As a writer, moreover, Sontag did not see why she needed to reveal much about her private life. She matured during a period (the 1950s) when William Faulkner, for example, published a series of articles lamenting that the media and its consumers were rapidly destroying a cherished American virtue, the sanctity of privacy. Any writer of prominence had become fair game, he concluded. Sontag grew up in that Faulknerian tradition. She wanted her work to stand on its merits. She wanted to be admired for her style, not her lifestyle—the word itself a vulgar coinage of a commercial culture. Yet her efforts to escape took the form of a denial that she was exemplary, that she was anything more than a writer, and thus to many observers she appeared disingenuous. Much about feminism was extra-literary, having little to do with her notion of the literary life. Her models had been Gide and Mann. Sontag could not be a movement person and remain true to her conception of a writer; movement politics would ultimately violate her sense of the decorum a writer had to maintain.

On stage at Town Hall in Manhattan in the spring of 1971, Norman Mailer, fresh from baiting feminists in _The Prisoner of Sex_ , confronted a battery of formidable women: Germaine Greer, Diana Trilling, Jackie Ceballos (president of the National Organization For Women), and Johnston, then a columnist for the _Village Voice_. In the audience sat notables such as historian Arthur Schlesinger Jr., Elizabeth Hardwick, and Susan Sontag. The evening turned raucous when Johnston and two women (friends of hers) ran on stage from the wings and began hugging and kissing. "Get up and act like a lady!" Mailer barked. Sontag mildly reproved him for using the word "lady."

In interviews during this period, Sontag recast her career in a feminist light. For example, she described _Brother Carl_ as a film about a working woman (Lena) enslaved to a bastard of an ex-lover, and a married woman (Karen) trapped in a boring middle class marriage. But _Brother Carl_ makes nothing of these issues. Where men come in for it is in her _Saturday Review_ article "The Double Standard of Aging" (September 23, 1972), a revision of "A Movable Doom," an unremarkable, boilerplate piece, mainly useful as a gauge of Sontag's take on the world of male privilege. She reflects on such subjects as how long men can hold on to power, and how they can attract much younger women. Age and physical appearance matter little to powerful men. They can go on, whereas age is a "movable doom" for women, who repeatedly anticipate catastrophe when they reach twenty-one or thirty or forty or fifty. Sontag described (without naming names) her friend Harriet's crisis at twenty-one. "The best part of my life is over. I'm not young any more," wailed Harriet to a befuddled sixteen-year-old Susan, who was "too young to have noticed." Harriet was beautiful then; past forty now, she was still an attractive, charming, vital, and "striking-looking" woman, Sontag assured her readers.

Women compensated for the double standard of aging by pretending to be younger, lying about their age, using makeup and all the skills of the actress. Women decorated and costumed themselves. They had to be acutely conscious of style. Sontag got angry when women stopped her in the street and said they admired her, but admitted they had not read her work. What an insult to a writer! Sontag told friends like Richard Tristman. But many of these women had formed their idea of Sontag from photographs in _Vogue_ and other mass circulation magazines, or from her book jackets. To them, Sontag was her image, her striking poses and her provocative blurbs on the backs of other peoples' books; she was the glamorous figure whose epigrams columnists loved to repeat.

Of course, many young women did read Sontag, and many, like Camille Paglia, aspired to emulate her—although the extravagance of the Sontag example, in Paglia's case, would result in a serio-comic debacle. In the spring of 1973, Paglia was at Bennington College working her first academic job. She was in her mid-twenties, a militant feminist and an open lesbian. She thought of Sontag as a radical who had challenged male dominance and written about subjects that cut across elite and popular culture categories. Like Sontag, Paglia had forsaken academic narrowness for a broadly based, interdisciplinary approach. She was working on a dissertation, _Sexual Personae_ , which would later become a controversial, best-selling book. Sontag had, in Paglia's words, produced a kind of public theater in _Against Interpretation_ , dramatizing the role of an "au courant woman intellectual," and reviving and modernizing the conception of the woman of letters. Paglia hoped, however, that Sontag would go much further. "One of my primary gripes against Sontag from the very start," she wrote to Sontag's biographers, "[was] her cowardice about her sex life after Stonewall." Paglia had been openly gay since entering graduate school in 1968. Sontag, on the other hand, "marketed herself as a 'personality' in the media and in that superficial Manhattan party scene and yet tried to invoke the precedent of the reclusive, retiring pure writer, the transcendent artiste, in deflecting questions about her private life."

Paglia had first seen Sontag in person on October 15, 1969. It was Vietnam Moratorium Day, and Paglia, then a graduate student at Yale, was visiting a friend enrolled at Princeton. Then Paglia drove to a Sontag appearance at Dartmouth in the spring of 1973, hoping to convince her to come to speak at Bennington. The woman she saw at Dartmouth reminded Paglia of publicity shots taken on Sontag's Swedish film set. Sontag had a "very stylish lean look—boots, trousers, turtleneck sweaters, big belts, flowing scarves. Neither Mary McCarthy nor Simone de Beauvoir had such a persona or would have been able to carry it off."

Paglia struggled to scrape together Sontag's speaking fee. The college could only afford to pay $700, about half Sontag's usual fee and twice what the college usually offered speakers. Paglia relied on help from Richard Tristman to persuade Sontag to come. The Bennington faculty, mostly male, did not share Paglia's enthusiasm. Indeed, Paglia realized later that because they had paid double, the faculty expected Sontag to be twice as good as other speakers. Paglia raised the stakes with a poster campaign, and urged her students to bring their friends to this "extraordinary experience," during which Sontag would impart her valuable insights on contemporary culture.

On the "great day," October 4, 1973, a sleepy Sontag arrived by car two hours late. Looking haggard and puffy, she explained to Paglia that she had been writing all night. She wrote in spurts, when the spirit moved her. She was quite lazy, she told Paglia, and had to take stimulants to get her through two-week writing jags. Skipping a meeting at the college president's home, Paglia took her guest to a restaurant, where Sontag with a "sonorous flourish... ordered steak au poivre, which seemed suitably grand and exotic." After the meal, she ignored her host's reminders that they were behind schedule and "drank wine on and on and on as couriers kept arriving," Paglia recalled.

According to Paglia, Sontag finally arrived at the Bennington Carriage Barn, the site of her performance, only to encounter an angry full house that had been waiting for over an hour. Joan Schenkar, a Bennington graduate who was seated in the audience, does not recall Sontag's being memorably late or the audience being particularly restive. Paglia then gave, in her own words, a baroque introduction, comparing Sontag to the savants of the ancien régime. It was an exciting, important event, recalled Schenkar, who had met Sontag on a few previous occasions, and now was aghast at Paglia's lengthy, preposterous introduction. It was an embarrassing experience for everyone there, said Schenkar: for Paglia, for Bennington's president (who was rolling her eyes), and for a palpably perturbed audience. Even for a Sontag admirer, Paglia's worshipful, obsessive exordium edged uncontrollably into parody.

Paglia remembered how Sontag "stepped up to the podium and said good-naturedly, 'That was the most... unusual introduction I have ever received!' This brought down the house." But then Sontag began reading a story, which according to Paglia was boring and bleak, one of those French new novel pieces about "nothing." The faculty felt betrayed, since "she had agreed to come to Bennington to give a non-fiction talk about cultural/political issues." The crowd glared at the mortified Paglia, then appeared to drift off into sleep. A seemingly oblivious Sontag read on... and on... and on. But to Schenkar, Sontag's story seemed merely unmemorable and the audience's response unremarkable, but not unenthusiastic.

Afterwards, Sontag invited Schenkar to visit her in Paris. As Sontag handed Schenkar her telephone number, Paglia reached over Schenkar's shoulder, saying, "I must have this! I must have this!" and snatched the piece of paper out of Schenkar's hands. Calmly, Schenkar retrieved it from Paglia's fingers. Seeing how fixed Paglia was on commandeering Sontag, Schenkar decided that skipping the party after the talk would be prudent. According to Paglia, Sontag threw a fit at an event, which took place at Bernard Malamud's house. He was Bennington's star novelist, and was also known as a "general pain in the ass," said Paglia. Her friends felt Malamud, who had never met Sontag before, had made a fool of himself. "He invites me to his house to insult me!" Sontag fumed to Paglia as the two rode away from the party. Energized with indignation, Sontag seemed fully awake and actually began to talk to Paglia. The two women chatted for over an hour in the car. An amazed Paglia watched as the public Sontag—"cool, detached, austere, and lofty"—slouched down in her seat and became "'Susan,' warm, distinctly Jewish in speech and manner." Sontag once told an interviewer, "I really do like intimacy—intimacy of the Jewish kind, to put it in a code way. I like people who talk a lot about themselves, who are warm and physically demonstrative." She appeared to welcome Paglia's rapid-fire delivery and her obvious wish for a personal connection. For her part, Paglia liked what Sontag had made of herself. "Mazel tov! We need more women stars who can run their own studios," she wrote in her essay about Sontag in _Vamps and Tramps_ (1994). With the pressure of public performance over, and she was alone with a responsive soul, Sontag decompressed. Paglia was surprised at how frank Sontag was in acknowledging the erotic allure of Nicole Stéphane. They discussed the sexy Adriana Asti, the beautiful Italian actress Sontag had used in _Duet for Cannibals_. Like two guys talking shop, they traded notes about hot women, Paglia recalled.

Paglia also tried to engage Sontag in discussion about _Sexual Personae_. Paglia, already beginning to have reservations about the "anti-intellectualism of feminist rhetoric," wanted to provoke Sontag's interest. But Sontag seemed "so sloooow" to Paglia, who saw a figure from another generation with a bankable persona she did not want to risk changing. When Paglia kept pushing, an irritated but also intrigued Sontag asked, "What is it you want from me?" Flustered, Paglia answered, "Just to talk to you." But Paglia admitted that she also wanted Sontag's acknowledgement, if not her blessing. Paglia thought of _All About Eve_ , the movie in which actress Margo Channing (Bette Davis) is stalked and supplanted by her younger protégé, Eve (Anne Baxter). Paglia said she saw herself as the "new girl." In retrospect, she remarked, "It's the stalking part that Sontag probably picked up that night!"

After Sontag's Bennington appearance, Paglia became disenchanted with her role model, observing Sontag withdraw from the academic world. Instead of trying to change it, she settled for "snobbish scorn," retreating from her own immersion in French critical theory even as it was sweeping and, in Paglia's view, corrupting American intellectual life. Furthermore, Sontag's "mandarin disdain" of popular culture—especially television—exhibited an elitism that betrayed her early work suggesting that culture, both high and low, reflected a new sensibility. According to Sontag, Mary McCarthy once said to her, "You're the imitation me." In 1992, when Paglia went public with an attack on Sontag, she was in effect saying to her former role model, "I'm the next stage of you."
14

_PROMISED LANDS_

1973–74

The year did not begin well, according to Sontag's own accounting: "The terrible, numbing loss of self-confidence I've experienced in the last three years: the attacks on _Death Kit_ , feeling myself a fraud politically, the disastrous reception of _Brother Carl_ —and of course the maelstrom of C[arlotta]." She filled her diary with aborted thoughts about novels she could write. Then in January 1973, she took a twenty-six day tour of China. _Ms_. assisted in paying the travel expenses, contributing $1,000 for Sontag's "woman's eye view." Except for "Project for a Trip to China," written before her voyage, she never published another word about it. She did not want to do another "West meets East" _Trip to Hanoi_ book, she confided to her diary. And she did not want to do straight reporting. She was no journalist, she told herself. And she rightly predicted that the Chinese would not allow her the freedom to explore on her own. As she also realized, it was the China of her imagination, the country she had made up in her four-year-old mind that mattered to her. To that child, Sontag confided to her diary, the "real China has nothing, never had anything, to do with her China." She also realized that if she was ever to write any good fiction, she would have to recover her American voice and abandon the "translatorese" of her early novels.

Part of a delegation of eight, including one African American journalist, Ethel Payne, Sontag tired of the official welcomes and visits to factories, schools, and government offices. The tour was a virtual victory lap of the revolution's success, touting China's ties to Third World nations and the good works of the People's Liberation Army. Payne makes no appearance in Sontag's diaries, although the rarity of a black woman in China drew looks of wonder. Sontag's comments on her China trip take up less than a page in her diary. Later she recounted an experience with her Chinese translator, a middle-aged woman who had lost her husband during the Cultural Revolution. Sontag suspected the woman was writing a report on their outings for the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Sontag insisted on seeing the woman's tiny room in the basement of a hotel, the kind of visit the authorities discouraged. Obviously frightened by Sontag's inquiries, the translator suggested they take a walk—evidently to avoid saying anything in her bugged room. The frightened guide nevertheless asked Sontag haltingly, "Have... you... read... a... book... called... 19—" Sontag of course understood the woman's reference to Orwell's famous dystopian novel, _1984_. Sontag completed the woman's sentence, feeling a pain in her chest. "Yes," the woman said, "China just like that."

In May of 1973, British publisher Secker and Warburg, having sustained significant losses in publishing Sontag's work, dropped her. Sontag admitted that her visions of grandeur, which yielded no books, were "Thurberesque." Straus kept working on William Shawn at the _New Yorker_ , but the magazine rejected most of Sontag's fiction, instead publishing her long essay "Approaching Artaud" on May 19, 1973. _Playboy_ was more obliging, taking her short story "Baby" for $2,500.

The Yom Kippur War changed everything. Like her putative feminism, Sontag's Jewishness never seems to have been an issue for her until she suddenly made it one. Among her comrades on the Left, Israel no longer seemed the threatened entity of 1967, when the Arab world (as in 1948) seemed on the verge of annihilating it. Racism and imperialism were terms now applied quite freely to the Jewish state. For Sontag, in love with a Jewish woman who had been in peril during World War II and attracted to exiled peoples, the issue of Israelis versus Palestinians was especially problematic. She and Stéphane decided to direct and produce what became a remarkable documentary and one of Sontag's most honorable works.

"You are not going to believe this—hang on to your chair. Susan is in Israel right now in the Sinai desert filming a documentary with a whole team...!" Roger Straus wrote to a London agent. A ceasefire had not yet been called, yet Sontag filmed in land-mined areas, determined to get close to the action. She would let the reality of what she witnessed script the film for her, allowing the accidental and even the unfortunate to intrude in ways that her tightly written and closeted Swedish films did not allow. There would be no voice-over narration; instead, she would integrate layers of images and voices to suggest the complex reality of a land that had been promised to too many people.

The film opens with shots of Israel as a land of domes, crescents, crosses, and television aerials. Shots of an Arab herdsman in the desert give way to a scene in the Jerusalem War Cemetery. Heart monitor beeps clash with battle sounds. Israel radio and Arab radio sounds are intermixed with shots of battlefield corpses, as Israeli and Arab faces and places intermingle. The first of the film's two major voices, writer Yoram Kaniuk, begins to explain the origins of Israel as a response to the Holocaust and as an outgrowth of Zionism. There is Zionism's faith in socialism, its denial of tragedy; yet there is also Zionism's denial of Arab rights (earlier the film shows a scene of an Arab school room where anti-Semitic texts are being taught). Kaniuk is a committed Israeli who nevertheless yearns for recognition of the Palestinians and for peace. But the country is changing, he notes, becoming more American, more consumer oriented, and evolving away from its socialist past.

In shots emphasizing the country's growing commercialization, a second major voice is heard. Israeli physicist Yuval Ne'emann reports the Arab view of Israel: It is an abscess that has to be lanced. The Israelis are intruders, like the crusaders. Ne'emann refers to the Arab's search for a "final solution"—the words reminiscent, of course, of the Holocaust. He regards anti-Semitism as endemic in Arab society.

Kaniuk's and Ne'emann's voices constantly play off against one another. Reviewer Stanley Kauffmann called the film Hegelian, for it stresses "not a struggle between truth and falsehood but between two opposing, partial truths." John Simon, praising the film's "fine eye for visual detail," said it also broke "new ground by allowing two main speakers to carry on an antiphonal debate that weaves its way through the entire fabric." Of course, not every critic found the film so fascinating. David Moran called it "stupefyingly tedious" (but then he was put off by the wailing tone of the soundtrack, the constant grief that Sontag clearly wanted to emphasize).

No Arab voices match Kaniuk's and Ne'emann's, and that absence alone might expose Sontag to charges of a pro-Israeli bias. But beyond its ostensible setting in the aftermath of the Yom Kippur War and the broader Arab-Israeli conflict, the film surely concerns the exploration of the Jewish conscience and consciousness. As Sontag said in her _Vogue_ article about making _Promised Lands_ , it is her most personal film.

During the making of the film, Sontag and Kaniuk became close friends. Born in Tel Aviv in 1930, Kaniuk fought in Israel's 1948 war for independence. As a young man, he lived in New York for ten years, painting and writing journalism. He returned to Israel in 1961 and began publishing prose in 1962, gradually establishing an international reputation. It was his third novel, _Adam Resurrected_ (1968), that attracted Sontag's attention. Praised as perhaps his greatest work, _Adam Resurrected_ tells the story of Adam Stein, who presides over a kind of demented kingdom in the desert, re-enacting comic routines that spared him from the gas chamber. Kaniuk's extraordinary range (he was one of the first Israeli writers to deal with the Holocaust), shifting from the comic to the tragic, made him the perfect, ambivalent voice to set the tone for _Promised Lands_. He speaks, off and on, for nearly half the film, almost writing the script for it as he talks. His impact on Sontag was also extraordinary, for he stimulated in her an openness she shared with few others. In their most intimate period, she would introduce him as one of her three or four closest friends. She told him about Nicole, and even about her parents. She was quite open with him about her sexuality. He met her son David, but he could not fathom their odd connection: "She was not a mother, and he was not a son."

When Kaniuk first met Sontag, he felt overwhelmed. She told him she had read _Adam Resurrected_ in one night, and that it was a great novel (She would later provide a blurb for the Harper paperback). He began to read her work, attracted by her middle European mind, which reminded him so much of Walter Benjamin and Karl Kraus. She referenced the same mixture of philosophy and history, and she seemed to be carrying on a very long German Jewish tradition that no other American-born writer had mastered. Kaniuk doubts that Sontag could have understood Benjamin so well if she had not been Jewish. He thought of her an "angel of reason."

Soon Kaniuk and Sontag were having long discussions about what it meant to be Jewish. When she first told him of her Jewish origins, he was shocked. There had been nothing about her that he associated with Jews. When Kaniuk visited Sontag later in New York, she told him that first she was a Jew, second a writer, and third an American. He thought it odd that she could be so emphatic, and he questioned her several times about her Jewishness. He saw in Sontag and in her close friend poet Joseph Brodsky the same pride in being a Jew—as well as the wish not to be burdened by all the history that came with this identity. At a screening of _Promised Lands_ , essayist Philip Lopate was surprised to hear Sontag identify herself as an "international Jew."

Kaniuk's visibility in America was minimal, and he hoped Sontag might help him, since she had promoted many writers she admired. He sent her _The Last Jew_ (1982), explaining that he had just been nominated for a Nobel Prize. Later he realized it had been the wrong thing to say. She seemed to withdraw from him. He had evidently asked her to do too much. He badly wanted to be a success in America, which he thought of as his second home. He thought Susan would understand and not feel used by him. She had once invited him to a Roger Straus party. He had felt shy and awkward, but she took care of that, introducing him to Straus: "This is Yoram Kaniuk, one of the world's greatest novelists." Sontag spoke as a kind of ambassador; as Kaniuk puts it, she had become literature's world statesman.

Kaniuk related his feelings about 1973—the period when he enjoyed a nearly rapturous relationship with Sontag—and about the early 1980s, when she backed away from him. He used the same loving, respectful, and regretful tones when relating both experiences. He likened his relationship with Sontag to her friendship with Nobel Prize winner Joseph Brodsky. She was jealous of the poet, Kaniuk recalled: "She loved him and hated him at the same time." She could be petty about people. Kaniuk remembered her as discontented—but then, that is what made her an artist, he believed.

Brodsky, a fiercely critical man, became an obsession for Sontag, who irritated other people by calling him "our Joseph." Brodsky was hardly one to be patronized. She admitted in an interview that she became "very attached to Joseph emotionally, as many women did." He could say quite wonderful things about Sontag, but he spoke critically of her as well, Kaniuk reported. Maja Herman Sekulić, a friend of Brodsky, also remembered his conflicted feelings about Sontag—and she recalled Brodsky's characteristic gesture, a sort of annoyed flicking of the fingers, when Herman asked him about Sontag. Writer Sigrid Nunez, who observed Brodsky in action with Sontag, remembered him saying, "Susan, Susan, wait now, shut up, please. I am talking." He could be charming and generous, but also brutal. Sontag knew as much, writing in her diary, "Story about a poet (Joseph!) so much less, morally, than his work."

Brodsky's Nobel Prize represented the world stage, where Sontag had always wanted to be. As Kaniuk says, "From a very young age she had, as we all do, conflicting ideals of what she wanted to be. She wanted to be very famous, very rich, very new, very innovative, and very avant-garde." She is one of the very few to succeed at balancing these conflicting desires. In America, Kaniuk observed, there is a special feeling about "making it," and "Susan wanted to make it." She had her intellectual recognition in Europe—as Kaniuk found out when a word from her did wonders for his career there. Then he added, "I say this with great respect. Susan has used America better than anyone."

Kaniuk detected "a moment when Susan's ideals about herself—her self-theme—became a 'thought' to her. She managed to project an idea of herself into the world the way she wanted to." She wished to be admired and loved. He remembered her walking like a queen in New York. She looked so grand in her appearance at St. John the Divine (the largest Gothic cathedral in the world). Yet she was also so eager—a trembling queen, full of doubts, a person of great fears. "But she always managed to put on this strong thing," Kaniuk continued. She never gave into fear, he said, obviously proud of her performance. "In _The Emperor Jones_ , Eugene O'Neill says man is born broken, and life is mending. The grace of God is glue. Susan is the only person I know who found the grace of God within herself. She glued herself from all these broken pieces."

In another sense, Kaniuk thought that Sontag came without history:

I come full of history. Susan rejected her history. Even when she said she was a Jew, I can't say she meant it the way I would. She has to invent history. I didn't have to invent myself. I do it in books. Her writing and her being are one and the same. It's magic to be Susan Sontag in her writing and in her life. She is like a moving land, a moving country, a moving entity.

She made herself into her own promised land.
15

"OLD COMPLAINTS REVISITED"

1975

Dissent must be set off from dissent. I dissent differently. — _I, etcetera_

On February 6, 1975, the _New York Review of Books_ published "Fascinating Fascism," Sontag's full-scale assault on the rehabilitation of filmmaker Leni Riefenstahl, best known for her Nazi-era documentaries, _Triumph of the Will_ and _Olympiad_. As Sontag confided to Roger Straus, she had written the piece to make a "splash"—which it did. Her work provoked lavish praise and fierce criticism, as well as many letters. Sontag relished her success. According to Robert Silvers, her piece made that issue one of the journal's best sellers. Sontag began by evoking the beautiful photographs in Riefenstahl's recent book, _The Last of the Nuba_. But then she meticulously set out to destroy the Riefenstahl persona, showing how the filmmaker had lied about her Nazi affiliations, and how her publisher and film critics had collaborated in her elisions of history, making her out to be an artist first, a propagandist second. Riefenstahl portrayed herself as a German romantic who had the misfortune to attract Hitler's attention, but who had been acquitted twice of any complicity in war crimes. The beautiful Riefenstahl (Sontag made much of the way Riefenstahl had been photographed)—this "character," as Sontag put it—"underwent a steady aggrandizement." It seemed to nettle Sontag that Riefenstahl billed herself as an independent filmmaker when, in fact, Hitler had bankrolled her, making his Nuremberg rallies into a movie set for her.

Had Sontag halted her blitzkrieg at this point, her essay would have kicked up a fuss mainly in the film world and among literary critics interested to find that she had reversed course. There had been that notorious passage in _Against Interpretation_ , in which Sontag had cautioned that merely to condemn Riefenstahl for her reprehensible Nazi content would be to diminish the vital experience of artistic form. Sontag knew quite well that "Fascinating Fascism" might be viewed as a repudiation of her earlier remarks, and she had her answer ready when Robert Boyers (a friend) gave her a forum in _Salmagundi_ (Fall/Winter 1975/76) to say that she had not contradicted herself so much as she had looked at the form/content distinction from a different angle. She had been concerned in the earlier essay to emphasize form because critics seemed obsessed with content. What mattered, Sontag argued, was context; it troubled her that only form had become the issue, as Riefenstahl and her promoters ignored or excused her Nazi past. And what of Sontag's own role in shaping the taste for form, a role she now repudiated? "The hard truth is that what may be acceptable in elite culture may not be acceptable in mass culture, that taste which poses only innocuous ethical issues as the property of a minority becomes corrupting when they become more established," Sontag contended. In her diary, she put it another way. She enjoyed attacking widely held ideas, and was annoyed when her own iconoclastic views became mainstream. Then she was ready to attack her own previous positions: "I can't help but be in an adversary relation to my own work."

Sontag had changed, she admitted in _Salmagundi_ , insofar as she now had a "much denser notion of historical context," which led her to speculate on other reasons for Riefenstahl's rehabilitation. Surely the "fact that she is a woman" helped turn her into a "cultural monument." Here Sontag knew she had touched a nerve—one that she irritated further by claiming that feminists had embraced the beautiful Leni because of her status as one of the few world-class female filmmakers. To rile feminists even more, Sontag emphasized the demeaning nature of Riefenstahl's fascist aesthetic: It glorified submission to an all-powerful leader. It was pornographic in its exultation in the triumph of the strong over the weak, turning people into things, celebrating the primitive, the virile, making a cult and a fetish of beauty. This fascist aesthetic had become fashionable, a part of the camp sensibility, Sontag said, setting off echoes of the essay that had first brought her fame. A liberal culture, she opined, revolved around cycles of taste; it was simply fascism's turn on the "cultural wheel."

Poet Adrienne Rich wrote to the _New York Review of Books_ (March 20, 1975) in shock. Was this the author of "The Third World of Women"? That essay had inspired Rich to watch how Sontag would work her "lucid and beautifully reasoned" insights into her subsequent work. But "Fascinating Fascism" was full of "failed connections." It was so inimical to "The Third World of Women" that Rich wondered if that essay had been, "after all, more of an intellectual exercise than the expression of a felt reality—her own—interpreted by a keen mind." Why blame women for Riefenstahl's rehabilitation? Wasn't this reinterpretation mainly the work of cineastes? And why end the discussion of Riefenstahl with general comments about liberal society and its fads? Why not make the connection between "patriarchal history, sexuality, pornography, and power? Why not explain how the passivity induced by ideologies such as fascism was always linked to female qualities? Not to demonstrate that the first individuals turned into things were always women, not to show that women's minds and bodies were always the first to be colonized, was to practice a "kind of dissociation of one kind of knowledge from another which reinforces cultism and aesthetic compromise with the representatives of oppression; precisely what Sontag herself was writing to deplore."

One Sontag friend remembered that Rich's letter devastated Sontag, and that it was an agony for her to compose a reply. In another mood, Sontag wrote a staff member at Farrar, Straus & Giroux, "I counter-attacked. What else could I do?" Sontag treated Rich as a commissar enforcing a party line—although Rich had stated she was not looking for a "line." Sontag scored against Rich for using terms like "male-identified 'successful' women," to compose an "ominous-sounding enemies list." Did Sontag have to mention feminism in everything she wrote? Was all history to be reduced to discussions of the patriarchy? "Like all capital moral truths, feminism is a bit simple-minded," she concluded. Most of history was, "alas, 'patriarchal history.'" But how to distinguish between one patriarch and another, one period of history and another? Rich's brand of feminism, in other words, was reductive in its demand for "unremitting rhetoric, with every argument arriving triumphantly at a militant conclusion."

Of course, that was the freight train of feminism Sontag rode in "The Third World of Women." Why should Sontag have been offended that Rich wanted to know where Sontag's apparently uncompromising feminism was headed? Instead, Sontag turned the occasion of her reply into a diatribe against programmatic feminists, and into a defense of Elizabeth Hardwick, whose book, _Seduction and Betrayal_ , had been discounted by feminists. Sontag claimed that Hardwick's work had been regarded as too elitist, too taken with talent and genius, and insufficiently respectful of the movement's egalitarian ethics. In other words, Rich and her ilk were vulgarians, leftovers from the "infantile leftism of the 1960s." (There was no acknowledgement here of the Sontag who had contributed her share of Marxist simplifications to the period, and who had ended a piece on Cuban poster art by exclaiming "Viva Fidel!"). For Rich history was no more than shallow psychology, Sontag suggested.

Sontag ended her rebuttal by refusing to take up Rich's personal challenge. In effect, Rich was asking, "Come on, what do you really feel about feminism?" Sontag sought the high ground: "Although I defy anyone to read what I wrote and miss its personal, even autobiographical character, I much prefer that the text be judged as an argument and not as an 'expression' of anything at all, my sincere feelings included." But "Fascinating Fascism" is a fascinating study of Sontag. The parallels with Riefenstahl are obvious. Both women traded on their images, on making sure they photographed well. Both filmmakers, they knew all about manipulating their images even as they vehemently denied doing so. They both submitted to powerful male promoters. They both got caught up in revolutionary rhetoric and in the cult of the maximum leader. In "Fascinating Fascism," Sontag delineates a number of parallels between the aesthetics of fascism and of communism. In both, the "will is staged publicly." Castro's public, operatic theater—the idea of a whole society mobilized by his rhetoric—thrilled Sontag. Here she is quoting Riefenstahl, but Sontag might as well be quoting herself: The "care for composition, the aspiration to form.... Whatever is purely realistic, slice-of-life, which is average, quotidian, doesn't interest me."

Riefenstahl remains forever a Nazi in "Fascinating Fascism." Her pre-Nazi films, which emphasize the cult of the body, are treated as precursors of fascist aesthetics. Sontag ignores how Riefenstahl is using the pictorial devices of the German Romantics and the literary themes of Novalis, Tieck, Goethe, von Eichendorff, and Holderlin. By ignoring both form and context, Sontag denies Riefenstahl's development as an artist and the evolution of her ideology—a point film critics have made about "Fascinating Fascism." Sontag admits that Riefenstahl's promotion of the beautiful is never "witless, as it is in other Nazi visual art. She appreciates a range of bodily types—in matters of beauty she is not racist." In matters of beauty? But surely Riefenstahl's idea of beauty is inseparable from everything else that makes her films works of art. Isn't that exactly what the author of "On Style" would have us believe? Absent from "Fascinating Fascism" are words like "genius," "grace," and "intelligence"—a vocabulary used in "On Style"—and their absence suggests dimensions of Riefenstahl are not disclosed in "Fascinating Fascism."

It is surprising that Sontag, an aficionado of the dance, makes so little of Riefenstahl's dance aesthetic. Dance was Riefenstahl's first love, and shots of her dancing with the Nuba in Ray Müller's film, _The Wonderful Horrible Life of Leni Riefenstahl_ , express a love of graceful movement having nothing whatever to do with fascist aesthetics. More than any other Riefenstahl biographer, Audrey Salkeld attacks the fundamental orientation of "Fascinating Fascism":

How much more sympathetic—and perceptive—is the realization by Thomas Elsaesser (in _Sight and Sound_ , February 1993) that it is not innate fascism but her "dance-view" of life which informs Leni Riefenstahl's preoccupation with the human form, leading her to "instrumentalize the body." According to Elsaesser, "a consistent line runs through her life which seems to focus on the body as total expressive fact."

Even more devastating to Sontag's argument is Salkeld's report: "Other artists have taken similar photographs of the Nuba before and since. George Rodger who inspired Riefenstahl took his wrestling photographs in 1948 and 1949 and, with his different pedigree, they were considered high points of his career. Nobody interpreted them as in any way fascistic."

The animus between Riefenstahl and Sontag continued. In _Leni Riefenstahl: A Memoir_ (1992), Riefenstahl attacks Sontag for her lack of objectivity, mentioning but not naming journalists who have disputed Sontag's statement of facts. In the spring of 1995, Riefenstahl was invited to the San Francisco Film Festival, a part of the highly successful City Arts & Lectures series, where Sontag often appeared. Riefenstahl, then ninety-two, wrote to say she could not come because—as columnist Herb Caen reported—the "tough old bird" had injured herself scuba diving. The trip would have been called off anyway, though, because the eight-member committee (mainly Jewish) responsible for inviting Riefenstahl included, according to Caen ( _San Francisco Chronicle_ , March 30, 1995), one vociferous dissenter: "Susan Sontag, another tough bird."

It would be misleading, however, to simply equate Sontag and Riefenstahl. If Sontag was attracted to power and to powerful male figures, she had also been critical of both. She was horrified at how much Riefenstahl's decades-long denial of her complicity in evil had degraded Riefenstahl's ability to be an artist. "Fascinating Fascism," then, has to be regarded as the first step in Sontag's public recantation of a politics that excused communist tyranny and the cult—especially in Cuba—of the "maximum leader."
16

BECOMING A LITTLE POSTHUMOUS

1975–77

In her diary, Sontag declared that no one other than David could profoundly distress her. She vowed never to end up like Susan Taubes, Alfred Chester, and Diane Arbus—all of whom had destroyed themselves. Sontag had made herself into a fortress, saying no one could "topple me over the precipice." Even better, she had a "jewel and centerpiece" for the Sontag "system," Nicole Stéphane—although Sontag admitted a certain desperation in her attachment. She remembered panicking when Stéphane, absent for nearly a whole day, finally returned at midnight. And melancholy kept breaking through. David told his mother she had not fooled him with her relentless cheerfulness. After all, he said, he had read her novels. She confessed to quieting herself with "maternalistic friendships": Joe Chaikin, Stephen Koch, and others, associations that had turned her life into a kind of project in which Sontag became a handler for herself. Even so, the ghost of Carlotta continued to haunt Sontag's diaries, a sign of Susan's need to make her affairs romantic and all encompassing. And then she confessed (again) to her attraction to monsters, expressed in her love of Frankenstein "driven crazy for lack of love."

In the fall of 1975, David saved his forty-two-year-old mother's life. He said he would only take the physical exam for enrollment at Princeton if his mother also got a complete checkup. At the time, Sontag felt well, but the examination and tests revealed that she had breast cancer. Not content with the first medical opinion, and even though the positive biopsy dictated immediate surgery, Sontag spent ten days consulting a number of doctors. She had more tests run and medical records checked, and even flew to the Cleveland Clinic to investigate modified radical mastectomy—then considered a risky procedure because it could leave cancer cells in the chest muscles and other tissues. Sontag wanted to minimize her disfigurement, but she wanted even more to live, and she chose radical mastectomy as the best way to enhance her prospects for survival. In October 1975, Sontag underwent a radical surgery for breast cancer at Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Institute in Manhattan.

Sontag insisted on getting a candid assessment of her condition. Doctors told her there was only a 10 percent chance that she would still be alive in two years. One gave her six months to live. Another said, "Your cancer is very invasive." In sheer terror she thought of her death sentence as a curse, and wondered, "What did I do in my life that brought this on?" She tortured herself with the idea that holding in grief could cause cancer. She condemned herself for leading the wrong kind of life. And now the grief overwhelmed her, as she entertained the unbearable thought of leaving David and the writer's life she loved.

Sontag was also very angry with Nicole Stephane. Don Eric Levine, a Sontag friend, recalled that she treated Nicole terribly, saying "Why are you living and I'm dying." Nicole stayed in the next room while Susan was undergoing treatment in Paris. "Nicole would literally feed Susan by the fork. She would find some particularly good morsel, and Susan would just take it," Levine added. Stéphane's sister remembered how unrelenting Nicole remained in her determination to stay beside Sontag, who never seems to have acknowledged her lover's support.

It took Sontag a good month to work through these negative feelings, to realize how much she wanted to fight for her life. She became angry about the way ill people felt shamed and humiliated, the way they blamed themselves for their diseases. They were frightened and acted as if what they had was obscene. Paralyzed with worry, they became incapable of coping with their illness. Cancer had a special stigma; it was not like having heart disease. Cancer patients were treated to a conspiracy of silence. She became outraged when she noticed that the hospital sent her mail in unmarked envelopes, as though the contents were pornographic.

Sontag began to read medical texts and foreign scientific journals, and it took months before she settled on a treatment program in Paris, an extreme experimental thirty-month course of chemotherapy, with a cocktail of drugs (Cytoxan, Fluoracil 5, Methotrexate, and Adriamycin) that had not yet received FDA approval. At the same time, her immunotherapy included a once a week inoculation of BCG (Bacillus Calmette–Guérin) an anti-tuberculosis vaccine that Dr. Israel, her French oncologist, believed would stimulate the immune system. Skeptical American doctors had tried to dissuade her from resorting to such drastic measures. Did she have any idea how agonizing and dangerous the treatment would be, or how her hair loss would make her feel? She noticed that other patients were fixated on the image of their denuded heads, which deprived them of their dignity. One patient told her that she might wake up one morning to find her hair on the pillow. Then it hit home—this idea that her hair would come off, like a hat. Even at this moment of terror, though, she knew that losing her hair would not be the great tragedy of her life. By the eighth month of therapy, Sontag's hair grew back, thicker and greyer than before.

This summary of what Sontag did and how she took charge of her treatment does not do justice to the courage and resourcefulness she exhibited in confronting and overcoming her fears about cancer. Her reading of the medical literature persuaded her to jettison psychological explanations of disease. People had to be shown that they were not responsible for causing their illnesses, but that they were obligated to resist by seeking the best available treatment. The idea for writing a useful book, _Illness as Metaphor_ , arose as a counterattack on fatalism and fear. It would be a good six months before Sontag felt well enough to write—and then she would have to complete her book on photography before attempting another full-scale assault on the rampant psychologizing that distorted so much thinking about disease and so many other matters as well. The notion of resigning herself to death never occurred to her. She wanted more of her life. She associated not fighting for her life with her mother's passivity, and that association drove her wild. If Sontag had only a 10 percent chance to live two years, why couldn't she be part of that 10 percent? "Somebody's got to be that 10 percent," she thought.

Chemotherapy was agony. There were also follow-up and exploratory operations. As late as the spring of 1978, Sontag continued to be treated once or twice a week on an outpatient basis. "I am in some pain all the time," she said. "Right now, in this part of my left arm near my wrist, it hurts and that is because a nerve somewhere was affected by one operation." But fighting cancer gave Sontag a sense of release. It also made her reflect on her career. Why was it that she kept delaying her return to fiction? Why did she begin novels and then abandon them? As always, she sought inspiration and insight in the careers of others. Even before the discovery of her cancer, she had written about the painter Francis Bacon, whom she called "falsely precocious," for he was "a late developer," a term she would begin to apply to herself.

Going to the hospital several times a week for thirty months obliged Sontag to deal with people in a new way. They were suffering and getting little support from their doctors. When Sontag asked one physician what he thought about the psychological causes of cancer, he replied, "Well, people say a lot of funny things about diseases." No help there. Sontag wanted to be useful, to write a book that would save lives simply by urging individuals not to feel embarrassed by their cancers, and to find doctors who would not treat them as something more than a disease. Cancer was no more a mystery than tuberculosis. Treatments and cures would be found.

Now that she herself had experienced profound illness, Sontag became responsive to the psychology of ill people. Sick friends found in her not merely sympathy, but a grasp of what it took to fight one's own fears. When Richard Tristman, diagnosed with cancer, had to undergo strenuous experimental treatments, she was a constant source of support. Doctors told Tristman therapy would become so excruciating he would have to stop. "When you reach that stage," Sontag told him, "take one more treatment, and then one more." Tristman did, knowing she had earned the right to offer advice.

Sontag called her life-threatening cancer a "watershed experience." She craved time with David and her friends, touching and cuddling and holding on to people. When she appeared in public, when she appeared to give a talk, friends surrounded her, kissing and hugging her. With her entourage, she looked like a movie star manifesting her power, but she was also a vulnerable woman who thought of herself as a "little posthumous." She did not want to miss her moment. For thirty months she did not know if she would live or die. In one sense, she felt fortunate: "I'm lucky to have my own death." She felt she had that time to prepare for it, to say goodbye. In fact, as Yoram Kaniuk remembered, there was a goodbye party. He marveled at how calm—even stoic—Sontag seemed as her friends came to cheer her for perhaps the last time.

Within a week of Sontag's October 1975 operation, Joseph Chaikin had written to playwright Arthur Miller telling him about Sontag's condition, noting that she had enormous medical bills. Chaikin had spoken to poet Muriel Rukeyser, then president of PEN, about extending financial aid, which the organization had previously done for writers in distress. Arthur Miller addressed a PEN meeting, asking for $10,000 for "poor Susan who is dying of cancer in Paris and needs the money desperately." When PEN board member Thomas Lipscomb began asking for more details about Sontag's illness, Miller became indignant that anyone would question him about this dire dilemma. But as Lipscomb pointed out, the PEN fund for needy writers gave small grants—on the order of $300. The amount Miller was requesting seemed impossible, more than the budget could stand. And what about all the other needy writers? Lipscomb asked. Miller walked out in a huff.

Robert Silvers got together $150,000 to pay for medical bills, since Sontag had no medical insurance. Martin Peretz, publisher of the _New Republic_ , contributed $15,000. Sontag's friends and fellow writers did come to her aid. An appeal on Sontag's behalf was distributed and signed by Donald Barthelme, Joseph Chaikin, Barbara Epstein, Maxine Groff-sky, Elizabeth Hardwick, Arthur Miller, William Phillips, Robert Silvers, Roger Straus, and Diana Trilling. The historian Arthur Schlesinger Jr., a casual friend of Sontag, met her at Elizabeth Hardwick's for dinner in February 1976. He had received a letter from critic Alfred Kazin asking Schlesinger if he would write to Jacqueline Onassis about contributing to a fund for Sontag. Onassis sent a check for $300. "Susan looked very well and seemed cheerful and unperturbed" when Schlesinger spoke with her at Hardwick's home. Sontag talked to him "calmly" about her cancer. Of course, not all was calm—she admitted in her diary to feeling afraid and paralyzed, although David Rieff reports that she made "remarkably few notes about her surgery and treatment for metastatic breast cancer between 1974 and 1977." Surprisingly, Roger Straus did not help to pay Sontag's medical bills. "Quite the opposite," David Rieff told Farrar, Straus & Giroux historian Boris Kachka. The Menil family, Houston philanthropists, paid for some of the treatment. "Roger was having none of it," Rieff insisted. When Sontag recovered, Straus put her on the publisher's health plan.

Even with help, Sontag had to work hard to pay her medical expenses. She found the perfect way to deal with her stress—working on _Illness as Metaphor_. When she typed the words "death," "agony," "cancer," she laughed and said, "I've won." She wrote in a sort of controlled rage. The demon of recovery had dispossessed the demon of disease—which had undone those she had seen succumb irrationally to the mystery of their maladies.
17

RECOVERY

1976–77

In the spring of 1976, Sigrid Nunez, a twenty-five-year-old writer and Columbia University MFA, went to work for Susan Sontag. During Sontag's illness, correspondence had piled up, and she wanted an assistant who could take down dictated replies. They worked in Sontag's austere, "blindingly bright" Riverside Drive apartment at 106th Street. In an interview, Nunez set the scene:

That part of the city was seedier and much less safe than it is today, and everyone complained about it being a wasteland. If you wanted to go to a good restaurant, you had to leave the neighborhood. There were no decent Chinese restaurants, which is why we went all the way to Chinatown. You couldn't get a good cup of coffee or tea anywhere. The nearest gourmet market was Zabar's, 25 blocks away. Luckily, they delivered.

Sontag's apartment was kept intentionally devoid of decoration and clutter so as not to distract her from writing—an unsuccessful ploy most of the time, because Sontag craved company and went out almost every day to see films and attend other cultural events. Although chemotherapy had thinned her thick black hair, and her sallow complexion made her look older than her actual age (forty-three), Nunez did not at first realize that her employer was ill, let alone recovering from a cancer that was supposed to kill her. As Sontag regained her strength, her hair grew back in white-and-gray, and yet to Nunez the result made for a more youthful appearance. And Sontag's energy remained phenomenal. She went out almost every night.

Work on the correspondence dragged on because of the constantly ringing telephone, which Sontag never tired of answering. Nunez waited, often for long periods, as her employer chatted. Sontag was aware of how the calls distracted her. "I will tell people not to call in the morning, or not answer the phone," she noted in her diary. She loved to gossip, especially with Roger Straus, who called nearly every day. In her diary for February 20, 1977 she wrote, "I will have lunch only with Roger."

When not involved with Straus, Sontag turned to her other cynosure, David, who lived with her. Like her mother, Sontag did not like to think of herself as a mother, but rather as David's older sister—although almost in the same breath she would brag about what a good mother she was, much better than her own mother, the only measuring stick Sontag cared to use for her own maternity. Mildred Sontag showed up once, looking, in Nunez's words, "like an aged flapper—like an old Louise Brooks. Red lipstick, and long read fingernails, wearing rings," and maybe even using a cigarette holder, Nunez thought. Perhaps not, but the details fit into Nunez's picture of Susan's mother and also into Sontag's own depictions of Mildred, who always thought of herself as young and not a mother at all—much like Sontag herself, although she loved to say, "I'm not like my mother." In at least one respect this assessment was true. Mildred had not supported her daughter through college, whereas David, attending Princeton, not only had all the money he needed, he could afford to rent a room there even though most of the time he remained at Riverside Drive.

David abetted Sontag's sisterly regime by calling her "Susan," never "Mother." As Nunez reports, Susan and David went through many periods of estrangement and tension, but mother and son continued to live together. Not long after Nunez began working for her, Sontag had set up David and Sigrid as lovers and co-occupants of the Riverside Drive apartment. Nunez was aware of the rumors that the arrangement was a ménage à trois, but she never knew whether Sontag was aware of the dishing about her. Eventually it became clear to Nunez that Sontag would never willingly part with David. When Nunez left Sontag's employ and her apartment two years later, a friend told her about those who had looked upon the arrangement with horror.

Nunez herself says little about her own feelings, except to report that Sontag became her mentor, a generous, if often hectoring guide to the publishing world. Certainly there were aspects of Sontag that would have intrigued an ambitious young woman. To live with Susan Sontag was an education in itself. You had to know the right people, Sontag told her. Talent—even genius—was not enough. And for a young woman, Sontag's devotion to literature was inspiring: "My enduring image of her fits exactly that of a student, a fanatical one: staying up all night, surrounded by piles of books and papers, speeding, chain-smoking, reading, taking notes, pounding the typewriter, driven, competitive. She would write an A-plus essay. She would go to the head of the class." And the apartment Nunez describes, with its paperbacks arranged on cheap pine boards, is straight out of graduate school.

To be around Susan Sontag could be not only fun, but also a sensual experience. She liked to be physical with people. She attributed her displays of affection to her Jewishness, the aspect of her that Camille Paglia liked. And while Sontag could be hypercritical, she could also be extravagantly flattering, praising a friend "while he or she stood by beaming or blushing." She liked to hear your story; "She didn't always have to be the center of attention," Nunez notes. And no matter how busy Sontag might claim to be, there was always time for a long conversation.

Sontag never worried about what it meant to be feminine. She ridiculed women who went about carrying purses. Men didn't do that. Just wear clothes with pockets, she advised. She did not wear makeup, although she did dye her hair black while keeping the white streak that was her iconic signature. She also wore men's cologne, _Dior Homme_. She was unembarrassed about her mastectomy and would show the scar to anyone (male or female) who was curious. She called it an "erasure." She worried about her weight, and she was overweight for much of the time that Nunez spent with her.

Although Sontag has often been described as a snob, Nunez insists this was not so, not exactly; any snobbery Sontag exhibited had to do with intelligence. You had to be smart to keep Sontag's attention—although even here there were exceptions. If you were beautiful, smarts did not matter. And Sontag did not mind exposing her own early ignorance. When María Irene Fornés came to the Riverside Drive apartment, Sontag said to her, "Tell Sigrid what I was like when you met me. Go on, go on." Fornés said, "She was an idiot." Convulsed with laughter, Sontag finally managed to say, "The point I was trying to make is that there's hope for you, too."

When Nicole Stéphane visited Riverside Drive, Nunez observed the older woman taking a maternal interest in Sontag, shopping for her food, for example. Left to herself, Sontag would simply open a can of Campbell's cream of tomato soup. Stéphane was easily irritated, and "at least once a day she broke into tears or exploded in rage, or both." Although Nunez does not say as much, Sontag was attracted to such divas. In this case, however, Nunez realized the affair was "unraveling," albeit at a pace that would eventually allow the two women to remain friends. Sometimes when Sontag was without an intimate companion, she would confess to Nunez that the marriage to Philip Rieff had its attractions: He followed her everywhere, and they never ran out of topics of conversation.

During the summer of 1976, Sontag stayed in Paris with Stéphane, to whom her next book, _On Photography_ (1977), would be dedicated. Sontag still felt fragile and worried about any illness that might weaken her constitution. Joseph Chaikin seemed particularly sensitive to the Susan Sontag who had made an edifice of herself: "You have constructed over a long period of time an exemplary public person whose responses have the highest blend of compassion and outrage. It is an authentic and beautiful construction, but very out of sync with the backstage persona, from my perspective." She promised her "love very easily and very often." And yet he sometimes felt abandoned and "deluded about our friendship. It's only me who carries you inside." A few months later, though, he seemed to blame himself for their momentary estrangement, perhaps occasioned by his heart problems. Whatever complaints he had, he did not want to hurt her, and he attributed his qualms to the "other side to closeness—the vulnerability and criticism that accompanies." At the deepest level he loved her.

Sontag changed few of her habits. She still smoked, and she continued to write her first laborious drafts stretched out in bed before sitting in a wooden chair to type later drafts. Sontag was rewriting her _New York Review of Books_ essays on photography, which began appearing in 1973. She recast the separate pieces as a continuous, overlapping, back-and-forth dialogue with herself about the nature of photography. She was right in thinking that nothing like this treatment of the subject had ever been published. Of course, Sontag had drawn on books by photographers, and she paid homage to critics such as Walter Benjamin and John Berger, but her precursors, she maintained, had not provided the extended meditation that she had essayed—especially not from the perspective of a thinker who was not a photographer and who insisted, in fact, on approaching photography not as a practitioner, but as a critic and consumer.

Part history, part philosophical speculation, part disguised autobiography, _On Photography_ is a towering achievement, an essay with the nuances of a novel. The book begins with a grand flourish, the kind of authoritative sweeping up of history that makes Sontag so quotable: "Humankind lingers unregenerately in Plato's cave, still reveling, its age-old habit, in mere images of the truth." Here is the Puritan's call to reform, the epicure's attraction to pure pleasure, and the philosopher's quest for truth existing in the tension that makes Sontag at her best so provocative, possessed of a voice that simply cannot be ignored.

For Sontag, the impulse to write about photography dated from the Museum of Modern Art's (MOMA) big retrospective of Diane Arbus in December 1972. Arbus had taken a melancholy, tender two-shot of Susan and David for _Esquire_ , and Sontag had visited her studio. But Sontag had not previously seen the range of Arbus's photographs shown in the retrospective, and like many of the attendees, she was "knocked out" by them. To Sontag, the show represented a "watershed in the consciousness of photography." The power of the images was such that day after day spectators lined up for blocks on 53rd street to get into the exhibition. No photography show had ever attracted that kind of attendance, with the possible exception, Sontag thought, of Edward Steichen's _Family of Man_ in 1955 (also at MOMA). Steichen's leadership of MOMA's department of photography had fostered the contemporary craving for camera art, but _Family of Man_ —the "quintessential group show" in Sontag's estimation—had been organized around an "acceptable... that is innocuous theme," celebrating the human togetherness ballyhooed by the press during its worldwide tour. The Arbus show, on the other hand, featured the "eccentric and strong personal vision" of an artist known mostly to those who took a special interest in photography. That tens of thousands would come to see the work of just one photographer fundamentally changed the audience for photography, in Sontag's view. Suddenly the camera's peculiar possibilities, as filtered through a unique intelligence, were given a primacy previously unacknowledged by museums and the world of art.

Sontag kept returning to the Arbus show to watch the audience, to eavesdrop on what other viewers said. She discovered that, like herself, many of these people were repeaters, who had come back again and again to view Arbus's images. A few months later, Sontag had lunch with Barbara Epstein, co-editor of the _New York Review of Books_ , and recommended the show to her: "It's not just a body of work, it's an amazing cultural event." Epstein said, "Why don't you write about it?" Sontag said, "Oh, I don't have anything to say." Persistent, Epstein got Sontag started writing what seemed then, to Sontag, a very difficult assignment: explaining its unusual reception while doing justice to the show itself. It seemed in necessary, first, to make some "speculative remarks" about photography before attempting to gauge the significance of the Arbus show. A few paragraphs is what Sontag had in mind. To her surprise, she wrote more than five thousand words about the phenomenon of photography and how it had been disseminated in the culture. How was it that photography had come to be taken as a particular form of knowledge? What was it that people believed they knew through photography? Why had the medium so captured the public imagination? These questions began to open up the subject of photography in ways that Sontag had not envisioned.

In a call to Barbara Epstein, Sontag explained that it now seemed as though she had a two-part article: a prolegomenon, followed by an account of the Arbus show. Epstein approved, and Sontag turned in the first part. But then there were just a few more thoughts that seemed essential to the piece. Each paragraph began to turn into an essay in itself that would take between six and nine months to complete. The photography book took shape over the course of nearly five years, a protracted composition, which, in part, accounts for its lapidary style; each idea in the book is a gem, which has been repeatedly cut and polished. No book of Sontag's has shone with more facets than _On Photography_ , a fact that has irritated some reviewers and readers who like a straightforward style, and rejuvenated others who rejoice in viewing the same ideas from different angles. _On Photography_ is a difficult masterpiece, conscious of itself, of its image—so to speak—and as such, it is the perfect representation of its image-conscious author. _On Photography_ is also a tour de force that advances opinions that need not find acceptance; one could object to virtually every statement in the book and still find oneself mesmerized by Sontag's profound inquiry into the issues that make photography itself endlessly fascinating.

The subject seemed so full that Sontag realized, "To write about photography is nothing less than to write about the world." Consideration of photography led to a discussion of what it means to be modern, to explore the nature of consciousness and the nexus between knowing and acting. She could not possibly do justice to all the issues _On Photography_ raised, and she had a sense that it would be possible to continue writing the book forever. She did stop, though, when she concluded that she had produced an original work. She was buoyed by the knowledge that she could make a contribution to the literature on photography in a way that was not possible with regard to other arts that had already attracted a considerable body of theoretical and speculative work.

More than any of Sontag's other essays, _On Photography_ is about the tension between opposing ideas, about the negative capability that Keats described. It is about the dialectic that Hegel identified, in which ideas turn into their opposites; in which one idea taken to its extreme contradicts itself; in which there is always a search for a synthesis of conflicting ideas. _On Photography_ explores the very process of idea making, the tension of cerebration. Sontag reinforces her dialectical point by including a final section, an anthology of quotations delivered in homage to Walter Benjamin, who aspired to produce a book that would be composed entirely of quotations, a fitting tribute to the divergences inherent in any argument.

From her first sentence, Sontag makes clear that image making is a form of deceit. She reminds us of Plato's dictum that the artist is a liar. If photography requires special censure, that is because it has been taken to be so real, a piece of the true cross, as Sontag put it to her Detroit Institute of Arts audience. If she is hard on humankind for accepting the photograph as a verity, her chastening is directed at herself as well. Few have reveled more in pictures, or become more absorbed in the life of picture-makers—from Peter Hujar to Robert Mapplethorpe to Annie Leibovitz—than Sontag. Yet for Sontag, photography is problematic because it negates narrative. Photographs freeze time. They convey the illusion that we can stop history and encompass the world "as an anthology of images." Collecting photographs is tantamount to collecting the world. She says as much in the first sentence of her second paragraph, promoting an imperialistic, aggrandizing notion that she will explore in the life of that consummate collector, the Cavaliere in _The Volcano Lover_. Photography—more than any other art—speaks to the human desire to acquire, to take command of the world, to exercise dominion over it. The first edition jacket of _On Photography_ has no author photograph, and the same is true for the first edition of _Illness as Metaphor_ ; it is as if this time Sontag did not want her image to be confused with her work.

After the first essay in _On Photography_ , which presents a précis of the book and delivers its rebuke to the image-besotted world, Sontag juxtaposes Whitman and Arbus in the second essay, "America, Seen Through Photographs Darkly." The title evokes St. Paul and Taubes's teaching of the Gnostic idea that truth is esoteric. Truth is not to be had by just anyone—and certainly not through a collection of photographs. Whereas Whitman wanted to say yes to American culture, to embrace it in all its variety, Arbus's photographs say no—that much of America cannot be absorbed so easily. Sontag favors Arbus as a segue to surrealism, which emphasizes the grotesque and the radical juxtaposition of inassimilable elements. Photographs provide an illusion that any two elements can appear next to each other, and the effect is surrealistic. For Sontag, America is the "quintessential Surrealist country." Although she rejects "cut-rate pessimism" and a facile view of America as a "freak show, a wasteland," she can offer no vision other than Arbus's. Unlike the strident anti-Americanism she exhibited earlier, here Sontag favors the more neutral tones of the cultural observer, noting that the "American partiality to myths of redemption and damnation remains one of the most energizing, most seductive aspects of our national culture."

Sontag's third essay, "Melancholy Objects," pursues her surrealist line, arguing that photography turns the world into found objects, souvenirs of a life that is always escaping. Photography emphasizes found objects because this is a world of loss, of death, of grief, of melancholy over mortality—which is, certainly, Sontag's own mourning.

The fourth essay, "The Heroism of Vision," is a contrapuntal movement intended to show how photographers have tried to capture a fleeting world, transforming it into an article of consumption. This argument is extended in the fifth essay, "Photographic Evangels," to photographers themselves, who have made aggrandizing but contradictory claims for their art, emphasizing on the one hand its objectivity (its direct connection to reality), and on the other its subjectivity (the skill, the guiding hand and focus of the photographer/artist). Sontag deftly juxtaposes the conflicting views of the photographer as projector and as recorder, effacing or magnifying his art.

In the fifth and final essay, "The Image World," she returns to Plato and others who have tried to wean us from our addiction to images. Plato's fear is that images of this world will blind humankind to eternal truths. The image, the photograph, is too available, too widespread, proves too democratic a notion for Sontag, even as she concedes its narcissistic uses. Her sentences rock back and forth, imitating the counter-indications of photography: "Cameras are the antidote and the disease, a means of appropriating reality and a means of making it obsolete." She worries that photography has "de-Platonized our understanding of reality, making it less and less plausible to reflect upon our experience according to the distinction between images and things, between copies and originals." Sontag ends _On Photography_ with a call for recovery, for a therapy that will somehow bridge the gap between life and art: "If there can be a better way for the real world to include the one of images, it will require an ecology not only of real things but of images as well."
18

THE SALONISTES

1977–85

The November 1977 publication of _On Photography_ created a sensation. Roger Straus liked the book's "controversial and interesting" reviews. After an initial printing of twelve thousand copies, Farrar, Straus & Giroux had gone back to press for another three thousand. Then two small book clubs took orders, and Straus approved a printing of another sixty-five hundred copies. Ready to okay a fourth printing, an ebullient Straus declared that the book was beginning to perform like a bestseller. At that time, when there were more independent publishers and bookstores, and when books like Sontag's got more review space, serious nonfiction was a success if it began to generate sales in five figures soon after publication. Straus juiced sales with an early January ad campaign timed to coincide with Sontag's return from Paris.

On January 19, 1978, _On Photography_ won the National Book Critics Circle Award for criticism. Novelist Philip K. Dick wrote to congratulate her. He had first written to her in 1975, and then responded to her reply: "Thank you, lovely lady. I saw a picture of you once, a publicity still to go with a book of yours, and I thought, There sure are pretty writers in the world now. You are the kind of author who intimidates me, and this letter was difficult for me to write because of that."

The day before winning her prize, Sontag delivered to her publisher _Illness as Metaphor_ , a revision of articles that had boosted the circulation of the _New York Review of Books_. Four days later, Straus made what he grandly called a "command decision," postponing the publication of Sontag's story collection, _I, etcetera_ , from spring or summer to November 1978 in order to create space for _Illness as Metaphor_ , scheduled to be released in late June. Suddenly he had enough Sontag product to do some strategic planning, and he obviously relished her deployment. By the end of January, he had 37,500 copies of _On Photography_ in print, with another five thousand on order. The book had made the _Washington Post_ bestseller list. And Sontag had agreed to make publicity appearances and sit for interviews until April, when she would return to Paris. On February 5, Straus sold paperback rights to Dell for $49,500.

Perhaps Sontag's promotional efforts and the instant renown of _On Photography_ prompted Jackie Onassis, then a book editor, to ask Sontag if she would blurb Diana Vreeland's new book of fashion photographs, the product of an "original eye," with photographs of Maria Callas and Elsa Maxwell that seemed "pure Fellini." Onassis wanted to do "everything I can to make it a success for her. She is a gallant figure to whom I am devoted—(and it is a great book!)" Even though Onassis signed her letter, "Affectionately, Jackie," Sontag never answered Onassis, instead delegating Roger Straus to write to "Dear Mrs. Onassis," informing her that Sontag had a "standing rule not to comment on any 'picture book.' This of course has to do with her book, ON PHOTOGRAPHY, and I am sure, and she is sure, that you will understand." Understand what? As Alice Kaplan remarks, "It is difficult to read this exchange and not despise Sontag for ignoring Jacqueline Onassis's fine-grained and personal support of Diana Vreeland's unusual collection.... All was reduced to a 'picture book.'" The incensed Kaplan concludes, "The same person who couldn't be bothered to respond to Onassis directly, saved for her archives an invitation from Onassis to a cocktail party at her Fifth Avenue apartment, with a hand-scrawled note at the bottom: 'Susan, do stay for supper, Jackie.' Only someone who had struggled so hard not to appease would have to make a show of turning so far in the other direction."

The flurry of activity in the late 1970s and early 1980s, surrounding publication of _I, etcetera_ (1978), _Under the Sign of Saturn_ (1980), and _A Susan Sontag Reader_ (1982) heightened the literary eminence Sontag had held since the late 1960s. With _On Photography_ and _Illness as Metaphor_ , she had produced works that remain fixtures in the college curriculum and the American canon—and even in medical literature. Nothing else Sontag has written is quite so straightforward as _Illness as Metaphor_ , a clean book, a cleansing read, free of the kinks that irritate some readers of _On Photography_. Like all of her best essays and books, _Illness as Metaphor_ begins with a powerful, resonant first sentence: "Illness is the night-side of life, a more onerous citizenship." More than any other subject Sontag essayed, illness is a phenomenon that engages every reader. The word conspicuously absent from her first paragraph is disease, even though her book is mainly about tuberculosis and cancer. Occasionally readers misremember her book title, calling it "Disease as Metaphor." But it is part of Sontag's cunning that she avoids using that word until the third page. We all become ill; we do not all become diseased—at least that is not how many of us would wish to put it. Physical illness—the term Sontag uses on her first page—affects us all. Even the healthy dread illness, "the night-side of life," and remember what it is like, even for a day, suddenly to be removed from their place in the world by an illness. In other words, Sontag crafts an opening that manages to speak as swiftly and directly to all readers as illness itself does.

The ending of her first sentence is arresting. Citizenship? Well, yes, it makes sense when in her second sentence she speaks of the "kingdom of the well" and the "kingdom of the sick." The term citizenship suggests both rights and responsibilities. There is a nobility in the word—so different from the British term "subject." There should be nothing abject about feeling ill, even if one is cut off from the kingdom of the healthy. Since Sontag's point is that our metaphorical use of language demeans the ill, her own prose has to exemplify—straightaway—a therapeutic linguistic comportment.

Sontag first presents the history of diseases like tuberculosis, which in the nineteenth century were thought to be connected with certain kinds of artistic and sensitive personalities. When scientists discovered the true, physical cause of the disease and developed an effective treatment, psychological explanations disappeared. So it will be with the many different manifestations of cancer, she contends.

_Illness as Metaphor_ is also a work of literary criticism in that Sontag attacks writers, including herself, who have used cancer as a metaphor. To call the white race the cancer of history is to demean people who have real diseases and to use language not to reveal reality but to distort it. Such metaphors, Sontag notes, further neither an understanding of cancer nor of the issues to which cancer is compared. Thus she cautions against using disease to define personality. To suppose that a certain personality type is susceptible to cancer or other diseases, is to take away from the individual his or her ability to fight that disease. Sontag is against fatalistic interpretations and believes that with most diseases people can intelligently use medical advice to ameliorate, if not always cure their illnesses. Sontag acknowledges that people cannot do without metaphor. Metaphors are a staple of language, and they establish human identity. But to use metaphors without understanding their consequences can actually inhibit rather than extend the individual's control over his or her life. Sontag is no more against metaphor, per se, than she is against interpretation.

The unadorned logic of Sontag's essay seduces most readers. Of course, reviewers took issue with her. What was Susan Sontag good for if not to start an argument? In the _New Republic_ (July 8 and 15, 1978) reviewer Edwin J. Kennedy Jr. wrote:], "Susan Sontag is a combative person who feels more intensely alive when she is against something, or things in general." Like many reviewers, Kennedy wondered why, if the etiology of cancer was not yet understood, it could not have multiple causes that included the psychological. Why would the "actual dynamics" of tuberculosis and cancer be eventually proven to be the same? In her "noble desire" to alleviate psychological trauma, Sontag had opted for a "heroically clear and strong" view. In _Commentary_ (October 1978), Dan Jacobson criticized Sontag for refusing to impute anything but a physical meaning to disease, while making "far-reaching diagnoses about the moral and psychological conditions of society as a whole on the basis of her partial readings of the most dubious or ambiguous symptoms." She took her saturation in literature as a warrant to give voice to what society as a whole thought of tuberculosis, for example. Literature was only one measure of society, and certainly not a scientific one. "Intellectual boldness should not be confused with intellectual self-indulgence. Miss Sontag seems to have some trouble in telling them apart," Jacobson sternly concluded. In _Soundings_ (Spring 1989), Albert Howard Carter argued that just as it is impossible to purge language itself of metaphor, it is futile to root out metaphor from discussions of disease. Sontag could no more ban metaphor than Plato could successfully ban poets from his ideal republic. In sum, her book was the product of utopian thinking.

But what if Sontag had qualified her argument as her critics advised? In _Partisan Review_ (Summer 1979) Peter Brooks, while expressing reservations about her arguments, nonetheless noted that pinning down Sontag's prose with the baggage of second thoughts would deprive her of "polemical vigor." She clearly did not want a thicker, denser argument. She had succumbed to her "ethical sensibility" rather than to her job as cultural critic, Brooks concluded. Sontag wanted to change people minds—not just to give those minds a workout. In 1992, the Women's National Book Association listed _Illness as Metaphor_ as one of the seventy-five books by "women whose words have changed the world." Sontag's short book was really a polemical pamphlet. As Maggie Scarf put it in _Psychology Today_ (July 1978), "I have obviously stopped to take exception, to argue, to quarrel with some of her points. But I found her book unfailingly exciting, like nothing else on the subject I have ever read." Writers move people. With this book, Susan Sontag saved lives.

But of course Sontag's polemic invited a rebuttal, such as writer-surgeon Richard Selzer's unpublished brief against her interpretation of illness in both her cancer and AIDS books. "One sees what she means," he begins disarmingly. Metaphor in the hands of moralists has stigmatized diseases like cancer and AIDS. But it is "human nature" to think in terms of metaphors, he insists. "If not metaphorically, then how else are we to think of our dying selves?" Similarly, scientists and doctors have to think in terms of military metaphors when dealing with these diseases. "The immune system is, after all, the defense of the body. The word defense implies an attacker." And the "history of medicine and the history of war have always been bound closely together." Just think of the example of Florence Nightingale, Selzer notes. He deplores the "clotted prose of the polemicist. A writer who uses the world culpabilize (twice) ought to have her word-processor washed out with soap. The persistent angry tone of the book, its roundhouse punches at capitalism, all serve to weaken the text." Selzer contests her implication that a socialist society—less materialistic than a capitalist one—where the "social conscience is more highly developed... would not be inclined to think of a war against AIDS. Where, one wonders, is the socialist state in our times that has shown such high-mindedness?"

Selzer, however, deals only with Sontag's argument, not with her biographical imperative. Illness had driven her to re-examine the sources of her own thinking, of how she had used metaphor and how she had interpreted her own life. During her illness she had also begun to reappraise her politics, although her enmity toward capitalism would never subside. In the summer 1978 issue of the French journal _Tel Quel_ , she adverted to a Western tendency to "'excuse' what is happening in the East." And then she admitted, "It's the intellectuals themselves who, in order not to lose hope, refuse to recognize the truth." She concludes, "I was also guilty in that regard." She and her cohort had all too willingly swallowed a line: "We believed things, coming from the East, that we wouldn't have believed for a second in our own countries." Why? It had to do with the "shame at being a bourgeois intellectual." Guilt made intellectuals condemn their own society and seek a better, more just, more equal world in the Soviet Union. It was time to stop blaming bourgeois society for being so adept at absorbing dissent. Intellectuals should face it: They are part of the ruling class. They should do the hard work of campaigning for "real issues" like health and justice. The idea of revolutionary projects (such as those she had endorsed in Cuba and North Vietnam) was now passé. You could not change everything; when you tried, you were forced to "oppress." Sontag counseled against cynicism; there was still political work to do. She even wanted to remain a Marxist—whatever that meant. Her consistent references to the contradictions of capitalism and its exploitative aspects never wavered.

The shift in Sontag's political thinking came as a result of the influx into the West of Eastern European dissidents. They were distinguished intellectuals who simply could not be ignored. Even old-line Stalinists like Lillian Hellman had to acknowledge that the game was up. For Sontag, the key figure was Joseph Brodsky, who set her straight when she complained, for example, about Solzhenitsyn's "reactionary" politics: "Think what you want of him on the political level, but what he testified to, what he describes, those are facts."

Sontag and Brodsky became friends in the mid-1970s, a few years after the Soviet Union expelled him as a social parasite. When asked his profession at his trial, Brodsky answered "poet." On whose authority did Brodsky call himself a poet? the judge wanted to know. On whose authority had he been included in the human race? Brodsky responded. Uncompromising, Brodsky had spent eighteen months in a Soviet labor camp, chopping wood, breaking stones, and shoveling shit. But W. H. Auden and other distinguished writers campaigned publically against Brodsky's imprisonment, and eventually his captors released him. He was passionately grateful to America, which gave him a home, as well as teaching positions at the University of Michigan, Columbia University, and other colleges.

Both Brodsky and Sontag were great stoics, capable of absorbing immense suffering without complaint. Sontag liked to mention Brodsky's claim that he had enjoyed his internal exile and farm work. It was honest work, and all of Russia was "mired in shit" anyway. The two writers' obsessive personalities were expressed in their smoking. Brodsky would not quit, even after heart disease and surgery mandated that he do so. It was not worth getting up in the morning, he said, if he could not light up. Sontag proved just as compulsive. She did try to quit, but more often she was unapologetic about her habit—even when her French physician told her to stop. She did try to behave herself for a few months, but it was smoking that got her through _On Photography_. One of her friends declared that if Sontag did not stop smoking, she would no longer see her. But denying herself the pleasure of smoking and feeling Puritanical about it only made Sontag crave cigarettes more.

Hardly a timid person himself, Brodsky could nonetheless be startled by Sontag's boldness and tenacity. During the Venice Biennale on Dissent (1977), Sontag invited Brodsky to join her on a visit to Olga Rudge, companion of the great modernist poet Ezra Pound during his last years of exile in Italy. Sontag explained that she really did not want to go alone. Brodsky agreed to accompany Sontag and encountered in Rudge a powerful personality, one who confidently explained why she did not think that Pound was really a fascist. Naturally, Brodsky had his own ideas, but in the presence of this persuasive talker, he let down his guard and entered into the spirit of her defense, feeling, for the moment, quite willing to forgive Pound. Matters seemed wrapped up until Sontag suddenly said, "Don't think that Americans were so dismayed by Pound because of his radio broadcasts, Olga. Had it only been a matter of radio broadcasts, he would just have been one more Tokyo Rose." Brodsky later said he "nearly fell out of my chair!" He could not believe that Sontag had compared a "major eminence to Tokyo Rose!" (Sontag knew that Brodsky had—in her words—an "exalted, exacting sense of the poet's authority.") Rudge took the Sontag salvo well, only asking, "So then what did Americans find so repugnant in Ezra?" Sontag said, "Well, it's quite simple. It was Ezra's anti-Semitism." Of course, this set Rudge off on another effort at exculpation. After all, he had a Jewish first name and never tried to hide it, she pointed out. What impressed Brodsky was Sontag's wish to start the conversation all over again. No one had more persistence than Susan; no one was less likely to let a difficult issue alone.

Susan Sontag could not do without Joseph Brodsky. He did far more for her than re-orient her politics. He was a fellow Jew, and he spoke to Sontag's sense of exile and her desire to wander. Brodsky was no more a religious Jew than Sontag was, but both, in Yoram Kaniuk's view, possessed an uneasy sense of place. As Sontag wrote in a tribute to Brodsky, he was the type of the modern artist who lived, mentally, "in two places at once." She had in mind Van Gogh's letter to his brother Theo about painting in the South of France while writing that he felt he was "really" in Japan. Sontag had spent most of her life living in one place and dreaming of another. In 1979, she still had a sense of claustrophobia in Manhattan, even though the ocean was down at the end of the street. She had never been comfortable in America. She preferred, she told a French journal, "ma condition d'Americaine avec une grande distance." For his part, Brodsky resisted all calls to visit his native Leningrad, even after the collapse of the Soviet Union. He remembered everything, he said, but he did not want to return to Russia any more than Joyce wanted to resume life in Dublin.

This acute sense of displacement drives writers like Joyce, Brodsky, and Sontag to make a life out of literature, and to find physical places that at least approximate their idea of a literary kingdom. For years it had been Paris for Sontag: "Pour moi, c'etait le symbole de l'intensité de la vie et de la pensée." Even in New York, she could not find the all-encompassing engagement in the life of the mind she experienced in Paris. People lived such private lives in New York that when together they seemed only able to exchange banalities, she complained. But now her Paris idyll was nearing an end, and she could not think of a single great writer under fifty, she told her _Nouvel Observateur_ interviewer: "La culture française actuelle est presque nulle." Even French cinema now seemed moribund to her. Perhaps it deserved its moment of repose, she considered, but she had to move on.

Sontag's tie to Brodsky and her sense of acting on a world stage created a strain on some of her older friendships, such as those with Joseph Chaikin and Paul Thek. Although she would remain friends with Thek, beginning in the late 1970s a decidedly retrospective tone pervades his letters to her: "I don't know what I was, a blind cave fish, etc., you brought me so much." Sounding like Sontag's other disillusioned conquests, Thek continues, "I was in your spell, it was awful, a tonguetied boy, over reaching.... The Bitch Goddess herself you were, and you said 'Sybil,' I needed some learning.... You really rearranged my head, where is it now? Dissolved and gone." And yet, like Chaikin, Thek could not let go: "I wanted to say, Hello Sister Susan, somewhere! I bring you with me always...." Thek's ambivalence had much to do with Sontag's forsaking Bohemia for the attractions of divadom.

In the spring of 1978, Thek and Sontag had a blowup, occasioned by David Rieff's departure from Sontag's Riverside Drive apartment. Thek, at full throttle, let her have it:

I do not _choose_ to walk into your endless fray. Very boring... in that weekend of the move you changed your image in my mind; a change from an image of a generous very human, tender person to an image of a manipulative harridan frightened out of her mind that her son (at long last) wanted his own life, and it seemed you became willing to use all manner of very unpleasant maneuvers to force people into the positions required, with little respect or understanding of their own private needs, or where they were coming from.... Your emotional situation regarding the establishment of the Sontag dynasty in Amer. letters (with poor David's cooperation) seemed desperate, ludicrous, even _greedy..._ Did it ever occur to you to be _patient_ with people?... It may not seem so to you but your behavior towards me over many years now has been rather sharp, condescending... to say the least. Sometimes, oddly, and with no apparent rhyme or reason that I could manage to understand, you would become warm and friendly, open, and then again as mysteriously... superdyke.... Let's not fool ourselves, you're not that great a prize really, I mean, neither of us is that great a prize anymore that we can afford that type of emotional draining, emotional carrying on.

Like Alfred Chester, Thek had his own torments. He ended his letter by proposing marriage and a "nice Jewish dairy meal"—and asking Sontag for money. The meal seemed his answer to her charge that he was anti-Semitic, to which he had responded that he was "anti _everything_ ," adding, "Aren't you?" Their correspondence would continue for another decade.

Aligned to Brodsky, Sontag shifted the center of her intellectual world from Paris to New York. Left wing political and literary romance—the Sartre/Beauvoir years—had played itself out. French influence would end with thinkers such as Roland Barthes, and the next generation would interest her hardly at all—though she read its books in order to remain au courant. She would bring the best of France to New York. She would create a kind of salon. She already had her power base at Farrar, Straus & Giroux, but she needed a vehicle and a venue, some place to perch that was without the permanent academic ties she considered stifling.

She found her berth and an ally in the sociologist Richard Sennett, just then establishing himself at New York University with the mission of forming an institute for the humanities. Sennett had come to NYU from Harvard in the mid-1970s. No one had a clear idea, then, of exactly what an institute for the humanities might do, but the notion was to bring the various intellectual, artistic, and academic worlds of New York City together. New to New York and shaped by the academic setting of Cambridge, Sennett looked to close friends like the writer Donald Barthelme, then teaching at City College, to make contacts and forge connections with "town and gown," as the institute's five-year report put it. Barthelme introduced Sennett to Sontag, who had taught at City College and made friends there with Barthelme and his colleague, novelist Frederic Tuten. Intrigued with the idea of an institute, Sontag asked Sennett to call her when he got funding and was prepared to plan a program.

In 1977, the institute's first year, Sontag, already a fellow, introduced Sennett to the nonacademic, intellectual side of New York. The first person she brought along was Joseph Brodsky. The two writers worked together and used the institute as a way of creating a literary community—ignoring a good part of other institute interests, such as the seminars in urban studies. The institute reached out to European culture. When Roland Barthes came to America, he made the institute his first stop. German and Middle European thinkers visited often. Sennett watched Sontag reconstitute her life abroad in New York.

Many of the Europeans who have since come to dominate American intellectual culture were unknown at the time. Brodsky brought in many exiles and dissidents. Derek Walcott, a Caribbean poet and later a Nobel laureate, joined the institute, where he became enamored of Sontag and Brodsky. He had been trying to write hit plays for many years, and he reveled in the culture of intellectual celebrity. Indeed, these three exiles in Manhattan, all Farrar, Straus and Giroux authors, became an institution of their own, carrying on a conversation that largely excluded others.

In the fall of 1980, Brodsky and Walcott jointly taught a weekly poetry course at New York University. In a class of vocal New Yorkers, one woman—with a striking white streak in her hair and usually in the front row—dominated discussions. Most classes consisted of her conversations with Brodsky. Annoyed, the students wondered why Brodsky put up with this intrusive woman. She was obviously very taken with herself, and Brodsky treated her respectfully. Picking up a copy of the _Village Voice_ , one student saw Sontag's picture and realized that the course had in effect been a Brodsky-Sontag performance. Walcott said little. At the final exam, only six students showed up; the others had come only to watch Brodsky and Sontag go at it.

People would come to lecture at the institute and remain for a few weeks in a loose ebb and flow that suited nonacademics but unsettled some professors who lived by schedules. "They like to know that from 4 to 6:30 they are going to think," Sennett observed. When Sontag had an idea, she would organize something at the institute, such as a retrospective on Simone de Beauvoir that took place in September 1979. Dennis

Altman, a visiting Australian scholar, likened attendance at the institute to lunching with the _New York Review of Books_ (editor Robert Silvers was also a fellow). Altman witnessed "ferocious seminars" featuring Sontag, sitting with "legs splayed across the long seminar table, munching with gusto at sandwiches and ideas alike. At one point Susan took great offense at something I had said and turned on me in full force, itself a majestic if rather terrifying experience." But the outburst, Altman discovered, was a "rite of passage" that others had undergone. Sontag, he realized, could be terrifying or charming. You never knew which side of an issue she might come down on, the institute's associate director, Jocelyn Carlson, told a friend. It depended on Sontag's mood that day, and her unpredictability gave her tremendous power to intimidate and manipulate others. Late, at a dinner in Chinatown Sontag effortlessly forgave Altman's offense. She laid out her life to him, explaining what it meant to be a freelance intellectual and telling him about the "advantages of living, metaphorically, on the streets."

Not all the institute's parts fit together; it was not a shared community of values, but rather an anarchic congeries of communities, with Sontag spearheading one cohort. One group might contest the work of another. Why do we have to do that? Why this exhibition? Brodsky claimed architecture was a degraded art. Why entertain discussions of it at the institute? Whatever its shortcomings, the institute served Sontag's purpose of having an institutional connection free of the burden of routine or responsibility. And she could get the plane fare from the institute for Barthes or Borges to come to New York.

The institute was the main—but not the only—place where Sontag could try out ideas. In the late 1970s and early 1980s, she occasionally taught at the New School for Social Research. She was unwilling to share much with students, for example pontificating in one autobiography course on the development of the ego from Jean-Jacques Rousseau to Norman Mailer—the one led inevitably to the other, she thought. Novelist Edmund White, one of her closest friends during this period and an executive director of the institute, attended her New School seminar on Nietzsche and was shocked both at her lack of preparation and by such gushing asides as, "Isn't Nietzsche great?"

Nonetheless, Sontag was also "a very courageous person. She is an intellectual who stayed out of the academy. She's the last of that kind of non-affiliated thinker," Sennett noted. Something is lost, he contended, when intellectual work is bureaucratized into teaching. Whereas risk taking gives way to teachable thoughts, "Explaining things to postadolescents restricts the things you can explain." Even the independent Brodsky had academic commitments. But "She really held out," Sennett said, remembering a long talk with Lionel Trilling. "He felt a terrible sense of guilt that he hadn't followed that route of the free lance intellectual."

Sennett's heroizing of Sontag was too much for Norman F. Cantor, who read the first edition of this biography, then sent Sontag's biographers a letter full of corrections. As dean of the Faculty of Arts and Sciences at NYU, he came to regard the institute as a boondoggle that ran out of most of its original Exxon funding (bestowed in fall 1978) in three years, and afterwards became "for all practical purposes, a Friday lunch club" that included perhaps two dozen members: NYU faculty, the _New York Review of Books_ crowd, and other intellectuals and writers. "Enormous amounts of time and money were spent on devising menus for the Friday luncheons and talking with caterers. I saw the catering bills and they made me sick," Cantor wrote. But John C. Sawhill, NYU's president, told Cantor not to interfere. "You say that Sontag did not draw a stipend from the Institute," Cantor noted. "My memory is that she did, at $5000 a year. But I think the fiscal bounty to her was mainly the lavish overseas travel that the Institute paid for its faculty." Cantor believed Sontag turned against him when he vetoed her plan to make the institute "an underground railroad for disaffected intellectuals in Soviet countries who would be invited to be Visiting Fellows in the Institute." He suspected that Sennett, and perhaps Sontag and Robert Silvers, "played a shadowy role in my getting fired as Dean."

Cantor, a respected medieval scholar and an outspoken intellectual conservative, who died in 2004, would not have had much sympathy or even respect for Sontag's work, but his testimony is not at odds with with the kinds of demands she made on other institutions of higher learning that courted her presence. Not one to mince words, Cantor concluded that Sontag was a "phony, a schemer, and a crook." He resented the way the Institute for the Humanities became a family concern. Roger Straus served on the Board of Trustees and was a financial donor (1977–82). David Rieff had his own part to play, becoming general editor of _Humanities in Review_ , a journal of writing commissioned by the institute that would serve as a record of its noteworthy activity.

But in addition to Sontag cronies, the institute hosted writers like Edmund White. Born in 1940, he had grown up hero-worshipping Sontag. When starting out in New York in the 1960s, he wanted to meet two people: Paul Goodman and Susan Sontag. They were "transference figures" that he wanted to play a role in his life. Meeting Sontag and son at Richard Sennett's house fulfilled White's dreams, and Sontag reciprocated his respect and affection, writing a blurb for _A Boy's Own Story_ and recommending the book for an award he received in 1982 from the American Academy of Arts and Letters. This official recognition and support (the award came with a $7,500 check) served as a superb launch for his literary career.

In the age before AIDS, an openly gay writer rarely secured such highly visible advocates. Gay fiction as an "over the counter, consciously named" phenomenon dated back only to the late 1970s, White recalled. For Sontag, a closeted figure, to endorse White enthusiastically and openly, seemed like a big gesture, he thought. She re-read everything he had written, and White considered her blurb a very deliberate, calculated decision, treating _A Boy's Own Story_ as the culminating achievement of his early career. But when White later drew on her and David for characters in his novel _Caracole_ (1985), Sontag requested that her blurb be removed from all subsequent editions of his earlier book.

Treating Sontag as his patron, White hosted many parties for her at his apartment on Lafayette Street across from Joe Papp's Public Theater. White enjoyed introducing her to amusing people, such as writer Fran Leibowitz, who became a Sontag intimate. White remembered Leibowitz and Sontag making the gossip columns because Fran would take Susan to fashion shows, where she had never been seen before. Meanwhile, Rieff and White became close friends, with Rieff treating White like another of the gay "uncles"—a group that included painter Jasper Johns and poet Richard Howard—who watched over him as he grew up. Composer Ned Rorem, another gay uncle, had been a little uneasy during one of Sontag's visits to his apartment, when a pre-adolescent David sat next to his mother as Rorem taught her dirty French verbs. Rorem's memory of the boy David had been triggered, in fact, at one of White's parties, when one of Sontag's close friends, Stephen Koch, told Rorem that Sontag was in Europe. "Then what's she doing here?" Rorem asked, pointing out a figure in a "white jumpsuit, shoulder-length tresses of sombre hue, and a slouch." Koch replied, "That's not Susan, that's her son, David."

White observed a curious contradiction that other gay observers have also commented on. White said to Sontag, "If I ever wrote a book about you, I'd call it The Rabbi and the Dandy." Sontag wanted to know why. "Well, because there are two sides to your personality. If you are with people who are too dandified, then you become very rabbinical, and if you are with people who are too serious and moral, then you become very frivolous and dandified." Then he reminded her of her famous essay on camp, in which she expressed similarly divided feelings. Sontag liked this flattering analysis—except for White's use of the term rabbi. "I think you better call it The Priest and the Dandy," she said. Susan and David were strange about their Jewishness, White felt: "They seemed to know nothing about it, really. And to take almost no interest in it." David seemed to prefer dating anorexic WASP heiresses—if on occasion they were Jewish, they had to have money.

White's experience with Sontag was replicated by journalist Andrew Kopkind, who had accompanied Sontag to Hanoi. In the late 1970s, he took her on a tour of the gay disco scene. The junket was one of her flirtations with coming out. Kopkind and his lover, filmmaker Jack Scagliotti, watched with mounting irritation as Sontag played the scholar—never unbending, never just enjoying herself, but needing, always, to feel in control. The same was true of David, Scagliotti recalled.

It intrigued White that Sontag did not come out. Having lived in France for many years, White felt he understood the origins of her reticence. Even openly gay French writers rejected the label "gay writer." In the French universalist tradition, one is first and foremost a citizen, and to put any finer point on it is to sacrifice freedom. Of course, American writers have often rejected labels such as "black writer"—or, in William Faulkner's case, "regionalist" or "Southern writer." White remembered Sontag saying she could not bear the idea of being called a "woman writer," to say nothing of "lesbian writer" (the latter a term the two never discussed). Sontag wanted to know why White was willing to settle for something so "crummy" as the title "gay writer." When White gave a paper on Ronald Firbank at the institute, Sontag encouraged him to publish it, and he said that perhaps he would give it to the _Advocate_ , a gay publication. An astonished Sontag again wondered why White would be content with such a marginal publication. But White felt a political commitment to gay politics. He viewed Sontag as political, too, but wishing to remove herself as far as possible from the arena of identity politics, which she deemed provincial.

In the early 1980s White witnessed Sontag's efforts to reshape her politics. Incensed at books like Paul Hollander's _Political Pilgrims_ (1981), which excoriated Western intellectuals for their abject submission to the Soviet line, she was organizing a reply, she told conservative critic Hilton Kramer. Hollander's sin, in her view, was his lack of sympathy for those he criticized. In the _New Republic_ (July 28, 1986), David Rieff put his mother's view best, referring to the "love affair between successive generations of _bien pensant_ Western intellectuals and the revolutionary communist regimes that have come to power since the storming of the Winter Palace." Rieff called the love affair a "tragic," not a "pathetic" story, because it "entails a stubborn refusal to despair of that hope" of a better world. It was a noble story. "The decent feeling of mourning for a great human hope is what is missing from neoconservativism; though its anti-communism is correct, its way with ideas is coarse and vulgar when compared with the tradition it criticizes." For Rieff, anyone outside the tradition of fellow traveling had no standing, since they had never loved and lost.

Sontag outlined to White the case for a book she never wrote. Its title would have been something like "The Trip" or "The Voyage." She would provide a kind of guided tour to the pilgrimage Western intellectuals had made to the Soviet Union, to China, to other communist utopias. These visitors knew nothing about factories, Sontag explained to White, and now were being shown the modern triumphs of communism. They usually did not know the country's language; everything was filtered through interpreters. The intellectuals felt stunned by the unfamiliarity of the industrial landscape; they were determined to like everything. To Sontag, it seemed entirely forgivable, for example, that English Fabian socialists like Sidney and Beatrice Webb should come back to Britain with a favorable report on the Soviet Union even as Stalin's Moscow purge trials were underway. But her real heroes were Emma Goldman and André Gide—both true believers who had recanted.

"Susan had such a persuasive way of making you adopt her views," White recalled. "For instance, instead of saying in 1978, 'have you entirely broken with the Left,' she would say, 'When did you first become wise that the Left was a total cheat?' So you'd gulp, and you'd say, 'Oh, I guess when I read Mandelstam's _Hope against Hope_ [1970].' Then she'd say, 'Ah, I see, that late.'"

Sontag also wanted to rethink her idea of camp, she told White. She began exploring the role of the dandy, who wanted to telescope different levels of culture, making himself into the ultimate arbiter of the world. In our time, dandies are confused with gays, but she thought the concept of the dandy—dating back to at least the eighteenth century—did not necessarily have a homosexual component. When did the idea of the dandy and the homosexual come together? she wondered. But to explore such ideas by referring to her own sexuality threatened her, White thought, because she suspected this new approach would lessen her credibility and importance. At any rate, the new line on camp never got very far.

Sontag wanted to prevent a reference to her sexuality from getting in the way of seducing her readers—and "Susan could be a very seductive person," White said. After his break with her over _Caracole_ , he was visited by Marina Warner, an attractive British writer who told White, "You're completely wrong about Susan. She is simply enchanting. We had a wonderful time. You've just had a bad experience." White responded,

Okay, I'll describe to you your day with Susan Sontag. She invited you to a Chinese restaurant, told you everything to order, paid the bill, then walked around the Village with you, went into three or four different bookshops, was outraged that you didn't know certain titles, bought them for you, insisting you read them. She talked about her unhappiness and her love life. She asked you about yours. She confided other womanly things about her breast cancer.

Warner's jaw dropped. "This is the day one spends with Susan," White noted. "It is always the same day. It is always the same kind of rapid cycle of intimacy. And she knows how to lay it on."

Writer Philippe Sollers, one of the founders of the influential French journal _Tel Quel_ , echoed White's account of Sontag's seductiveness. In his novel, _Women_ , Sollers presents a jaundiced view of Sontag's egotism, calling her a writer named Helen, "one of the system's real stars," a part of New York's "official, organized homosexual countersociety." Coming from a Paris with no closeted homosexual literary scene, Sollers skewers what he sees as Sontag's self-importance and her predatory, insincere intimacies. As Helen, she greets the narrator of his novel with a "pleasant smile in which I easily discern intense hostility." Helen tells him her life story and describes her love affairs, concentrating on Jane (Irene Fornés) and explaining how hard it was to "become just good friends again." Helen presses her collected works on her French visitor, telling him that since he is in New York on vacation, he will have time to read them "thoroughly," after which they will be able to talk to each other "intelligently." Making his escape, the narrator throws all ten kilos of Helen's collected works into the Hudson River.

White speculated that Sontag learned how to perform her charm offensives from Richard Howard, who was always picking up the check and buying _recherché_ titles for his companions. To watch the erudite Howard work a large table of writers at a dinner in Manhattan was to learn from a political master. In _Caracole_ , White portrays Howard as Mateo, who put on a "high-culture hustle." White said, "Both Susan and Richard are those kind of old fashioned intellectuals who know everything and think you should know everything." It is a "wonderful, admirable trait."

Yet Sontag in person could prove unimpressive. White never regarded Sontag's conversation—even in seminars—as particularly enlightening. She had no ready wit or cleverness. She did not think on her feet especially well. She prized humor, but White saw little of it in her, even though she criticized others for humorlessness. She thought herself easily capable of a French kind of frivolousness and lightness ( _legerete française_ ). But her idea of a joke might be to say, "Oh, Roland Barthes, he was so egotistical that when he'd see me coming across the room and he hadn't seen me in a few years, he would say, 'Susan, toujours fidèle.'" She once told White, "You know my essays are much more intelligent than I am. Do you know why? It's because I rewrite them so many times, and slowly, slowly, I nudge them up the hill from my natural state of medium intelligence to a high state of intelligence."

Becoming famous at an early age shaped her personality. It was very strange to go with her to movies. People in line would look back over their shoulders at her and buzz—though New Yorkers, true to form, rarely went up to her. It was like going about with royalty to public places—and, of course, she knew it. "By and large, she handled it well," although she did like to throw her weight around capriciously, abusing people she saw as boring or stupid or not talented enough. "The sad end of it all," White confessed, came when he moved to Paris and began writing _Caracole_. "It was a bit like the worm turning," he admitted. "I had been too obliging to Susan—more than I really wanted to be. If there was part of me that was sort of cringing and servile to her, there was another part of me that was taking revenge against her, I suppose."

By the early 1980s, Sontag seemed cross with White, suspecting he was no longer a disciple. He believed the trouble stemmed from his review in the _New York Times Book Review_ of a Roland Barthes book, _The Empire of Signs_ , and of _A Barthes Reader_ , which Sontag had edited. White realized that she regarded her introductions as important work, but he did not like her take on Barthes, which made Barthes out to be too much of a dandy. White preferred Gérard Genette, who had written much more convincingly about Barthes, although White praised both Sontag and Barthes's translator, Richard Howard—"[B]ut not enough to satisfy either of them," White recalled ruefully. Both phoned to express their displeasure. Susan said, "How could you talk about Girard Genette? He's nothing, he's nothing! He is nobody, and I've written this great essay. How could you not have given it more attention?" White replied, "Well, I think people know about our friendship, and I think it would have looked almost too servile to have gone on about how great it was. But I don't agree with you. I think Genette is brilliant." Finally, at a concert in Paris, Sontag said, "You knew I was here, and you could have made an effort to get in touch with me, and you didn't." White said, "I didn't know where you were staying. You could have found me." They parted, feeling mutually aggrieved.

When literary friends and allies part—as in the case of Paul Theroux and V. S. Naipaul—a memoir or novel is often the result. _Caracole_ became White's "recap of my New York Life, with the Chat Box becoming a version of the Institute." The main character, Mateo, White said, was based both on himself and on Richard Howard—although Howard took the character to be exclusively a send-up of himself. White regarded the character as "self-satirical but not particularly unflattering to anybody." Howard evidently took his revenge by sending out messages asking that White's novel not be reviewed (White saw one Howard letter on a bulletin board at a the offices of a gay newspaper in Boston). Richard Sennett also became a character in the novel, but he took the characterization in stride, saying only, with a laugh, that it was "wicked."

In White's _Caracole_ , Sontag is Mathilda, a _monstre sacré_ who "presented herself as a withdrawn, morose intellectual," but who actually had an active social life and an "infallible sense of theater." Although White does not make Mathilda, an opera devotee, into a lesbian, she is undeniably giving a gay performance. He captures the Sontag for whom role-playing is identity-making. Such roles are a style, a way of becoming a self, manifestations of an evolving sensibility. Mathilda is an operatic Sontag: "She was such a literary creature that most of her experience had been lived through characters in books or on stage, tragic vivid beings whose strong emotions she'd avoided out of fear of plagiarism." Mathilda, like Sontag, plays the aesthete among moralists and the moralist among aesthetes. The moralist sulked; the aesthete partied.

In Mathilda, White embodies Sontag's wonderful sense of timing and manipulation of her audience, her imperious aura:

Of politics and poetry and God

She spoke; of love and food, then gave a nod

To riddles apt to tease, torment, perplex,

To sex, philology and the best pets

For laps, the hunt, fun, fur, profit. And then

She paused, rhetorically, to gasp for air

Before she braved death, deficits, the law,

The press, free trade, lace cuffs, the cooked, the raw.

The last line, with its amusing allusion to anthropologist Levi-Straus's book, _The Raw and the Cooked_ , suggests just what an appetizing stew Sontag could make of her far-flung interests.

Sontag's voraciousness would seem to indicate incredible energy and confidence. But like White's Mathilda, she has to dare herself to act, overcoming fits of morbidity (the state Sontag said she was in while writing her famous essay on camp). What pulls her through is her innate sense of drama, and what White terms the "brute fact of an entrance or a speech, now rather than sooner or later."

White said that in creating Mathilda he had in mind both Sontag and writer Madame de Staël, Napoleon's arch opponent—the conflation constituting a considerable compliment to Sontag. Both women traded on her reputation as a "rebel against the state." But he was also exposing self-promotion: "In pictures she [Mathilda] was always shown as tall, composed, head held regally, her face irradiated by those intelligent, unsympathetic eyes."

Daniel (David) looks like Mathilda's brother, whom Mathilda speaks of as "the darling," as though he were her pet. Daniel loves his mother and loves to malign her, saying she had "less insight into herself than anyone else he knew." Mother and son quarrel fiercely but present a united front to the world. Like a lioness and her cub, Mathilda and David relish the kill—the sport of turning on their company and demolishing their arguments, devouring "bloody sacrifices" heaped on the "altar of their love." (Here White was forecasting his own fate.) Even Mateo is constrained to protest "how many ways" Mathilda was "being insulting." Daniel bridles at Mathilda's constant references to him as her son, while at the same time promoting his connection to her. Although dressed like a dandy and behaving like an intellectual, Daniel, like his mother, has his eye on the marketplace and the main chance. She uses him to "test the waters of new salons," to take up new follies, and to squire her about. She prefers his company and treats her female admirers shabbily, even as they take her contemptuous behavior as a sign of her integrity. She entertains one woman in her universe, and that is herself, yet she does not want anyone to say her power has anything to do with being female.

But Mathilda is also a spent force: "[S]he no longer had a politics (not even an aesthetics) of innovation." Still, she craves power and position. She attends events out of a "historian's curiosity." A connoisseur, she grills strangers until she discovers and extracts their expertise on music, restaurants—whatever comes to hand. She is always on to the next thing. There is no towline to the past, and discussions of family life bore her. She wanders her apartment, alone, frozen, at a loss when she is not involved in a controversy and does not have the public's attention. Her salvation comes from picking up a book in her huge library and getting lost in it—or in writing a new book. For "in spite of her celebrity, she was deeply unsure of herself and felt obliged to know everything." She had to dare herself to action. Otherwise, she would subside, vegetate, stew, become melancholy, worry. Scandal was better for her metabolism. She changes friends and travels often.

Rumor had it that Sontag threatened to sue White. Novelist David Leavitt had Sontag in mind when he observed, "[W]riters who are famous advocates of freedom of expression are the first ones to pounce, the first ones to sue, the first ones to scream when something is written about them." (Leavitt himself had been sued by Stephen Spender, who objected to Leavitt's use of Spender's autobiography in a novel.) Leavitt continued, edging toward the moment when he would name Sontag: "Often writers are incredible hypocrites when the tables are turned and the writer who would go to bat for his or her own freedom of expression has no qualms whatsoever about trying to quash in one way or another someone else's." When Cynthia Ozick asked Leavitt to be specific, Leavitt reported the gossip that Sontag and "several other writers on whom characters" in _Caracole_ were based tried to stop the book from being reviewed and tried to stop bookstores from stocking it. Leavitt added, "I was kind of shocked, not because I didn't understand their anger but because they had elected to express it by trying to stop the book from being known."

Rumor also had it that White had to make changes to appease Sontag and son. White says he never heard from David or Susan "directly." However, Bill Whitehead, White's editor at Dutton, gave a masked ball to celebrate publication of _Caracole_ —an event in the spirit of the book itself—and David Rieff tried to crash the party. According to Whitehead, Rieff had a bullwhip with him. Dressed like a Regency rake, he announced he had arrived to give White a thrashing. But he never made it past the bouncers.

White felt that Sontag and Rieff would not have been so upset about _Caracole_ if they had not received advance word from a writer who had seen the manuscript and who, though sworn to secrecy, immediately told them about it, suggesting it was a negative portrait of mother and son. White thinks Mathilda's combination of passion and intelligence makes her a great character. He regretted the estrangement the novel caused. He wished Sontag had taken the portrait as a tribute to her epic, operatic personality, and he added, "I just hope I don't come out in your book as someone who hates her." He found her endearing and maddening and "really rather piggy." He had this image of her as a Roman emperor picking her teeth waiting for the crowds to amuse her. She had the rude manners of a monarch. But he missed her. He mentioned her name favorably in print several times after _Caracole_ appeared. He wished they could have been friends again. But they never spoke. "It is impossible," he sighed. Richard Avedon once said to White, "Fame is like a valley. Once you get to the other side of it, and you're very famous, you can never be less famous." "We're all there," White concluded.
19

_I, ETCETERA_

1978–79

_I, etcetera_ , the first book of fiction by Susan Sontag to appear in more than a decade, was a major publishing event. Writing to Peter Mayer at Penguin in the spring of 1979, Roger Straus crowed about the volume's "spectacular" sales, approaching twenty thousand copies. The Sontag persona, 1960s style, re-emerged on _I, etcetera's_ back cover cloaked in black sweater, pants, and boots, and lounging in a window niche. In the background, the foliage of Central Park and the surrounding apartment towers are just visible in the shadowy grey of the black-and-white photograph. Tom Victor had shot one of the quintessential Sontag poses. Then in her mid-forties, she looked very youthful, her right leg bent, with her right boot firmly placed on her perch, projecting her right knee vigorously upward while her left leg dangles, not quite touching the floor. Sontag is half reclining, her upper torso canted so that her left arm is planted on a pile of books and papers, while her left hand grasps her right, which crosses her midsection diagonally, the fingers of her right hand meeting the surface of the niche and spread out like a tripod that is on the same line as her right boot. It is her most intricately put together "I"—with all the etcetera very carefully choreographed. She appears to be thin, though her face is beginning to show the first hint of the fuller, heavier jawline line that will emerge in the next few years. Grey filaments grace the hair on each side of her part, a subtle version of the streak that first appeared in the early 1970s. In the 1980s, the streak would become more pronounced—not through nature, but through art. After her hair fell out in the course of chemotherapy, it had grown back with heavy grey flecks; dye jobs restored the patterned streaking that made Susan Sontag feel more like Susan Sontag.

Max Beerbohm believed that all artists and writers, including himself, strove to "make an effect" of themselves. One painter who was also a writer, the litigious and capricious James McNeil Whistler, captured Beerbohm's attention because he cunningly fashioned himself into a striking visual object. An American aesthete and dandy living abroad, much of the time in Paris, Whistler was combative and controversial, with a "strange lock of white hair," notes biographer N. John Hall. Beerbohm called it a sort of "white plume." In Beerbohm's caricatures of this artist, the white plume sticks out of Whistler's top hat like a lance. It is a weapon of personality, and also a mark of honor. In the Victor photograph, Sontag sits in her aerie at the peak of her power, the grey strands her mark of distinction, self-awarded.

Although there had been commentary about the stylization of Sontag's book jackets—and of course much discussion of her as a writer who both set and followed intellectual fashions—no interviewer (at least not one on the record) had yet asked her about her image-making—about what might be called the Beerbohm effect. However, Paul Brennan, in a _London Magazine_ interview (April/May 1979), came dangerously close: "Looking back on your fifteen years of writing do you feel satisfied with the way you have been treated by publishers, reviewers and readers? If you were to manage yourself again in the same market would you do it any differently?" Sontag bridled: "You always use these words that come from a realm of discourse that is so alien to me. I don't manage myself. I don't think of myself as being in a market. These are the ways people are talked about in the world of media and of the consumer survey. That is a language which doesn't do anything for me." Brennan "felt accused.... Yes, yes, I had been vulgarizing the writer's role." The published interview ended shortly thereafter.

What had Brennan done? He had overstepped the bounds Sontag imposed on interviews, which most interviewers respected without questioning her right to impose them. Many interviewers, like portrait photographers, believe their role to be confined to presenting their subjects in the best available light. They feel privileged to gain access to the likes of Susan Sontag. Farrar, Straus & Giroux had carefully screened Brennan. He had been allowed no direct contact with Sontag before the interview. This was one of the most tightly controlled situations he had encountered. But during this period, Sontag had Roger Straus suppress an interview Suzanne Gordon had conducted on behalf of _Vogue_ , a magazine friendly to Sontag and one that had published her articles. Sontag insisted she had prior approval—that is, that she could censor anything she disliked in the interview, but Gordon, through her agent, Georges Borchardt, disputed this claim.

On French television, near the end of 1979, Jean-Louis Servan-Schreiber had another go at the Sontag persona:

SERVAN-SCHREIBER. As for yourself, I have a feeling that, when we read articles about you, whether they're written in the United States or in France, finally what you say holds people's attention, but the fact that it's accompanied by your personal looks and not someone else's counts in the impression that people get. Isn't that something that seems evident in your experience?
SONTAG. I never think about that. I can't tell you really.

End of discussion.

Interviewer Peter York found Sontag testy, contemptuous of his vulgar, journalistic questions. She denied him the company of a photographer. But she became amicable when they hit on a topic of mutual interest. Sontag had run this game before, sparring in the early rounds, feeling out her interlocutor, testing for strengths and weaknesses. This gambit was not reserved for journalists alone. Edmund White saw her use it dozens of times with anyone new she met.

Of course, Sontag was hardly alone among prominent public figures who are careful about the way they appear in print. And she was certainly not unique in wanting to dominate interviews. She understood that the nature of the questions could distort the impression she conveyed. But her assertion that she had not ever considered how her "market," her "image," and her physical attractiveness had shaped her career seems disingenuous or self-deceiving. But career was a dirty word, as Sigrid Nunez learned in her conversations with Sontag.

Sontag faced an apparently insoluble problem. If she acknowledged the power of her beauty, she feared she would not be taken seriously. Yet she was taken seriously, in part, precisely because of her striking presence and her ability to court the public glance. Virtually everyone interviewed for this biography prefaced his or her remarks with some comment about Sontag's handsomeness. She transformed the image of the female intellectual from tweeds and flats to one of flowing scarves and high black boots. Her hip, sexy, and fashionable aura enticed both men and women—whether or not they had read her work.

In private, Sontag proved less guarded, complaining to one of her friends that "as a beautiful woman" she constantly had to deflect obsession with her appearance. She knew the power of her looks, and she knew how to use it, but she also recognized the danger of relying on her image to promote her work, an image that had the potential to injure her standing as one of the century's leading intellectuals. To a remarkable degree, she managed to maintain this delicate balance of beauty and brains. And she did so—as in the Servan-Schreiber interview—by compartmentalizing her life, separating herself from her public performance. Rather than deal with the substance of questions about her public persona, she simply dismissed them. She enjoyed a luxury accorded few in public life. What politician—or indeed movie star—could afford to be so high-handed? And yet, Sontag's assumption of superiority often enhanced her mystique. In every sense of the term, she became the dark lady of American letters.

_I, etcetera_ is all about the composing of selves. Miss Flatface in "American Spirits" jettisons her Ozzie and Harriet family for a life of prostitution and pornography, egged on by the spirits of American self-promoters like Benjamin Franklin and Tom Paine. The narrator of "The Dummy," bored with his bourgeois existence, finds a double, a second self to lead his routine life so that the narrator can absent himself from societal conventions. The anonymous narrator of "Old Complaints Revisited" wishes she (he?) could separate from the group (never named) that claims the self's allegiance. Like the book's title, Miss Flatface wants to deny a fixed identity, saying, "Nor am I I." These characters, like the Sontag interviewers quizzed about her beliefs, refuse to be bound by their own statements or by the record of their actions. The past can always be shed—though Sontag's most powerful stories, such as "Debriefing," expose with considerable irony, grief, and even humor the inability to transcend one's past. In that sense, _I, etcetera_ is a species of auto-criticism, giving the lie to the self-contained author's jacket photograph. As reviewer Benjamin Taylor put it, Sontag's volume of short fiction demonstrated the "impossibility of autonomous selfhood." Yet the quest for independence is indefatigable. "In Sontag's work the self is always a will," Taylor notes. Sontag's stories have a hip, modernist fairy tale twist that is part Donald Barthelme (think of _Snow White_ ), and part Alfred Chester at his raunchiest. In Chester's _The Exquisite Corpse_ , for example, characters' bodies are constantly invaded and sealed—stuffed with tampons and sewn up. Miss Flatface enjoys reading scandal papers screaming with headlines: "My In-Laws Drove Four Nails into My Skull." Her Prince Charming is named Mr. Obscenity.

_I, etcetera_ received respectful, guarded reviews. Writing in the _New Republic_ (November 25, 1978), novelist Anne Tyler produced a representative evaluation: " _I, etcetera_ is not always an easy book to read; it's not always a rewarding book, even. But it does possess its own kind of spirit and nerve, and it takes some magnificent chances." Tyler suggested Sontag had not been critical enough of her own fiction: "Even the freest internal voice, listened to with the utmost lack of criticism, must in the final step be screened for readability." Tyler never used the word solipsistic, but it seems to fit her reading of Sontag's fiction. Still, the sheer variety of fictional forms and points of view in _I, etcetera_ is impressive—from the autobiographical "Project for a Trip to China" and "Debriefing"; to the sexually ambiguous narrator of "Old Complaints Revisited"; to the collective voice of the parents in "Baby"; to "Dr. Jekyll," a rewriting of Stevenson's classic tale. Sontag's last story, "Unguided Tour," sums up her own restless quest and those of her characters, traveling to see the world, to find themselves, to stave off the death, doom, and melancholy that the young Susan had found so compelling in Poe. _I, etcetera_ ends with the thoughts of a writer resisting her black mood: "The end of the world. This is not the end of the world."

Quite another Susan Sontag spoke at the University of Hawaii on May 8, 1979, on her way back from a three-week lecture tour in Japan. Genially, she responded well to her introduction, which presented her as "someone on whom nothing is lost." She read "The Dummy" and "Unguided Tour" and took questions for a good half hour. She was gracious—even sending a charming thank you note to Mark Wilson, Chair of the University of Hawaii English department in Honolulu. Wilson had made the arrangements, and he recalled her visit with great pleasure, commenting especially on her direct style and courteous manners.

Sontag had visited her mother and stepfather, who had moved to Honolulu from California in the early 1970s. Nat Sontag had an advertising business. Wilson remembers speaking with him on the phone. Nat was proud of Susan, telling Wilson about her huge library of books, and adding, "She's read every one of them." And then her friends! Nat was impressed, and spoke of her life as something far removed from his own. His stepdaughter's success gratified him. On her Hawaii visits, Sontag always seemed relaxed. In the summer of 1977, for example, she visited her parents and talked to Cobey Black, then a _Honolulu Star-Bulletin_ journalist, who described "a down-to-earth beauty, tousled and dark as a gypsy," who showed up barefoot and wearing blue jeans after a swim.

After the flurry of interviews and traveling to promote _I, etcetera_ , Sontag headed for Italy. In the late summer of 1979, she went into six weeks of rehearsals for Pirandello's play, _As You Desire Me_ (1931), which she would direct as a modern feminist parable with operatic overtones. The play starred Adriana Asti as "The Strange Lady," a woman whose identity is contested by a writer, Carl Salter, and by her family. These parties claim she is the lost Cia, who was abducted and apparently raped and assaulted during the war, and who has been absent from her home (a villa near Udine) for ten years. What was done to Cia is purposely left vague. It has made her, so to say, strange, the very embodiment of the uncentered selves that people _I, etcetera_.

The personal, professional, and political reasons behind Sontag's decision to direct _As You Desire Me_ are manifold. She told Edmund White that Asti, who had played Francesca, the female pivot between Bauer and Tomas in _Duet for Cannibals_ , was the "love of her life." As Sontag described her to White, the actress was alternately passionate and inaccessible, and White inferred that Sontag had chosen to direct the play to please Asti. Asti played a femme fatale, "a woman whom everyone wants to possess," Sontag said.

In performance, Sontag decided to give the play, in reviewer Alan Bullock's words, a "ferocement feminist" interpretation. Leonardo Sciascia, a Pirandello expert, seconded her approach, noting that ten years earlier he would have said the "central problem" in _As You Desire Me_ "was one of identity. Today it seems to me that the problem is about women's identity." Sontag wanted to emphasize the world of desires that had cut a woman loose from her home—or from a sense of home that grounds her reality. To Sontag, _As You Desire Me_ was a play about "desperation, about the desperation of a particular woman." By making her interpretation so biographical, Sontag was, it seems, autobiographically acting out of her own volatile, restless quest.

Bullock disliked Sontag's direction, faulting her "crude dramatic effects" and her "indulgent theatricality reminiscent of Victorian melodrama." He also disapproved of the way Sontag shifted attention away from the self-destructive Salter to Cia, who became a more sexually ambiguous figure. No better were Asti's "posturings and cavortings," or her solipsistic "fixed contemplation of her image in the symbolic mirror at the front of the stage." But it seemed to Sontag that Pirandello had written a denouement she would choose for herself: the Strange Lady decides to return to Berlin with Salter, the writer, and to create a life for herself as a dancer. At the time, Sontag was also attracted to the dancer Lucinda Childs, who shared some of Asti's alluring inaccessibility. "I'm a beautiful catatonic," Childs told Edmund White, who empathized with Sontag's feeling for dance and the female form, a subject she would explore with increasing intensity in the next decade.
20

A WANDERING JEW

1980

In the spring of 1980, Susan Sontag joined a group of writers, including Joyce Carol Oates and John Ashbery, for a tour of Eastern Europe sponsored by the United States Information Agency. Her first impression: The smell of coal reminded her of England in the 1950s. Sontag performed flawlessly in a literary conference at Jadwisin, outside of Warsaw. Oates has captured Sontag in her story "My Warszawa: 1980," in which "formidable Judith Horne, enviable, much-photographed... striking to the eye, aggressively casual," with a "slightly Slavic?" face, "olive-dark skin... clean of makeup" addresses her Polish audience in a voice that is "clear and dauntless as a bell."

Sontag relished her time in Poland, telling one interviewer about her family's Polish roots: "I must admit I had not given it much thought before, but once I am here I realized that I could have actually been a Pole, living in Poland." She called herself a "wandering Jew whose grandparents came to America from Poland," adding, "[a]nd then I wander all over the world...." Professor James McClintock of Michigan State University, who served on a panel with Sontag at Jadwisin, remembered hoping he would not be humiliated by her. He was sure she would hate what he had to say about contemporary fiction. But to the contrary, "[S]he was extraordinarily welcoming and good humored. She appeared to be having the time of her life and was genuinely touched by Polish hospitality. She seemed surprised by the liveliness of Polish intellectuals in general, students in particular. That's all I remember—she was beaming; I was relieved." Bernard Rodgers Jr., a Fulbright fellow teaching in Lublin, also remembered a gracious and friendly Sontag, who confided in him her conclusion that "the whole system is bankrupt, isn't it?" To Carl Rollyson and Lisa Paddock, teaching in Gdansk, she seemed to be enjoying herself immensely.

After Poland, Oates would dine in New York with Sontag and her son, sealing their sisterhood. But they were certainly sisters with a difference: "You must see in Roger Straus a very different person from the man I've met, upon two occasions now," Oates wrote to Sontag. "Unless I'm missing some subtlety in Roger, I can't grasp why he feels it necessary to tell me, whenever we meet, how well his books are doing.... At such dispiriting moments one sees how frankly publishing is a business, and businesses are always pushing products, and products are always stupendous!" Oates had learned firsthand about the selling of Susan Sontag.

The level of both intellectual discussion and flirtation in Poland was high, and Sontag's curiosity, her skepticism, and even her blunt questions (all of which Oates records in her story) were met with panache by a fair number of Poles. In 1980, the Polish intellectual appetite for visiting Americans was insatiable. Americans represented power, news from abroad, and a network of connections, which Sontag epitomized. The cliché applies: She was in her element. If Poland brought out Sontag's sunny side, it did so because—more than any other Eastern Europeans—the Poles pursued Americans with affection and enthusiasm. Jaroslav Anders, her friend, guide, and Polish translator asked her earnestly, "Don't you think America is the only hope of the world?"

Sontag and Oates visited Poland less than six months before the first Solidarity strikes, and Oates's story carries with it a sense of foreboding. Anyone in Poland then could have sensed an impending eruption. The approach of a historical turning point made Poland exhilarating. Pope John Paul II's trip to Poland the previous summer had sparked yearning that had to find expression in some kind of definitive event, and Sontag, hovering over the action, came close to witnessing it. She did witness Poland's darker side, on display in anti-Semitism and dreary Stalinist architecture, all of which Oates records in her story. She records as well Horne's sense of vulnerability, her identification with Jewish victimhood in a solidly Catholic country, and the overwhelming sense of history that shocks an American: "And in our country, Judith thinks, history is something that happened only a few weeks ago—or didn't happen." Sontag's interviews after her trip to Poland signal a major shift in her thinking, which indicated the need to treat the aesthetic/moral debate of her criticism in a broader historical context.

Five months later, John Leonard, reviewing _Under the Sign of Saturn_ for the _New York Times_ (October 13, 1980), discovered a Susan Sontag "better acquainted with love and irony. Compared to _Against Interpretation_ and _Styles of Radical Will_ , the new book seemed less _au courant_ and more attracted to the idea of 'historical perspective.'" Similarly, Leo Braudy in the _New Republic_ (November 29, 1980) announced that Sontag "finds the aesthetic pose to be colored with self-indulgence and edged with fascism." He accounted for the change, in part, by noting that she had become a part of the critical establishment. In the _Village Voice_ (October 15–21, 1980), Walter Kendrick went even farther, calling Sontag an "eminent Victorian." Although considered a swinger, she was always examining modernism as though it were a new phenomenon, as if she were coming at it from the nineteenth century, employing a calm, rational, classical style. Even when writing about pornography and other perversions, she never used argot. Estranged from contemporary concerns, she took refuge in a "transcultural isolation." Sontag was really an "elitist," Kendrick argued, for she had written about "enthusiasms of her own clique in the correct expectation that what her friends had already embraced the general public would eventually latch onto." _Under the Sign of Saturn_ revealed a retreat from engagement with popular culture. Her retreat, Kendrick supposed, might just be that of a coterie intellectual: "She's been hanging out too much at _The New York Review_ and hence has grown a bit skittish." Kendrick compared _Under the Sign of Saturn_ to Samuel Johnson's _Lives of the Poets_. Sontag had wrought old-fashioned literary portraits. She resembled, he concluded, that Victorian cultural arbiter, Matthew Arnold, one of the bêtes noir of _Against Interpretation_.

_Under The Sign of Saturn_ has a nostalgic, old-fashioned air about it, no doubt. In _Telos_ (Summer 1981), David Craven called it a hackneyed effort to revive the "tired Renaissance conceit" of the melancholy artist, explored by Rudolf and Margot Wittkower in _Born Under Saturn_ (1963). Although he did not invoke Arnold, Craven accused Sontag of an Arnoldian ploy, succumbing to a Victorian wish to tame the subjects she wrote about, to make them seem more mainstream. She transformed the radical Walter Benjamin into a liberal humanist, a Victorian eccentric of the kind that John Stuart Mill would have endorsed. Similarly, in the _New York Times Book Review_ (November 23, 1980), David Bromwich pointed out that Sontag's chapter on Artaud domesticated Gnosticism and made him "tamer than he sounds in his own words." But Frank Kermode, writing in the clubby _New York Review of Books_ , suggested that Sontag's "characteristic strength," as exhibited in the Artaud piece, was to "domesticate" her subject, to "make him useful, to make it possible for his work to be understood as other literature is understood."

In the interviews she gave in the wake of _Under the Sign of Saturn_ , Sontag suggested her book was a disguised autobiography. Every essay constituted a version of Susan Sontag. Whether it was Benjamin or Elias Canetti, she realized she had left out of her essays many aspects that made these writers different from her. She had fastened, in other words, on just those aspects of their lives and work that spoke directly to her own sensibility. What she said of them was true, but it was not the whole truth. As Kendrick suggested, she was using the essay form to be creative and critical. To Sontag, at any rate, the criticism that she had not done full justice to her subjects was beside the point.

The title essay on Benjamin, "Under the Sign of Saturn," which is placed at the center of her book, is Sontag's apologia pro vita sua. As she says with regard to Benjamin, "One cannot use the life to interpret the work. But one can use the work to interpret the life." The first four paragraphs dwell on photographs of the writer. Unwilling to comment on her own iconic charms, she nevertheless exposes how important the writer's likeness is to her. Benjamin's self-composure fascinates her, for it is an avatar of her own.

Benjamin, already a genius in childhood, has the "longing to be superior—on one's own terms." He sees himself as a text, a project that is always under construction. He drops friends "brutally," he shamelessly flatters people, and treats others not on his level contemptuously, so that he is "faithless to people." He is a collector and a book hunter with a shrewd tactical sense. She even makes him out to be "against interpretation wherever it is obvious." He likes to allegorize reality because, like photographs, allegories miniaturize the world and are a form of controlling it. Because he is subject to melancholic fits, the will becomes a paramount subject. For him, as for all melancholics, the challenge is to become a "hero of will." Naturally, he jettisons family ties, which deplete the will. But the demands of maintaining the will are such that he finds it difficult to write anything other than essays, which follow the natural limits of the melancholic's intensive and exhaustive personality. Melancholics do not have staying power.

Virtually every sentence about Benjamin constitutes a Sontag self-portrait—including her remarks about the way his sentences read like both beginnings and endings. (The first sentence of _On Photography_ is both Sontag's conclusion and the premise she must explicate.) Sontag saves Benjamin's most appealing aspect for the end of her essay, concluding that he was a man of many postures: surrealist, aesthete, communist. "One position corrects another; he needed them all," she writes. The same is true of Sontag. Like him, she soldiered on, defending the autonomous life of the mind in a capitalist society busily making the freelance intellectual obsolete.

In the next essay, "Syberberg's Hitler," Sontag shows how the director's seven-hour epic treats Hitler as a much photographed and filmed figure—as a creation of the cinema. _Hitler: A Film From Germany_ is a mixed media creation, a grandiose Wagnerian epic of the kind that Sontag finds seductive. In "Syberberg's Hitler," she mourns the "lost paradise" of cinema, which she now believes to have fallen into a period of mediocrity. Syberberg's masterpiece is "noble," she emphasizes, and it asks for and compels our "fealty"—a curious choice of words that Sontag will use again in _Under the Sign of Saturn_ , revealing her almost medieval sense of mastery and discipleship.

Sontag treats Syberberg as an oppositional figure. Similarly, her next essay on Roland Barthes describes an immensely engaging man, who like Sontag herself resisted "received ideas"; who thought "an idea was always in competition with another idea"; who wrote with polemical vigor but also struck a celebratory note; and who was eager to share his intellectual passions and keen to attract an audience. Again, Sontag focuses on a thinker whose characteristic form is the essay—which he deployed with a creative, playful bent.

Sontag's concluding essay begins by observing that Elias Cannetti's tribute to fellow writer Hermann Broch "creates the terms of a succession." Finally, she has given the reader a clue: In _Under the Sign of Saturn_ she is identifying herself as the worthy successor of her heroes. Canetti's desire for longevity and his intellectual insatiability are, of course, her own. Like her, he desires "strong, even overpowering models." He is "extremely self-involved in a characteristically impersonal way." He fears not being "insolent or ambitious enough."

Sontag's reprise of Canetti's biography selects those details reminiscent of her own: a childhood full of displacements; a search for status in a world of exiles; cultivation of the self as polymath and collector; creator of a novel whose main character is driven to suicide by the "world in his head." Then there are Canetti's "acquisitive relations to knowledge and truth" and his "wistful, prudent fantasies of disburdenment." Although Sontag had experienced nothing like Canetti's close relationship with his mother, who became his "primal admirer" and "passionate merciless promoter," she replicates this mother/son bond with David. We are back in the world of _Caracole_ when Sontag notes that Canetti's mother's "policies of admiration created a tense world, defined by loyalties and betrayals."

Canetti offers Sontag something more than do her other allegorical figures of the self: an all-consuming fascination with power, which refuses to accept tragedy and death. What Canetti feels he owes to his formidable mentors is "fealty." There's that word again, evoking the master/disciple continuum of Sontag's life. But Canetti is the final surrogate in _Under the Sign of Saturn_ because he is, in Sontag's words, not just another "hero of the will." He is a survivor. In his masterpiece, _Crowds and Power_ (1960), he shows that power is not enough; neither is careerism or the accumulation of knowledge. One must take in the world—Sontag calls it breathing—which means to "go beyond avidity; to identify with something beyond achievement, beyond the gathering of power."

With these words, _Under the Sign of Saturn_ , ceases—as it must, since Sontag herself was still in process. Frank Kermode remarked at the end of his review that perhaps Sontag would, in time, heed Canetti's advice: "[L]earn to breathe, seek something beyond the gathering of power." Leo Braudy, a shrewd scholar of fame and power had his doubts. He set Sontag's debunking essays "Fascinating Fascism" and "Syberberg's Hitler" against her five tracts in hero worship:

In essence, I think it is difficult for Sontag to maintain an argument that attacks one side of Romantic individualism (that led to political megalomania) in order to accept another (that leads to artistic self-aggrandizement). I hardly want to equate the two myself: strutting artists do much less harm than strutting dictators. But the paradox of the grandly assertive work of art that attacks the grandly assertive gesture in the public world of politics is a delicate one indeed, and Sontag is unconvincing about the terms of the competition, perhaps because she is so caught up in it herself.
21

SUSAN THE APOSTATE

1982

The Town Hall event to support Solidarity, which martial law had banned in Poland, was to be like a Solidarity rally: It included not only writers and intellectuals, but also a singer on the left (Pete Seeger) and union representatives from PATCO (the air controllers President Reagan fired) and the UAW. Novelists Gore Vidal, E. L. Doctorow, and Kurt Vonnegut were there, and so was Joseph Brodsky. At Town Hall, a favorite venue for the Left, fifteen hundred people had assembled not only to support Solidarity, but also to condemn the Reagan administration, whose support for Solidarity in Poland could not be considered sincere, since it fired unionized workers and supported repression in El Salvador.

Sontag and Brodsky watched in disgust as speaker after speaker tried to equate the suffering in Poland with the plight of PATCO and US policy in El Salvador—the "typical therapy session of the Weltschmertz-ridden downtown left," as Brodsky later dismissed it in a letter to the _New Republic_ (May 26, 1982). Sontag carefully scripted her speech so that it began on a communal note of Reagan-bashing and the need to "distinguish ourselves from others in the chorus of virtuous indignation." By her third paragraph (no more than a few minutes into her speech), she began to suggest that this very effort to "distinguish ourselves" could "lead us into certain hypocrisies and untruths." Suddenly the air of self-congratulation constricted. Although Sontag included herself in the bill of indictment, she did not look at her audience, and she was no longer "with" her listeners. By paragraph four, she had baldly stated that the Left had told a lot of lies about communism. By paragraph six, communism itself had been denounced as "utter villainy." There were boos and catcalls—but also a few bravos (including one from D. Keith Mano, a regular contributor to the conservative weekly _National Review_ ). Sontag explained that she did not want to believe Czesław Miłosz's _The Captive Mind_ , when it was published in 1953, preferring to think of it as an "instrument of Cold War propaganda." But now she had reread it, and she thought that perhaps Miłosz had not been hard enough on communism.

At this point, Sontag's words took on a deeply familiar refrain, voiced in the accents of the apostate, of the former communist or fellow traveler. It was a form familiar to her audience—indeed, so familiar that E. L. Doctorow and Ralph Schoenman, the event's organizer, were perplexed. Why would Susan Sontag, born in 1933 and too young to have engaged in the debates of the 1930s, behave like an earlier generation of leftist apologizing for having been philo Soviet? Her "error" had been in thinking that societies like Cuba and North Vietnam would at last redeem communism, but she had never been a Stalinist. The older members of the audience were irritated because they had heard all this before. Not only was it old news, it was delivered by someone who had not herself been part of it. No one in Town Hall that night believed any longer in the Soviet utopia.

But according to Sontag's logic, communism was uniform. Communists in power, no matter where, became tyrants—or as she put it, fascists. Like many on the Left, she had thought she could make distinctions between Leninism and Stalinism, for example. Now she realized that the right-wing _Reader's Digest_ had been right, and the left-wing _Nation_ had been wrong. All communists were bad.

Sontag's public penance angered the audience, but it moved Joseph Brodsky, who gallantly defended her afterwards, praising her commitment to world literature and her writing about the "philosophy of perception and the way it evolves" ( _New Republic_ , May 26, 1982). And indeed, her speech is about how she and the Left looked at the world as devoted anti-fascists who could not bring themselves to admit that their antidote to fascism—communism—had itself become the disease. She even attacked the smugness of the Left: "We were so sure who our enemies were (among them, the professional anti-Communists) so sure who were the virtuous and who the benighted.... We thought we loved justice; many of us did. But we did not love the truth enough." Efforts to reform communism, like the Prague Spring of 1968, had failed. Communism was simply a variant of fascism, but with a "human face." She implied that in order to be sincerely in solidarity with Solidarity, the Left had to abandon its complacent view of itself as progressive and on the proper side. Its rhetoric over many decades had excused enormous crimes and had rationalized the very regimes that had crushed movements like Solidarity. To Isaiah Berlin, born in Russia and one of the great observers of communist revolutions, Sontag's recantation seemed sentimental. "I'm not so sure about the face," he told her.

With Town Hall in an uproar, Sontag got up and left. "Given the intellectual eating habits of her audience, it had been a brave endeavor. I felt both impressed and grateful," Mano commented. The attacks on Sontag were fierce and often contemptuous. It was said, for example, that she was merely parroting the line of the new philosophers in Paris, who had rejected Sartre and his support for Stalinism, and who had branded much of the French intelligentsia with collective guilt for having excused the Gulag and so much more about the Soviet Union and its Cold War satellites. She got a going over in the _Nation_ , which reprinted her speech and then gave several writers—some of them regular contributors—a shot at her. No one, it seemed, had ever believed in Soviet communism. Andrew Kopkind reminisced about his trip with Sontag to Hanoi a few months after Tet, 1968, and scorned her failure of nerve, of not sticking with North Vietnam, which was "proceeding (dialectically, dare I say the word?) in its development according to the forces and furies of the real world." Some of the nastiness that would rile Sontag came out in book editor Philip Pochoda's reference to her as a "minor celebrity" who had simplified the "enormously heterogeneous experience of Communism." Two Sontag friends, human rights advocate Aryeh Neier and Christopher Hitchens, were easy on her, generally welcoming her remarks without much cavil. Hitchens, who had in fact served as the go-between in setting up the _Nation_ symposium, praised Sontag for criticizing the Left's record on Stalinism, although he chided her for "ill-tempered and ahistorical remarks." Acknowledging her penchant for the polemical, he concluded, "Let us be charitable and assume that she was trying to galvanize an audience by deliberate exaggeration."

In a scornful reply in the _Nation_ , Sontag rejected Aryeh Neier's sanctimonious anti-communism. She dismissed Andrew Kopkind as a "noted disco expert of the 1970s." And what heterogeneous experience of communism did Pochoda et al. have in mind? Every country with a ruling communist party had become a tyranny, she emphasized. At her shrewdest, she dismissed those Lefties who believed that Solidarity had emerged as a product of a failed communist system, or that it would replace that system with a better communism. "What is brewing in Eastern Europe is not democratic socialism," she predicted. "We were wrong. It is the people who live in those countries who tell us that," she insisted.

Saying "thanks but no thanks," Sontag rejected Diana Trilling's welcome into "her new difficult life as an anti-Communist." As if to reinstate her leftist credentials, Sontag ended her _Nation_ reply by expressing her support for the "democratic movement in El Salvador, whose struggle to overthrow the tyranny backed by the American government I passionately support." Yet as Leon Wieseltier observed in _Partisan Review_ (Summer 1982), opposition parties in El Salvador ranged from reformist to revolutionary, but none seemed so pure or perfect as a "democratic movement." Sontag's comments revealed a person "innocent of the practice of politics. She is taking positions, that's all." Her words, Wieseltier implied, were those of the aesthete: "Politics is not pretty. Taking positions is." In the _Soho News_ (March 2, 1982), Marshall Berman deplored Sontag's "extravagant political mendacities, early and late," which were, Berman supposed, part of what she regarded as her "spiritual adventure," a "modernist liaison dangereuse, the ultimate trip for an intellectual who has been everywhere else." Berman recalled the Sontag who reveled in jettisoning old positions like old skins, and who declared in "Project for a Trip to China" that "one must be simpler... simple, as in a great forgetting."

Although conservatives such as William F. Buckley saluted Sontag's courage, almost immediately the Right and the Left began to rethink what she had said. Was communism the same as fascism? And why fascism with a "human face"? What was human about an ideology that had killed millions more than fascism ever had? Martin Peretz, publisher of the _New Republic_ , found Sontag's speech so confusing that he declared, "People like Susan Sontag, they should really have no political standing in the world." D. Keith Mano, after his initial enthusiasm, found the speech "nothing more than a semantic swindle." Christopher Hitchens argued in the _Spectator_ (March 6, 1982) that Sontag had "not really abandoned her old allegiances"; her speech was more like a therapeutic exercise. In the _Washington Post_ , James Lardner succinctly characterized her speech and the reaction to it: "There is intense disagreement still about how communism should be viewed and about how—and in whose company—it should be opposed."

In the _American Spectator_ , Arch Puddington made the essential point: Sontag had shattered the Cold War identity of the Left, which had clung to the "view of a world menaced in equal degrees by the Soviet Union and the United States." She had taken the trouble to go to Poland, when "few Americans of any political stripe" had done so. She had listened carefully to what Solidarity activists had told her, and she was not about to have it all turned around to suit the sentiments of the American Left. Sontag had broken leftist discipline, in which "criticizing the aims of individual Communist regimes is permissible; criticizing Communism as a system is not."

Sontag saw the power that became available to her by seizing the dramatic moment; she had found her aphoristic opportunity in "communism is fascism with a human face." This turn of phrase condemns and honors at the same time. Of course, it can be logically taken apart, but doing so is almost beside the point. Her formulation ensured extended debate. William Phillips, always her gallant defender, deemed her aphorism an expression of "authentic indignation and honesty." But he suggested, "[I]t might have served her purpose just as well simply to say that both fascism and communism were the totalitarian evils of our time." But you don't become Susan Sontag by writing such dull sentences.

Sontag made her role in the Town Hall rally more problematical when she sued the _Soho News_ in the United States district court in New York for reprinting her Town Hall speech without her permission. She asked for $50,000 in damages, noting that the paper had lopped off two paragraphs at the end of her speech, thus distorting her meaning. Her attorney, Leon Friedman (Farrar Straus's attorney and also a legal advisor to PEN), also claimed that the _Soho News_ had pre-empted Sontag's efforts to get her speech published in the _New York Times_ , thereby depriving her not only of her chosen publication venue, but of the right to profit from what she had written. "I'm not a litigious person," Sontag claimed. "This is the first lawsuit I've ever brought in my life and I hope to God the last one." She conceded the paper's right to print a substantial part of her speech, but took issue with its methods, claiming that the paper had "kidnapped my speech and presented it outside of its context."

Sontag's statements reflect considerable defensiveness—in part, because she was under attack in the _Village Voice_. Columnist Nat Hentoff, a widely recognized champion of the First Amendment, was aghast that Sontag would resort to the law, and he interpreted her position as both damaging to the cause of freedom of speech and indicative of an imperious attitude: "Susan Sontag, no matter what you may have thought, is not of the royal family." To enlist the apparatus of the state against a small newspaper seemed unworthy, an action he deemed no better than Jane Fonda's threats to sue in order to ban an unauthorized biography of her. Indeed, Sontag came off worse, because Fonda at least had not actually filed suit. When Sontag claimed that the _Soho News_ had misappropriated her "performance rights," thus violating a New York unfair competition law, Hentoff commented, "What a crabbed view of political discourse." The Town Hall meeting was not a literary reading; rather, it was a political event meant to influence public opinion. Sure, Sontag had a right to be angry about a paper garbling her speech—Hentoff had had many of his public talks distorted by the press—but such was the price for engaging in the "hurly-burly of public discourse." "If you want to be politically perfect, like Mary Poppins, then stay home and correct your galleys," Hentoff advised Sontag.

What Sontag really wanted was control over history's view of her, Hentoff argued. Why did she doctor her speech for publication in the _Nation_? For example, she had toned down her remarks comparing the Nation with the _Reader's Digest_ and changed the wording of her comments on _The Captive Mind_ , now saying she had been "troubled" by the book. "Isn't this like the rewriting of public history that's practiced in some countries?" Hentoff asked. _Nation_ editor Victor Navasky had restored one of the censored passages in the periodical's introduction to Sontag's speech, Hentoff noted, so as not to collaborate in Sontag's "purge." Then Hentoff took up Leon Friedman's allegation that publication in the _Soho News_ had made Sontag's speech unmarketable to the _Times_. A skeptical Hentoff asked why the _Times_ would worry about the impact of the small circulation _Soho News_? Following up on Hentoff's suspicion, another _Voice_ columnist, Alexander Cockburn, spoke with the editor of the _Times_ op-ed page, Charlotte Curtis, who told him her paper had turned down Sontag's speech because it did not say anything new or newsworthy, not because it had already appeared in the _Soho News_. The point about public debate is that it should be free and open and heard by "as many people as possible," Hentoff argued. Instead, Sontag practiced the politics of constriction. "[H]ow unnatural it is, how narcissistic, how solipsistic," Hentoff grumbled. Lawsuits like Sontag's would have a "chilling effect" on the reporting of public events. "What a lousy thing to do to James Madison," Hentoff lamented.

Sontag had her supporters—like her friend Aryeh Neier, a human rights activist—who claimed her copyright had been violated, but even Neier admitted he feared that a "court might hand down a more sweeping decision than is warranted by the circumstances." Sontag could get nothing from the suit worth the attacks she incurred for bringing it. Better to withdraw the suit, he counseled in what amounted to a public letter to her. "Sontag is not entitled to escape criticism," Neier concluded, but she did not deserve the "mean-spiritedness and prosecutorial fervor of some of the attacks upon her."

The _Soho News_ went out of business on March 15, 1982, and somewhat later Sontag dropped her suit. But the ruckus caused by Town Hall and its aftermath would poison the reception of Sontag's next publication, _A Susan Sontag Reader_. David Rieff and Roger Straus would feel obliged to defend the honor of a woman who had become derisively known in some New York circles as "La Sontag."
22

RETROSPECTION AND RETALIATION

1982–83

Farrar, Straus & Giroux published _A Susan Sontag Reader_ in the fall of 1982. When Roger Straus first proposed the project, Sontag demurred. As she told interviewer Charles Ruas, "I felt what I imagine a painter feels. I'd like to have another show, but I don't think I'd like to have a retrospective. The convention of a 'Reader' is, after all, for writers whose work is finished." But she changed her mind, noting that she had been publishing for twenty years. Not only had she created a body of work, she could now re-present it with David's help, for he was now her editor and, in many vital respects, the caretaker of her reputation.

Reviewing _A Susan Sontag Reader_ in the _Nation_ (October 23, 1982), Walter Kendrick called Sontag "our unofficial hostess of letters," a mediator between America and Europe: "She stands midway between the two continents, in what one might call the Sargasso Sea of thought. Her stance there is unique, but always a little shaky." To Kendrick, _A Susan Sontag Reader_ presented her as a "fully established American figure... ready for the archive"—especially because of Elizabeth Hardwick's "elegiac introduction, which croons of 'unique talent' and 'profound authority' till you can fairly smell the formaldehyde." Kendrick found little development in Sontag's thought—and certainly none in her fiction, which (except for certain short stories) excited no enthusiasm. Even her critical work seemed dated, of a period when bringing the news from Europe to America still seemed salutary. The American climate no longer needed Sontag's brand of "esthetic impressionism." She showed little evidence of having read the latest European thinkers who had captured American intellectual discourse. Her "eminence in American letters is disproportionate to the quality of her thought," he suggested. What once might have looked avant-garde now seemed in the "tradition of genteel literary discourse." Kendrick concluded on a note of personal testimony:

I must confess, I don't know anyone who looks to Sontag for esthetic guidance. But she takes herself so seriously, and her publisher treats her with such awe, that I can only presume the existence of a vast, anonymous readership, hungry for Sontag's pearls. If these readers exist, their reverence is Sontag's only real achievement, a notable achievement, to be sure, but a far more trenchant criticism of the world of American letters than any essay she ever wrote.

David wrote to _Nation_ editor Victor Navasky, accusing him of addressing "unfinished business" with Sontag. "You really ought to be ashamed of yourselves," he scolded. Rieff referred, of course, to Sontag's politics and the Town Hall uproar. Navasky replied that the magazine's literary department was autonomous, adding that reviews were not used to settle scores. Rieff ought to retract his "nasty thought." Rieff had complained to Navasky about Katha Pollitt, then literary editor, who wrote Rieff that she had disagreed with parts of Kendrick's review, but he had "stuck to his guns," and she had printed his piece, which she called "one of the best manuscripts" she had received. Rieff's tactics troubled her: "Naturally, I wish you had written to me rather than to Victor—Victor has absolutely no say over the book section, and it's a bit depressing to think that not everyone knows this." Rieff then replied to both Navasky and Pollitt, reiterating his suspicions that the _Nation_ was taking revenge, and that Kendrick was motivated by personal animus. But Rieff accepted their good faith, and he retracted his nasty thought.

Neither David Rieff nor his mother saw anything untoward in his editing her work. She told Charles Ruas, "Someone said to David, 'Don't you think you're mixing church and state?' But I'm very pleased with the arrangement. I have great confidence in Mr. Rieff's judgment." In fact, she told Ruas in another interview ( _Soho News_ , November 12–18, 1980), that David was her screen. He would read reviews about her and tell her what she had to know. He had informed her, for example, about a terrible review of _Under the Sign of Saturn_ in which the reviewer stated he had never read her creative work. And who was the unnamed reviewer? Walter Kendrick.

Kendrick's review of _A Susan Sontag Reader_ was no anomaly. Similar responses came from Ann Morrissett Davidson in the _Philadelphia Inquirer_ (December 26, 1982), from Stanley Aronowitz in the _Voice Literary Supplement_ (November 1982), from Greil Marcus in _California_ magazine (reprinted in his collection _The Dustbin of History_ ), from Hilton Kramer in the _Atlantic_ (September 1982), and from Marvin Mudrick, who titled his _Harper's_ review "Susie Creamcheese Makes Love, Not War." That last little ditty provoked Roger Straus's wrath. _Harper's_ had sent him the galleys, which he called an "editorial obscenity." Like David Rieff, Straus went straight to the headman, the magazine's editor, Michael Kinsley, and to the magazine's editorial board, which included diplomat George Ball and Bard College president Leon Botstein. The vulgarity of the diatribe against Sontag "does dishonor to a magazine that has had a history of quality," Straus fumed.

What was so obscene? Well, Farrar, Straus & Giroux's publicity director, Helene Atwan, remembered a dirty line from her school days: "Susie Creamcheese, she's so spreadable it's incredible." At _Harper's_ they could only think of Susie Creamcheese as the "amiable groupie" in a Frank Zappa song from the 1960s. Helen Rogan, an associate editor at _Harper's_ , acknowledged that the headline knocked Sontag "off her pedestal without any specific sexual allusion." Mudrick denied any pornographic intent—although he could not vouch for his subconscious.

In _Washington Post Book World_ ("Sticks and Stones" January 9, 1983), Michele Slung put the question: "Should Roger Straus have urged _Harper's_ , as he did, 'to reconsider'?" When Slung questioned him, Straus reiterated that the title was "revolting and indecent," and said he "saw nothing untoward about the way he chose to protest to _Harper's_ over their use of it." Slung asked Straus, then in Paris visiting Sontag, whether he had discussed the review with her. No, he had not mentioned it. Why not? It didn't "serve any useful purpose," a testy Straus replied. But shouldn't Sontag know what was being done on her behalf? the inquiring Slung wanted to know. Well, he did not have the article with him to show Sontag, Straus said. How strange, Slung thought, since the focus of Straus's outrage had been the title. Surely he had not forgotten it when he spoke to Sontag? As in the Kendrick affair, the Mudrick fuss never involved Sontag herself. Pollitt did not know how Sontag felt. As Hilton Kramer, a former Farrar, Straus & Giroux author, noted, "Roger was always careful to keep Susan's fingerprints off everything."

Kramer, founder of the _New Criterion_ and a well-known Sontag nemesis (see his article, "Anti-Communism and the Sontag Circle," September 1986), remembered Roger Straus calling to ask rhetorically, "Did you have to start a magazine in order to attack Susan?" The Left strafed her as well. Here is Alexander Cockburn's headlined note, titled "Forever Susan":

There's a forbidding picture of Susan Sontag, on the cover of _Vanity Fair_. She used to look so jolly in the early photographs—frolicsome yet brainy. I assume that Susan, no mean student of the icon, decided that the best presentation of self in 1983 was the grim visage she proffers to Irving Penn. I'm looking forward to the Susan Sontag Exercise Book all the same, with accompanying tape: "Now for the volte-face..." ( _Village Voice_ , October 11, 1983)

Sontag had given a major interview to _Rolling Stone_ in 1978, but that did not stop the magazine from including her on its 1983 list of the most overrated people in America.

Negative notices did not injure Sontag. She prospered in the press. John Simon saluted her in _New York_ magazine (December 24–31, 1984) as "The Light that Never Failed," lauding her "many-sidedness, curiosity, appetite, and stamina, with a willingness to pursue interesting new figures and ideas in many directions even risking the occasional dead end." Her appearance in Woody Allen's _Zelig_ (1983) validated Simon's tribute. Together with Nobel Prize-winning novelist Saul Bellow, child psychiatrist Bruno Bettelheim, critic Irving Howe, and Professor John Morton Blum, she was chosen, Allen said, to endow his film with the "patina of intellectual weight and seriousness." This group of worthies provide commentary on the bizarre career of Leonard Zelig, who could change color, body shape, even ethnic and national identity, blending into whatever company he sought. In mock-documentary mode, with voice-over narration, expert testimony, and faked photographs, Allen appeared as Zelig, a kind of Jay Gatsby figure.

It is as if Allen were illustrating the thesis of _On Photography_ , in which Sontag argued that photographs are not real but surreal precisely because they can fuse features that do not belong together into one credible image. Photographs, she contended, had become the standard measure of reality. Allen satirizes the authority of photographs as documents when he pictures Zelig on a medical table surrounded by nurses. Everyone in the photograph looks at the camera, and moviegoers look at Zelig, sitting up after medical treatment, his feet sticking out of his hospital gown and rotated so that his heels are up where his toes should be—in other words, his legs have been twisted so that the back is now the front and vice versa.

Sontag opens the film and is first heard in a voice-over discussing Zelig: "He was the phenomenon of the...." Then there is a cut:

The present day, in living color. Susan Sontag is sitting at an outdoor cafe, a coffee cup in front of her. She faces the camera, still talking, as behind her an idyllic glimpse of Venice is seen: a bright blue sky, gondolas on the canal, sea gulls flying by the slanted roofs. Her name pops on the bottom of the screen: SUSAN SONTAG.

SUSAN SONTAG, _continuing, fingering her napkin_.... twenties. When you think that at that time he was as well known as Lindbergh, it's really quite astonishing.

Sontag seems to be enjoying herself. She looks cheerful, as if she is about to break out in a grin, as if she knows that you know that she knows this is all camp.

Roger Straus told his friend, the agent Harriet Wasserman, that he negotiated $5,000 plus royalties for Sontag's brief appearance. Wasserman dismissed Straus's bragging until she found out that her client, Saul Bellow, got a similar deal without telling her. And what of Sontag's reaction to her cameo? During an appearance on the West Coast for the Portland Arts and Lectures series (1985), an audience member asked her what it was like to work with Woody Allen. "Next question," Sontag responded. Backstage, she complained about American audiences. In Europe, she would never be asked such a question.

In 1982, at the time that Allen was shooting _Zelig_ , Sontag wrote and directed her fourth film, _Unguided Tour_ , an adaptation of her short story with the same title. In the story, a "woman of culture" speaks to her lover, who could be male or female. In the film, the lover is a male (Claudio Cassinelli), and the woman is the dancer Lucinda Childs, then Sontag's lover. _Unguided Tour_ 's generic couple is caught up in a journey to Venice, in tourism that is really an identity crisis. The couple seems to be breaking up in this "capital of melancholy," as reviewer Gary Indiana puts it. The film is another one of those Sontag mysteries in which the characters acquire and then disburden themselves of each other. Again the why—the psychological reasons for their alienation—is beside the point. The Childs of the early 1980s was the erotic embodiment of Sontag's aesthetics of silence, an elusive, charming, self-described catatonic. In the film, Sontag gives Childs physical release in what Indiana calls "a cryptic, improvised dance outdoors." More than the story, the film is about the artist and her art, the striving for perfect articulation best exemplified in the dancer and the dance, a theme Sontag would soon develop in an article and in a television essay.

Childs shared many of Sontag's enthusiasms. "I connect more in terms of film," she told an interviewer, "things that play themselves out in time, recurrent elements that take place in time, flashbacks, revisions of action in time, things that you see and see again. I'm particularly fascinated with Bresson." And her work has provoked some of the same objections leveled at Sontag's, with dance critics complaining that Childs's choreography is too willed, some calling it "too abstract and calculating."

The troubled dialogue between lovers in the film, more than the story, heralds changes in both Sontag's and Childs's art. For her part, Sontag was already moving away from the aesthetics of silence that had constricted her earlier novels, and towards a passionate conversation with a wider audience in her best-selling novel, _The Volcano Lover: A Romance_.
23

PRESIDENT SONTAG

1984–89

The mid-1980s was not an especially successful or productive period. Sontag abandoned a novel, then a collection of stories, then a book about Japan. Her direction of Milan Kundera's play, _Jacques and His Master_ , excited little enthusiasm. She published several pieces of art criticism (later collected in _Where the Stress Falls_ [2002]), and produced short fiction published in the _New Yorker_ , and elsewhere. She wrote a series of forewords and introductions to the work of mainly European writers, pieces later assembled in a posthumous collection, _At This Time: Essays and Speeches_ (2007).

Occasionally she could be tempted back into the classroom, for example teaching a course in the fall of 1984 at Brown University. "It is an A' paper without any doubt," Sontag wrote to a student, "and I gave 'A's' to only four out of the twenty-three students.... I was glad to have you in the seminar. You are an exceptionally gifted student, and I wish you pleasure and success in your work." In the spring of 1985, on Tuesdays, she taught a course at Temple University in Philadelphia on autobiography, including work by Augustine, Montaigne, and Thoreau. She made notes on her students and their work:

"poet" repulsively pretentious

illiterate black dialect

pathetic

political leader

endless pedestrian ms

another primitive

not illiterate

She found teaching distracting, as she explained to the president of the New School, where she had taught two seminars in 1981: "I knew I would enjoy teaching again and I do enjoy it immensely. But it is my feeling—once again—that teaching is not something I can do with my left hand. It is simply too interesting, and intellectually involving, for that." Teaching "cut seriously into the energy and inner freedom" she needed for writing.

And yet it was not writing so much as it was the life of a writer that took up her time. In "Writers Talk among Themselves" ( _New York Times Book Review_ , January 5, 1986), Sontag heralded the International PEN conference in New York, the first such gathering in the United States in twenty years. "With age and a certain volume of accomplishment" writers became public figures and service-minded. Even though they spoke "condescendingly of these meetings," they would be "displeased never to be invited," for organizations like PEN were a part of their "pious duty" and ratified their status as elders in the "Church of Writers." Also, "nobody hates a free trip", she admitted—or a "star turn."

Sontag thought this latest world congress deserving of attention, since it had "bent custom a little by choosing as the theme 'The Writer's Imagination and the Imagination of the State.'" As a member of the PEN program committee, she found the topic "piquant" and "slightly original." Norman Mailer had developed the conference program. Elected to the PEN presidency in June 1985, he had rejuvenated a small organization of about two thousand members, giving it a new role as a highly visible player in Manhattan and host to perhaps the largest gathering ever of foreign writers on American shores. Mailer had close to a million dollar budget and free hotel rooms from Donald Trump and other wealthy benefactors. "We had been talking for three or four years about hosting that congress," one PEN board member said, "but we never knew where to raise the money. But Norman knew what to do and how to do it." Gay Talese, like Sontag a PEN vice president and longtime PEN member, declared that without Mailer and "his fund-raising efforts, we would not be having the International Congress." In the fall of 1985, it had been Mailer's idea to stage on Broadway a series of literary evenings with sixteen major writers, pricing the tickets at $1,000 a piece for the series. Kurt Vonnegut, Arthur Miller, Tom Wolfe, Woody Allen, William Styron, Joan Didion, and Susan Sontag had all performed.

PEN had a distinguished history dating back to 1921, when novelist John Galsworthy had founded The P.E.N. Club (poets, playwrights, essays, editors, and novelists), contending that "If the writers of the world could learn to stretch out their hands to each other, the nations of the world could learn in time to do the same." He was speaking in the aftermath of World War I, when acrimony among writers of different nations remained a serious problem. Later PEN officials spoke of writers as "trustees for human nature"; such noble rhetoric fills PEN's official history. And indeed, the organization, with more than eighty centers in fifty countries, fostered the development of an international literary community, arranged for the publication of translations and translation prizes, protested and sometimes obtained the release of persecuted writers, initiated writing programs in prisons, and, in general, spread the good word.

Sontag had joined American PEN in the fall of 1964, attracted mainly by the idea of those international conferences. But the nugatory PEN of that time perturbed her. At a PEN dinner on November 7, 1966, she stood up to second Arthur Miller's speech bemoaning the American Center's feeble identity. Miller, then PEN's international president, said the club was always helping writers abroad, but it had no sense of itself as a literary community. American writers were entirely individualistic, whereas the Russians, for example, thought of all writers as "pushing one spoke of the wheel" and contributing to the glory of literature itself. Of course, Russian writers could be just as competitive and individualistic as their American counterparts, Miller conceded, but they also had a grasp of a great whole to which they all belonged. It was necessary but all too easy for American writers to sign petitions in support of oppressed writers, but what, after all, constituted the common bond and mission at home?

Miller had candidly identified PEN's major flaw, which not even the energetic Mailer or later, Susan Sontag, could ameliorate. But in 1967, Sontag, emboldened no doubt by Miller's criticism, told the assembly of the faithful, "PEN is not a very interesting place. Now, why? What can be done about that? That obviously has to do with what Arthur Miller said about making a cockpit of controversy, a place of confrontation. How could it be made more interesting?" She tempered her blunt words with qualifiers. She was new to PEN, and perhaps she was speaking in ignorance. Nevertheless, she spoke at length. Why did PEN hold parties in the Hotel Pierre? It should be meeting somewhere, say, on 17th Street in shabby lofts. (She was describing an area close to Farrar, Straus & Giroux's own run-down offices.) Forget the cocktails and dinners. Let publishers handle such functions. A self-described "teetotaler," she got nothing out of such frivolous activities. PEN should be a serious organization for serious writers. It should be making an impact on the New York scene, and it should be doing something for itself, not just for writers in other parts of the world.

Some PEN members grumbled about Sontag's criticism, thinking it unfair to harp on the cocktail parties and dinners. And what was she prepared to do as a "working member"? asked Joy Chute, a PEN veteran. Sontag did not then take up Chute's challenge, although she later became a board member and stepped up her level of activity in the organization in the 1980s, just before Mailer took PEN to Broadway.

In January 1986, the advance press for the International PEN meeting in New York was remarkable—but then PEN had hired a public relations firm, and besides Sontag's pre-congress article, there had been E. L. Doctorow's _New York Times_ op-ed piece complaining that PEN should not have invited Secretary of State Shultz to speak at the opening ceremony. Doctorow opposed Reagan administration policies in Nicaragua and South Africa. He condemned the State Department for still enforcing the McCarran-Walter Immigration and Naturalization Act of 1952, barring certain writers deemed subversive from entering the United States. By inviting Shultz, PEN had "put itself in the position of a bunch of writers' union hacks in Eastern Europe who have gathered for a pat on the head by the minister of culture," Doctorow concluded. But PEN had also invited Omar Cabezas, a Nicaraguan minister of state in charge of prisons and a government censor. And he was an author, to be sure, having published _Fire from the Mountain_ , a memoir of his radical student and Sandinista days.

Conservative critic Roger Kimball deplored the "moral equivalence" between governments implied in Doctorow's editorial. Kimball suggested that the International PEN conference theme likewise implied moral equivalence by indicating that the writer's imagination was in "radical conflict" with the imagination of the state "all over the world." In other words, it was made to seem that the situation for writers in Moscow was the same as that for writers living in New York. In practice, however, PEN members like Sontag, Mailer, and Doctorow did make distinctions between governments, and they were not averse to seeking money and support from the state. Kimball pointed out that part of the funding for the International PEN conference had come from the National Endowment for the Arts.

Old PEN hands like Donald Barthelme and Richard Howard fell into line, promoting the piquant program theme, as did Karen Kennerly, the executive director and behind the scenes fixer. Mailer had erred by not consulting the PEN board before inviting Shultz. But the board members (including Vice President Sontag) did not rescind the invitation, and Kennerly pointed out to the press that it had been standard practice at International PEN meetings in other countries for a government official from the host country to make a speech of welcome. Nevertheless, even before the congress began, President Mailer had to deal with a petition signed by prominent PEN members (including Sontag) taking the Doctorow line and protesting Shultz's appearance.

Few accounts of the contentious days that followed were as sensible as writer Richard Stern's retrospective wrap-up: "That PEN is itself an organization and, therefore, falls into the same kind of official behavior and language its charter rejects would be another development of this New York week which amused and dismayed some of the participants." Until the blowup over Shultz, Mailer had been, in Stern's words, an "efficient, engaging, and diplomatic bureaucrat." What is more, Sontag and company had been quite willing to follow his lead. Yet each time Mailer was challenged at the congress, Sontag took the part of the opposition—although she never took the lead. Her tack suited the conflicted situation well. PEN was evolving into a big-time organization that would soon see the need to elect a female president. That woman must be one perceived to have power and to have sided with the insurgents, but who—unlike Grace Paley and the more vociferous protestors—must not have made a spectacle of herself. Sontag signed their petitions, but she took the high ground, expressing the wish that writers would say less about politics and more about literature.

When writers were not blaming, they were lavishly praising each other. As Stern noticed, Sontag spread her favors "like a Commissar." To the press, Sontag declared, "I feel emotionally connected with writers everywhere." She did allow herself a peevish moment, though, when she heard John Updike say, "[G]overnment money in the arts can only deflect artists from their responsibility to find an authentic market for their products." An easy opinion, Sontag said, "if you'd signed a contract in your twenties with _The New Yorker_." Sontag had received her share of rejections from that magazine over the years, and although she would eventually become a featured player there, those early years of neglect still rankled.

Stern sat next to Sontag and watched her awaiting Shultz's arrival in the grand south reading room of the New York Public Library. She gestured toward two men Stern could see "patrolling the book stacks above the dais." Sontag said, "Look at the goons." They were, of course, part of Shultz's security detail, the kind of protection attached to high government officials, but somehow they seemed especially sinister to Sontag.

The writers who booed and hissed Shultz were surely bothered by his administration's policies, but they were also angry about having been kept waiting outside in the cold while security arrangements were checked. And they were upset because someone like Shultz had the stage. After all, as Stern confessed, writers came to congresses "to be seen as well as to see each other, to make as well as take impressions." In the event, Shultz gave a sensible speech appropriate for the occasion. Stern and many other commentators, including Mailer, agreed that the secretary of state had acquitted himself well. Shultz provoked laughter when he cited Mailer's invitation "as another shining example of that charitable spirit for which New York literary circles have long been famous." Mailer, in his turn, denounced the protestors as "puritanical leftists."

Shultz's gentle, good-humored gibe alluded to a vision of the New York literary life that others expressed with more hostility. Novelist James Purdy, for example, had contemptuously rejected an invitation to become a PEN member, writing a letter (June 16, 1978) to the admissions committee denouncing the _New York Times_ and the _New York Review of Books_ for propagating a literary establishment rife with cronyism and time-servers. Such writers and editors, who also dominated PEN, constituted an "incestuous closeted perpetual cocktail party." They abused their power, while at the same time wringing their hands about the persecution of foreign writers and injustice abroad. Purdy would no more join PEN than a "Southern Black would reconsider and join the Klan." The late Anthony Lukas, a president of the Authors Guild, once told a PEN board member that PEN could not be taken seriously. It had the air of the bogus about it.

George Garrett delivered a more measured but no less damning view of the membership who scorned Shultz:

Most of the writers (practically anybody you have ever heard of) are involved in a close symbiotic relationship, cozy you might say, with the publishing world. Without the acquiescence and tacit support of the writers (especially the most successful ones), the whole creaky system might collapse. They can fool you, though, the writers. Take PEN for example, forever using our dues to battle against some form of overt censorship here and there, against racial separation and segregation in South Africa if not, say, Kenya or Ghana, firmly committed against torture everywhere in the world except in certain Eastern Bloc nations, and mostly keeping their own mouths tight shut about the inequities and injustices, trivial and profound, perpetuated on the American public by the same folks who give writers their advances against royalties and publish their books. Whatever the price is, it doesn't include a vow of silence or even very much self-sacrifice.

PEN members have tried to reform this self-serving system. Protests against PEN's undemocratic nature have been launched, including critic Seymour Krim's statement to the PEN Newsletter (May 30, 1979) reporting "griping in the ranks by writers too shy to make waves. The consensus seems to be this: We have to find a more democratic way to elect Presidents." He castigated an organization rife with elitism; the rank and file had no voice.

Israeli novelist Amos Oz and Peruvian novelist Mario Vargas Llosa later addressed Shultz's most important point, which was akin to Kimball's concern about moral equivalence: "To declare one's alienation without distinction is to abdicate judgement, analysis, differentiation, wisdom. It is to risk marginality and estrangement from the roots of traditional and community life that nourish the creative imagination. It can be a recipe for irrelevance." In blunter words, writers may have good reason to feel alienated from the state and from their society. But not all societies and states are the same, and to pretend they are results in estrangement from the real world. As if to confirm Shultz's warning, Oz observed the "gulf" between the simplistic way writers were speaking at the congress and the complexity of their writing. "Some states are almost fair, some are bad, some are lethal," Oz noted. To think that the issue lay only between the writer and the state was bogus, he concluded.

The tragedy of history is not the perpetual hopeless clash between saintly individuals and diabolical establishments but rather the perpetual clash between the relatively decent societies and the bloody ones. To be more precise: the perpetual cowardice of relatively decent societies whenever they confront the ruthlessness of the oppressive ones.

This is the kind of language Sontag never employed, since it countered her quasi-Carlylean hero worship of literary and political figures, which easily shifted from Ho and Fidel and Ché, to leaders like Waclav Havel.

Sontag said little as she navigated the second major controversy of the New York congress: Norman Mailer's failure to invite enough women writers as panelists. Only twenty of 117 speakers were female. "We're absolutely amazed over the situation," Grace Paley told the press. Mailer, author of _The Prisoner of Sex_ (a rebuttal of his feminist foes) did nothing to win his critics over by stating, "Since the formulation of the panels is reasonably intellectual, there are not that many women, like Susan Sontag, who are intellectuals first, poets and novelists, second. More men are intellectuals first, so there was a certain natural tendency to pick more men than women." Nadine Gordimer, Erica Jong, and Margaret Atwood—to mention three of the most prominent writers to take issue with such statements—lined up against Mailer. He countered by reading a list of twenty-four distinguished women writers who had decided not to attend the congress. He was not going to replace them with less distinguished women. Gay Talese defended Mailer, noting that women had been involved in planning the congress and had to share the blame for the imbalances. Paley confessed to having been inattentive. Joyce Carol Oates refused to sign the petition indicting Mailer. "I really agree with you," she told the protesters, "but it's very complicated, and Norman's having such a difficult time that he's been in a difficult state all week. He worked very hard on this Congress, and I just can't sign." Mailer was especially angry with Susan Sontag. She had been on the PEN program committee. Why hadn't she just picked up the phone and spoken with him about her complaints?

Women journalists watched her closely, aware that her appearance commanded as much attention as what she said. Rhoda Koenig tracked her in "tweed trousers and boots, wearing an unbuttoned shirt over a buttoned one or a turtleneck, and one day adding a quilted leather vest and an untied scarf." Leslie Hanscomb of _Newsday_ marveled at the one moment she saw Sontag upstaged by Toni Morrison. Sontag, after all, seemed

most to have been formed by nature to attend cultural congresses. She is mistress of the art of saying nothing in particular, but saying it with such gravity that the listener feels like writing it down and taking it home for study. She is also a striking-looking woman with a head of black hair in which one dramatically placed lock frames the side of her face with a streak of stark white. When she sits on a speakers' panel, it is hard to look at anybody else.

But then Morrison showed up on a cold winter day, the "only other woman on the patriarchal panel," wearing a Caribbean sunshade of woven straw with a brim as big as an umbrella. Late in the program she took it off, disclosing a kerchief of many colors as eye-catching as the hat. For once, it was possible to look away from Susan Sontag.

Norman Mailer deemed the PEN congress a failure, but he served out his presidency quietly and remained on the board as a vice president when novelist Hortense Calisher became PEN's next president in June 1986. Choosing a woman seemed imperative after the congress ruckus. But Calisher, like other PEN presidents, ruled through an inner circle. When she tried to make her mark on the organization, she confronted the entrenched executive director, Karen Kennerly. As one former PEN president put it, it was going to be Karen or Hortense, depending on who proved to be the better Machiavellian. Kennerly called in her chits, and Calisher departed within the year—off to a "better date," as one former board member said, becoming president of the prestigious American Academy of Arts and Letters.

The identity of the next PEN president seemed a foregone conclusion. Her name had been on the list of possible presidents for years. Her election occurred without notable opposition, her elevation virtually an entitlement. Sontag's presidency received positive reviews inside and out of PEN, even from those who did not care for her style. Asked to comment on Sontag's performance in office, Norman Mailer would only say (and only through the telephonic filter of his faithful assistant, Judith McNally) "Susan Sontag was a good president." One board member complained that Sontag hogged the microphone, constantly replying to board members and restating what they had said. But as another board member counters, what is unique about that? PEN is hard on its presidents, said Sidney Offit, a longtime member. Another former PEN president, Muriel Rukeyser, found the job unnerving. Writers liked to pick apart arguments, suggestions, initiatives. A writer's organization, a former PEN board member remarked, is a contradiction in terms—"It's like herding cats." And after all, presiding over PEN does not add one cubit to a writer's stature qua writer.

The timing has to be right for a person like Susan Sontag to accept the presidency, as Offit—who witnessed many PEN presidents in action—pointed out. The writer has to have finished a book, be between books, or in some way be susceptible, just then, to taking the lead. Calisher, brought in to be a healer, proved unable to stem the contentiousness stirred up by the New York congress. The libertarian-egalitarian wing of PEN loathed the organization's new ties to big money financial backers. Most writers, by definition, elect careers that forsake the moneyed world and the market economy that Mailer had introduced to PEN. PEN had been a small organization precisely because it drew financial contributions largely from writers who did not have that much to give.

Sontag respected money and its power. When she complained to Edmund White about a couple of nobodies he invited to dinner, he lied and told her they were quite rich. "Oh, I see," she said with an understanding nod. She enjoyed luxury, such as first class air tickets and the like when she traveled—when others paid for it. Such perks seemed her due precisely because she had chosen to live abstemiously and not grub in the muck for dollars. Offit wondered how the Sontag he first met—the one who wanted literary discussions to take place over kegs of beer—would adjust to a PEN that now had rich patrons like Saul and Gayfryd Steinberg. Saul Steinberg had been a close associate of Michael Milken, the junk bond dealer and convicted felon. Journalist Ken Auletta later called the PEN-Steinberg association "sleazy." But in 1986, most accounts humorously noted that PEN members, thinking that they were in writer Saul Steinberg's apartment, wondered how he could afford such expensive furnishings, old master paintings, and so on. By way of contrast, Offit watched Sontag graciously cultivate the Steinbergs. She did it as a matter of course, Offit thought, a way of paying the bills.

"It was very difficult for members to start moralizing in front of Susan Sontag," Offit observed. Even staunchly leftist writers such as E. L. Doctorow accorded Sontag great respect. "To know how to reach an accommodation without compromise is an art," said Offit, who described a pragmatic, grounded person, one whom he could call on for sensible advice. What especially surprised him, though, was Sontag's unpredictability and independence. He never felt confident that he could gauge her opinion of individual PEN members. She had no line or position she was protecting. He remembered a Sontag who was quite willing to listen, not lecture—and in his experience over thirty-five years at PEN, writers had trouble listening. Sontag had an "institutional sense of respect," hearing out individuals whom, Offit was certain, she had little use for as writers. Her opinions, he recalled, were delivered without didacticism.

Sontag did believe in strong leadership and in holding together a chaotic organization like PEN by supporting its administrators. At a February 18, 1987, board meeting, during Hortense Calisher's regime, Sontag "questioned the rights of committees to discuss the extent of power of the executive director [Karen Kennerly]." In office, Sontag commanded not only respect, but also fealty. Offit, who admitted he rarely saw the negative sides of people, thought Sontag and Karen Kennerly got along well. "Karen was the force who really ran PEN," Offit pointed out. Other PEN members saw considerable tension between the two women.

As early as March 1987, the PEN Board knew that Sontag would be taking over as president, although other commitments prevented her from assuming office until June. She attended monthly board meetings assiduously in the period leading up to her presidency. Two major issues confronted the board: the impending international meeting in Korea, and a movement to make PEN more democratic. At the meeting of March 18, 1987, board member Ted Solotaroff, editor of _American Review_ , where Sontag had published some of her fiction, "worried that the current leadership increasingly has the look of a Politburo." But little was done to address his concerns. During the previous fifteen years, PEN had become a much larger organization.

Sontag supported PEN's campaign to recruit membership among minorities, but she apparently declined to comment during contentious discussions about rotating board membership to alleviate the "perception of cronyism." She saved most of her energies for the upcoming PEN congress in Seoul, South Korea. The country had a poor human rights record, had imprisoned writers, and was notorious for pirating American books. At the September 16, 1987, board meeting, Sontag, now president, called the Korean congress a "complicated issue." If PEN could play a positive role—could use its meeting as a form of leverage to free writers in prison and to foment debate in the country—then on balance the American Center should send representatives. In addition, she liked the idea of addressing the "whole spectrum of Korean literature," but she worried that there might not be time enough to acquire the expertise to do it.

At the November 2, 1987, board meeting, the American Center continued to debate the appropriateness of attending the Korean congress (now set to run from August 28 to September 2, 1988). Sontag decided to postpone a decision on Korea until the December meeting. In the meantime, the November PEN newsletter carried a boxed editorial about "Seoul: 1988," suggesting the original decision to hold an international congress there (taken in June 1986 at the forty-eighth congress in Hamburg) had been hastily approved. At the May meeting of International PEN in Lugano, the American Center fought to have the Korean venue changed. Only the Scandinavian Centers, the Australian (Melbourne) Center, the Center of the German Democratic Republic, and the four Yugoslav Centers joined the protest, which caused considerable resentment within the ranks of International PEN. Nevertheless, American PEN decided to attend the Korean meeting in part because Seoul was hosting the Olympics just before the congress. PEN would have a world stage on which to perform its duty, which the newsletter editorial (written by Sontag) proclaimed, "will not be in a passive spirit. We will plan receptions and meetings with writers who represent the whole spectrum of literary activity in Korea," and "express our support for the forces in South Korea struggling to defend the freedom of literary expression."

In carrying out this mission to Korea, Sontag would need help. She announced to the PEN board that she would be taking David with her. One board member questioned her decision. Why David? The Koreans had asked for him, she replied. Another board member wondered: Did Sontag actually believe this fantasy of hers? He could not see how else she could brazen it out. But there it was. David did go. He was mentioned in press reports, but he did not sign his name to the January 1989 PEN newsletter account of the contentious Korean meeting. Instead, he wrote an article about it, and published his piece, in which he quotes his mother favorably, in the December 1988 issue of _Inter/View_ magazine. D. D. Guttenplan of _Newsday_ ("Interview with Andy," January 3, 1989) asked the magazine editor why she did not identify Rieff as Sontag's son. "You think he should have mentioned it," Shelly Wanger replied. "Well, it's my fault, because I thought people would know. But you're probably right."

Along with David, Sontag took Karen Kennerly, Faith Sale, co-chairwoman of the freedom-to-write committee and executive editor at Putnam, and the poet Robert Hass. The group's first salvo was printed in the _New York Times_ on August 24, 1988. In "PEN's Larger Purpose," Herbert Mitgang reported that American PEN would host its own party honoring jailed writers and publishers. "Our aim is to persuade the Government to free them as a good-will gesture toward the PEN congress," Kennerly explained. The _Times_ carried an Associated Press dispatch on August 31, quoting Sontag: "To be at this gathering while our colleagues sit in prison, some of them ill, all of them, ironically, deprived of pen and paper, is a profound disappointment and morally troubling to many of us." But the party, attended by writers from seven other countries, "allows us to express our admiration and support for the courage of the democratic movements in Korea at the same time that we are deliberating over the problems and literary concerns of writers all around the globe," Sontag said. The dispatch did not explain why only seven countries were represented at the party.

The January 1989 PEN newsletter reported, "[T]here was throughout the week bitter division inside P.E.N. about how to act." It was a classic dilemma, former PEN board member Victor Navasky pointed out later. Do you help persecuted writers by calling the world's attention to their plight, or do such actions merely antagonize their jailers, making it worse for the very people you want to help? It was a tough call. Francis King, International PEN president, opted for the language of diplomacy, thus angering the American PEN delegation, which objected to phrases like "extraordinary graciousness," which King used to describe the Korean government's treatment of PEN. The Americans rejected what they considered King's submissiveness, and they were not swayed by his report, which declared, "We have been permitted historic visits inside Korean prisons. No outside organization has ever been allowed inside Korean prisons before."

The American delegation's report in the January 1989 newsletter ridiculed King's concerns about the Americans' statements to the press. In particular, the newsletter focused on his anger over Karen Kennerly, who had arrived two weeks early in order to "perform the heroic task" of setting up that American Center party honoring persecuted writers and publishers. Sontag held a press conference as soon as she reached Kimpo airport. PEN leaders regarded her entrance as part of an "American media blitz." Rejecting the idea of diplomacy out of hand—regarding it as only a type of hypocrisy—the American delegation intoned, "When P.E.N. officials started talking about the honor of being allowed to visit writers in jail, something has gone very wrong."

In spite of its high moral tone, the American delegation conceded, "No one, of course, knew with any certainty how much power P.E.N. actually had either to embarrass or to persuade." King deplored Sontag's bad manners and her hunger for publicity. She countered that she did not "regard herself as a house guest but as a writer at an international convocation of writers." Other PEN leaders tried to mediate, saying the Americans "no doubt meant well." Finding the sense of the meeting against them, the American delegates scorned arguments such as the suggestion that the Koreans needed a little room to maneuver, and that humiliating them would serve no purpose. Other PEN members simply found the Americans insufferable and bullying. For its part, the PEN American Center felt bulldozed, taking comfort only in the meetings about imprisoned writers and in an event attended by hundreds of university students. "The atmosphere was pretty much that of an American college at the height of the civil rights and antiwar movements," the American delegation reported in the January 1989 PEN newsletter. "There was a solemn and rather sweet sense of justice and moral clarity in the air that, after a week at the Sheraton Walker Hill, was more pleasant to bask in than it was easy to identify with."

The American delegation accused International PEN leaders of behaving "like diplomats instead of writers," dignitaries who "tended to value the organization more than its purpose." The purpose of PEN was to take "principled stands," and the American Center would just have to "insist on principle" and continue to "seem confrontational at Congresses," wrote Robert Hass and Faith Sale, the official delegates of the PEN American Center.

Francis King found it impossible to take Susan Sontag seriously. As she sat in King's hotel room, treating him and other writers to accounts of her precocious childhood, her account was punctuated by David's frequent trips to King's minibar to retrieve whatever he pleased without even a "May I?" Sontag's pontificating and grandstanding made a farce of PEN, King thought. He put her and David into a novel, _Visiting Cards_. There she appears as Margaretta, proud of her childhood reading of Proust. She sweeps into the World Association of Authors (WAA) international conference, together with her own "little coterie," to bedevil Amos Kingsley, WAA's president. David becomes Margaretta's "dear little Helga," who ransacks Kingsley's minibar while Margaretta declaims how "obscene" it is to be having parties while there are writers starving in prison. Some of Margaretta's lines come straight out of the January 1989 PEN newsletter: "Where principles are concerned, courtesy is irrelevant." Her smug superiority is too much for Kingsley:

You come here. You demand a first-class ticket for yourself, although every other delegate is content to have an economy one. You then demand a ticket for your daughter, who isn't even a member of WAA. You accept another bedroom for her. And then you deliberately set about doing precisely the opposite of what your hosts ask you to do. You and your friends are like—like a pack of stray dogs who leave their visiting cards on the doorstep of the family kind enough to take them in and feed them.

Capturing the Sontag pitch perfectly, King has Margaretta call Amos's behavior "extremely vulgar."

Amos Kingsley, no paragon, includes himself in an indictment of WAA writers who demonstrate, at best, "semi-honesty." They feel "genuine indignation and anger" at the degradation of other writers, Amos acknowledges, but "there is also far too much self-righteousness—and with it, far too much sense of moral superiority and far too much moral indignation.... It's very nice—very comforting to one's ego—very sustaining to one's amour propre—to pass resolutions condemning this or that outrage and demanding this or that action."

It is also easier to experience these feelings abroad, where so much more seems at stake for writers. At home, PEN shied away from the internal debate and self-examination that Ted Solotaroff had urged. On December 3, 1987, for example, gay writer and activist Larry Kramer sent an angry letter to President Sontag. PEN, he charged, had an "intolerable attitude to anything gay." The organization still had not said "Boo about AIDS." The PEN newsletter canvassed every cause except the disease that was devastating a whole generation of writers. PEN was not even as current as the conventional _New York Times_. No benefits, no protests, nothing really. "I'm ashamed of the whole lot of your membership—which contains not a few gay and lesbian writers, many openly so," Kramer declared. Why did PEN, with all its awards and campaigns, refuse to acknowledge the suffering of its gay writers, as well as their contributions to literature?

Sontag did not reply. Kramer asked that his letter be published in the PEN newsletter. It was not. John Morrone, a PEN staff member, thought Kramer's charges "preposterous," but he realized, "Larry isn't someone who will go away if you ignore him." And Morrone had to admit that PEN had responded positively to angry voices, such as June Jordan's, about lack of minority representation. Morrone outlined his concerns in a letter (December 10, 1987) to Gregory Kolovakos, a gay writer active in PEN. Perhaps Kolovakos could mollify Kramer by talking up plans then in the works to benefit gay and lesbian writers.

On December 16, Kolovakos wrote Kramer as a member of the PEN AIDS benefit committee and as a gay man responding to a gay man. It seemed unfair to single out PEN, Kolovakos argued, when society at large had been slow to respond to AIDS. How could Kramer expect united action in an "atomized artistic world," in which writers were highly individualistic. Kolovakos did not defend liberals or gays in power who refused to speak out. And PEN had included him as an openly gay writer at its public events. The real enemy, anyway, was the federal government and institutions like the Catholic Church. Some gays who had remained silent were also the enemy. There is no record in the PEN archives of a Kramer reply to Kolovakos. Clearly, however, Kramer expected a high standard of conduct from an organization that lectured governments here and abroad about censorship.

Sontag's legacy to PEN resulted from her unwavering defense of the writer's right to speak out about controversial issues and personalities, a legacy that faced its greatest challenge on February 18, 1989, when the _Washington Post_ reported, "Fear has swept the North American literary and publishing establishment in the wake of Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini's 'death sentence' on novelist Salman Rushdie, author of 'The Satanic Verses.'" Canada barred new imports of the novel. Barnes & Noble, B. Dalton, and Coles Books in Canada announced they would not display the book. Reporters Lloyd Grove and Charles Trueheart discovered that a "host of normally loquacious American writers have fallen uncharacteristically mum when asked in recent days to appear on television to defend Rushdie's right to publish." Susan Sontag headed their list of those willing publicly to condemn the fatwa pronounced on a writer who had a bounty of five million dollars on his head for having, in Khomeini's view, blasphemed Islam and its prophet Mohammed.

Leon Wieseltier, literary editor of the _New Republic_ , and William Styron condemned the cowardly writers. John Updike remarked in a press interview, "If we can't stand up on this issue and be counted, is our blessed freedom of speech worth a pin?" Gay Talese stated, "The character of American writers is very much on the line at this moment, and it looks like many of them lack the courage of the convictions they so often and so loudly espouse." Karen Kennerly took a more charitable line: "I think it's because they were stunned and didn't know what would be good for Rushdie." ABC's _Good Morning America_ could not get Norman Mailer and Arthur Miller to appear and discuss the fatwa against Rushdie. "I'm astonished," Grove and Trueheart quoted Sontag as saying.

This kind of intimidation has a very strong chance of being successful. We feel superior, in our imagination, to those Germans who in 1933 and 1934 didn't protest when their Jewish colleagues were being fired or dragged off in the middle of the night to camps. It's clear that the threat of violence by people perceived as fanatics is very terrifying.... But we have to be brave.

Sontag announced that PEN planned to run advertisements in major newspapers around the world protesting Rushdie's plight, and that PEN would hold a mass meeting in Manhattan.

With Sontag in the lead, Talese, Wieseltier, Styron, and a few other writers continued speaking out. Soon Mailer and others came out visibly against the fatwa. Bookstores restocked the novel, and President Bush issued a rebuke (albeit a mild one) to Iran's leader. The sequence of events, Sontag said, had been "educational." Writers had admitted to her they were scared. She sympathized with their feelings, if not with their actions: "We're not talking about people picketing here. We're talking about assassination." She did not know, of course, what the consequences of the writers' protest might be, but she wondered, "What if the Iranians change the decree and add his defenders to the death sentence on Rushdie and his publishers?" Later, two bookstores in Berkeley, California, were fire-bombed, Rushdie's Japanese translator was murdered, his Italian translator was wounded in a knife attack, and his Norwegian publisher shot.

As PEN president, Sontag cabled President Bush, urging him to "take the necessary steps to protect American citizens in the free and unintimidated exercise of their constitutional rights." She called Khoumeini's action "censorship by terror," adding, "a fear that it has engendered, strikes not only at writers, publishers and booksellers, but finally at libraries, schools and the entire basis of the U.S. as a literate, free country." On February 22, Sontag addressed an audience of several hundred in a Soho loft, people who had come, in her words, "to show a little civic fortitude under intimidation."

Many in PEN thought Sontag's unhesitating support of Rushdie constituted her finest moment. She noted that Rushdie was her friend, as well as a writer in need. Showing fear now would mean that "all of our institutions are hijacked." This was not about one persecuted writer, she told the audience, "[T]his is an act of terrorism against the life of the mind." Sontag's call for a wider protest was answered with writers' rallies in Boston, Washington, Chicago, Minneapolis, and San Francisco. A Boston bookstore pledged that it would give the profits from the sale of Rushdie's novel to PEN. Screen Actors Guild president Barry Gordon sent Sontag a letter applauding PEN. "Susan Sontag was ubiquitous" in the Rushdie defense campaign, reported Richard Cohen of the _St. Louis Post-Dispatch_.

Nearly a month later, Sontag appeared before a US Senate subcommittee on terrorism, testifying, "Incredibly, at no point in this affair has the president, the State Department or anyone in the government actually issued a formal statement. Every utterance on the Rushdie matter—and there have been few—has been made in the form of a response to questions from the news media." Yet the fatwa was sure to have a "chilling effect" on the publication of controversial books. What publisher would take the risk if the US government did not "stand up to Iran." She added, "Please do what you can to further the awareness—in yourselves, in the Executive Branch, and in your constituents—that our integrity as a nation is as endangered by an attack on a writer as on an oil tanker." Senator Patrick Moynihan had a question for her: "How much violence are you prepared to countenance in response to violence?" In other words, what should be the practical effect of her fighting words? "If you are asking do I think we should go to war with Iran over this affair, I do not," Sontag replied.

Although Sontag continued to receive admiring press, Charles Krauthammer concluded, "Ah, courage. Thumbing your nose at the imam from a Soho loft is indeed a thrill. But only among the bored and vain can it pass for heroism." But Richard Cohen argued in response, "Contempt for intellectuals is as American as apple pie and a staple of conservative politics." Organizations seek out figures who command public attention in their own right. How could PEN not be pleased with a leader who acted on the organization's principles and made them manifest to the world at large?
24

PITCHING SUSAN SONTAG

1986–89

Late in 1986, Sontag served on the film festival jury at the East-West Center of the University of Hawaii. She had been invited by Jeanette Paulson, a film festival organizer, who wrote directly to Sontag at her home address at the urging of a mutual friend, film critic Donald Ritchie, who had a high opinion of the festival. Paulson remembered how easy Sontag was to talk to. Sontag seemed so interested in other people and not at all egotistical. She was a refreshing change from some of the other jury members with big names. Paulson's impressions, she remembered, were shared by the jury (consisting of a Filipino, a Japanese, an Australian, and an Indian), which enthusiastically elected Sontag chairman. Sontag proved to be not only well liked, but also a good organizer, a superb discussion leader, an articulate spokesman for the jury, and an enthusiastic participant in public events. Paulson later received gracious letters from Sontag, along with an autographed book. Sontag was excited about seeing new Asian films and would sometimes write to Paulson with recommendations for the festival. They shared a belief that film should be accessible to everyone. Paulson believed Sontag liked that the festival was free and open to the public.

In early December 1986 (the festival ran from November 30–December 6), a distraught Sontag had to withdraw from the final events. Mildred Sontag had suddenly taken ill and died of lung cancer. On December 10, Donald Richie wrote to Susan Sontag, praising her ability to carry on:

I have long admired as well as loved you but this time more than ever.

I knew this most when I watched you, fresh from the hospital, return to the hotel to give a brilliant summation of—of all things—humor. And you did so in the very face of watching your mother die from the very disease you have so long battled. You must be feeling all sorts of things now because your mother was so important to your growing up and you had so many different feelings, all of which are now resolving themselves.

Sontag had spoken tenderly about her mother during the Hawaii visit, but Richie's last words reveal the truth; Sontag's feelings about her mother would never be resolved. Nat Sontag would die in another year.

On December 21, 1987, a little over a year after her mother's death, Sontag published "Pilgrimage," her only memoir, in the _New Yorker_. The piece is a hostile portrait of her southern California years that belittles her stepfather, while making her mother seem aloof. The loving Susan Sontag, who liked to speak fondly of her mother on her visits to Hawaii, does not appear in "Pilgrimage." She keeps her more complicated feelings about her mother to herself, concentrating instead on her sense of isolation and on the few friends who could share her intellectual and aesthetic interests. In that respect, the memoir seems faithful to Sontag's experience. As in Sontag's other brief reminiscences, her sister, Judith, seems almost not to exist.

"Pilgrimage" did not so much mark a change in Sontag's presentation of herself as it intensified her patented posture: She remained publicly visible and available, while at the same time stressing her aloofness and desire to be left alone. Journalist Helen Benedict, assigned to do a profile of Sontag in the summer of 1988, remarked that "getting to meet her is a bit like trying to meet Joan of Arc on her day off." Farrar, Straus and Giroux requested Benedict's press clips, and even after that screening she was told, "Oh, I don't know when we'll fit you in.... Oh, she'll never let you into her apartment." Put through her paces, Benedict felt tricked when she easily got Sontag on the phone and set up the interview. "I don't know what they think my life is like," an irritable Sontag said to Benedict. "All I do is sit in my hot apartment all day and write." Benedict worked hard to earn a wary Sontag's approval. "She really liked my Brodsky piece," said Benedict, who could tell Sontag was relieved that she had not "let an idiot into her house who would ask stupid questions and trivialize things. I'd never been tested like that before." But Sontag warmed to her, Benedict said: "One thing that I really appreciated was that unlike some of my other interviewees she was interested in who I was." While it was a serious interview, they had their share of giggles together. And to think, Benedict remembered, "all the people at Farrar, Straus made her sound like a dragon."

The Benedict profile showcased Sontag's very public irritation about being treated like a public figure. "Some people are awkward with me," Sontag told Benedict. "When they come up to me and say, 'I admire your work, but you intimidate me,' I feel as if I've been slapped in the face. It's such an act of hostility." Yet later in the interview Benedict reports that Sharon DeLano, a New York editor close to both Sontag and son, declared that "Susan is fierce."

Like a good many reporters, Benedict wanted to get some perspective on a subject who had spent nearly twenty-five years in the public eye. She saw a woman thicker around the hips who joked about too many trips to the refrigerator. Sontag looked pale and tired, as well as tall and strong, her somber demeanor cracking apart suddenly in a big, goofy smile. These lighter moments relieved Sontag of about twenty years, so Benedict was able to glimpse the young woman writer Herbert Mitgang had once called a "literary pinup." But the notion of being in vogue brought a petulant response from Benedict's subject:

I wrote about some things no one else was writing about. Then people came along and said what I'd done was trendy. And this accusation is one of the reasons I rarely write about contemporary things anymore. I thought I was performing a public service, sharing the pleasure of discovering things, but if I'm going to be accused of being trendy, to hell with it.

Yet Sontag could not gainsay her image, disclosing that she dyed her greying hair black except for her signature streak of white. Benedict had been terrified to ask Sontag about her hair, although her editors insisted she do so. Sontag laughed. "She thought it was a funny question, and it elicited this really very informative answer," Benedict said.

Along with maintaining her image, Sontag made another concession to the marketplace. She acquired a high-flying agent, Andrew Wylie. Publically, Roger Straus gave his blessing. In his seventies, Straus would soon sell his firm to Holtzbrinck, acknowledging the inevitable: the virtual demise of independent publishing houses in New York. Straus would remain in charge of his company, but he realized that sooner or later Sontag would need a younger, well-placed champion. In a world where huge multi-national conglomerates acquire publishers, and where editors move peripatetically from firm to firm, making it difficult to maintain an author-editor alliance, a superagent like Wylie has enormous leverage.

But as Boris Kachka reports in his history of Farrar, Straus & Giroux,

the switch to Wylie was anything but smooth. After an apartment fire, Sontag realized, in her son's words, that she was "underinsured." She asked Straus for help, and he refused. "He never gave her a dime," David Rieff told Kachka, "and he underpaid her for her work." Sontag had also embarked on a new novel that was to become the successful _Volcano Lover_ , and she needed the time that only money can buy. "The economy got way ahead of me," she declared in an interview. "I'm not making any more money than I was making ten years ago, so I'm a lot poorer." Wylie wrote to Straus, proposing a four-book deal for "real money," $800,000. According to Kachka, Straus spent weeks storming around his firm's dingy hallways, complaining about that "cunt." When Straus capitulated, he considered the new contract "generous." A scornful David Rieff called it "paying market price for something, not getting a discount because he was Roger Straus."

In public, Straus and Sontag behaved like genial and loyal partners, but David Rieff assured Kachka that publisher and prized author never regained their rapport. Straus's successor, Jonathan Galassi, concedes that Straus was paternalistic—one might say like a padrone who treated his authors like made men. And this is how Homer Stern, Straus's stand-in, behaves in _Muse_ , Galassi's roman à clef. And here a woman had defied him. For Sontag, it was simple, as she told Galassi: "I was happy to be a poor intellectual in New York when everyone else was, but then when money came along in the eighties [the era of high advances] everything changed." And of course, Sontag had her own reasons for choosing Wylie, telling a reporter, "I've decided to pay a little more attention to what happens to my books. Really I think I was living on the moon or the 19th century." Before Wylie, Sontag felt like the only "only writer in America who didn't have" an agent.

I was really pretending as if I were some not-for-profit foundation, which is fine if you have a private income but not so fine if you have no money but what you earn yourself and no resources and no family to help out.... I don't want to be this totally undefended person who just says, "Oh, just give me a contract; I'll sign it and not read it."

By the late 1980s, Andrew Wylie had acquired a menacing moniker: "the Jackal." Agent Mort Janklow states the case memorably: "Wylie is to the literary business what Roy Cohn is to the legal business." Agents accused Wylie of stealing their clients. An angry Harriet Wasserman, who felt Wylie had poached on her twenty-five year relationship with Saul Bellow, told Wylie, "You have more literary territory than Alexander the Great." Wylie lured novelist Martin Amis—up to then accustomed to modest advances—to his list and transformed a literary phenomenon into a hot commercial property.

Wylie had just begun a new phase of entrepreneurial activity. With a client inventory that included Salman Rushdie, Norman Mailer, Saul Bellow, Philip Roth, and many other mature as well as promising literary lights, he shifted from expeditionary to establishment mode. The press reported on Wylie's new position. Frank Bruni titled his article in the _New York Times Magazine_ (August 11, 1996) "The Literary Agent as Zelig." As Bruni wrote, "Andrew Wylie has turned a groupie's love of famous authors, an accountant's eye for the bottom line and a sprinter's sense of competition into a global enterprise." The Zelig-like Wylie, an extravagant admirer of literary greatness, would become Sontag's marketplace alter ego. Wylie on himself sounded like the Susan Sontag of _Under the Sign of Saturn_ , projecting herself onto the lives of the writers she adores. For Rebecca Mead's profile, "Mister Pitch" ( _New York Magazine_ , August 5, 1996), Wylie obligingly stated:

I have a nature that is sort of adoptive. I don't have a very stable character of my own; I have a series of sort of borrowed personalities. So I think the reason why I can frequently represent someone successfully is, I am literally able not only to see the world from their perspective but actually to become them. So I know pretty accurately what they want because I have abandoned my former personality and climbed inside theirs. So if I spend a day and a half with Susan Sontag and you catch me at the end of the day, you'll swear it's Susan Sontag.

In late February 1989, just after Wylie had publicized Sontag's multibook contract, she made an appearance at Endicott Booksellers in Manhattan to speak about her new book, _AIDS and Its Metaphors_. Stuart Bernstein, in charge of the event, looked forward to meeting an author he had long admired. Bad weather delayed Sontag's appearance for about a half hour, as the store filled up with an overflow crowd of about two hundred, including three or four reporters and photographers. Bernstein was a little surprised by the presence of journalists who said someone had promised them front row seats. The store usually had trouble convincing the press to attend author talks. Jonathan Mandell of _Newsday_ watched a testy Sontag field hostile questions. When a questioner doubted her contention that using metaphors to fight disease was so wrong, she snapped, "I don't understand what you're talking about."

After the talk, Bernstein escorted the author to a table near the front of the store, where Sontag held court and signed books for a long line of people. He stood by to monitor the supply of books and to make sure Sontag had no problems. In a loud voice, she announced to Bernstein, "I considered cancelling this reading because Endicott had canceled a reading by Salman Rushdie." Taken aback by Sontag's confrontational tone, Bernstein wondered why she had not called before and discussed her concern. Bernstein recalled that Rushdie had been scheduled to read from _The Satanic Verses_ well before the fatwa, and before the tremendous publicity over the threat to the First Amendment his case exemplified—although there were already rumors of bomb threats at Viking Penguin, Rushdie's publisher. Endicott's owner, Encarnita V. Quinlan, had indeed decided that the independent bookstore, housed in a residential building, could not handle the security and the expense of such an event, and presumed the publisher would find a safer venue for its author.

Bernstein tried to be polite, feeling this was not the moment to engage in a debate, but Sontag went on for perhaps ten minutes, making what seemed to him pompous statements prefaced with, "As the President of PEN...." Interspersed with this tirade, Sontag's repeatedly queried him as to the commercial success of the event: "How many books do you think we sold?" Bernstein finally went to the back of the store to check sales figures. When he returned to Sontag's table, he found she had left without a word.

After Sontag left, Bernstein half-expected to get some sort of apology or explanation from her, such as "I was having a bad night." Something. But there was nothing. He complained bitterly to Farrar, Straus & Giroux, and the sales rep was not surprised by Sontag's actions. Bernstein was told that she had been sent to a coach to learn how to be an author on tour. Bernstein said her behavior had been a "life-changing experience" for him, tempering his tendency to form idealized images of major cultural figures. Gary Indiana would not have been surprised at Bernstein's experience. Sontag rarely had time for what she considered nobodies. As he puts it in _I Can Give You Anything But Love_ , "Susan often cultivated people she privately held low opinions about, if they were famous enough." As for the rest, Indiana reports, "She was unflaggingly rude to waiters, cab drivers, hotel clerks."

At just about this time, Brandon Larson began working at Susan Sontag's favorite Manhattan bookstore, Books & Company. At their first meeting, he did not immediately recognize her. "May I help you," he asked. She stared at him and asked in turn, "Who are you?" (She was used to dealing with Peter Philbrook, whose position Larson had just filled). Taken aback, Larson suddenly realized he was addressing Susan Sontag. Her tone offended him. On subsequent visits to the bookstore Sontag seemed friendlier, and Larson concluded that her initial reaction to him reflected her way of coping with strangers who accosted her. Soon he began ordering books for her, and she enjoyed browsing the shelves and talking to him about authors. One book would lead her to another. It was like taking a course: "Have you read this?... And he was influenced by... You have to read this...." The store lined its shelves with her enthusiasms, and the staff let her stay after closing time, still scanning the shelves.

Some mornings Sontag would come into the store cranky, in a rut. Larson liked this aspect of her, this evidence of the drama of being a writer. He remembered Sontag coming into the store one morning, saying, "God, I've been writing all night." It had been a hot summer. She would write and sweat, write and sweat, she declared. Writing had to be a "real physical thing for her," Larson believed, "It's not a cool word processing, you know, writing." Sontag made it seem a struggle—a physical, passionate affair.
25

"THE WAY WE LIVE NOW"

1987–92

On January 15, 1987, Paul Thek wrote to Susan Sontag to tell her he had AIDS. He then reminisced about their conflicted relationship and what she meant to him. They had failed one another, he thought.

I'm just not that sort of guy to be available... on cue.... I saw you (did I tell you) as a kind of Rosa Luxembourg, the red rebel, and my fascination was the goodness of your politics... I recall... that you'd been told that you had a tumor and that you wanted to have one more child before you lost the option... that I had been really stupefied by your request, it came so very out of the blue! We had only slept together once or twice before that... (my thoughts were much concerned with the medical situation, the health possibilities of you... with a tumor... assuming _you could_ even yet bear a child) when you saw my hesitation... you became irate... you cut off all contact... I forgive you for what it's worth.

Thek's letter suggests the power Sontag could exert on friends and lovers—and also the panic she could experience when contemplating her own mortality. Only a few friends, like Nadine Gordimer, were privy to just how vulnerable Sontag felt. When Sontag wrote about her despair and loneliness and her failed love affairs, Gordimer answered, "[I]t's difficult to imagine how there could be someone who didn't love you. I can't help having some faith in the old belief... that love comes only when you look away from it, when, as now, you turn away to the constant resource, your work. I can't believe that love won't come back to you, in one form or another, like the unbidden unicorn, and lay its head in your lap."

Sontag looked for consolation and support, but she often could not empathize with others in trouble. In the case of Cynthia Ozick, Sontag withdrew, apparently in disgust, when, in her view, too much was expected of her. Like Thek, Ozick wrote as someone who had failed Susan Sontag. To Ozick, Sontag, with her "authority and achievement," seemed incapable of imagining what it was like to be "without confidence, internal or external." Expressing her own troubles and humiliations, Ozick was shocked when Sontag replied, "[A]s if I had abused you." Sontag had treated Ozick as an offender, and Ozick wanted her to see it from the other side: "[H]ere's this lame guy, and here's Susan Sontag yelling 'Move along! Get going! Whats a matter, got lead in your pants?'"

Thek's letter came at a time when pressure from the gay community was mounting for Sontag to say something about AIDS. But she had resisted, writing to Andrew Britton, "AIDS may be equated with gayness, as you say. But I don't predict much relief from these punitive attitudes as the incident of AIDS among heterosexuals rises." In the end, she felt compelled to address the devastating impact of the disease. On November 24, 1986, the _New Yorker_ published her tour-de-force story, "The Way We Live Now." It became an instant classic, reprinted at the beginning of _The Best American Short Stories 1987_. The story was dramatized in performances across the country, and widely discussed in books and articles surveying literary treatments of AIDS. Novelist David Leavitt called the story therapeutic, making him feel "less alone in my dread, and therefore brave enough to read more." The story "transcended horror and grief, and... was therefore redemptive, if not of AIDS itself, then at least of the processes by which people cope with it.... It offered a possibility of catharsis, and at that point catharsis was something we all badly needed."

Leavitt is referring to a time when contracting AIDS seemed an immediate death sentence, when artists such as Robert Mapplethorpe, suspecting they had AIDS, refused to be tested for the disease. Sontag saw that the stigma attached to AIDS made patients feel isolated and fearful, much as cancer had made society shun the ill and the ill shun society.

Sontag wrote "The Way We Live Now" after receiving a phone call telling her that another close friend had AIDS. She started crying. She could not sleep. She took a bath. Then the first words of the story began to form. "It was given to me," she told interviewer Kenny Fries, "ready to be born. I got out of the bathtub and started writing standing up. I wrote the story very quickly, in two days, drawing on experience of my own cancer and a friend's stroke. Radical experiences are similar." She had visited the friend with a stroke, Joseph Chaikin, almost every day, as others had visited her in the hospital. Chaikin could not talk, and it may be that his inability to speak gave Sontag the key to constructing a story in which everyone except the sick person would have a voice.

As Sontag would later say of _AIDS and Its Metaphors_ , "The Way We Live Now" is not just about AIDS, it is about extreme changes in society. The story's title, taken from Trollope's novel, suggests that her overarching theme is, in critic Elaine Showalter's words, "a loss of community and ethical value." The word AIDS is never used in the story, which is, like so much of Sontag's fiction, generic and allegorical, moving away from the specifics of culture to the platonic universals or first principles she pursued so persistently. What makes "The Way We Live Now" compelling, however, is its grounding in the human voice, in the twenty-six narrators (one for each letter of the alphabet) who make up the society that reacts to the AIDS phenomenon.

The story also concerns a society that is ill. Its complex layering of speeches and social and psychological observations is emphasized by long sentences that continually switch speakers, so that a community of friends with varying viewpoints is evoked sentence by sentence. The story has an effect comparable to the one hundred chapters of Trollope's great novel compressed into one hundred sentences. The speakers retain their individuality, yet they also become a chorus in a Greek tragedy. They do not speak the same thoughts at once, but the syntax of the sentences make them seem bound to each other—as bound together by their community of feeling as by the clauses that make up Sontag's sentences. A given speaker's thought at the beginning of a sentence is carried on, refuted, modified, or adumbrated by speakers in successive parts of the sentence. Each sentence is a grammatical unit that links the speakers to one another. Whatever their attitudes toward the disease, they cannot escape the thought of it. Thinking of it is, as one of them says, the way they live now.

_AIDS and Its Metaphors_ is a less personal response to the disease than "The Way We Live Now" for in the former Sontag aims to continue the argument of _Illness as Metaphor_ , to "dedramatize illness." Yet Sontag dedicated the book, "for Paul [Thek] August 10, 1988," who had succumbed to AIDS. She visited the dying Thek regularly and read Rilke's "Duino Elegies" at his bedside. Thek's friend, Ann Wilson, remembered how he cherished Sontag's attention after their period of estrangement.

_AIDS and Its Metaphors_ appeared amidst a politicized climate that subsumed almost anything Sontag had to say into urgent calls for massive government action to cure the disease. Her attack on AIDS metaphors received a less than grateful reception, in part because some activists on behalf of AIDS research and treatment found they needed the metaphors she decried for propaganda purposes. To call AIDS a plague, for example, might offend Sontag's sensibility, but what if it produced not just fear, but more government help? In a series of lectures on AIDS, her standard reply to the question reiterated her rejection of alarmism as self-defeating. The public would soon tire of predictions of an apocalypse that never quite arrived, she conjectured, and would instead be immobilized by an atmosphere of "apocalypse from now on."

Sontag's cool, reserved tone—so effective in demolishing the romanticism and dread surrounding diseases like tuberculosis and cancer—enraged certain gays. Her language seemed to divorce her from the suffering of a whole community. She used words like homosexual and sodomy. Never once did she use the word gay. When it was not attacked as evasive, her rhetoric was deemed conservative—even reactionary. Passage after passage of her work provoked querulous critics to demand a more forthright statement. Where exactly did she stand?

One passage seemed especially troubling because it epitomized her habit of dodging issues:

Of course, between the perennial official hypocrisy and the fashionable libertinism of recent decades there is a vast gap. The view that sexually transmitted diseases are not serious reached its apogee in the 1970s, which was also when many male homosexuals reconstituted themselves as something like an ethnic group, one whose distinctive folkloric custom was sexual voracity, and the institutions of urban homosexual life became a sexual delivery system of unprecedented speed, efficiency, and volume. Fear of AIDS enforces a much more moderate exercise of appetite, and not just among homosexual men. In the United States sexual behavior pre-1981 now seems for the middle class part of a lost age of innocence—innocence in the guise of licentiousness, of course. After two decades of sexual spending, of sexual speculation, of sexual inflation, we are in the early stages of a sexual depression. Looking back on the sexual culture of the 1970s has been compared to looking back on the jazz age from the wrong side of the 1929 crash.

Words like libertinism and licentiousness have an antique flavor and seem to constitute an extraordinary use of vocabulary for the once hip Susan Sontag. This moralistic language is balanced by use of almost clinical, academic terminology dealing with the "sexual delivery system" of urban homosexual life. She is more direct when she asserts, "[W]e are in the early stages of a sexual depression." But then, where is Susan Sontag in the passage's last sentence? Who is looking back? We? Who is doing the comparing? Others? Susan Sontag? Both?

The stern yet evasive wording of this passage contributed to a feeling among gays that Sontag was guilty of bad faith. She was using terms with connotations that condemned gayness. She seemed immune to the gay aesthetic—indeed she did not acknowledge its existence, but retreated into vague clichés about homosexuality. Her most vocal critics believed that she would gain more authority and a sense of authenticity for her work if she made an open declaration of her sexual orientation.

It is not as if Sontag's sexual orientation had not been acknowledged publicly—as early as Philip Rieff's lawsuit. An entry devoted to her appeared in a reference book, _Gay and Lesbian Biography_ , but without a specific comment about her sexuality. She was also included in _The Gay and Lesbian Heritage_ , where mention is made of her "lesbian sexuality." In _We Must Love One Another or Die: The Life and Legacies of Larry Kramer_ (1997), author Larry Mass referred to Sontag's "public (official) invisibility as lesbian" and cited her relationship with her "longtime companion, Annie Leibovitz."

Yet some gays and lesbians accorded Sontag a special status. Witness the gay activist/writer Larry Kramer, famous for outing public figures that remained closeted gays or lesbians. He felt that their silence injured the movement for gay and lesbian rights and the battle against AIDS. But when Mass pressed Kramer on the subject of Sontag, Kramer rejoined,

Susan is... beyond being a lesbian. I know I'm probably saying something very politically incorrect, but, except for the fact that she has affairs with women, she doesn't really fit into that category.... What she is more than anything else is an Intellectual, with a capital I.... I look upon her as... some great goddess that is on Mount Olympus and beyond sexuality, beyond category.

And perhaps this is how Sontag saw herself.

Ned Rorem, referring to Sontag's liaison with Nicole Stéphane, substituted the euphemism companion for lover. Mass and other gay and lesbian critics of Sontag wanted some acknowledgment that her own sexual orientation just might have something to do with the subjects she wrote about, or with the stance she chose to adopt toward them. Instead, in their view, she had been deceptive, presenting a counterfeit of herself, so to speak, to the public.

To put it another way, the society of women among whom Sontag nurtured herself was a part of cultural history. Yet even a cultural historian such as Harvey Teres, in _Renewing the Left: Politics, Imagination, and the New York Intellectual_ (1996), explained the difficulty of saying anything about what amounted to a secretive elite:

Relationships among women are often formed backstage, so to speak, away from the spotlight of public alliances and battles. This is of course especially true of lesbians, whose lives and culture scholars are just beginning to explore. There are layers of mutual influence, sympathy, and animosity among women that the historian must search out. As yet, we have no accepted vocabulary for these kinds of connections beyond alluding to "traditions" of female experience, literary and otherwise, or to "communities" of women. Categories such as support group, affinity group, or even subculture hardly do justice to the actual scope of their experiences.

Naturally, certain gay and lesbian writers were distressed that the context in which Sontag lived was reflected nowhere in her writing, as if she inhabited a heterosexual world separate from "homosexuals." For them, the socially lesbian Sontag did not square with the heterosexual writer/clinician. As Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick points out in _Epistemology of the Closet_ (1990), "closetedness is itself a performance." By remaining silent about her sexual orientation, Sontag indulged in her own form of the "aesthetics of silence."

In October 1992, in a speech delivered to the Publishing Triangle's Writer's Weekend, a young lesbian novelist, Sarah Schulman, renewed the appeal to Sontag to come out. Schulman took aim at the _New York Times Magazine_ cover story profile (part of the campaign to sell _The Volcano Lover_ ), which presented Sontag as a heterosexual:

Why isn't she concerned about the contribution she is withholding from us when she refuses—as one of the most respected women in the world—to come out as the dyke that she is? Lesbians suffer a real brain drain because so many of our great artists, leaders, and social thinkers are closeted. What does Sontag have to say about the struggle to build an integrated homosexual life? And how to build activist movements? About how to strategize to end AIDS? She did write a book... but her closet kept her from addressing homophobia and its impact on the epidemic in precisely the way that her openness about having cancer enhanced her analysis of the stigmatization of disease.... Can anything other than the desire to be accepted by straight people be at the root of Sontag's closet?

In her novel, _Rat Bohemia_ (1995), Schulman brilliantly evokes a bereft world of young lesbians and gays, disowned by their parents and shunned by society. Speaking of herself and her friends, Rita, _Rat Bohemia_ 's narrator, remarks, "[T]he problem is to how to keep us out." Rita yearns for "Someone to be on her side. Someone to defend her." Another character, Muriel Kay Starr, a high profile writer, presents herself as a power broker, a master of the blurb, who complains that her gay writer friend, David, abuses her generosity by attacking her in print ( _Caracole_?). She subjects Rita to a lecture on how hard she has worked for the ungrateful David. "You're leaving out some very important information," Rita counters. "Like what?" asks Starr. "He was mad at you for writing closeted novels. For not even being out in your author bio on the back of the book." Starr mentions a gay publication she has published in (the Sontag interview in _Out_?) and dismisses Rita, summing up David as just another jealous male writer, the kind who simply cannot stand women who are smarter. Meeting Schulman at a party, Larry Mass commented on Starr's resemblance to Sontag, and he thought that Schulman tacitly acknowledged the identification, although she later denied she had Sontag in mind.

Later Schulman wanted to distance herself from the appeal to Sontag to come out. "I admire Susan Sontag a great deal," Schulman said. "[T]hat's all I can tell you. I assume that she's gay, but she never told me." According to Larry Mass, Schulman did not deny so much as distance herself from her earlier outspoken remarks about Sontag. She frankly acknowledged, in Mass's words, her fears about "how much damage this could cause her if it becomes too public." Camille Paglia, writing to Sontag's biographers, explained that in a draft of her essay, "Sontag Bloody Sontag," Random House lawyers "red-penciled" out a passage excoriating behavior

grossly hypocritical in giving selected photos to the NYT. She was always claiming that her personal record was irrelevant to her vocation of writer. Surrendering family photos is hardly consistent with that pose. To be publicizing her early relationship with a man [Philip Rieff], to the exclusion of all her subsequent relationships with women including her current one with a famous media professional [Annie Leibovitz], was close to delusional—and the NYT's own behavior, in allowing that kind of dictatorial editing by a subject, was unethical in the extreme.

Random House lawyers warned Paglia that saying what she knew about Sontag's sexuality might invite legal action. They specifically pointed to Sontag's suit against _Soho Weekly News_.

Sontag enforced a politesse concerning her sexual orientation that inevitably became an aspect of her biography—and for understandable reasons, as, her high school classmate Jamake Highwater observes in _The Mythology of Transgression: Homosexuality as Metaphor_ :

No matter how vigorously we have attempted to redefine the term "homosexuality," it still has the built-in pathological context as a distortion of heterosexuality. Homosexuality is not about being someone. It is, on the contrary, about not being what one should be, namely, a heterosexual. We speak of ourselves as homosexual only because our orientation has been given a name that doesn't designate what we are but what we have failed to be.

Sontag reified the terms homosexual and homosexuality countless times in her writing, reinforcing a barrier she and her society erected, one that excludes another kind of language, a different kind of aesthetic.

To search for a new language, to construct an image of herself that was neither homosexual nor heterosexual, would be difficult. What label would satisfy? Why a label at all? Highwater's book offers insight into the problem:

Probably one of the many reasons some people are reluctant to reveal their homosexuality is because they are uncomfortable with an arbitrary definition of who and what they are and with whom they do or do not share their identity. For instance, the openly gay novelist Djuna Barnes deeply resented being called a lesbian, not apparently, because of any moral proprieties or because of her social coyness, but because the categorical description of her sexuality seemed to her too loaded with unacceptable preconceptions.

In the early 1980s, Sontag canvassed the possibilities of coming out, as became clear at Roger Straus's house during a party for James Lord, a Farrar, Straus & Giroux author who had just published a book on Alberto Giacometti. After dinner, guests gathered for coffee in the living room. Hilton Kramer remembered walking in, seeing Sontag sitting in a chair, a group of admirers literally sitting on the floor at her feet: Walter Clemons, a book critic at _Newsweek_ ; Fred Tuten, a novelist who taught with Sontag at City College; and Tuten's wife, then an Farrar, Straus & Giroux employee. "There was a discussion that evening," Kramer recalled, "whether gays benefitted or lost something from coming out." Like Walter Clemons, James Lord was gay. Lord adamantly maintained that it was better to be in the closet. "Sontag was all for coming out," Kramer reported, and Lord, no friend of Kramer's, seconded his recollection. Lord remembered Kramer violently disagreeing with her. Lord's position on coming out changed (see his memoir, _Picasso and Dora_ , for a graceful example of how he incorporates his gay sexuality into his experience with art and artists). Kramer, wondering about Sontag's own closeted life, concluded that she felt it was "the right thing for other people to do. Curiously, whether through an assumed collective sense of delicacy or not, this was all about homosexual men and the issue of homosexual women never came into the discussion."

Over the years Richard Howard and other openly gay friends close to Sontag urged her to come out, and they were frustrated with her approach/avoidance behavior. At one point, Howard put together a panel of gay and lesbian authors, expecting Sontag would lend her name to it—if not exactly coming out, then taking a step in that direction. But ultimately she declined the invitation, provoking one intimate of hers to call her closetedness so deep-seated as to be pathological.

Sedgwick shows that there is a "a family of reasons" for not coming out. In Sontag's case, to come out was to risk losing control of her persona and to jeopardize her iconic power. Often coming out does settle questions of identity, but raises them, especially since gays and lesbians—not to mention the culture at large—have debated the genetic and social origins of sexual identity. When the enterprising Zoe Heller ("Side by Side with Sontag," _Irish Times_ , September 26, 1992) asked Sontag point-blank about her sexuality (after fortifying herself with testimony from friends who said all Sontag's love affairs had been with women), Heller reported,

Sontag refuses to be categorized as a lesbian, or to confirm the status of her relationship with her long-term companion, the photographer Annie Leibovitz: "Of course I think it's wonderful that a woman of 59 is assumed to have an active emotional life—which I have—but I don't talk about my erotic life any more than I talk about my spiritual life. It is... too complex and it always ends up sounding so banal."

With her iconic status assured, Sontag also confronted the dilemma of many stars: Others wanted to use her for their own purposes, to shape her into their ideas about the proper role model. Yet not to deal with her sexual orientation at all seemed a harsh alternative, making Sontag's work more problematic and making her seem more withdrawn from her times than she really was.
26

_THE VOLCANO LOVER_

1990–92

I have a volcano in my heart. —Sontag, in conversation with Marian Christy, _Chicago Tribune_ , September 27, 1992

On July 17, 1990, Susan Sontag won a "genius award," the John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation fellowship for "exceptionally gifted individuals." Sontag, then fifty-seven, was overheard to say, "It's about time." She had complained for years about not getting the grants she deserved. E. L. Doctorow, sympathetic to her plight, remembers how sore she was about what she perceived as neglect. Larry McMurtry wrote to her, "What wonderful news, your MacArthur. I remember early in our friendship you said gloomily that you'd never get one: she's probably right, I thought. How nice we were so mistaken." He had been trying to sell her archive for her, but so far had not found a buyer. Now she had a five-year, $340,000 grant. The award would help pay the rent, and she could cut back on lecturing.

In early 1991, in the Chelsea section of Manhattan, Sontag purchased a penthouse apartment situated in the sixteen-story London Terrace, known as "the fashion projects," because so many designers lived in its fourteen buildings, which take up an entire block between 23rd and 24th streets and Ninth and Tenth avenues. Sontag's lover, Annie Leibovitz, also had an apartment there, and the two shared storage space. Beginning in the 1980s, Chelsea had begun to rival Soho as a location for artists. It was an easy walk from London Terrace to Leibovitz's studio on Varick and Van Dam. Built between 1929 and 1931, London Terrace had originally functioned as a city within a city, promoting itself as the world's largest apartment complex, with every amenity and a full-service staff. No longer quite so all encompassing, it is still an impressive edifice, a blend of Gothic and Romanesque architecture that has, in the words of a _New York Times_ article, an appeal for the "smart set" and for artists with a "higher developed sense of esthetics." In decor and ambiance, the penthouse did not differ that much from previous Sontag abodes: airy, all-white, with wood floors, prints on the walls, and shelves and shelves of books (twelve to fifteen thousand of them) "advancing like a crazed kudzu vine," as one interviewer observed. The apartment was also furnished with a well-worn couch and a Mission chair. Sontag's penthouse was spare, spacious, Spartan, austere, monastic.

By the early 1990s, Sontag and Leibovitz had become a much gossiped about item in New York, occasionally breaking into print in published photographs and in news stories that mentioned their "friendship." They first met in 1989, according to Leibovitz, although Leibovitz's photographs of Sontag date from 1988. Leibovitz said she sweated through her clothes at the prospect of talking to Sontag. She confessed that Sontag "told me she thought I could be good." Or as Leibovitz put it in a later interview, Sontag said, "[Y]ou could be better." In awe of Sontag's authority and flattered by her attention, Leibovitz became part of an entourage of followers that accompanied or received Sontag during her entrances to Manhattan speaking engagements. Only after Sontag died did Leibovitz admit publicly that they were lovers.

In _A Photographer's Life_ (2006), Leibovitz provides a connoisseur's collection of pictures of Sontag at home and abroad. The book opens in Petra, an ancient city in Jordan, where Sontag stands like a human column framed by the rocky sides of a gorge, her back to the camera, gazing at a gigantic classical facade. She is pictured

• biking on Hedges Lane, Wainscott, Long Island;

• walking barefooted in rolled-up jeans along a beach in Southampton, Long Island, with her agent Andrew Wylie;

• in Mexico inside a car brushing back her hair;

• at breakfast in the Hotel Gritti Palace in Venice;

• stretched out on a rumpled bed in Berlin, the heels of her tennis shoes just touching the floor;

• in London Terrace relaxing on a sofa, a huge photographer's lamp behind her;

• smiling and crossing her legs in the Grand Hotel Quissisana in Capri as the light filters through the open door to the balcony;

• in her book-lined study in New York, wearing reading glasses, pencil in hand, looking over something her assistant Karla Eoff is working on (followed by a shot of _The Volcano Lover_ on the screen of a MacIntosh SE computer); on the balcony of London Terrace, covered in a blanket except for her head, with the wind blowing her hair in the romantic dusk,;

• on the Nile in Egypt; seated with Peter Perrone on the pyramid of Giza;

• in Sarajevo talking with a reporter in the underground office of the daily newspaper _Oblobodjenje_ ; working by candlelight with the actors in her Sarajevo production of _Waiting for Godot_ ;

• sitting in the bombed out rubble of Sarajevo; in a wooded park in Belgrade;

• at Helena Modjeska's ranch in Anaheim, California, working on her novel _In America_ ;

• with Kazue Kobata in Kyoto at the Tawara-ya Inn;

• smoking and visiting with Roger Straus at Sarcosa Farm in Purchase, New York; resting in the Pond House at Clifton Point, Virginia.

This photographic catalogue of Sontag's later years is followed by still more photographs taken up to and including the end of her life. The photographs capture what Sontag meant to Leibovitz, who exults in _A Photographer's Life_ in her lover's "curious" and "tremendous appetite for experience and a need for adventure." The "world beckoned Susan," is Leibovitz's felicitous evocation of Sontag's significance.

Leibovitz, a high-profile photographer of high-profile subjects (Bill Clinton, Jodie Foster, and virtually every important performer or politician who has been on the cover of _Vanity Fair_ ), has been named one of _Life_ 's "50 most influential baby boomers"; listed as number two (after Princess Di) in _American Photo_ 's "100 most important people in photography"; cited as only the second living photographer (Irving Penn was the first) to have an exhibition devoted to her work by England's National Portrait Gallery. But in the late 1980s, when she felt her creativity had "stalled," Leibovitz looked to Sontag for reassurance. To David Van Biema of _Life_ , Leibovitz explained, "I'd always had this edge. I was the bad girl coming from the rock and roll magazine [ _Rolling Stone_ , where she began her career], and the edge was sort of peeling away." Like Sontag, Leibovitz felt uncomfortable as a trendsetter, and she sought out the serious. Yet also like Sontag, Leibovitz celebrated sensuous surfaces. Leibovitz played with the forms of celebrity photography. As she told Biema, "Sometimes I enjoy just photographing the surface because I think it can be as revealing as going to the heart of the matter."

Sontag, seventeen years Leibovitz's senior, established a master-disciple dynamic in their relationship. Looking at one of Leibovitz's photographs in a gallery—where she could be easily overheard—Sontag turned to Leibovitz and said, "Well, you may turn out to be a photographer, after all." The judgment sounds cruel, but it does not differ all that much from Sontag's more formal judgment of Leibovitz's art, delivered in a radio broadcast. Asked about the romantic jacket photograph for _The Volcano Lover: A Romance_ , for which Leibovitz shot Sontag reclining—her right arm raised and her right hand resting atop what interviewer Paula Span called her gray "battle ribbon"—Sontag responded that with all apologies to Leibovitz, the original, the great photograph of her reclining figure had been taken by Peter Hujar. Simple justice to Hujar? No doubt, but it also put Leibovitz and her homage in their place. Not that Sontag did not encourage Leibovitz or respond generously, on other occasions, to her work. "I am charmed that at the age of fifty-nine, I can still, without looking ridiculous, pose in a sensuous way. Perhaps I would not have the courage to do it if the photographer hadn't encouraged me," Sontag said.

The couple spent part of May 1991 in Milan. As Sontag's assistant Karla reported, "Annie works with the people who are printing her book of photographs. Susan is hard at work on the novel (still!)." Leibovitz documented her lover's day-and-night work sessions in the Residencia Santo Spirito, showing Sontag in casual clothing and tennis shoes, curled up on a large bed in the midst of heavily annotated typescript pages, an electric typewriter on a table next to the bed. Sontag rests her head against a pillow, her left hand touching her brow, a writer on break—her reading glasses resting on drafts of the novel—looking tired, but also attractive and fulfilled. The angle puts the viewer at the foot of the bed along with Leibovitz, looking down at this handsome writer in labor.

The origins of _The Volcano Lover_ date from 1980, when Sontag visited a London book and print shop, seeking eighteenth-century architectural prints (architecture had always been one of her passions). A series of hand-colored engravings of Mount Vesuvius attracted her, and the clerk told her that Sir William Hamilton, British ambassador to Naples, had commissioned them in 1776 for a privately printed book. Sontag bought five prints, then bought five more the next day, then another seven. They showed the volcano in various states of eruption and quiescence. Like Hamilton, Sontag confessed to a fascination with "images of disaster"—an impulse that had, of course, led to her landmark essay on science fiction, "The Imagination of Disaster."

Sontag put the prints on her walls, like so many frames of film, projecting them, so to speak, for a full decade before she began what she thought would be a novel about Hamilton, a man of the Enlightenment with wideranging interests in science, art, politics, and collecting. Hamilton was a man for the ages, a scholar-connoisseur like her beloved Walter Benjamin—although Hamilton has been unjustly demeaned and obscured by his involvement in the legendary ménage à trois with his wife, Lady Emma Hamilton, and England's greatest naval hero, Lord Nelson.

Sontag barely remembered who Hamilton was when the clerk first mentioned his name. She had to look him up in the _Dictionary of National Biography_. She had vague memories of a film, _That Hamilton Woman_ (1941), of sighing over Sir Laurence Olivier as Nelson and Vivian Leigh as Emma. Sontag had forgotten the name of the actor who played Hamilton (Alan Mowbray), as had most of the film's audience, she supposed. And Sontag soon discovered that for all the retellings of the romance that scandalized England, she could find only one biography of Hamilton, published in 1969. By focusing on him she could strip the story of its sentimental gloss. David Stacton's, novel, _Sir William_ , published in 1965, may have been an even more important source. American science fiction novelist and poet Thomas Disch thought Sontag plagiarized from Stacton in some of the more eloquent passages in _The Volcano Lover_. Plagiarism seems too strong a term, although Stacton's gift of aphorism is reminiscent of Sontag's, and his strong focus on Sir William Hamilton, rather than on Nelson or Lady Hamilton, is a precursor of Sontag's approach. But reading Stacton reinforces the impression that Sontag idealizes Lady Hamilton, as she does her heroine in _In America_. Her characters could do with some of Stacton's astringent wit.

Sontag said she carefully studied Brian Fothergill's meticulous biography. Offended by his hero's humiliating reputation as elderly cuckold, Fothergill rehabilitates Sir William, depicting an aesthete of the first order, a robust gentleman concerned to "hasten the progress of the Arts, by discussing their true and first principles." Like Sontag, Hamilton was a patron, and "would go to great lengths and take infinite trouble to help" artists. He treated his nephew and eventual heir, Charles Greville, as a young "Conoscente," much in the manner Sontag treated her own son. Delighted to find that the cerebral Hamilton was also ardent, Sontag took him to her bosom, telling interviewer Irene Borger, "I am not a person of equanimity. I am a person of passion." Tall for his day (at five feet nine, he was exactly Sontag's height), and handsome, with an aristocratic aquiline nose, Hamilton suited Sontag perfectly.

Or so she thought. The trouble with focusing on Hamilton is that his full human dimensions do not emerge. Fothergill's biography, in fact, founders because he cannot account for Hamilton's rapture over both his wife and her lover. Fothergill is powerless to explain how the cautious diplomat and shrewd collector remained so infatuated with the pair. Angry that his hero is attached to what he considers a vulgar woman, a commoner who had been a kept woman and a shameless self-promoter, Fothergill resorts to clichés about the besotted, degraded emotions of an aging and enfeebled man.

In her novel, Sontag persuasively portrays a vigorous man who enjoys physical exercise and admires not only Emma's great beauty, but her facility with languages and her aesthetic sensibility, which made her famous for her "attitudes," a kind of miming in which she impersonated famous figures from history and art. Sontag saw that Emma Hamilton did not derail, but rather fostered Sir William's aesthetic and romantic projects. He relished her because Romney had painted her, and put her on exhibit for other painters and had her perform for Goethe and other great artists. Emma, in fact, is a version of Sontag, concerned with the beauty of form and the possibilities of self-invention. Born with another name, Emily Lyon, she later adopted the more aristocratic sounding Emma Hart, and finally became Lady Emma Hamilton. She is a quintessential Sontag creation—even if her real life counterpart actually existed. Extolling Emma in one of her interviews, Sontag called her heroine "enormously talented, enormously energetic. She wasn't made by these people, she was helped by them." Sontag went on to quote Sir Joshua Reynolds on Emma: "She poses and essentially the picture is done. I can't think anymore without her contribution." With interviewer Samuel R. Delany, Sontag was more explicit: "I love self-made people. I feel rather self-made myself... going someplace that's completely different from where you come from—I think Emma fabulous. And the way that people sneered at her because she lost her looks, you know, is—it's the Beauty Police."

To Sontag, Hamilton is more than the neo-classical man, Emma more than a romantic object, and Nelson more than a naval hero. Each of these characters has a sense of greatness and grandeur, with Nelson serving as the apex of their hero worship, even as he sees his heroism confirmed in their unstinting devotion. Sontag understands that theirs is a combined quest for fame and glory. While Sontag seems to scorn Nelson at times—and certainly his reactionary politics revolt her—his self-abnegating attitude toward history parallels her attachment to literature. On countless occasions, she rejected the notion that she wrote to express herself. No, she corrected interviewers, she wrote to be included in the body of literature, in that canon, just as Nelson strives to take his place in history as a hero. Like Nelson, Sontag's quest was for immortality. What could be more romantic than this individual quest? To such individuals, however, it seems not an exercise in egotism but humility, a surrendering of self to the highest standards, a neoclassical ideal not of assertion, but of submission.

Yet Nelson was a needy man. He required constant attestations of his greatness—as did Sontag. Witness after witness reported that he never tired of compliments, and that Sir William and Lady Emma were only too happy to oblige him. Only through a ménage à trois does each character complete the other in _The Volcano Lover_. "The art of it is that these are real people, but I reinvented them giving parts of myself to each character. I felt very emotionally involved with them," Sontag confessed.

The importance of the threesome, however, was not apparent to the author in the early phases of writing the novel. She got stuck at the end of part one. Emma, Sontag says, rescued her. "Emma kidnapped the book," Sontag told Paula Span. Part one ended with the melancholy Sir William brooding over the death of his first wife, Catherine, who had worshipped him and shared his aesthetic sense, but who had not thrilled him. Then, as Sontag later described it, she arrived at the book's four-part structure, which mimics the medieval division of the psyche into the melancholic, the saturnine (full of blood, the passion that Emma and Nelson evoke), the phlegmatic (Hamilton's dying soliloquy), and the choleric (the tour de force monologues of the feisty female characters).

The desire to possess the beautiful that Hamilton and Sontag both express connects them to the world, but it also alienates them from it. _The Volcano Lover_ is studded with parabolic passages that evoke the melancholy of being unable to collect the world, to hold its attention: "Collections unite. Collections isolate. They unite those who love the same thing. (But no one loves the same as I do; enough.) They isolate from those who don't share the passion. (Alas, almost everyone)." The artist, the aesthete, the collector, become estranged from the world by the very process of attempting to bring it together. This paradox results, in _The Volcano Lover_ , in a narrator who speaks to herself as much as to her readers.

Annie Leibovitz tried to capture Sontag the collector in a photograph of Sontag's seashell collection, which included a beaded periwinkle, a button, a ladder horn, a banded tulip, a white scallop, an Irish baking dish, and many others. Like her collector hero, Sontag liked the sense of exclusivity that a collection represents, the pride of possession, and the desire to show it off. "I own and treasure at least sixty of the old Everymans, so you can imagine how pleased I am to learn that the hardbacks are being relaunched," Sontag wrote to David Campbell while she worked on _The Volcano Lover_.

The novel marked an extraordinary advance in Sontag's powers as a fiction writer, yet it has not managed to bring her reputation as a novelist in line with her status as a critical thinker. _The Volcano Lover_ made the best seller list, helped by Farrar, Straus & Giroux's $75,000 promotional budget and Sontag's agreement to do a fifteen-city publicity tour—for her an unprecedented commitment to selling one of her own works. The first printing was an unusually large fifty thousand copies, but after only a month on the market, a fifth printing had brought the total number to over 105,000. The Book of the Month Club made it an alternate selection for September 1992. Sontag said _The Volcano Lover_ felt like a new beginning, as though she were just beginning to write.
27

SARAJEVO

1993–95

The problem is how not to avert one's glance. How not to give way to the impulse to stop looking. —Susan Sontag, "Looking at the Unbearable"

In April 1993, Susan Sontag visited Sarajevo. David had urged her to go. He was then writing a book, _Slaughterhouse: Bosnia and the Failure of the West_ (1995), one of the essential sources on the war. Sarajevo had been under siege by Serb gunners for a year, and David found his friends bored with his analyses of the Balkans. "I can't stand any of my friends anymore," he told his mother. "They only want to listen to my Bosnia stories for 10 minutes." He spread out maps for her and said, "You know, people would be very pleased if you came."

Before her first trip, Sontag had reacted with "horror and indignation" to the violence, and to the West's failure to intervene. These were her people, Europeans; they belonged to her culture. But what could she do? She did not consider herself a journalist, and she did not fancy working for a humanitarian organization. Two weeks in the city that April gave Sontag an idea of the role she might serve. She saw people suffer, of course, but the Bosnian aspiration to be a country moved her. Sarajevo excited her with its atmosphere of intensity, of bravery, that brought out the best and worst of humanity and carried with it historical echoes and repercussions. She ranked the massacre of Bosnians alongside what she saw as the century's European atrocities: the Armenian genocide of 1915, and the Holocaust of the 1930s and 1940s. Remembering the assassination of the archduke Franz Ferdinand by Gavrilo Princep (a Bosnian) in Sarajevo, which led to World War I, Sontag declared that the city "began and will end the 20th century."

In a city of 350,000, ten or fifteen people died every day, and perhaps twice as many were wounded. Sontag estimated her own risk at one in a thousand. She arrived wearing a flak jacket, then discarded it to lessen the distance between herself and her new friends. She drove in a dilapidated car, becoming an easy target for snipers. She befriended a Bosnian who helped distribute food in the besieged city, and who later became her driver when he immigrated to New York. In Sarajevo, Hassan, who was endowed with a kind of sixth sense, looked out for Sontag. Once, as she approached a doorway, he told her to move on; seconds later a shell exploded the doorway. Such incidents became her war stories.

Quite aside from the sheer nerve of the Bosnians, Sontag admired their dogged efforts to live normally amid the shelling and other terrorist acts. Multicultural Sarajevo, in which Serbs, Muslims, and Croats had lived peaceably, even happily, intermarrying and giving little thought to their religious or ethnic differences, embodied her internationalist ideal, which Europe and the rest of the West did not have the courage or the imagination to defend. Sontag pronounced such judgments knowing some of the region's literature, but not much of its history. She had visited a writers' conference in Dubrovnik, and friends she made there called her when the Serbs attacked Croatia and started shelling the city. In July 1993, she declared that the "worst is yet to come. I think that the Bosnians are going to be completely defeated, that Sarajevo will be occupied, divided and destroyed.... The war also presupposes that Europe will be totally discredited." In July 1995, she added: "The United Nations will never recover from its failure in Bosnia, and neither will NATO from its reluctance to act."

A critic of American power—of the idea that one country should have so much power—she called for American intervention: "My government should intervene because it sees itself as a superpower." She evaded identification with the idea of power in the very act of calling for that power to be used. Sontag also deplored the inaction of the Left. Virtually no one had joined her in Sarajevo. "There isn't any Left now. It's a joke," she told interviewer Alfonso Armada of _El Pais_. The Left had splintered once again over Bosnia, with some for intervention in Bosnia, others against. Victor Navasky of the _Nation_ saw his own contributors divide on the issue. E. L. Doctorow spoke for many writers when he observed,

I didn't take to the streets to protest our lack of support for lifting the embargo [the ban on weapons that made it difficult for the Bosnians to arm themselves]. There were so many commentators who sprang up with this expertise to explain why the Balkans were an absolutely insoluble situation, and everyone was wrong, and they were all beyond redemption, mired in an ancient animosity. People gave up on it.

Doctorow agreed with Sontag: The Left should have done more. But, referring to Sontag's earlier Town Hall tirade, Doctorow suggested that the Left had been chastised and dispersed so that there was "nobody there to march behind her."

In "A Lament for Bosnia" ( _Nation_ , December 25, 1995) Sontag laid out her brief against the Left. It had become complacent, comfortable, consumer oriented, and health conscious. People wondered how her son could spend so much time among smokers, she reported. "Oh, you're back; I was worried about you," friends would say, but Sontag took such comments to mean they did not want to know about her experience. The Dayton Peace Accord of late 1995 displeased her because it provided for an unjust peace. Bosnia's dismemberment mattered because it was one of those "model events"—like the Spanish Civil War of the 1930s. She did not want to speak too well of intellectuals—they could be as conformist and cowardly as the rest of humanity—but at least some writers had gone to Spain and maintained the "standard of dissent." The poor showing in Bosnia could be attributed, she conceded, to the "bad reputation of the Balkans as a place of eternal conflict," to prejudice against Muslims, to the view that the Left had been too gullible about communism in the 1930s and the 1960s. But the alternative was worse: "morosely, depoliticized intellectuals... with their cynicism always at the ready, their addiction to entertainment, their reluctance to inconvenience themselves for any cause, their devotion to personal safety." Finally, she lamented "a vertiginous decay of the very notion of international solidarity."

"A Lament for Bosnia" elided certain uncomfortable truths: Many writers in Spain had been duped—or worse, like Hemingway and Josephine Herbst, they had actually lied about communist atrocities. But Sontag found that she was unable to deal with such issues. As she told interviewers Eileen Manin and Sherry Simon, she had abandoned her essay on the relationship between intellectuals and the idea of revolution or revolutionary power: "It's quicksand! This was the first time in my life that I was bothered by the question of audience... who am I writing for? I'm not interested in giving aid and comfort to the neo-Conservatives. It's a crucifying dilemma. I was finally defeated by it. I spent a year and a half writing hundreds of pages and gave up." As a result, Sontag never came to grips with politics as George Orwell and Rebecca West did. It is telling that these great writers are nowhere mentioned in the Sontag canon.

Sontag—and Leibovitz, who accompanied her to Sarajevo on one of her trips—were exhilarated by the adventure of Bosnia. "People have no walls, no skin," Leibovitz remarked. "Everyone knows exactly who they are. All veneer has been rubbed off and you see a microcosm of life.... You become very small. You sort of get swept away with it." After Leibovitz watched a bombing victim (a boy who had been riding a bicycle) die in her car on the way to the hospital, she photographed the scene, including the abandoned bike and the boy's blood on the street. Critic Andrew Palmer called such photographs a "trivialised tribute to the photographer's integrity." Another thought Leibovitz as "tender and ruthless as ever." With no electricity available, she relied on natural light. "I was trying to crawl back to where I started, the purity of the early work," she said. But the photographer understood that she had made little more than a preliminary effort. The next week she returned to Los Angeles to photograph Sylvester Stallone posing as "The Thinker."

So what to do besides bear witness, take photographs, and organize public opinion in favor of a Bosnian state? Sontag's impulse was to write a book, but she did not want to upstage her son, and the siege called for some other, more direct form of action. Even a film would take time and would not involve her with Sarajevans as directly and immediately as she would like. She wanted not only to do something for a Sarajevo audience, but to focus the world's attention on the very act of her doing so. It was an ambition worthy of Victor Hugo—although unlike Hugo, Sontag denied that she was attempting to use her celebrity to create an international audience.

In "Godot Comes to Sarajevo" ( _New York Review of Books_ , October 21, 1993), Sontag explained her decision to stage Samuel Beckett's _Waiting for Godot_ as an act of solidarity, a "small contribution" to a city that refused to capitulate to "Serb fascism." During a conversation in April 1993 with Harris Pasovic, a young Sarajevo-born theater director, Sontag asked if he would welcome her coming again to the city to direct a play. "Of course," he replied. "What play will you do?" Sontag impulsively answered, _Waiting for Godot_ , perhaps thinking of the opening line from the play, which had prefaced her _New York Review of Books_ article: "Nothing to be done." The play seemed perfect for Sarajevo. Beckett's characters persisted despite their despair, just as Sarajevans waited and waited for deliverance—for their Godot, for the West, for the Americans to bomb the Serbs back to Belgrade. The play's minimal stage set reflected exactly the state of a city stripped bare by siege. Sontag believed that "there are more than a few people who feel strengthened and consoled by having their sense of reality affirmed and transfigured by art."

Sontag was criticized—even ridiculed—by the press and by other writers. Noting that Sontag had at her disposal the publicity machinery of _Vanity Fair_ , a _Guardian_ writer asked, "Despite her intentions, is this really so different from Cher's mercy mission to Armenia on which she took her own special Armenian, the woman who waxes her bikini line?" Gordon Coales of the _Independent_ suggested that Sontag had begun an "Ars Longa" cultural service: "A performance of one of the classics of 20th-century drama (selected by experts to be relevant to your war), staged in the heart of the war zone, would be an extraordinary event and a unique contribution to both military and civilian morale." Joanna Coles wrote in the _Guardian_ , "We seem stuck in a round of Charity Challenge; the latest game where celebrities compete with rival acts of very public charity." A milder form of criticism came from Croatian journalist Slavenka Drakulic, author of _The Balkan Express: Fragments from the Other Side of War_ (1993): "There is a growing business centered around Sarajevo and Bosnia, and, sadly, the limelight is too often on the participants, not the public." Drakulic did not doubt Sontag's good intentions: "All I say is that if attention and understanding alone could save Sarajevo, then it would have been saved long ago." Luke Clancy of the _Irish Times_ reported that the production of _Godot_ "deeply angered many within the city," and he quoted theater director Dubravko Bibanovi: "She did it for herself, and for nobody else. It said nothing about Bosnia or Bosnian culture."

Erika Munk, a Yale university professor of drama, who interviewed Sontag and watched her work in Sarajevo, discovered that not all artists and intellectuals believed "cultural work essential to the city's defense.... Why, they ask, should we do anything that creates the illusion of normal life? Gather wood, haul water, feed the hungry, help the wounded, build shelter, join the army: don't pretend we still have a city or prop up the outside world's pretense that we do." Sontag erupted in the face of this barrage of criticism, telling Munk:

I don't know how anyone can be furious. I didn't receive a penny. I paid all my own expenses. I volunteered a month and a half of my life, the actors are working for nothing as is every person on the staff, the tickets are free, and it's Sarajevo. How can they object? This is a very extreme case of a not-for-profit production. I should think they'd be proud. I venture to say that there are more people in this besieged, mutilated city, who have heard of _Waiting for Godot_ than there are in Paris and London and New York. I'm stopped by children in the street who say to me in Bosnian, "Waiting for Godot!"—it's become a legend in this city. It's to the glory of this play that it should be played here.

The war correspondents admired Sontag. They were grateful for her appearance, and they were impressed by her courage and fortitude. Janine Di Giovanni of the _London Times_ watched Sontag run the gauntlet of Serbian sniper fire on the way to a theater located only a thousand feet from where mortars were pounding the city. The theater's walls and windows shook. The chain-smoking director sat in the candlelight calmly discussing the play, speculating on the prospects of Western intervention. Air strikes would mean she would have to move out of the Holiday Inn and live with one of the actors. In fact, as Christopher Hitchens reported, Sontag spent "some nights sleeping on the floor of the _Oslobodjenje_ , the Bosnian newspaper which continued to publish even as its offices were reduced to rubble." The bombardment had become "so ghastly that it was unsafe to go 'home,'" Hitchens explained.

Di Giovanni recited Sontag's war credits: present at the United States bombing of Hanoi; present in the Sinai in 1973, dodging heavy shelling. Sontag came to the theater with breakfast rolls taken from the Holiday Inn, then fed them to her feeble actors, who used rehearsal breaks as opportunities to stretch out on the stage and rest. One of her cast told a reporter, "There is fighting on the frontline and then there is another kind of fighting. We must tell the world that we are not animals, that we are cultured, that we have ideas and dreams." The actors watched Sontag intently, welcoming her judgment that their performances had improved. Quoting one of the lines from the play, an actor responded, "We should celebrate, but how?" John Burns of the _New York Times_ reported:

To the people of Sarajevo, Ms. Sontag has become a symbol, interviewed frequently by the local newspapers and television, invited to speak at gatherings everywhere, asked for autographs on the street. After the opening performance of the play, the city's Mayor, Muhamed Kresevljakovic, came onstage to declare her an honorary citizen, the only foreigner other than the recently departed United Nations commander, Lieut. Gen. Philippe Morillon, to be so named.

Proud of her status as honorary citizen, Sontag told television interviewer Charlie Rose, "It means a lot to people that an independent foreigner wants to come and work there part-time in the city." That she would spend a month producing the play, and then return to Sarajevo nine more times proved to many Bosnians that she was not seeking publicity. She worked with elementary school children, broadcast on the radio, and appeared in documentaries shot by SAGA, Sarajevo's film production company.

Sontag's _New York Review of Books_ apologia answers many of her critics' charges. She points out that it was hardly pretentious or inappropriate to produce _Godot_ in a city with a tradition of staging the classics in repertory. In 1993, two of Sarajevo's five theaters were still operating, offering plays such as _Alcestis_ and _Ajax_. Of course, Sarajevans also craved comic relief, Sontag wrote, and plenty would prefer seeing a Harrison Ford movie to a Beckett play. Sontag freely identified herself as an "eccentric American writer," but she did not see her choice of _Godot_ as at all odd. Her account of the play's production reveals a dedicated, determined, and ingenious director. But purblindness to her status as a media star provoked skepticism. As Erika Munk suggested, "When a cultural celebrity lands in a nest of war reporters, the result is between commedia and farce." What to make of a sixty-year-old woman who reports having been "surprised by the amount of attention from the international press that _Godot_ was getting." She was staying in the Holiday Inn, a "journalist's dormitory," she conceded, yet the dozen or so requests for interviews troubled her, and she made herself available to the press only after the participants in her production assured her the attention would be "good for Sarajevo."

Wanting to employ as many good out-of-work actors as she could, Sontag opted for a "gender-blind" production, picking a robust older actress to play Pozzo (normally the play's dominant male), and then casting three sets of actors to play Vladimir and Estragon in "three variations on the theme of the couple"—a theme, she might have added, that pervades her other directorial efforts in theater and film. The actors were from Muslim, Serb, and Croatian families. To tether the couples to her internationalist and universalist ethic, Sontag made one relationship a "buddy pair," another a mother-daughter duo, and still another a contentious husband-wife partnership. Situated in clearly demarcated upstage and downstage areas, the couples implicitly commented on each other, sometimes functioning as "something of a Greek Chorus as well as an audience on the show put on by the master and the slave," Sontag explained. She realized it would try the stamina of her audience to sit through both acts of a play performed in a poorly lit theater not far from the line of fire. She rationalized that the "despair of Act I was enough for the Sarajevo audience." It might be unbearable to wait for Godot and have him not arrive a second time.

Sontag made the play a "collective enterprise," observed critic David Toole. Vladimir and Estragon no longer seem so isolated. The people of Sarajevo could see themselves represented on stage, but the "lives of the individuals in the theater attained an aesthetic justification that the world itself did not," Toole concluded. Erika Munk, a sympathetic witness who honored Sontag's work, remarked, "[S]omehow Godot became too apt; the fit was too tight. Topicality and humorlessness combined to create pathos, and when the candles were carefully extinguished at the end, the moment and its meaning were so calculatedly clear I was left dry-eyed. Perhaps a week later I would not have been."

Munk noted that a local academic "sniffed. After all, it wasn't Beckett.'" Certainly Samuel Beckett would have been outraged by Sontag's interpretation of his play. In 1984, through his attorney, Martin Garbus, Beckett had tried to shut down a production of _Endgame_ at Robert Brustein's American Repertory Theater because the play's setting and stage directions had been altered. In a letter to the _Irish Times_ (October 30, 1993), Aidan Higgins an Irish novelist and dramatist, complained, "With respect, may I ask who has given Susan Sontag carte blanche to reinterpret that most austere of modern classics... as she sees fit in Sarajevo, and moreover in a language she doesn't understand? Beckett had already refused permission for an all-female Dutch _Godot_ and would surely have disapproved of this farrago."

As if to answer such objections, Sontag explained in her _New York Review of Books_ piece that she had copied a Serbo-Croatian translation of the play into her English text, and copied the English text into the Bosnian script. It took her about ten days, she said, to "learn by heart the words of Beckett's play in the language in which my actors were speaking it." (She also had the services of a translator, and some of the actors knew English.) What she had done was not that unusual. Arthur Miller had directed _Death of a Salesman_ in China, she pointed out. "Look, I know these people," she told journalist John Pomfret. "I've been to their houses and shared a part of their life. I can tell when they make a mistake. We're that close. I listen to the emotion in a line." Critics like Higgins would probably not find her account convincing. As he noted, "Beckett himself detested stage business and presumably had his own good reasons for limiting the cast to five. He would surely not have approved the swinging changes in order 'to update' his way of thinking, forsooth!"

_Waiting for Godot_ played four to five times a week, with two performances on some days. The actors became more energetic, picking up the pace. In the SAGA documentary _Sarajevo Ground Zero_ (a compilation of films about the city under siege), Sontag appears briefly, acknowledging the audience after a performance. She bows her head, pulling back her hair with a characteristic gesture and looking almost embarrassed.

By April 1995, Sontag's attempt to bring primary schooling to large apartment houses in Sarajevo had collapsed. With "heartbreak," she deemed her efforts a "huge failure." Yet she continued to visit Sarajevo, altogether making eleven trips—lasting from a few weeks to months—and making good on her commitment to keep returning as long as the siege lasted. In February 1994, she received the Montblanc de la Culture Award for her work in Sarajevo, a $25,000 prize that she presented to the Bosnian center of PEN, saying, "This is really an award to Sarajevo. I am only an instrument."
28

THE END AND THE BEGINNING

1991–99

Sontag's desire to stage a play in Sarajevo reflected not only her commitment to creating an event for the besieged city, but a serious involvement with the theater that had led to the writing of her first produced play, _Alice in Bed_ , which premiered in September of 1991 in Bonn, Germany. It is an autobiographical play, despite Sontag's disclaimer to a German reporter: "I don't want everyone to think that it's about me." Alice in bed is a standin for the asthmatic Susan—complete with a bossy nurse very like Rose McNulty, who urges her charge to get up and confront the world. The apparent subject of the play, Alice James, the brilliant sister of William and Henry, had been diagnosed with breast cancer at forty-two, Sontag's age when she was handed what amounted to a death sentence.

Sontag said the idea of _Alice in Bed_ originated with her direction of _As You Desire Me_. Her star in the latter, Adriana Asti, asked Sontag to write a play for her in which she would never leave the stage. Sontag joked that she would have to put the actress in bed. The comment reflected a feminist view that women have rarely been allowed to dominate the stage, except as victims and captives of the male imagination. _Alice in Bed_ reflects anger at men that Sontag has rarely expressed openly. References to Virginia Woolf proliferate in Sontag's later interviews, and it is not surprising to learn from her author's note to the play that she had in mind Woolf's provocative book, _A Room of One's Own_ , while writing _Alice in Bed_. In Woolf's classic feminist tract, she speculates that if Shakespeare had a sister she would not have had the "inner authority" (Sontag's words) to write. Sontag continues: The "obligation to be physically attractive and patient and nurturing and docile and sensitive and deferential to fathers (to brothers, to husbands) contradicts and must collide with the egocentricity and aggressiveness and the indifference to self that a large creative gift requires in order to flourish." All the "ands" convey a clear sense that, for Sontag, a woman's role is impossibly demanding.

As a girl, Sontag experienced all the demands she enumerates above. Even so, she found in herself the authority and the egocentricity and aggressiveness to reject them. But there were more proximate causes for Sontag's decision to write about Alice James. It is surprising that Sontag makes no mention of Joan Schenkar's groundbreaking play, _Signs of Life_ (1979), which was written and produced at the American Place Theatre a year before Jean Strouse's acclaimed biography, _Alice James_ , was published, and before much attention had been directed toward the plight of a woman overshadowed by her two famous brothers. Schenkar and Strouse restored Alice to her full humanity, which included her sensibility as a writer—and the role of writer was, more than any other subject, Sontag's obsession.

Sometime in the mid-1980s (Schenkar cannot remember exactly when) during a conversation at a party, Sontag said to Schenkar, "I've always been fascinated by Alice James. I'd like to read your play." Schenkar sent her a copy of the play, but never heard a word about it. So she sent Sontag a note asking for the return of the play. Sontag never replied. On November 14, 2000, in the _Village Voice_ , Michael Feingold, reviewing a production of _Alice in Bed_ , noticed the symbolic resemblance: "Sontag, whose brilliant essays can make ideas dance and clash in thrillingly dramatic ways, is hopelessly devoid of talent as an imaginative writer. As with her novels, there's a faint echo here of someone else's more interesting work on the same subject—in this case an earlier dreamlike play about Alice James, Joan Schenkar's _Signs of Life_." Schenkar then wrote a letter to the _Voice_ saying how pleased she was with Feingold's praise of her play. Schenkar added that her work had been "consistently produced and taught for the last twenty years." As its "central refrain," Schenkar noted, _Signs of Life_ featured a tea party peopled with historical figures, "as, apparently, does Ms. Sontag's much later work. This, needless to say, is the kind of artistic 'coincidence' that keeps writers grinding their teeth into the wee small hours." After reporting Sontag's earlier request to borrow a copy of _Signs of Life_ , Schenkar concluded,

I have not read or seen her play _Alice in Bed_ (tolerance has its limits) and, since the works are apparently very different in other respects, I make no representation as to her play's provenience (who can say which beat of the fork scrambles the egg?). But I do have a confession of my own to make.

I just noticed with some surprise that one of the chapter titles in my recently-published biography, _Truly Wilde: The Unsettling Story of Dolly Wilde_ , Oscar's unusual niece, is... "Dolly in Bed."

Perhaps this recognition from me will inspire a similar one from Ms. Sontag, or perhaps, at long last, she'll simply return my borrowed playscript.

Schenkar never did hear from Sontag again, and could only suppose that she had been "properly Sontagged."

It is not surprising that Sontag would find Schenkar's work intriguing. As critic Vivian Patraka notes, "Schenkar is fascinated by epistemology, by how people know what they know, why they know, and what they do with it." Unlike Sontag, however, Schenkar's dialogue is dramatically engaging and darkly humorous, exhibiting none of Sontag's archness. The thrust of _Signs of Life—in_ Patraka's words, "provoking us to recognize how our present cultural moment is produced by our historical past"—could also be applied to _Alice in Bed_. Sontag adopted the same approach, including Schenkar's scenic structure. Set the two plays beside one another, and what is missing in Sontag's version is Schenkar's exuberance. Also striking is Sontag's sentimental portrayal of Henry James—so unlike Schenkar's obtuse male glutton, who never quite "gets" his sister. And there is an absence in Sontag's work of Katherine Loring, whose romantic attachment to Alice is an affront to Dr. Sloper and Henry, who want to operate on Alice and manage her life. What is dramatic in Schenkar's play becomes diffuse in Sontag's, which employs far-fetched female characters borrowed from opera. Absent too from Sontag is Alice in full cry: "I have yearned to watch the blood of my father and all my brothers run a red river through the halls of our childhood home."

The saving grace of the _Alice in Bed_ 's 2000 production was Joan McIntosh, whom Feingold called "one of the world's best living actresses and surely one of its gamest," doing "everything that's demanded of her and more. She inhabits the character, pinpoints meanings in the lines, gives them what animation she can. She growls, whimpers, moans, and in one extended section even sings a paragraph or two. She does it all with complete conviction." Feingold adds, "And it's all wasted effort, aimed at launching a work guaranteed not to fly." In fact, McIntosh's performance was a labor of love. As she told Sontag, "Sometimes I think I will explode with passion for you—and I don't mean only sexual passion.... And, believe me, darling Susan, as I said in Minneapolis, I love you, not some fantasy of you.... and I want a relationship with you and so I want whatever exists between us.... I want you—is that a terrible thing to say?" Even if it were, McIntosh went on saying it in the course of a nine-page handwritten letter.

In her play, Sontag's musings range far afield: from what it means to be a woman in the distinguished James family; to the nature of language ("tenses are strangely potent aren't they"); the patterns of history; class structure (Alice has a talk with a Cockney burglar); and the paradox of Alice herself, a woman who does not get out of bed, and yet declares, "My mind makes me feel strong." But as one reviewer noted, the play's dramatic structures are frail.

Sontag's production of Milan Kundera's adaptation of Diderot at Harvard confirmed Robert Brustein's belief that "Susan's theatrical imagination was (like that of Jonathan Miller whom she resembles as theatre person in many ways) essentially visual." She lacked the gift for directing actors, for finding the language in which to communicate with them. An analogous weakness in writing dialogue resulted in stilted action in _Alice in Bed_. As another reviewer put it, the essayist "overwhelms the dramatist."

In 1994, Sontag began researching the life of actress Helena Modjeska at the Getty Institute in Malibu, California. The Polish actress immigrated to Anaheim, California, in 1876, settled on a farm among a small colony of Polish exiles, and studied English for her debut in the Shakespearean roles she longed to perform in their original language. Modjeska became a world-renowned actress and a rival to Sarah Bernhardt—whose voice Sontag herself provided in Edgardo Cozarinksy's documentary film, _Sarah_ (1988).

In California, Modjeska became pinioned between her husband, Karol Chlapowski, the product of an old Polish landed family, and the young writer Henryk Sienkiewicz, who would later win the Nobel Prize. This "trio"—to use the words from "Zero," the preface to, _In America_ —reprises the dynamic of _The Volcano Lover_. The narrator is recognizably Sontag, discoursing not only on the nineteenth-century story, but also on her present-day experiences in Sarajevo, her childhood and grandparents, her marriage to Philip Rieff, her fondness for Polish poet Czesław Miłosz's, her affinity with Europe. The Poland of her novel, partitioned by Austria, Prussia, and Russia, was a precursor to her beloved Bosnia, which was about to be dismembered by Serbs and Croats. The Poles the narrator hears talking in a room as she begins to formulate her narrative are utopians and idealists, bitterly disappointed in Europe and yet cherishing the illusion that their "martyred nation" will be redeemed. Sontag even refers to the "supreme heroine of my own earliest childhood, Marya Sklodowska, the future Madame Curie."

Many men were drawn to Modjeska—and so it is in Sontag's novel, where they submit themselves to her protagonist, the actress Maryna, and her "commanding gaze." They follow her to California, where she starts her career over again. The narrator says Maryna's story is appealing to her because, "I like the feeling of being reduced to my own resources. Of having to do nothing but cope. (Perhaps that's why I've felt so exhilarated, so numbingly at home as well as convulsed with dread, during the six stays in besieged Sarajevo.)"

Sontag clearly enjoyed releasing herself from the circumscribed role of essayist, expected to comment on the phenomena of the day. Interviewed by Elzbieta Sawicka in Warsaw in January 1998, Sontag stipulated that she would not address any political questions; her orientation had clearly shifted. She had given herself over to the sheer delight of performance. "I am myself an actress, a closet actress," she told Sawicka, by way of explaining her novel about Modjeska. "I always wanted to write a novel about an actress. I understand what acting is all about and what goes on in the profession." She had acted in school, and she really loved performing, but she herself had concluded that, "this is not a life I want to live." Sontag insisted the novel was not autobiographical: "I am interested in a novel about immigrants and an actress." As in _The Volcano Lover_ , she avoided using the real names of historical figures, allowing herself a certain degree of latitude in the creation of fictional events.

Curious about the Polish connection, Sawicka wondered if Sontag's own ancestry figured in her feeling for Modjeska. Sontag said "No, not at all." Sawicka countered, "The land of your ancestors doesn't have any meaning for you? Aren't you sentimental?" It was not a question of sentiment, Sontag insisted. "I'm not egocentric. I don't think about myself too much or about my roots." Sontag then reminisced about her first visit to Poland in 1980. A Polish film critic took her to a Jewish cemetery in Warsaw. They walked around that sad, neglected place, trying to read the names on the tombstones. Sontag observed that half of the names ended in "ski" or "icz," and the other half had German sounding names. "Isn't it interesting," Sontag commented, "that so many Polish Jews have German names." The Pole replied, "exactly like you." A shocked Sontag realized she had never thought about her name—or about her own biography.

It came as an astounding disruption of her very literary life when the two of us wrote to Sontag in March 1996 announcing that we had obtained a contract from W. W. Norton to write her biography. We reminded her of the time we met her at a literary conference in Warsaw. We explained why the "time is right for a biography of you." We singled out her role as public intellectual, her independence and freedom from academic sectarianism, her landmark essays and innovative novels, and the need to write a full-scale life. There were only two introductory books that hardly did justice to her evolving sensibility, "which can only be essayed in a biography." We did not count on her co-operation when proposing the biography to our publisher, but we knew we would obviously profit from a meeting with her, "not only to gather information, but to help us evaluate what we learn from other sources." We conceded that the biography of a living figure cannot be definitive, but we added, "[W]hat biography can ever be definitive anyway?" Instead, we wanted to "establish a ground on which other biographers and critics can build." We quoted Herbert Butterfield on the importance of first biographies that capture materials otherwise lost to history. We also quoted a phrase from Carl's biography of Norman Mailer: "Sometimes one can, with a pen, get a purchase on the future." We ended our letter by offering to send Sontag copies of our publications and saying we looked forward to hearing from her.

Nothing in Sontag's experience or understanding prepared her for such an approach, coming from so far outside her range of acquaintance. Nothing in her comprehension of literature allowed for even the slightest acknowledgement of biography as a respectable, let alone desirable, genre. She summarized her views in her letter refusing an interview to Greg Johnson, Joyce Carol Oates's authorized biographer: "This has nothing to do with your distinguished subject. It is because I don't see the necessity of biographies of living authors; don't like to gossip or make public the private knowledge I have of my friends and acquaintances; and don't think my opinions or ratings of my contemporaries is of much interest."

When Sontag did not reply to our first correspondence, we wrote another note to her, enclosing our original letter and expressing the hope she would find the time to reply. She did not. Instead, on September 12, 1996, her agent, Andrew Wylie, wrote us to say she had asked him to write on her behalf. He reported that they were "intrigued" with the idea of a biography, but that because she was writing a new novel she did not then have the time for an interview. For future reference, he wanted to know more about our "approach," what sources we would use, and how long we expected to work on the book. He looked forward to hearing from us. After consulting with our editor, we replied, "As with other biographies of living figures we have worked on, our approach, proposed sources, and even the amount of time we spend on this project will depend, in part, on the subject's availability for an interview." Wylie did not reply to this riposte. But he had already consulted with a lawyer even before we sent our first letter to Sontag. On January 7, 1996, he wrote to Russell E. Brooks at Millbank, Tweed, Hadley & McCloy, a "white shoe" Manhattan white firm, that as an independent publishing house W. W. Norton had limited resources. He suspected that as a "quite traditional" and "even a bit stuffy" publisher, Norton would "want to avoid an arduous legal entanglement. I would like them to feel that this was in store for them, if you agree." It became apparent that we, as well as Norton (which had taken out a libel insurance policy), were undeterred by Sontag's uncooperative silence, and on January 10, 1997, Donald S. Lamm, chairman of W. W. Norton, received a letter from Russell E. Brooks of Milbank, Tweed. Brooks stated that we were "unknown to Ms. Sontag" and that she had "no reason" to believe we were "qualified to write such a biography." He expressed concern that Sontag's privacy and the privacy of her friends would be violated in a book that aimed to "provoke controversy." The letter put the publisher "on notice." Their book would be scrutinized, and Sontag's rights would be "meticulously defended." On January 29, a Norton vice-president responded, saying, "[W]e and the authors intend to do a responsible job of publishing the work."

Sontag continued to thwart us, for example insisting that the PEN minutes dating from the period of her presidency be made inaccessible to us—even though, as it turned out, a good portion of the minutes were already available in a Princeton University archive. Thomas Fleming, a former president of PEN, was aghast at Sontag's actions: "We are an organization that stands for freedom-to-write and free access to information. And we're defenders of the First Amendment. We try to strike down censorship. The principle is so glaringly obvious." Meanwhile, Sontag continued (through surrogates) to put intense pressure on Norton to send her our manuscript. In December 1999, Martin Garbus, a noted attorney specializing in First Amendment law, called Norton requesting a copy of the manuscript. Norton declined to do so, but promised Garbus that he would receive the galleys at the same time they were distributed to re viewers. Garbus then put pressure on our agents, but made no headway with them. Then Roger Straus called Starling Lawrence, a novelist under Farrar, Straus and Giroux contract and an editor at Norton. A _New Yorker_ profile of Straus later reported that he had told Lawrence—apropos of our Sontag biography—to "kill the fucker." When Lawrence did not do so, Straus promptly dropped Lawrence's forthcoming novel from the Farrar, Straus & Giroux list and, according to Boris Kachka, also urged Andrew Wylie to drop Lawrence as a client.

Stories about the conflict—emphasizing the effort to suppress our biography—appeared in the _New York Observer_ , the _New York Times_ , the _New Criterion_ , and other publications and resulted in an interregnum, during which we continued our work, and Sontag fumed over our activities. To poet John Hollander she confided, "They've even written twice to a nice young man who used to clean my apartment (ten years ago!), who read me their second letter over the phone." Carl, the author of a biography of Rebecca West, had interviewed West's hairdresser and believed in speaking with anyone who had interactions with his subjects. To Andrew Wylie, Sontag deplored the work of any biographer who did not seek her approval—precisely what no self-respecting independent biographer would want to do. But to Sontag we were "rogue biographers... who specialized in doing unauthorized biographies (everybody from Marilyn Monroe and Mohammed [ _sic_ ] Ali to lots of writers." Although Ali had not been one of Carl's subjects, she repeated her statement to writer Chip Delany, who had described an encounter he had with Carl. Sontag responded, "You thought he was nice. Maybe he is, or was (to you)." Unlike her other friends, Delany did not immediately acquiesce, repeating his impression that Carl was "a highly intelligent man, well spoken and quite sincere," who had made a careful study of Sontag's work. In fact, Carl and Delany engaged in an extensive correspondence, disagreeing about some aspects of biography—but there was no room for nuance in Sontag's outrage

The Sontag circle closed ranks, with Stephen Koch assuring Sontag that Carl's previous work was "worthless." Christopher Hitchens had fun referencing his letter from "Rollyson and Paddock, which turns out not to be a firm of Dickensian solicitors." With her permission, he was willing to talk about certain matters—like Sarajevo—but, he added, "I would, naturally, have kept quiet about 'The Circle')." Sontag urged Hitchens to read a recent _New York Times_ article about unauthorized biographers of living figures, including us: "Do read to the end. I see a divorce in this couple's future. Or am I just being (as always) romantic?" When Hitchens later wanted to write his own biographical profile of Sontag, he wrote to determine what he would be allowed to say, adding, "As you see, I am not Rollyson nor was meant to be."

A contest seemed to develop over who could write the most reassuring letter, while also vilifying Sontag's biographers.

I trust it goes without saying that I would never have anything to do with those pepenadores (garbage-pickers) proposing to write a "biography" of you. [Ted Mooney]

I told him [Carl] that I had known you intermittently since we both were teenagers but that I couldn't talk with him about this unless I had your permission—and boy was he pissed off! It suggested to me he did not intend to even try getting your cooperation and just wanted to dig up dirt. [Ned Polsky]

These awful people implied that they would give me a great review if I collaborated with them. [John Richardson]

Of course no professional biographer would behave as Polsky reported, and Richardson, Picasso's biographer, knew better than to suppose that such a promise could be kept, let alone offered.

Terry Castle's memoir in the _London Review of Books_ (March 17, 2005) provides the most candid insight into what it was like to be inside the Sontag circle. Castle describes a figure who had lost all perspective on herself and could not help performing "Susan Sontag." Castle joined Sontag & Co. in the mid-1990s, and by the end of Sontag's life had become profoundly disenchanted, remembering on her last visit to New York how Sontag regaled her "for the umpteenth time" about Sarajevo:

[T]he falling bombs, and how the pitiful Joan Baez had been too terrified to come out of her hotel room. Sontag flapped her arms and shook her big mannish hair—inevitably described in the press as a "mane"—contemptuously. That woman is a fake! She tried to fly back to California the next day! I was there for months. Through all of the bombardment, of course, Terry. Then she ruminated. Had I ever met Baez? Was she a secret lesbian? I confessed that I'd once waited in line behind the folk singer at my cash machine (Baez lives near Stanford) and had taken the opportunity to inspect the hairs on the back of her neck. Sontag, who sensed a rival, considered this non-event for a moment, but after further inquiries, was reassured that I, her forty-something slave girl from San Francisco, still preferred her to Ms Diamonds and Rust.

In the beginning, though, Castle had been enthralled. When Sontag wrote a note praising one of Castle's essays, it was like "Pallas Athene herself had suddenly materialised and offered me a cup of ambrosia. (O great Susan! Most august Goddess of Female Intellect!)" And yet ultimately, Castle realized Sontag was a comic figure out of Dickens, dressed in her "trademark" diva getup, "voluminous black top and black silky slacks, accessorised with a number of exotic, billowy scarves," bobbing and weaving down a Palo Alto street showing how she had evaded sniper fire in Sarajevo.

On the subject of her sexuality Sontag remained opaque, according to Castle.

I have to say I could never figure her out on this touchy subject—though we did talk about it. Her usual line (indignant and aggrieved) was that she didn't believe in "labels" and that if anything she was bisexual. She raged about a married couple who were following her from city to city and would subsequently publish a tell-all biography of her in 2000. Horrifyingly enough, she'd learned, the despicable pair was planning to include photographs of her with various celebrated female companions. Obviously, both needed to be consigned to Dante's Inferno, to roast in the flames in perpetuity with the Unbaptised Babies, Usurers and Makers of False Oaths. I struggled to keep a poker face during these rants, but couldn't help thinking that Dante should have devised a whole circle specifically for such malefactors: the Outers of Sontag.

And yet what Sontag liked best was "Sapphic gossip.... When was someone going to spill the beans about Eudora Welty and Elizabeth Bowen." Eventually Sontag seemed to tire of Castle, perhaps sensing her sycophant's waning enthusiasm for those New York evenings they shared. Sontag began to introduce Castle as an English professor, a sure put down in Sontag's book.

The documentary _Regarding Susan Sontag_ (2014) features not only Castle, but also other Sontag friends whose recollections support Castle's. In his memoir, _I Can't Give You Anything But Love_ , Gary Indiana, another Sontag friend, uses the exquisitely appropriate word "ressentiment" to characterize what friends were willing to say about Sontag only after her death. Indiana's verdict succinctly sums up their take on Sontag: "She never stood away from herself to question her motives, or to consider anyone else's point of view, or their feelings." Even her generosity, he notes, could be "oppressive." While many friends felt exhilarated in her company, Indiana explains why she could be so tiresome: "Susan heaved from one enthusiasm to the next, a storm-tossed vessel calling in at every Port of Epiphany. She wanted you to see that she appreciated things more fervently, more insightfully, more... well movingly than you did." Sontag wore out friends and lovers and then deemed them unworthy for not keeping up with her, and Indiana was one of the few friends who told her so.

Eventually uterine cancer slowed Sontag down. She was diagnosed in the summer of 1998, and underwent surgery on July 13. Annie Leibovitz spent a frantic September visiting Sontag in the hospital, photographing her lover in anguish on a hospital bed, and then seated at home receiving chemotherapy, looking surprisingly cheerful. Sontag lost weight and hair. Chemotherapy resulted in severe neurological damage, muscle weakness, and pain that impaired her ability to walk or even maintain her balance. But she pursued a physical therapy program and described her spirits as "good." To Castle, Sontag described her prospects of recovery as "not great," but she was game. By December 1998 she was on her feet "most of the time." She had been within fifty pages of finishing _In America_ when the cancer diagnosis was confirmed. "I wept for my novel," she admitted to Castle. Even with diminished energy, Sontag resumed work. And she had found a wig that replicated her signature hairstyle and an outlandish collection of hats. She wanted to live to be very old: "I'd like to see just how bad everything can get."

Sontag did finish her novel and continued to make public appearances. A Humanities Institute colleague saw her at a colloquium on Gertrude Stein, and he thought Sontag looked ghastly, with a turban covering her head. But she remained intensely involved in the discussion, dismayed to learn the extent of Stein's connections with France's Nazi occupiers. He liked Sontag's honest, direct expression of shock. A few days later, on October 19, 1998, she appeared, looking like her old self, on the stage of the 92nd Street Y, helping to celebrate the thirty-fifth anniversary of the _New York Review of Books_.

On February 8, 1999, Sontag began a six-week course of radiation. On February 24, 1999, she was scheduled to appear at Columbia's Miller Theater as part of a program devoted to Eastern European writing. Would she show up? She had recently cancelled—at the last moment—an appearance at the National Arts Club. The event was to celebrate the _Threepenny Review_ , and the journal's editor, Wendy Lesser, announced that Sontag was ill, although not seriously. But Sontag kept her date at the Miller Theater, and she seemed more vibrant and engaged than ever. She sat comfortably in her seat, but shifted often, almost bouncing in her enthusiasm for literature and life. She told photographer Nancy Crampton that she had regained much of her old strength. Indeed, this was the same Susan Sontag—only more so. Now an older woman, she had forsaken her wig, and appeared with very short, all-white hair. She seemed once again—as she claimed after the success of _The Volcano Lover_ —to be just beginning. It had been more than six months since her operation, and so far there had been no recurrence of cancer. She thought that if she could live another year without a recurrence, she would be considered cured. In "Singleness," an autobiographical essay, Sontag repeated the sentiment, declaring, "My life has always felt like a becoming... I enjoy beginning again. The beginner's mind is best."
29

RECOVERY AND REJECTION

1999–2003

In the fall of 1999, Annie Leibovitz published _Women_ , with an introduction by Sontag. The book is a sampling, Sontag suggests, of how women's roles have changed in the past decade, although she regards them still as a minority in every sense except the numerical. So Leibovitz photographs women engaging in "new zones of achievement," but also still subject to degrading stereotypes. Women constitute a unique subject, Sontag argues, a work in progress in a way that men are not. By simply appearing in these photographs women are modeling examples of success, self-esteem, victimhood, and aging well. Women are shown in roles that men have already made their own, and so women become objects of interrogation that would not arouse interest in a book devoted to men. She notes that limiting views of women are embedded in language itself—in fact, all languages that never use the pronoun she to refer to humanity as a whole.

In the history of photography women are most often portrayed for their beauty and men for their character: "Men didn't look wistful. Women, ideally, didn't look forceful." Even when women—such as Julia Margaret Cameron—became the photographers, they adopted the male view of women. Cameron photographed "exalted" portraits of femininity. So ingrained is the subject of women as beauties that a collection of photographs without beautiful women might well be regarded as misogynous, Sontag suggests. The only exception Sontag allows in her catalogue of women as beautiful types photographed for their forms is the depiction of goddesses and other mythic creatures. But goddesses are the subjects of sculpture and painting, not photography, which most often situates women in the domestic sphere.

In the new economic reality of America, women must work, and that fact alone has changed the way women are viewed and the way they view themselves, Sontag observes. Feminism may have helped to change attitudes toward women, but the way they make a living has made the decisive break with traditional definitions of womanhood. Even so, emphasizing the feminine in photographs of powerful women still seems a requirement, Sontag insists. And it is still regarded as a virtue for a woman to subordinate herself to her husband, as in the famous line from _A Star Is Born_ , when Vicki Lester (Judy Garland in the 1954 version) introduces herself to an audience as "This is Mrs. Norman Main," in tribute to the husband, a suicide, who discovered her and helped make her a star.

In Leibovitz's photographs, Sontag sees for the first time women emerging as themselves, doing their jobs, and not catering to conventions governing how attractive women are supposed to be posed for the camera. Even better, in _Women_ , there is a "plurality of models." The lack of a prescriptive program for women obviously delights Sontag. Eschewing any specific commentary on the photographs, Sontag wants the book to remain "open-ended."

In one of the most searching reviews of _Women_ , Peter Stephenson in the _New York Observer_ (November 8, 1999) identified the problem with Sontag's apparent unwillingness to interpret Leibovitz's photographs:

Ms. Leibovitz ends her acknowledgments with, "I am extremely grateful to Anna Wintour and Vogue." If only Ms. Sontag had written an essay that tackled head-on Ms. Leibovitz's financial and artistic symbiosis with "today's hugely complex fashion-and-photography system." What would she make of the photograph, taken from below, of the red panties and crotches of four faceless, high-kicking Kilgore College Rangerette cheerleaders? Is it commentary—the male sports establishment exploits women by making them dress up as cheerleaders—or is it appreciation? How does the photograph jibe with Ms. Sontag's statement that this is a book about women's "ambition," which women have been "schooled to stifle in themselves"? Is a photograph of women's underwear a celebration of ambition?

Stephenson is perhaps not quite fair, since Sontag does say that some of the photographs show that women have not made much progress. A more specific criticism might ask which photographs are which—and that is perhaps Stephenson's point.

In her studies of photography, Sontag often contextualized her interpretations of photographs by dealing with the biographies—or at least with the careers—of photographers. That she does not do so with Leibovitz provokes an unanswered question. Was Sontag's personal connection to the photographer a factor in her decision not to analyze the photographs? To have done so would have been to tie Leibovitz to her own cultural moment, and to her involvement in both the commercial and aesthetic aspects of photography to which Stephenson alludes in his review.

That Sontag was touchy on the subject of exactly what Leibovitz meant to her is an understatement. Joyce Wadler, a _New York Times_ reporter working on a story about Leibovitz, emailed Sontag a query: "It is our understanding that you are Ms. Leibovitz's former companion. Is this correct?" Sontag answered the same day: "No." Several months later, Wadler tried again: "Do we refer to you as Ms. Leibovitz's companion?" A day later Sontag replied, saying she was aware of the rumors, but that the "information is not correct." Her responses are not just a matter of fending off the press. Sontag's son did not know how to address his mother on the subject of Leibovitz. He referred to "your alliance with Annie (I know you repudiate any stronger term)." Only after Sontag's death would Leibovitz admit that the word "lover" was "accurate."

Quite aside from how Sontag felt about Leibovitz personally, she never commented on Leibovitz's work except in the most oblique way. When Professor Jurgen Wertheimer of the University of Tubingen proposed a Leibovitz exhibition during a Sontag visit, she bristled, saying that although she was the photographer's friend, the two had no "special connection." She added that her friendship with Leibovitz did not imply "any affinity with her principal projects as a professional photographer—as anyone who knows my own sensibility and ideas should know." Since Sontag had often written about the work of her friends and lovers—including Lucinda Childs, María Irene Fornés, and Joseph Brodsky—her silence about Leibovitz is striking. It went to the heart of Sontag's unwillingness to deal with her own place in a commercial world. She could pretend not to be part of it when doing so suited her, even as she acknowledged in her rebuff of Wertheimer that Leibovitz had been "kind enough to photograph me many times for my book jackets." Maja Herman Sekulić remembered that in publishing her interview with Sontag she was strictly instructed to use a particular Leibovitz portrait of Sontag. And yet when a publisher wished to use a Leibovitz portrait of her for a cover shot, Sontag complained to her agent Andrew Wylie, "I find this vulgar and embarrassing. I'm sure the people at Hanser think it's commercial. Sells books. Maybe it is commercial. 'Hey, she's an icon, isn't she?' And: 'Wow, she looks pretty good for seventy.'... I find the idea of all my work being packaged with my face quite unbearable: a tribute to celebrity culture, not literary culture."

In November 2000, _In America_ won the National Book Award, although the novel's quality remained questionable for many critics. Writing in the _Economist_ (February 19, 2000), one critic gave the book a mixed review, praising the presentation of Maryna, regretting the underdevelopment or other characters, lamenting the novel's "uncritical celebration of the adventure that is America" but also extolling the book as "an exhilarating journey into the past, freighted with dazzling detail, the product of an endlessly inquisitive, historical imagination." In the _New York Times Book Review_ (March 12, 2000), Sarah Kerr praised _In America_ , at the same time suggesting that its ideas seemed somehow predigested, lagging behind characters and scenes. Michiko Kakutani, the daily _New York Times_ reviewer who had hailed _The Volcano Lover_ , expressed her disappointment on February 29, declaring _In America_ a "banal, flat-footed narrative that chronicles the characters' exploits through letters, journals and corny, omniscient voice-overs. 'He was in a dark place,' Sontag writes of one character, 'where there were only wounds.'" In the _Guardian_ (June 9, 2000), John Sutherland was more blunt: "Let's face it: if this was a first novel by a literary unknown it would have been lucky to make it into print."

None of these reviewers noted that Maryna's gift as an actress had to be taken on faith. What after all do we learn about her as an actress, other than Edwin Booth's criticism of her stage work? We learn about the plays she performed, but how they were performed and what they say about Maryna remain unexplained. She never really comes alive on stage, which is, after all, where she truly finds herself—as Maryna is the first to confess. Instead, Maryna simply stands for the idea of the diva and is something of an abstraction, even though she emanates from an actual actress. As Adam Begley concluded in the _New York Observer_ (February 28, 2000), Sontag never allows the story to "do its work."

Kerr's comment that the novel seems predigested seems, in retrospect, prophetic. In the _New York Times_ on May 27, 2000, Doreen Carvajal published "So Whose Words Are They?" in which she described Ellen Lee's discovery of twelve passages in _In America_ culled from four books about Helena Modjeska. All were appropriated without acknowledgment. Some borrowings reflect the tone of Sontag's sources, but in some instances Sontag had lifted material "almost verbatim." Sontag argued she had utterly transformed her sources. How could that be, since she was using the language of others? Carvajal quoted Russell Banks, author _Cloudsplitter_ , a well-received novel about John Brown: "[I]f I have taken language from elsewhere, I feel obliged to make that evident." Thomas Mallon, another historical novelist, concurred: "Novelists should go to scholars for information, not for language." But Sontag contended that scholars were not writers and therefore were fair game for the novelist. Novelist Thomas Disch took a more cynical view in "Sermonettes," his weekly WNYC broadcast: "She [Sontag] has had the modesty not to make the usual claim of the plagiarist who gets caught, that he or she had confused his or her notes with his or her original work. That always registers as a lame excuse, so why bother? Better just to brazen it out, as Sontag has done. And it works. Already she's received an award for Best Novel of the Year." Still, the controversy continued in articles and letters to the editor.

Sontag told Carvajal that historians like Lee should be thrilled because Sontag had turned an obscure actress into a "marvelous person. The real Modjeska was a horrible racist." As Margo Jefferson commented in "Let Artistic Gray Areas Be, As Long As Truth Is Out" ( _New York Times_ , June 12, 2000), "I would much rather read about a woman of great talent and charisma—a marvelous creature indeed—who was also a woman with monstrous beliefs. I want to feel and understand all of this. I don't want things to be prettified and simplified in the name of literary uplift."

Sontag shrugged off the plagiarism charges, which seemed to have no impact on her reputation. In May 2001, she accepted the Jerusalem Prize, joining seventeen other writers—including Graham Greene, Jorge Luis Borges, Milan Kundera, and V. S. Naipaul—who had been so honored. Her friend, Edward Said, an activist for the Palestinian cause, objected that "one of the essential writers of our time" should use her "charismatic presence" to give "a badly needed boost" to Israel's "poor international standing," thus becoming "a symbol that the greatest talents in the end subscribe to what Israel is doing." Said was not alone. Many Israeli peace activists urged Sontag to refuse the award. She replied to Said that rejecting the prize would be "grandstanding." And what was the alternative? Writing an op-ed piece or staging a press conference? Wasn't it better to go there and speak out? And that is what she did. She protested what she called the "collective punishment" of the Palestinians, and she called for dismantling settlements in the occupied territories as a prelude to peace.

Sontag's first response to 9/11, published in the _New Yorker_ on September 24, 2001, seemed atavistic, a throwback to her denunciatory rhetoric of the sixties. She suggested that America had it coming. The country had been given a "monstrous dose of reality." In effect, her first inclination was to condemn American ignorance, the rhetoric of government officials, and the media, which spoke of a "cowardly" attack on "civilization," instead of acknowledging an "attack on the world's self-proclaimed superpower, undertaken as a consequence of specific American alliances and actions." Sontag engaged in name-calling and epithets attached to a "robotic president" and his "reality-concealing rhetoric." Missing from her first response, as she conceded in a second piece, was any feeling for the sudden and devastating loss of life. Instead, she chose to disparage the media's "confidence-building language," and "psychotherapy" that obscured the root causes of the attack.

David Rieff hated what his mother wrote. Stow Bush's rhetoric, Rieff suggested, and realize that the president was right. Bin Laden and the fatwa against Salmon Rushdie were of a piece and part of an attack on modernity itself, he argued. Shouldn't that be her position? he asked a week after the al-Qaeda attacks. Sontag replied a day later, admitting she had been hasty and did not like what she had written. She ought to have addressed precisely the issues Rieff raised in his letters to her. Sontag had been in Berlin, watching on television the disintegration of the World Trade Center towers. A week later, she returned to New York City to get as near as possible to the site of devastation, she wrote in "A Few Weeks After." This was as close as she could come to recanting her first reaction to the attack: "In those first days after my return to New York, the reality of the devastation, and the immensity of the loss of life, made my initial focus on the rhetoric surrounding the event seem to me less relevant." She was evidently unaware of the irony of using the words "the reality of the devastation," when her earlier reaction had suggested she knew what the reality was, and many Americans did not. Now she began not with a speech about a "monstrous reality" hitting an oblivious country, but rather "an appalling crime." In an extraordinary reversal of her first response, she rejected the view that "America has brought this horror upon itself."

Sontag's first collection of essays since _Under the Sign of Saturn_ appeared in the fall of 2001. _Where the Stress Falls_ is a miscellany lacking the dialectical design of _Against Interpretation_ and _Styles of Radical Will_. Sontag brought together pieces written as prefaces and forewords to the work of others, as well as stand-alone articles never meant to occupy any particular place in a unified volume. As a result, the structure of the collection—such as it is—is functional, with headings that are generally and vaguely descriptive: "Reading," "Seeing," "Feelings," "There and Here." Like most compendia, this one is uneven and repetitive—and it does nothing to enhance Sontag's reputation as an essayist.

Sontag returns to heroes like Roland Barthes whose motto is also her own: "[T]he exercise of taste... means, usually, to praise." She finds Barthes endlessly inventive and defends his use of hyperbole so passionately that her essay can be read as an endorsement of her own tendency to exaggerate her claims for works of art. She notes Barthes preference for aphorism (again, her own penchant as well) and his partiality for fragments and lists (think of her own "Notes on 'Camp'"). Barthes's willingness to write prefaces for books written by others is of course mirrored by Sontag's habits. Witness her praise here for his "wonderful essays on writers" that "must be considered as different versions of his great apologia for the vocation of the writer."

How much had changed for the upstart author of _Against Interpretation_ is evident in "The Idea of Europe (One More Elegy)," Sontag's bitter expression of regret for contemporary Europe, enveloped in consumerist culture. She is dismayed that the continent that has been for her the treasure house of culture seems bent on a political unification that has "invariably promoted the suppression and erasure of cultural differences, and the concentration and augmentation of state power." Prosperity and liberty are now equated with self-interest, she argues. In an even grimmer assessment in "Answers to a Questionnaire," she concludes that in the last twenty years of the twentieth century capitalist countries discredited the very idea of "idealism, of altruism itself." As a corrective to this cynicism she points to her own role in Sarajevo, a cause Western intellectuals should have embraced.

Sontag's last two essays in _Where the Stress Falls_ , "Joseph Brodsky" and "On Being Translated," in effect constitute her final effort to emphasize her role as devotee and promoter of a world literature through her own work, and through her promotion of figures like the Russian exiled poet who wrote, as he said, to impress his predecessors, not his contemporaries. Brodsky's devotion to literature, like Sontag's, supplies the antidote to what Sontag calls "transnational capitalist world culture."

In early 2002, Sontag published a more coherent volume, _Regarding the Pain of Others_. She begins by analyzing Virginia Woolf's response to photographs of atrocities committed during the Spanish Civil War. Woolf, a pacifist, argued in _Three Guineas_ that the slaughter of noncombatants depicted in the photographs aroused the deepest rejection of war. But to Sontag the photographs might also cause others to increase support for the besieged Spanish republic. Woolf's reading of the photographs denied the possibility of a political reaction informed by knowledge of Spain's history. This judgment, undoubtedly informed by Sontag's own experiences during the siege of Sarajevo, also signals how much she had changed as a writer, latterly including in her nonfiction and fiction a profound awareness of history and how it shapes our perceptions.

The Sontag of the new century identifies a reality that "exists independent of the attempts to weaken its authority" through photographs, which frame and also leave out vital details. Photographs do fragment the world, Sontag still believes, repeating the argument of _On Photography_ , but the world itself, history, remains whole. In other words, we do not view the world exclusively through media like television, however powerful such a medium may be. Indeed, she dismisses arguments that the world that is now moderated, so to speak, by media as "fancy rhetoric." "To speak of reality becoming a spectacle is a breathtaking provincialism," she contends. "It universalizes the viewing habits of a small, educated population living in the rich part of the world, where news has been converted into entertainment." The world contains real suffering and consequences that cannot be obliterated by

those zones in the well-off countries where people have the dubious privilege of being spectators, or of declining to be spectators, of other people's pain, just as it is absurd to generalize about the ability to respond to the sufferings of others on the basis of the mind-set of those consumers of news who know nothing at first hand about war and massive injustice and terror. There are hundreds of millions of television watchers who are far from inured to what they see on television. They do not have the luxury of patronizing reality.

Like _On Photography, Regarding the Pain of Others_ received mixed reviews. Reviewers honored the gravity of Sontag's arguments, even if they were not certain she was right. Philip Lopate, one of Sontag's most considerate critics, concludes that _Regarding the Pain of Others_ is "altogether a more measured, sober, qualifying and open-ended book" than _On Photography_. He senses that for all Sontag's willingness to recant some of her earlier opinions, she is still a profound skeptic of the optics of photographs—of the notion that by seeing we can also know what is seen.

The solemnity of Sontag's take on photography may be one reason she was never quite comfortable with Leibovitz's high romantic commercial style—except when it could be usefully employed for a jacket photograph. Sontag had deepened Leibovitz's understanding of photography, and Leibovitz would, in the end, employ Sontag herself as a subject for the photographer's own serious—indeed grim—studies of Sontag post mortem, a process that began when Sontag allowed Leibovitz to photograph her chemotherapy sessions. Hooked up to the machinery of cancer care delivery, Sontag is a patient, patiently abiding the photographer's ministrations. And when Sontag somewhat surprisingly recovered from her uterine cancer, she had the unexpected delight of participating in Leibovitz's mid-life decision to become a mother.

Sontag, a believer in new beginnings, was thrilled at first with Leibovitz's decision at fifty-one to give birth to a child. Alison Estabrook photographed the birth, showing Sontag, dressed like a nurse in hospital gown, shower cap, and surgical mask, holding the newborn. Later Leibovitz, back home in her London Terrace apartment, photographed in close-up Sontag's right hand cupping the sleeping baby's head protectively. "Prince Baby, aka Sarah Cameron Leibovitz, arrived on October 16th, [2001] via C-section. (A breeze, like Annie's whole Pregnancy.) Six pounds, fifteen and a half ounces. Exceptionally pretty.... In short, Annie is in paradise. She wants to have another one. Right away," Sontag wrote to the actress Joan McIntosh. The "serene-seeming" Sarah enchanted Sontag, who took great enjoyment in watching the blissful Leibovitz disappear into "babyland."

Three months later, it was a different story. Sontag felt abandoned, unwanted, unloved. Her son wrote to reassure his mournful mother, pointing out that it was natural for new mothers to be fixated on their babies—especially Annie, since she had waited so long to have children. Leibovitz was not rejecting Sontag, Rieff insisted, and he was certain that his mother was wrong: Annie was not having an affair. "She really does love you, for all her limitations and self-absorptions," he wrote. David had spoken to Annie about his mother's distress, and although Annie had initially reacted defensively, in the end he called her reaction "rather touching." If Leibovitz seemed aloof, it was probably because she sensed Sontag's unhappiness and was unable to cope with it, Rieff suggested.

Sontag pictured herself as lonely and lacking in love. She lamented, "Annie has really no place for me in her new life." Sontag felt like a visitor in Leibovitz's apartment, joining others and feeling like a hanger-on, frustrated and humiliated: "I tell myself I shouldn't want to be close to the rather brutal, imperial person she has become." On the same day (May 24, 2002), Sontag wrote to Joan McIntosh about Leibovitz's "empire" (two cooks, two nannies, a housekeeper, and other factotums), and how her phone calls ended with Leibovitz resorting to "vulgar, vicious, truly stupid, screaming denunciations" before hanging up. Tensions between the two persisted, even though they continued to see each other. Sontag could not stay away from precious baby Sarah. Leibovitz, as Sontag admitted, had an entirely different interpretation of what was going on between them, suggesting Sontag simply did not understand Leibovitz's relationships with others.

How to separate Leibovitz from her entourage? For a moment, when Leibovitz began to use e-mail, a solution seemed at hand. "A whole new life beckons, if you want it," Sontag wrote. Perhaps she was thinking of how e-mail can generate a flurry of responses, an almost temperature-taking effect. A pleased Sontag assured Leibovitz that e-mail was addictive fun. But the tentativeness of the connection was apparent, as Sontag signed off with all her love, and with these parting words: "You're a wonderful mother. You have a truly great kid. Take care, sleep a lot, play, and stay in touch if you feel like it. Give Sarah a big kiss from me."

If Leibovitz ever engaged in heavy e-mail exchanges with Sontag, they do not remain in Sontag's digital archive. However, Leibovitz did send one charming diary-like e-mail while staying on a Greek island. She reports that Sarah, a happy child, enjoys identifying birdcalls and sleeps contentedly. Leibovitz spared only a few lines for her feelings about Sontag: "I do miss the clank clank click click of the typewriter. You always knew when you typed the wrong letter by the sound of the key... this is so silent... too silent." In December 2002, Leibovitz and Sontag traveled to the Bahamas, where Leibovitz photographed Sontag playing on the beach with baby Sarah, complete with sand pail. They were together in Paris, as well, where Leibovitz photographed a somber Sontag on the Quai des Grands Augustins.

But nothing changed. On September 28, 2003, Sontag's close friend Sharon DeLano e-mailed her "A Note on Masochism": "You are _Susan Sontag_ for chrissake." Foreign ministers groveled to dine with Sontag, who won international prizes, Delano reminded her, adding, "[Y]ou are not without sin in terms of the relationship-with-Annie department. Your impatiences and censoriousness have been noted. Nevertheless, would a guy have moved on? Yes, he would. _What are you doing_?" It was pointless to obsess about "Annie's obsessive-compulsive behavior."

But nothing changed.
30

FINIS

2004

If there is anyone on earth who could decide not to die it would be Susan Sontag.... It is impossible to imagine that she will die; she has been for so long the person who doesn't die.
—Katie Roiphe, _The Violet Hour_ (2016)

Ever since her second cancer, scans and blood tests had become a part of the routine of Susan Sontag's life. Near the end of March, she told her son David she might have yet a third cancer. For some time—perhaps for as long as a year—she had been ignoring symptoms such as her tendency to bruise easily. Her body seemed an opportune place for debilitating illness, including a serious case of pleurisy that resulted in a partially collapsed lung. Her son did not understand why his mother waited so long to consult a doctor, although her behavior did fit a pattern. She had known, while working on _In America_ , that something was terribly wrong. She had been bloated and urinating blood, which she took as sure signs of the uterine cancer diagnosed several months later.

As Sontag awaited the results of further testing, she seemed cheerful, recalling other false alarms. But at the specialist's office, with her son beside her, she received an unequivocal verdict: myelodysplastic syndrome (MDS), a lethal form of blood cancer. The bone marrow biopsy could not be interpreted any other way. Sontag could no longer produce mature blood cells. With no cure, no hope of a remission, palliative care and drug therapy might prolong her life for six months or so. A bone marrow transplant was most unlikely to help a seventy-one-year-old woman, the doctor said. In short order the MDS would convert into AML, acute myeloid leukemia. At that stage, the body, deprived of healthy blood cells, would fail.

Sontag remained calm, intently taking in the diagnosis. David watched her say, "So what you're telling me is that in fact there is nothing to be done." She paused and added, "Nothing I can do." The doctor did not reply. On the way home, she could only say, "Wow." David knew his mother well enough to realize she could not accept the inevitability of death. As he put it, she was "unreconciled to mortality." Her avidity for life had only grown as she aged. She wanted to take in the world, and she did not want it to take her. In spite of the diagnosis, she never discussed her own death, only the struggle to survive.

Sontag had beaten back cancer twice, and in spite of the fatal verdict, she persisted in believing she would beat the odds again. But in this case, there were virtually no odds. She would not be able to survive even a short-term regimen of chemotherapy in the hope that some great scientific breakthrough would save her. That no one close to her—including her son—could tell her she was dying is perhaps the most horrifying aspect of Sontag's last year. Of course, many families and friends behave as Sontag and son did, choosing not to discuss the inevitable. But as Sharon DeLano said, this was Susan Sontag. She was like no one else—except that she was like everyone else: She would die. Although she did refer to "my death sentence," that way of putting it left open the possibility of a last minute reprieve, the overturning of the verdict.

In typical fashion, Sontag turned her apartment into a research lab on the subjects of MDS and AML, but none of this feverish research produced anything other than bad news. And yet Rieff and the rest misrepresented the data—as though somehow it described a fate less dire than her doctor had depicted. Rieff consoled his despairing mother by noting that her disease had not yet converted from MDS to AML. For the first time in her adult life she seemed addled and unable to rely on her razor sharp memory.

Some days Sontag was frantic with activity; other times she remained subdued. She was never without company to relieve her anxiety. She certainly had as great an empire as Annie Leibovitz. Sontag's last love makes only the briefest appearance in Rieff's memoir, a fact Leibovitz noted with some asperity. But she would be there to photograph the excruciating end of her lover's life. Sontag wanted her on hand, and wanted to be photographed. Not even the Ativan prescribed for Sontag could allay her anxieties when Leibovitz and other intimates were not nearby. So friends came, offering her therapeutic ministrations of rocks and crystals, specially prepared foods, enclosing her in a circle of positive thought, and even praying for her, an atheist. Sometimes they simply distracted her with talk about politics and literature.

Eventually Sontag learned that her leukemia had been the result of the chemotherapy treatment for her uterine cancer. Nothing she could have done—including earlier detection of her MDS—would have made the slightest difference to her fatal prognosis. On her best days, she took calls from doctors and others, dutifully taking notes. At such times she seemed as alert as ever, even as she recorded the bad news. But after the calls—a kind of lifeline—ended, she stared listlessly, sometimes giving way to wild, desperate facial expressions. In her most reflective and candid moods, she admitted, "This time, for the first time in my life, I don't feel special." She succumbed to panic attacks, one night waking up and screaming. Sookhee Chinkhan, Sontag's housekeeper, sat on the bed and held her and prayed.

Annie Leibovitz arranged for a private plane to fly Sontag to Seattle for a bone marrow transplant, and "made sure that she always had someone she knew with her and that the support system we had set up was functioning." Sontag still believed she could survive the disease, and she wanted her son to support her in that belief. Even though he understood that he was abetting her wishful thinking by telling her what she wanted to hear, he consoled himself with the thought that "[s]he was entitled to die her own death." And that meant excruciating suffering, her immune system destroyed by the bone marrow transplant. The result was a state of immobilized agony. She could not turn over in bed without assistance. Her ulcerated flesh made every part of her body hurt. Her cankered mouth prevented her from swallowing and sometimes from speaking. The radiation necessary to destroy her immune system before it could possibly be re-created via the transplant left her vulnerable to illness after illness and multiple infections. She was incontinent, confused, and full of sores. Annie Leibovitz's harrowing photographs of a shrunken Susan Sontag on her bier speak eloquently of the ordeal.

When the six-person medical team devoted to Sontag's case assembled in her hospital room to tell her that the transplant had failed, she screamed, "But this means I am dying!" A doctor responded, "You might want to take this time to concentrate on your spiritual values." Unconsoled, Sontag replied, "I have no spiritual values." He tried again: "You might want to take this time to be with your friends." Rejecting even this suggestion, Sontag cried out, "I have no friends!" But the next day Annie Leibovitz arrived from Florida, where she had been with her dying father. She entered Sontag's room, not bothering to don the gloves, mask, and robe visitors were required to wear because Sontag was so susceptible to infection. Leibovitz then climbed into bed with Sontag and embraced her.

Leibovitz arranged for a private plane to take Sontag back to Sloan Kettering. Those who have witnessed the treatment of the terminally ill know that something can always be done—some operation, procedure, or treatment offered—even when the chances of survival are infinitesimal. There are specialists who continue to experiment if the patient is willing. And for Susan Sontag, no ordeal was too much. Indeed, the greater the ordeal, the greater her desire to live, the more she persisted in believing in her survival. And no doctor, after the transplant failed, ever told her she was dying, even though she repeatedly asked. Her son believes she did not want an honest answer and would have been devastated if she had been told directly that she was dying. Instead, she endured yet another experimental drug.

Sleep and pain remained. All else—reading, coherent conversation, even listening—became, in the final weeks, impossible. In the end the will that had made Susan Sontag triumphant was not enough. In her last conversation with her sister, Sontag said, "You need to tell me how I've wronged you." Judith admitted she had been hurt because Susan had not attended her wedding, but more importantly Susan had never spoken openly about her sexuality. "Most of all I resented that she spent most of her life not being honest with me," Judith said. "And I think I really did strike home. She admitted she was sorry.... She said I was right about that."

Not long before the end, Sontag finally said to a nurse, "I'm going to die." She wept. But there were no dying words. Close to departure she could only begin a sentence: "I want to tell you...." At the very end, at 7:10 a.m. on December 28, 2004, she took one last deep breath, and a few minutes later it was over.
CODA

Annie Leibovitz was in Florida with her father when Sontag died, but she managed to return in time to sit alone with Sontag before the funeral home attendants removed her body at noon.

In a trance, Annie Leibovitz took her last photographs of Susan Sontag, bloated beyond recognition. "It's humiliating.... You lose yourself," Leibovitz wrote, referring to Sontag's ravaged body. Leibovitz chose the clothes for Sontag's burial: a dress bought in Milan, Venetian scarves, and a black velvet Yeohlee coat Sontag liked to wear to the theater. Sontag left no instructions for burial. All David Rieff knew is that his mother abhorred cremation. He remembered that she loved to visit the graveyards of the literary greats, including, of course, Montparnasse in Paris. So he chose Montparnasse, in the city that had been Sontag's second home. There she joined Jean Paul Sartre, Simone de Beauvoir, Samuel Beckett, Emile Cioran, Raymond Aron, and Baudelaire. The graves are easy to find, Rieff points out. There are maps at the entranceway.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

During the writing of this biography, we formed a fellowship with three friends, also working on unauthorized biographies. The late Carole Klein, Marion Meade, and the late Ann Waldron shared with us their experiences researching the lives of Doris Lessing, Woody Allen, and Eudora Welty, respectively, even as we exchanged ours with them. Without their support and good humor, it would have been much more difficult to do this book. We also relied on many other members of the biography seminar that meets at New York University. We would like to name all those seminar members who assisted us, including some of Sontag's friends, but they have requested anonymity. We do wish to thank Judy Feiffer for not only recommending people to interview, but also for supplying phone numbers. It was Judy, for example, who led us to Yoram Kaniuk.

Of a different order is our indebtedness to Samuel R. Delany, who made us ponder the problematic nature of biography, unauthorized and otherwise, in a series of probing letters. He kindly gave us a copy of his interview with Susan Sontag, but he also respected her wish not to have him cooperate more closely with our efforts. Perhaps someday he will do something with our correspondence, which provides a dialectical exploration of biography between a practitioner and a sympathetic but still skeptical critic.

In a similar vein, Scott McLemee shared with us his impressive and far-reaching knowledge of Sontag, sending us many pertinent items and keeping up a steady e-mail correspondence about her life and work.

Special thanks have also to go to Joan Mellen, author of a superb biography of Kay Boyle published by Farrar, Straus & Giroux. Joan was a font of information about Roger Straus and his firm. She made many important suggestions about who to contact, and she helped set up our interview with Ralph Schoenman.

Sontag is such a presence in New York that we often found conversations with new acquaintances turning into interviews about their encounters with her. Although we conducted approximately 150 formal interviews, those who simply had something to say about Sontag probably numbered twice that.

For graciously consenting to interviews and sending e-mails and letters, we would like to acknowledge: Daniel Aaron, the late Lionel Abel, the late Aaron Asher, Sigrid Bauschinger, Helen Benedict, Marshall Berman, Stuart Bernstein, Irene Borger, Robert Brustein, Cobey Black, Penny Cagan, the late Norman F. Cantor, Susan Chambre, Carole Chazin, Karen Chen, Kelly Cherry, Peter Collier, Gail Coyle, the late Arthur Danto, the late E. L. Doctorow, the late Candida Donadio, Terence Dougherty, Paul Ekman, Betty Falkenberg, the late Leslie Fiedler, Edward Field, Nina Finkelstein, Seth Fortin, the late George Garrett, George Goldsmith, Laurence Goldstein, Suzanne Gordon, Vivian Gornick, Judith Grossman, Joanne Gumbert, Peter Hald, Pete Hamill, Anthony Heilbut, Sam Heilman, Michele Herman, the late Jamake Highwater, the late Irv Jaffe, the late Jill Johnston, the late Yoram Kaniuk, the late Alfred Kazin, the late Walter Kendrick, Maya Khankhoje, the late Francis King, Seymour Kleinberg, Richard Kluger, the late Hilton Kramer, Edith Kurzweil, Brandon Larson, Goran Lindgren, Christopher Lydon, the late James Lord, Robert Low, Catherine Mackinnon, the late Norman Mailer, the late Irving Malin, Fleurie Mackie, Helen Marcus, Lawrence Mass, James McClintock, Celia McGee, Michael Millgate, Erika Munk, Victor Navasky, Philip Nobile, the late Sidney Offit, Michael Packenham, Camille Paglia, Donald Paglia, Jennette Paulson, Martin Peretz, William Phillips, Katha Pollitt, Doris Rieff, Nora Roberts, Bernard F. Rodgers Jr., Mel Roseman, the late Ned Rosenheim, John Scagliotti, Joan Schenkar, Sarah Schulman, Maja Herman Sekulić, Richard Sennett, David Shapiro, the late Earl Shorris, Michelangelo Signorile, John Simon, the late Richard Stern, Perry Stieglitz, Sunlight (Dot Lane), Joan Garner Taylor, Joseph Trigoboff, the late Richard Tristman, Peter Tumarkin, Steve Turtell, Mike Unsworth, James Vernon, Henny Wenkart, Edmund White, Reese Williams, Ann Wilson, Mark Wilson, Harriet Sohmers-Zwerling.

Several people assisted our quests for interviews, providing names and numbers: John Blesso of the Authors Guild, and Zane Berzins, Andrea Dworkin, Bruce King, Norman Podhoretz, Sue Russell, and Sidney Stern.

Others provided important information about materials relevant to this biography: Nicholas Altenbernd of MIT, Dennis Altman, Mary Bolling of the New York Public Library, Axel Claeges, Rosemary Clark, Maurice Crane of the Sound Library at Michigan State University, Tom Curwen of the _Los Angeles Times_ , Betty J. Davis of the Detroit Institute of Arts, Mary Dearborn, Noel Riley Fitch, Robert Giard, Marek Grygiel, Martin Hacket of the University of Pennsylvania, Bert Hansen, Allen Hibbard, Fred Lenczycki of the Tucson Unified School District, Elaine Kauvar, Mark Lilla, Spencer Means and Louisa Moy of Newman Library, Baruch College, the City University of New York, Donald Mengay, James McGrath Morris, Robert Nedelkoff, Anne Posega of Washington University Libraries, Ned Rorem, Megan Rupnik of the Archives of American Art, Elzbieta Sawicka, James Seaton, Dr. Louise Teems of North Hollywood High School, Thomas J. Travers of the Hotel Beacon, Ben Yagoda. A note of special thanks to the staff of Special Collections at the University of Delaware Library, which houses the Alfred Chester Collection, and to Tom and Bonnie Scott, our friends and hosts during our stay in Newark.

For their helpful comments on drafts of this biography we wish to acknowledge Edward Field, Allen Hibbard, the late Jamake Highwater, the late Jill Johnston, the late Francis King, Elizabeth Knappman, Camille Paglia, and Harriet Sohmers-Zwerling. Linda Wagner-Martin was an indispensable advisor, and we are grateful for her permission to reprint certain passages from _Understanding Susan Sontag_. Similarly, we thank Felicia Campbell for allowing us to include part of an article, "Becoming Your Subject's Subject," forthcoming in _Popular Culture Review_.

We were most fortunate to have research assistants, Jyotsna Etikala and Daniel Yiu, provided by Baruch College, and we are grateful to the City University of New York for awarding grants that helped to defray the considerable expense of travel and the acquisition of photographs and other materials. The Weissman School of Liberal Arts and Sciences, under the able leadership of former Dean Alexandra Logue, made provision for reassigned time that reduced Carl Rollyson's teaching load and made possible long periods of concentration on this project.

We owe a great debt of gratitude to Gerald Howard, who acquired our book when he was at Norton. Not only was he a great champion of our efforts, he provided numerous contacts and took an active hand in shaping our vision of the biography. When he left Norton, he put us in the expert hands of Alane Mason, our editor.

For the revised and updated edition of the biography we have to thank the helpful and considerate staff at the University Press of Mississippi, beginning with Leila Salisbury, and also including Valerie Jones, Clint Kimberling, John Langston, Shane Gong, and Steve Yates.

We also want to express our gratitude to Bernard F. Rodgers Jr. for proofreading the entire book and identifying several errors and some murky sentences we have done our best to correct.
NOTES AND COMMENTS

**Abbreviations**

See bibliography for full citations.

ACH | _As Consciousness Is Harnessed to Flesh: Journals and Notebooks 1964–1980_

---|---

ACP | Alfred Chester Papers, Special Collections, University of Delaware Library

AF | "Susan Sontag: The Art of Fiction"

AL | Annie Leibovitz

APL | _A Photographer's Life_

AT | _At the Same Time: Letters and Speeches_

BR | Barbara Rowes

CR | Carl Rollyson

CSS | Poague, _Conversations with Susan Sontag_

DR | David Rieff

EF | Edward Field

EH | Ellen Hopkins

FSG | Farrar, Straus & Giroux

HAS | Alfred Chester, _Head of a Sad Angel_

HB | Helen Benedict

HSZ | Harriet Sohmers Zwerling

INT | Interview

JC | Joseph Chaikin

JCP | Joseph Chaikin Papers, Kent State University

LG | Leslie Garis

LK | Lila Karpf of FSG

LP | Lisa Paddock

MD | Michael D'Antonio

NYC | New York City

NYPL | New York Public Library, FSG Papers

NYR | _New York Review of Books_

PILSS | "Pilgrimage"

PR | _Partisan Review_

PTC | "Project for a Trip to China," included in _I, etcetera_

REBORN | Susan Sontag, _Reborn: Essays and Journals 1947–1963_

RG | Robert Giroux

RS | Roger Straus

RSS | _Regarding Susan Sontag_ , a film by Nancy Kates

SS | Susan Sontag

TO | Thelma O'Brien

UCLA | University of California, Los Angeles, Charles Young Library, Special Collections, Susan Sontag papers

ZH | Zoe Heller

**Note:** All citations of 2001–4 correspondence refer to e-mails.

**PREFACE**

**Sontag's comment on reading Weil's biography:** ACH, December 23, 1973. **Sontag's homosexuality and ambition:** Preface, REBORN.

**1: MY DESERT CHILDHOOD (1933–45)**

**SS's earliest memory and her nurse:** AF, ZH, Doris Rieff to CR and LP, 8/18, 2000, ACH, 11/14, 1973. **On SS's childhood:** BR; see also SS's rendition of childhood memories in PTC. **Jack Rosenblatt:** His company is listed in the _New York City Directory_ for 1933–34. **On SS's residence with relatives:** EH. According to TO, Mildred and Jack met at Grossinger's, a resort in the Catskills, where Mildred had a waitressing job. SS wrote fragmentary notes about her early NYC childhood in REBORN. **Jack and Mildred Rosenblatt:** census records and SS's int. with Elzbieta Sawicka. See also Grondahl. **Details of Jack Rosenblatt's death:** American Foreign Service death certificate and from Terry Gross's int. with SS on the radio program _Fresh Air_. **SS's asthma:** It is reminiscent of Kandinsky, who hated his mother, felt alone and friendless, and at thirteen developed asthma. Whether SS really had asthma is doubtful. Many cases of shortness of breath are misdiagnosed as asthma for lack of a better term to describe a wide variety of maladies brought on by environmental and psychological conditions. **The move to Miami:** Fichtner, "Susan Sontag's Train of Thought Rolls into Town." SS told her son that she had vague memories of "white stucco houses with pseudo-Moorish detailing." See DR, _Going to Miami: Exiles, Tourists, Refugees in the New America_. **SS's hostility to her mother:** It is apparent in ZH. Jill Johnston alerted us to an article by Hans J. Kleinschmidt, "The Angry Act: The Role of Aggression in Creativity," which describes creative artists who as children have felt abandoned by their parents and have consequently elaborated myths about their own self-sufficiency and narcissism. Absent parents stimulate such children into an "excessive reliance on intellectual endowment" and "feelings of omnipotence or, in any case, of being different and superior." Thus the "artist creates his own emotional history through his personal myth." SS's more charitable—which is to say more complex—feelings about parents and children are expressed in Cott int., CSS. **Asthma and stress:** Naunton. **SS on her Tucson childhood:** Porter. Our evocation of Tucson is based on _Arizona: A State Guide_ , on a winter visit, and on descriptions in Barbara Kingsolver's novel, _The Bean Trees_. For Priestley's reminiscence, see _Arizona Memories_. Details of the Tucson climate and culture are drawn from Patricia Peters Stephenson, _A Personal Journey through the University Neighborhood_ , self-published; a letter by Dorothy Livadas of Rochester, New York, to the _Arizona Daily Star_ , reprinted in Sonnichsen. **SS on her Tucson schooling:** BR; EH; Cott int., CSS; PTC. The subjects studied in Arizona schools were supplied via e-mail from the reference desk, Arizona State Library. **SS on her childhood reading:** Christy; Bograd; see also PIL. **Mother and Daughter:** PTC and ACH, 8/9, 10/67. **On fathers and literary mentors:** Nin and Dinesen are discussed in Wakerman; see _Where the Stress Falls_ for SS's introduction to a collection of writings by Danilo Kiš (who became her friend, and who was also obsessed with his father and with the idea of fathers): "[O]ne can, in literature, choose one's parents." SS is quoted in "The Books That Changed Their Lives". See AF for a photograph of SS lying on a cot, reading a book, with one foot on the floor. The photograph's caption is crucial: "Sarajevo, July 1993, in the sub-basement bombshelter/editorial office of the daily newspaper _Oslobodjenje_." SS at sixty was still trying to recreate her refuge, her cell, her cave of the imagination. **SS's definition of the writer:** "Susan Sontag," a documentary distributed by Films for the Humanities; see also SS's conversation with Nadine Gordimer in CSS. **Early literary influences:** SS in AF cites Alcott, London, Dreiser, and states, "I got through my childhood in a delirium of literary exaltations." London describes Martin Eden's imagination as high-pitched, and writes that his emotions leap like a "lambent flame." We have also drawn upon SCETV Writer's Workshop, Susan Sontag, South Carolina Educational Television, hosted by George Plimpton; SS talking with William Price Fox and students, in the archive of the Museum of Television and Radio, NYC; EH. See Sam Baskett's introduction to _Martin Eden_ , (Holt, Rinehart, Winston, 1956). **Re-reading Martin Eden:** REBORN, 11/12/50. **Wept at the death of President Roosevelt:** REBORN, "Notes of a Childhood." **On male influences:** read especially the essays on Paul Goodman, Walter Benjamin, and Elias Canetti in _Under the Sign of Saturn_. **"I will be popular":** ACH 9/6/65.

**2: A WORLD ELSEWHERE (1945–48)**

**Nathan Sontag's furlough:** TO and PIL. Ten years before publication of PIL, SS painted a more pleasant picture of her stepfather for TO: "I really think of my stepfather as my father.... He was very glamorous with all his medals." She called him a "heroic businessman" who "never really settled into anything." **Taking the Sontag name:** Judith Sontag: RSS. **Arizona during the war:** Sonnichsen. **Nat as parent:** ZH; Wendy Perron; Nora Ephron int. with SS in _New York Post_ , 9/23/67; Alice M. Robinson, Vera Mowry Roberts, and Millsy S. Barranger, _Notable Women in the American Theatre_ (Greenwood Press, 1989). **The move to California:** In PIL, SS mentions her home in Canoga Park, but the only Sontag residence we could find was in Sherman Oaks, where SS's classmate, Mel Roseman, remembers visiting her. He confirms many of the details in PIL which we rely on in this chapter. For a picture of postwar California, see Kevin Starr, _The Dream Endures: California Enters the 1940s_ (Oxford University Press, 1997). **North Hollywood High School:** PIL, int. Gail Coyle, Joan Kurland, Mel Roseman, Fred Margolin, Robert Low, and Joan Garner Taylor; see also Robert Low's letter to _Los Angeles Times Magazine_ , 9/27/92. We are also grateful to Dr. Louise Teams, the librarian/archivist of North Hollywood High School. She supplied us with copies of the school newspaper and yearbooks. The account of Sontag's school reports and writings is drawn from her UCLA archive. See also TO for SS's recollection of Sophia Leshing. **SS's feelings about ethnicity:** Newman, Scarpetta int., CSS. **Jamake Highwater:** We are relying on Highwater's memoir, _Shadow Show_ , and on an unpublished memoir he shared with us.

**3: TOWARDS A BETTER LIFE (1949–53)**

**Hutchins as star:** Dzuback. **Mildred on the University of Chicago:** Grossman; see also Philip Rieff; Armada int., CSS. **SS's opinion of Chicago:** Cohen. **Hutchins on Chicago's European ambiance:** Ashmore, We're grateful to Earl Shorris for discussing his years at Chicago, which overlapped with SS's. Riesman is quoted in Dzuback. **Berkeley:** Starr; int. HSZ. For our descriptions of Harriet, we rely on EF, and HSZ, _Notes of a Nude Model & Other Pieces_. **Chicago:** Ned Rosenheim provided us with invaluable memories of SS's years at Chicago, of Joseph Schwab, and of other professors who meant much to her. Steiner's and SS's memories of Chicago appear in McQuade. For a profile of McKeon, see McLemee. We are indebted to several Chicago alumni, who prefer not to be identified—, except for Paul Ekman (e-mail to CR and LP, 6/16/58). Ekman is now Professor of Psychology, University of California, S.F. **Strauss:** See Rollyson, _Essays in Biography_ ; Steiner; Minogue; Smith. **Kenneth Burke:** See SS's comments in CSS; see also Burke to Stanley Edgar Hyman, 8/13/63, Stanley Edgar Hyman Papers, Library of Congress, and AF. We are indebted to Scott McLemee for bringing this letter to our attention. See Stansell for a useful evocation of Burke's urban, New York City mystique. **Harriet Sohmers:** HSZ e-mail to CR, 5/27/14. **Philip Rieff:** We are grateful to Doris Rieff for her letter of 8/18/2000, providing details about her brother-in-law's parents. Our descriptions of Rieff are derived from interviews with his students and colleagues, who, except for Sam Heilman, have requested that we not name them. We also drew on BR and Ledger. **SS's diary entry on Rieff:** ACH, 8/14/73. SS's awareness of gossip about her and Rieff is retailed in LG. Rieff's rare public comments on his marriage to SS can be found in MD and Mackenzie. SS describes Rieff as Casaubon in "Zero," the prologue to _In America_. See also HB and Cott int. in CSS. It may be significant that SS read Simone de Beauvoir's _The Second Sex_ the year after her marriage to Rieff. See also Schultz, Manion and Simon, and Servan-Schreiber int., CSS, and Kent. **For Peter Haidu and Judith Sontag:** Watch RSS. **Doris Rieff:** Doris Rieff to CR and LP, 8/18/2000. **Harriet's diary:** _Abroad_.

**4: THE LIFE AND THE PROJECT (1953–57)**

**Doris Rieff:** 8/18/2000 letter to CR and LP; **David Rieff:** We have drawn on SS's autobiographical story, "Baby," in _I, etcetera_ ; MD, ZH, and Cott int., CSS. We have found Carole Klein's _Mothers and Sons_ also indispensable. **SS at Connecticut:** int. with Seymour Kleinberg. **SS at Brandeis and Harvard:** int. with the late Irving Howe, John Simon, and Henny Wenkart, one of SS's study partners. For additional information on SS at Harvard, see CSS. Sontag's exams and papers are in her archive at UCLA. **Jacob Taubes** : Fonrobert and Engel; int. with Peter Tumarkin, Marshall Berman, the late Richard Tristman, and other Taubes students who described the impact of his charismatic personality and his teaching. See also Susan Taubes's novel, _Divorcing_. The comparison of the two Susans is derived from _Divorcing_ and from "Debriefing," SS's story about Susan Taubes, collected in _I, etcetera_. We have also consulted Susan Taubes, "The Absent God: A Study of Simone Weil," PhD dissertation, Harvard, 1956. See Fink for the Susan Taubes and Jacob Taubes correspondence, and a collection of Jacob Taubes's writing, edited by Fonrobert and Engel. **SS as faculty wife:** Schreiber. **SS's PhD research:** _Idealism at Work: Eight Years of AAUW Fellowships_ , a report by the American Association of University Women, 1967.

**5: QUEST (1957–58)**

**SS at Cambridge:** A. J. Ayer, a logical positivist, rejected philosophy's traditional interest in metaphysics, relying instead on empiricism and logic, and demanding scientific verification of ethical and value-driven statements. His classic work, _Language, Truth, and Logic_ (1936), which attacked the propositions of metaphysics and theology, had to be reckoned with by a student writing a dissertation on values and ethics. Iris Murdoch would have been a more congenial professor for SS. A philosopher, poet, and critic, Murdoch shared her pupil's own literary and intellectual bent. In _Under the Net_ (1954), she explicitly linked philosophy and fiction, observing how the existentialists pursued the theme of the self-seeking absolutes (goodness, love, morality) in an absurd universe. Where Ayer analyzed statements and employed logic, Murdoch engaged with narratives and symbolic actions. **Judith Grossman:** She generously shared with us her impressions of SS. **On Paris and the romance of traveling to France:** Sage; Kaplan, _French Lessons_ ; SS's foreword to _A Place in the World Called Paris_. **Annette Michelson:** Schreiber. Compare SS's with HSZ's journal, _Abroad_. For an evocation of Paris during the period of SS's first residence, see Lottman and Karnow. We have benefitted greatly from interviews with HSZ and the late Irv Jaffe. **Alfred Chester:** Athill; Zwerling; EF. It is a great loss to this biography that Chester's unpublished story, "Trois Corsages," about his literary harem, has been lost. See also Vidal's foreword to HAS. **André Breton:** Polizzotti; Tony Judt, _Past Imperfect: French Intellectuals, 1944–1956_ , provides an excellent background for understanding the origins of SS's aesthetics and politics. **SS's decision to end her marriage:** SS's story, "The Letter Scene"; see also BR; ZH.

**6: MAKING IT (1958–62)**

**SS/Rieff breakup:** SS's story, "The Letter Scene"; Doris Rieff to CR and LP, 8/18/2000; see also BR; ZH. Professor Daniel Aaron of Harvard University also provided a brief but vivid picture of Rieff's grief. **New York:** SS has provided slightly different versions of her arrival in New York. She told BR she had only $30. We report the $70 figure, which she gave to ZH and LG. **SS's comments on her dissertation:** _Idealism at Work_. As late as May 14, 1966, Sontag wrote to Rogers Albritton in the Department of Philosophy at Harvard to say she wished to complete her dissertation on Sartre's aesthetics. "I am eager to begin work," UCLA. For Sontag's comments to Annette Michelson, see Schreiber. **Glimpses of SS at _Commentary_ :** int. Martin Greenberg and Hilton Kramer; see also Schreiber. **Richard Howard:** We have relied on conversations with many writers, none of whom would care to be named here—except the fearless EF and Larry Mass. Howard opened up a bit for Schreiber. **On finding one's own way:** ACP, 1/14/58. **Maria Irene Fornés:** _The Feminist Companion to Literature in English_ ; SS wrote a preface to _Maria Irene Fornés Plays_ ; we have also drawn many of our impressions of Fornés from interviews with EF and HSZ, and from the clipping files of the Billy Rose Theatre Collection, NYPL for the Performing Arts. **Susan and Irene:** ACP, 8/8/59. **Custody battle with Rieff:** Doris Rieff to CR and LP, 8/18.2000; ACP, 8/18,59; int. Richard Tristman; see also MD and Schreiber. For SS's and DR's comments on his childhood and her motherhood, see MD; HB; BR; ZH; DR, _Going to Miami: Exiles, Tourists & Refugees in the New America_, and Margaria Fichtner, "The Outsider." A good many observers of the mother and son symbiosis requested we omit their names from our source list. **Sontag in Cuba:** Castro's comments and Sontag's role as part of the New Left are ably discussed in Rafael Rojas, _Fighting Over Fidel: The New York Intellectuals and the Cuban Revolution_ (Princeton University Press, 2016). **The writing group:** int. Richard Tristman. **On Taubes's writing:** See Marin Terpstra and Theo De Wit, "'No Spiritual Investment in the World as It Is': Jacob Taubes' Negative Political Theology." We are indebted to a number of Taubes's students at Columbia, who did not wish to be named here. Taubes has been deemed a "turbulent thinker," since his work contains such a swirling brew of conflicting positions. Like SS, he liked to create a tension between left and right, radical and conservative. **Syllabus for Sontag's religion course:** UCLA archive. **SS as teacher:** We also draw on Gerald Ginsburg's letter to us, 5/6/98. **Roger Straus and the acceptance of SS's first novel:** We have relied on Ted Morgan's profile of RG, "Feeding the Stream." We have had the benefit of testimony from many FSG authors and editors who prefer anonymity in these pages. Robert Giroux did not answer our letters. In _Hothouse_ , Boris Kachka reports on Sontag's first novel: "Epstein doesn't remember turning it down, but finds the story perfectly plausible since he didn't like her first novel." To journalist Philip Nobile, RS told a version of how SS's first novel got accepted that confirms RG's letter. When Nobile included Straus's story (without naming Straus) in an article on NYR for _Esquire_ , Jason Epstein wrote to the magazine denying Nobile's version of events. SS also wrote to _Esquire_ , protesting Nobile's inaccuracies. The magazine went to considerable trouble to verify their author's sources, and it stood by the story. SS backed down when she heard from _Esquire_ editor Harold Hayes that Nobile's chief source was none other than RS. We derive our information from an interview with Nobile and from an examination of his papers at Mugar Memorial Library, Special Collections, Boston University. Nobile's collection includes letters from SS, Epstein, and other SS friends. At one point, an _Esquire_ editor asks RS for SS's telephone number in Paris. He gave it—but with the request that she not be told that the editor got the number from RS. Nobile later expanded his article on NYR into a book, _Intellectual Skywriting_.

**7: MADE (1962–63)**

**AC on SS:** to Paul Bowles, 4/2/63, ACP; to EF, 4/8/63. The testimony we heard about a sexual liaison between SS and AC is conflicting. **On RS:** Colford; Kachka; Romano; Turow is quoted in Rabb. **SS on Straus:** quoted in Reginato. **Edmund Wilson on SS:** Wilson. **SS and _PR_ :** int.; Phillips. **AC and _PR_ and SS:** AC to Paul Bowles, 4/2/63; to HSZ, 8/2/62; to EF, 2/2/63; 3/13/63, ACP; see also HSA and AF. RG to SS, 1/9/63; to Murry Pollinger (agent for FSG), 5/31/63. **Reaction to _The Benefactor_ and its characters:** Paul Diamond to Herbert Lottman (Farrar, Straus's agent in Paris), 5/31/63; EF quotes Michael Finegold on AC in "The Mystery of Alfred Chester"; Bassoff; Sayres; John Barth is quoted by Judith Marshall of the Farrar, Straus publicity department to Lillian Friedman, station WEVD; Frederick Morgan's and Hannah Arendt's endorsements, 8/20/63, are in the FSG files, NYPL; LK to Catherine Meyer, 8/28/63; John Bright Holmes to RS, 8/30/63. **SS and Trilling:** Kennedy. **RS's efforts on SS's Behalf:** RS to Arthur Schlesinger, Jr., 8/22/63, NYPL; to Monique Nathan, 9/18/63, NYPL. **Rejections of _Benefactor_ Excerpts:** Arnold Ehrlich of _Show_ to Paula Diamond, 8/23/63; John R. Mong of _Saturday Evening Post_ to Paula Diamond. **Lichtheim and Hawkes:** UCLA. **Sales figures for _The Benefactor_ :** RS to Monique Nathan, 9/2/63, NYPL, reports that the novel's sales were "quite modest."

**8: SUPREMACY (1963–64)**

**AC on SS/Fornés affair:** letters to EF in ACP; see also Glass's essay in HSA and AC to EF, 11/27/63. **ACP:** Scott. **Elizabeth Hardwick:** SS eagerly acknowledged her debt to Hardwick. We watched SS and Hardwick in public together; the younger woman embraced her senior with a familiarity and reverence that spoke of deep family ties. It is no exaggeration to say that Hardwick's style was engraved on SS: "Her sentences are burned in my brain. I think she writes the most beautiful sentences, more beautiful sentences than any living American writer," SS told Hilton Als. See also Nobile; Teres; Morris; Kimball. **Camp:** A notation in the Farrar, Straus files (12/11/63) mentions SS's contacting _Show_ about her camp essay. The literature since SS's essay on camp has been extensive. Perhaps the place to begin is with David Bergman's essay and bibliography in _The Gay and Lesbian Heritage_ ; see also Bergman's _Camp Grounds: Style and Homosexuality_. See also Rorem. We tried several times to speak with Elliott Stein, and although he promised to call back, he never did. **Charles Jackson:** to SS, 12/2/64, UCLA. **Former copyeditor:** Kachka. **George Lichtheim:** Iris Murdoch to SS, 10/18/65, UCLA.

**9: FAME (1965–66)**

**SS's fame in Britain:** Brien. **SS and DR:** ACH, 10/10/67; MD. In AF, SS mentions that Herman Melville's _Pierre_ is one of those novels she read as a child which instilled in her the desire to be a writer. In fact, Pierre provides a model of the writer with one kind of family attachment (a mother) and without another (a father). SS saw herself as both Mary and Pierre, mother and child, parent and writer. She has said she saw herself as both parent and child in "Baby." As Simone de Beauvoir writes, the "child is a double, an alter ego, into whom the mother is sometimes tempted to project herself entirely." In a Diane Arbus photograph of young Susan and son, they appear almost as brother and sister—and he resembles, unmistakably, the young Marcel Proust. Many have said so. In their closeness, SS and son project a marriage of souls. As Klein concludes, "Whether the statement is made by Michelangelo, Renoir, or Picasso, whether we glimpse it on canvas or in stone, we immediately understand that even without father, mother and son are remarkably complete." **SS and Richard Goodwin:** ACH, 11/8/65. **Sylvia Plath:** ACH, 6/26/66 and 7/5/66. **SS's commitment to the present:** ACH, 10/17/65 and 1/4/66. **SS's blurb for William Gass:** to William Gass, 5/1/66, Special Collections, Washington University Libraries, courtesy of Anne Posega. **SS forsakes fame:** to RS (1966). **SS onmovie stars:** an unidentified clipping in the FSG files. **Garbo:** ACH, 11/11/65. **SS-Simon exchange on camp:** PR 32 (Winter 1965); Frank. **Jill Johnston:** We are indebted to Jill Johnston for her letters analyzing SS's sexuality in the context of her life and work. **Leo Strauss:** Rollyson _Essays in Biography_. **Charles Jackson:** to SS, 1/9/66, UCLA. **Eliot Freemont-Smith:** Hassan; Bruss; Kennedy argues that SS's attack on Matthew Arnold in her essay on the new sensibility is an implicit criticism of Lionel Trilling. Arnold is the subject of Trilling's dissertation and first book. **Irving Howe:** Dickstein, _Gates of Eden_ , has a sensitive discussion of Howe and SS. Hoberman cuts down some of the distance Howe puts between SS and an earlier generation of New York intellectuals. **Statistics on SS's sales:** a subsidiary rights memo, 11/9/65, NYPL. **SS at Columbia:** RG to Harry Ford of Atheneum Publishers, 6/4/64, NYPL. **SS helping RS with his list:** RS memo of 9/17/63 and SS to RS, 6/28/66, NYPL. **SS's new preface to _Against Interpretation_ :** _Where the Stress Falls_.

**10: PETER AND PAUL (1965–67)**

**AC on SS:** AC to EF, 4/5/65; AC to EF, 8/18/65, ACP. **SS's attraction to the demonic:** ACH, 1/4/66. **SS in Tangier:** EF. On AC's behavior during SS's stay we are indebted to Allen Hibbard's interview with Ira Cohen, one of AC's friends; see also Gore Vidal's foreword to HSA. **HSZ on AC and SS:** Field int. with HSZ. **AC book jacket controversy:** We rely on the FSG files and on interviews with Richard Kluger. Kluger to SS, 1/30/67, mentions the fact that AC asked SS to write a letter for him. CR called Kluger's boss, Peter Schwed, but he could not remember the incident. **George Lichtheim:** to SS, 4/28/66, UCLA. **Don Eric Levine:** to SS, 5/8/67, UCLA. **Noël Burch:** to SS, 2/8/68, UCLA. **Elliott Stein:** to SS, 11/9/66, 2/16/67, 8/26/67, UCLA. **Peter and Paul:** Int. Jill Johnston, Ann Wilson, and other friends of Peter and Paul who do not wish to be identified here; see also Stahel; Gee. **SS on Gass:** SS to David Segal, January 25, 1966, Special Collections, Olin Library, Washington University. **Reaction to Hujar's photograph of SS:** www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi; Bonetti. **Paul Thek:** see _The Wonderful World That Almost Was: Paul Thek_ (Rotterdam: Witte de With); we also draw on interviews with Jill Johnston, Ann Wilson, and other Thek friends who do not wish to be acknowledged here. _**Death Kit**_ : SS discusses her plans for the novel in a letter to RG, 6/17/65. For criticism of _Death Kit_ , see Elizabeth Holdsworth; Vidal; Nelson. **Daddy did die:** ACH, 7/21/72. **Get Poe stories!:** ACH, 10/15/65.

**11: NEO-RADICALISM (1967–69)**

**RS/FSG concerns about _Death Kit_ :** RS to Robert Adams, 9/20/67; to F. R. Ruskin, 3/11/66; to Maurice Temple Smith, 5/8/67; Maurice Temple Smith to RS, 5/11/67; LK to Candida Donadio, 6/16/67; Gerald Pollinger to RS, 4/28/67; LK to Douglas McKee of McKee & Mouche, 14 rue du Regard 14, Paris, 9/5/69; RS to Monique Nathan of Edition du Seuil, 9/19/67; to Maurice Temple Smith, 9/7/67; to Candida Donadio, 8/25/67; to Alberto Mondadori, 3/27/67, NYPL. **Richard Howard:** to SS, 6/7/68, UCLA. **The mother-and-Judith in me:** ACH, 7/23,66. **Candida Donadio:** letter to CR and LP. Donadio was never officially SS's agent, although Straus occasionally found her useful in promoting SS's career. **SS as news item:** Laurence Pollinger to RS, 4/17/68; SS to RS, 8/8/66, NYPL. **SS on her jacket photo:** to RS, 6/29/67, NYPL. **James Dickey:** Writer David Slavitt heard Dickey tell one version of the story. Our thanks to George Garrett for providing this account. **SS'S anti-Vietnam War speech:** Quoted by Berg. **Dot Lane:** Our thanks to Dot Lane for supplying documents about the protest and for her letter to us (9/19/97) and phone conversation describing SS. **SS's Hanoi visit:** SS's comments in her diary are undated. They appear at the beginning of the 1968 section in ACH. See also Kopkind. We also interviewed Kopkind's lover, Jack Scagliotti, and other Kopkind friends who do not wish to be named, and Perry Stieglitz; see also Stieglitz's book, _In a Little Kingdom_ ; Milton J. Bates, _The Wars We Took to Vietnam: Cultural Conflict and Storytelling_ (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996); Marx; Caute. **Mary McCarthy:** to SS, 12/16/68, UCLA; see also Schreiber's account of SS in Vietnam. **SS on Cuba:** In _Radical Son_ , David Horowitz gives his version of SS's contribution to _Ramparts_ when he was an editor. We have also interviewed Horowitz and his co-editor, Peter Collier; see also Hollander, "Intellectuals, Estrangement, and Wish Fulfillment." **SS on Ché:** Alexandre. **SS and the Socialist Workers Party:** Wald; Leslie Evans to Scott McLemee, 8/13/88, courtesy of Scott McLemee. **Ralph Schoenman:** I'm grateful to the late Michael Foot, a friend of Russell's, for sharing his impressions of Schoenman with me. **SS in Mexico:** Maya Khankhoje to CR and LP, 9/15/97; CR int. MK. neo

**12: STYLES OF RADICAL WILL (1968–71)**

**Hellman to SS:** 1/25/69, UCLA. **SS's Greenwich Village apartment:** James Toback, "Whatever You'd Like Susan Sontag to Think, She Doesn't," _Esquire_ , July 1968. Beatrice Berg, "Susan Sontag: Intellectuals' Darling," _Washington Post_ , Section F, January 8, 1967. **SS at Brown:** Laurence Goldstein unpublished memoir, n.d., courtesy of Laurence Goldstein. **Gladys Carr:** SS to Gladys Carr, 4/13/65, and Gladys Carr to SS, 4/19/65, NYPL. **SS's "marriage" to Irene:** SS to JC, 6/26/[69], JCP; 8/12/67, ACH. **SS and DR:** 1/4/66, ACH. **SS's cannibalism:** 8/9/67, ACH. **Carlotta Del Pezzo:** 2/10, 2/11/70, 2/17/70, 10/3/70, ACH. **SS and Nicole Stéphane:** James Lord to CR, 3/22 and 1/1/97. Writer James Lord saw them together in Paris. Lord was no friend of SS. He found her "basically very calculating and arriviste, though clever." SS names Stéphane as her producer in the Schultz int., CSS. When Stéphane appeared in New York in 1996 at the Museum of Modern Art (MOMA) for a retrospective of Melville's films (which Susan Sontag helped to organize) she looked just as sturdy as her film persona, a monument to a great age in French film—still a beautiful woman, still intact and poised. Age had softened her, to be sure, so that she now appeared as a rounded, fluffy-haired, sweet looking woman. Sontag, sixty-three at the time of this event, acted like an excited adolescent, ushering Stéphane into the MOMA theater. The third row of the MOMA theater had been reserved for Sontag's entourage, which included David, and she animatedly made the rounds, squatting beside Stéphane, sitting on the arm of a seat, smiling a lot. She was up and down, up and down, a jet of energy and enthusiasm.

Sontag introduced Stéphane as Nicole, a "colleague and dear friend." In fact they were "old, very, very close friends... We did all kinds of things together... Nicole is my closest European friend," Sontag assured the audience. She mentioned that Nicole had been born in Paris in 1924, and that she had qualified as an equestrian for the 1936 Olympics in Hitler's Berlin but did not attend. Melville spotted Stéphane, then only nineteen, at an audition, and Cocteau chose her for the role of Elisabeth. Later Stéphane became a labor organizer, and she also produced _Promised Lands_ , Sontag's documentary about Israel and the Palestinians. After this tribute, Sontag beamed, and Stéphane kissed her on both cheeks. **See SS on Stéphane:** A8/7/71.

Sontag describes her love affair with Stéphane in her letters to Chaikin. The letters hint at an intense, yet ambiguous bond between two women that is the focus of SS's essay on Ingmar Bergman's film _Persona_. See also JC to SS: 6/2, 7/8, 71, UCLA. **SS's desire to make films:** Newman int., CSS; see also Gussow. **SS in Sweden:** See SS, "A Letter from Sweden." Goran Lindgren to CR and LP, 12/16/97; we also interviewed Peter Hald. SS told a Swedish interviewer, "I don't like to have long discussions. Many actors understand things without talking about them, and many actors who talk very well about their roles can't in the end do what they promise. The verbal communication that a director can have with an actor is often misleading." We are grateful to Goran Lindgren for sending us a copy of this interview with Stig Bjorkman in _Film in Sweden_ (January 1971). **Discipleship:** SS never ceased latching on to masters, even after she might be considered to have become one herself. Librarian Mike Unsworth reported to us that he met her in Colorado. He did not recognize her, and they talked about a concert Philip Glass was giving. SS told him that she had been traveling in Glass's wake, catching his talks and concerts. **Reviews of _Duet for Cannibals_ :** For the most insightful discussion of the film, see Haskell; Sayres; Tucker; Kauffmann; Armes; Kael. Many Swedish reviews were negative, though others were polite, if not enthusiastic. Swedish scholar Karl-Erik Tallmo translated for us a small excerpt from a review by Daen Nyheter, which praises the eloquence of Sontag's dialogue, but which calls _Duet for Cannibals_ "diffuse," a slow-moving black farce. The film's expressionism seemed antiquated, and SS apparently did little to give her actors a sense of the "purpose and direction of her story." The film was received well at Cannes, and Gussow called it one of the hits of the New York Film Festival, where it played to sold-out audiences. It had a limited theatrical release in New York, London, and other major cities. **SS on Susan Taubes:** SS to Joseph Chaikin, 12/29/69, JCP. **SS on gestation of _Brother Carl_ :** SS to RG, 7/6/72; see also her published screenplay, _Brother Carl_.

**13: MS. SONTAG (1971–73)**

**SS on the Parisian scene:** Schultz int., CSS; SS to RS, 5/12/71, 7/5/72, NYPL. **Promoting SS as filmmaker:** T. G. Rosenthal of Secker & Warburg to RS, 4/1/71; RS to TR, 4/8/71, NYPL. **Stéphane on the de Beauvoir film adaptation:** Kaplan, _Dreaming in French_. **Year of the Ox:** The correspondence concerning the $5,000 advance and the contract for the screenplay, dated 4/22/72, are in the FSG files, NYPL. **SS's quiet period:** LK to Michelle Lapautre, 10/4/72, SS to RS, 7/5/72, NYPL. **SS on making it as a woman:** Schultz int., CSS. **A moveable doom:** SS to LK (n.d., but clearly in June 1972); Barbara Blakemore of _McCall's_ to LK, 6/9/72 and LK to SS, 6/15/72, pointing out that the essay was too long and needed work, NYPL. **Jill Johnston:** JJ to CR and LP, 3/6/97. In a review of Johnston's _Marmalade Me_ and _Admission Accomplished: The Lesbian Nation Years_ , Liz Kotz ( _Women's Review of Books_ , July 1998) notes that the "art world was perhaps less than willing to deal with an openly gay artist, especially a lesbian one, who was now taking questions of sexuality and gender as overtly political issues." And not just the art world, but the literary one as well: Kotz believes that Johnston's "effrontery and intense partisanship" has kept her from "major recognition." **Town Hall:** See the account in Carl Rollyson, _Norman Mailer: The Last Romantic_. **The double standard of aging:** We interviewed HSZ, who confirmed the details in SS's article. **Camille Paglia:** Int. Camille Paglia, Richard Tristman, Joan Schenkar; Paglia mailgram to SS, 9/10/73; "Sontag Bloody Sontag" in _Vamps and Tramps_. Paglia also sent us a detailed four-page letter (7/27/99), from which we have quoted with her permission; see also Stewart Brand interview with Camille Paglia, _Wired_ (online data base); Bob Fernandes's interview with SS, "Suburbana America," in _Istoe_ , the Brazilian equivalent of _Time_ , 6/23/93. He questions her directly about Paglia, whom SS says should form a rock band.

**14: PROMISED LANDS (1973–74)**

**The China trip:** 7/20/72, 7/31/73, ACH; RS to Pat Carbine of Ms., October 19, 1972, NYPL. We are grateful to James McGrath Morris for showing us his chapter on the China trip before publishing his biography of Ethel Payne. **Sontag's translator:** Evans Chan, "Against Postmodernism, etcetera: A Conversation with Susan Sontag," 2001. <http://pmc.iath.virginia.edu/text-only/issue.901/12.1chan.txt> **Secker and Warburg:** T. G. Rosenthal of Secker and Warburg to Deborah Rogers (FSG's London agent), 5/25/73, NYPL; see also SS to RS, 5/14/73, NYPL. **The _New Yorker_ :** Shawn to RS (3/30/73) rejects "Debriefing": "This didn't work out for us, in spite of some dazzling moments. I've told Susan." He also rejected "Baby" and "Project for a Trip to China"; see also RS letter to Robie Macaulay of _Playboy_ thanking him for the $2,500 for "Baby," 7/30/73, NYPL. **Straus to London agent:** Deborah Rogers (October 31, 1973, NYPL. **Promised Lands:** "Susan Sontag Tells How It Feels to Make a Movie," _Vogue_ , July 1974; int. Yoram Kaniuk. We wanted to interview Sontag's Palestinian American friend, Edward Said, on this topic, but he did not answer our letters. **Joseph Brodsky:** Maja Herman Sekulić int.; 5/2/80, ACH.

**15: "OLD COMPLAINTS REVISITED" (1975)**

**Adversary to my own work:** 9/475, ACH. **Fascinating Fascism:** SS to RS, 2/24/75, NYPL; see also Dassanowsky; Starkman, "An Interview with Ray Müller, director of 'The Wonderful, Horrible Life of Leni Riefenstahl,'" <http://www.apopalypse.com/movies/document/riefenstahl/mueller.int.html>; David Elliott, "German Film Vision Artfully Explained," _San Diego Tribune_ , June 30, 1994, <http://www2.uniontribu.com/news/utarchives>. **SS and feminism:** SS continued, in a minor key, to write a few feminist articles. See her essay "Beauty" ( _Vogue_ , May 1975), and "Can Rights Be Equal" ( _Vogue_ , July 1976).

**16: BECOMING A LITTLE POSTHUMOUS (1975–77)**

**SS's diary:** 6/12/75. **SS's cancer treatment:** SS to Marion Soloway, 3/31/93, UCLA; SS int. with Raddatz, Cott, Servan-Schreiber, Ruas, Costa and Lopez in CSS; see also Grossman; C Kahn; LG. Two interviews in French reveal a good deal about Sontag's personal struggle with cancer: Braudeau; David; Joseph Chaikin to Arthur Miller, 11/10/75, JCP. We interviewed Richard Tristman, Yoram Kaniuk, Thomas Lipscomb, Sidney Offit, Lionel Abel, and others who do not wish to be identified. We corresponded with Martin Peretz. Joseph Chaikin did not answer our letters asking for an interview. **Sontag's reaction to her cancer:** 6/19/76, ACH. See DR's note to the diary entry for 11/5/76, ACH. **Don Eric Levine and Nicole Stéphane's sister:** RSS.

**17: RECOVERY (1976–77)**

**Sigrid Nunez:** Sky. **Sontag on the phone:** 2/20/77, ACH. **JC to SS:** 6/4, 8/8, 8/23, 76, UCLA. **On Photography:** Our account of the origins of SS's interest in photography is based on her talk, "Susan Sontag on Photography," at the Detroit Institute of Arts, 10/13/89, a tape of which the museum kindly sent us.

**18: THE SALONISTES (1977–85)**

**Sales of _On Photography_ :** RS to Peter Carson at Penguin, 12/6/77; to SS, 12/6/77; to Michelle Lapautre, 1/19/78; to Liz Calder, 1/23/78; to Rollene Sael, The Literary Guild, 1/26/78; to Deborah Rogers, 2/5/78, NYPL. **Philip Dick to SS:** 2/28/75, 1/4/76. **Jackie Onassis:** Kaplan, _Dreaming in French_. **Richard Selzer:** His unpublished comments are taken from his archive, courtesy of Mahala Stripling, Selzer's biographer. _**Tel Quel:**_ Scarpetta int. in CSS. **Brodsky on Solzhenitsyn:** Scarpetta int., CSS. **SS and Brodsky:** Volkov; we heard SS reminisce about Brodsky at Columbia University's Miller Theatre on October 29, 1996, as part of a program that included Tatyana Tolstaya, Mark Strand, Richard Locke, and Derek Walcott. The event is reported in the _Columbia University Record_ , Volume 22, No. 9, which we accessed online. SS reminisces about Brodsky in her afterword to Lemkhin. See also Robertson. **Ned Rorem:** _The Nantucket Diary of Ned Rorem_. **Paul Thek:** to SS, 12/5/75, 5/28, 78, UCLA. **Brodsky and Walcott's poetry class:** Penny Cagan, an NYU graduate student in the creative writing program, took the course and sent an e-mail to CR and LP, 9/4/97, and was also interviewed. Cagan reported that the students thought of SS as just another SSP (shameless self-promoter). **Dennis Altman:** We are grateful to Dennis Altman for sending us his reminiscence; we also rely on Jocelyn Carlson in conversation with Zane Berzins, as reported by Berzins to CR. **SS's New School courses:** int. with Monica Strauss, one of SS's students, and Edmund White. **Norman Cantor:** to CR and LP, 6/23/2000. **Kopkind and Scagliotti:** Int. Jack Scagliotti. **SS and identity politics:** She gave a curious interview to the gay magazine _Out_ (April 1974). Although she made comments like, "Everybody has the capacity for homosexual feelings and homosexual relations," she said nothing about her own sexuality. Interviewer Chuck Ortleb begins his piece by referring to his own decision to come out, but the issue is never raised in the published interview. **Hilton Kramer:** int. CR. **Richard Howard:** We are indebted to Marion Meade for a report on Richard Howard among the biographers. **David Leavitt:** He made his remarks in a symposium, "Whose Life Is It, Anyway," reprinted in the _Authors Guild Bulletin_ (Winter 1999).

**19: I, ETCETERA (1978–79)**

**Sales of _I, etcetera_ :** RS to Peter Mayer, 5/22/79, NYPL. **Beerbohm:** Hall. **SS interview with Suzanne Gordon:** There is an exchange of letters between Borchardt (5/30/79) and RS (6/1/79) in the FSG papers, NYPL. We interviewed Suzanne Gordon, who believes SS was embarrassed by some of her statements, which may have seemed a little silly in print. **Servan-Shreiber interview:** CSS; see also York. **Hawaii:** int. Cobey Black, Jeannette Paulson, Mark Wilson; see also Black, "High Priestess in Bluejeans." **SS in Italy:** RS to Fritz Raddatz of Die Zeit, 8/7/79; int. Edmund White; SS-Sciascia interview, CSS. In a documentary, "Susan Sontag," available on videocassette from Films for the Humanities, SS speaks of Italy as the country where she would like to have been born.

**20: A WANDERING JEW (1980)**

**SS in Poland:** See Beyer int., CSS, 165–74; e-mail from James McClintock to CR and LP, 11/4/97. **SS and Oates:** Johnson. **Oates on RS:** to SS, 3/2/81, UCLA. **Jaroslav Anders:** 5/18/80, ACH. **SS on a depolarized sexual world:** Servan-Schreiber int., CSS.

**21: SUSAN THE APOSTATE (1982)**

**Town Hall:** Alexander Cockburn and James Ridgeway, "The Poles, The Left, and the Tumbrils of '84," _Village Voice_ , February 10–16, 1982; "Communism and the Left," _Nation_ , February 27, 1982 reprints SS's speech, commentary on the speech, and her rebuttal; William F. Buckley Jr., "Why Leftists Booed Sontag's Speech," _Philadelphia Inquirer_ , March 2, 1982; Ralph Schoenman, "Susan Sontag and the Left," _Village Voice_ , March 2, 1982; Jacobo Timmerman, "Moral Symmetry," _Nation_ , March 6, 1982; Christopher Hitchens, "Poland and the US Left," _Spectator_ , March 6, 1982; "Setting the Record Straight," _Nation_ , March 13, 1982. See also the letters section of the _Nation_ , March 27, 1982; James Lardner, "Susan Sontag into the Fray," _Washington Post_ , March 16, 1982; Richard Grenier, "The Conversion of Susan Sontag," _New Republic_ , April 14, 1982; D. Keith Mano, "The Strange Agony of Susan Sontag," _National Review_ , April 16, 1982; Arch Puddington, "The Polish Example," _American Spectator_ , April 1982; "Sontag Slugfest" (letters from Joseph Brodsky, Jaroslav Anders, and Grenier's reply), _New Republic_ , May 26, 1982; "Susan Sontag Comes in Out of the Left," _Forbes_ , May 10, 1982; Walter Goodman, "Hard to Digest" (comparing _Reader's Digest_ to the _Nation_ on the handling of communism), _Harper's_ , June 1982; Seymour Martin Lipset, "The Thugs and Susan Sontag," _American Spectator_ , June 1982; Leon Wieseltier, "Ideas in Season," _Partisan Review_ , Summer 1982; William Phillips, "Neo-History," _Partisan Review_ , Summer 1982; Peter Shaw and Seymour Martin Lipset, "Two Afterthoughts on Susan Sontag," _Encounter_ , June–July 1982; Charles Ruas, "Susan Sontag: Past, Present, and Future," _New York Times Book Review_ , October 24, 1982; SS and Robert Silvers sent letters to _Encounter_ , November 1982, defending her position; Laura Kipnis, "Aesthetics and Foreign Policy," _Social Text_ , Fall 1986; Robert J. Branham, "Speaking Itself: Susan SS's Town Hall Address," _Quarterly Journal of Speech_ , August 1989. We are also grateful to Ralph Schoenman, E. L. Doctorow, and Victor Navasky, who were at Town Hall and consented to be interviewed. We sent three letters to Christopher Hitchens requesting an interview, but he never responded; neither did Alexander Cockburn. **Isaiah Berlin:** SS relays his comments to Octavio Paz, 3/2/82, UCLA. **SS and _Soho News_ :** Marshall Berman joined a group of commentators that included Noam Chomsky, Garry Wills, Diana Trilling, Nathan Glazer, Mary McCarthy, Seymour Martin Lipset, Jessica Mitford, James Weinstein, Bernard-Henri Levy, Michel Foucault, Ben J. Wattenberg, Felix Guattari, and Julia Kristeva. A good many of the responses ignored SS and maundered on about the complexities of communism. See also "Newsmakers," _Philadelphia Inquirer_ , February 20, 1982; "Susan Sontag Provokes Debate on Communism," _New York Times_ , February 27, 1982; Nat Hentoff, "The Authorized Sontag v. That 'Dreadful' Soho Rag" and "First Amendment Jane/and the Unauthorized Jane," _Village Voice_ , March 16 and April 13, 1982, 4; Alexander Cockburn, "Press Clips," _Village Voice_ , April 8, 1982; Aryeh Neier, "Dissenting Opinion," _Nation_ , May 8, 1982. Neier said he would not consent to be interviewed for this biography because SS was his friend, and she opposed this biography. See also Tom Zito, " _Soho News_ Ends Publication," _Washington Post_ , March 16, 1982.

**22: RETROSPECTION AND RETALIATION (1982–83)**

**Walter Kendrick:** The exchanges between Rieff, Navasky, and Pollitt can be found in the FSG archives, 10/21, 22, 25, 28, NYPL. We are indebted to Victor Navasky, Katha Pollitt, and the late Walter Kendrick for speaking to us about this incident. **Zelig:** Woody Allen was not available to comment on working with SS. **Lucinda Childs:** Childs did not respond to our requests for an interview. But she appears in RSS. See the interview with Childs in _Soho News_ , November 3, 1977; Sally Banes, "Lucinda Childs: Simplicity Forces You to See," _Vogue_ , May 1977; Allen Robertson, "Be Am Is Are Was Were Been," _Soho News_ , March 25, 1981; _Current Biography_ , April 1984; Iris Fanger, "The New Lucinda Childs," _Dance Magazine_ , October 1989; Jorn Rohwer interview with Childs in _Ballet International_ , October 1995. We consulted these articles in the clipping files of the Library for the Performing Arts, NYPL. For our portrait of Childs and her background we have also drawn on interviews with Edmund White and other confidential sources. **Television essay:** After _Unguided Tour_ , Sontag continued to explore "couple relation," the term she uses in "A Primer for Pina: Susan Sontag on Pina Bausch: A Television Essay," shown on Channel Four in Great Britain in 1984, and in her direction of _Jacques and His Master_ , Milan Kundera's adaptation of a Diderot play premiered at the American Repertory Theater in 1985. See also CR, _Reading Susan Sontag_ and _Understanding Susan Sontag_ for more discussion of Sontag's work in the theater and in dance.

**23: PRESIDENT SONTAG (1984–89)**

**Reviews of _Jacques and His Master_** : In the _New York Times_ (January 24, 1985), Frank Rich noted that SS had staged the play with "fastidious care, but also with pomposity that can drain away the fun. It's all too characteristic of the production that the director advertises the play's pedigree by gratuitously dragging a bust of Diderot on stage." Rich appreciated the "Pirandellian" devices, but he found that "Miss Sontag's staging lacks the requisite velocity and fizz." On the other hand, Jack Kroll ( _Newsweek_ , February 4, 1985) reported, "Susan Sontag and her actors have caught this mood of defiant melancholy and rueful comedy." In "Milan and His Master" ( _Performing Arts Journal_ , 9 [1985]), Gerald Rabkin provided the most thoughtful commentary on the play and its director, suggesting that the production remained caught somewhere between a provocative literary exercise and a not entirely successful theatrical experience. **SS's teaching:** SS to Mr. Adner, 10/4/84; to John E. Everett, 3/18/81, UCLA. **SS and PEN:** Our account of SS and PEN is based on documents, letters, board minutes, interviews with PEN rank-and-file, PEN board members and former board members, including presidents, who do not wish to be identified by name, except for Francis King, Victor Navasky, E. L. Doctorow, and Sidney Offit, the last of whom gave us the most genial view of the organization and its members. Much of the primary evidence is housed in the PEN archive at Special Collections, Firestone Library, Princeton University. See also, Garrett; Stern; Rollyson, _Norman Mailer: The Last Romantic_. **The Steinbergs:** "Is PEN Mightier than the Checkbook?" _San Jose Mercury News_ , August 20, 1990. **SS and Waclav Havel:** A few years later, Alfred Kazin would watch SS in action at a _New York Review of Books_ party for Havel after his ascension to the presidency of Czechoslovakia: "Sontag's eyes were glistening after embracing the president—'an old friend,' she confessed as she exited the circle around him. 'I've been invited to the presidential palace next time I'm in Prague.'" See _A Lifetime Burning in Every Moment: From the Journals of Alfred Kazin_ (HarperCollins, 1966). Kazin does not give a specific date for this event, which took place at the Vivian Beaumont Theater at Lincoln Center. **SS and Karen Kennerly:** John Simon told us, "Whether Karen speaks with you may depend on how well she is getting on with Susan." When we told him Kennerly would not talk—would not make any sort of statement on SS's presidency. Simon reflected that Karen must be going through a "good period" with Susan. One of PEN's more outspoken critics and a veteran combatant in the organization's internal power struggles discounts Offit's views, terming him an organizational loyalist. She predicted that few writers would go on record about SS. "Writers have no guts," she proclaimed, and then added, "please don't use my name." **Ted Solotaroff:** His remarks appear in the PEN board minutes for March 18, 1987; we also draw on PEN board minutes for September 16, 1987.

We found the following newspaper and magazine accounts helpful and drew many of our quotations from: Edwin McDowell, "Mailer Sparkplug for Writer's Congress," _Chicago Tribune_ , January 2, 1986; John Blades, "PEN Authors Ready to Unsheath Vocal Swords at Congress," _Chicago Tribune_ , January 12, 1986; Stephen Salisbury, "World's Writers Address a Foe: Government," _Philadelphia Inquirer_ , January 12, 1986; Thomas Collins, "Shultz Heckled at PEN Meeting," _Newsday_ , January 13, 1986; Larry McShane, "Shultz Heckled by World Writers Over Issue of Free Expression," _Detroit Free Press_ , January 13, 1986; Edwin McDowell, "Grass vs. Bellow Over U.S. at PEN," _New York Times_ , January 15, 1986; Stephan Salisbury, "What Do Those Who Write Owe the World?," _Philadelphia Inquirer_ , January 16, 1997; Carlin Romano, "A Pride of Literary Lions: Matters Both Deep and Shallow Take Center Stage at the PEN Congress," _Philadelphia Inquirer_ , January 17, 1986; Stephan Salisbury, "It's Mailer vs. Women on PEN's Final Day," _Philadelphia Inquirer_ , January 18, 1986; John Blades, "International Writers' Congress PENS No Peaceful Prose with Its Bad Blood," _Chicago Tribune_ , January 19, 1986; William Robertson, "The Literary Leap From New York to Key West," _Miami Herald_ , January 19, 1986; Rhoda Koenig, "At Play in the Fields of the Word: Alienation, Imagination, Feminism, and Foolishness at PEN," _New York_ , February 3, 1986; Leslie Hanscom, "A Literary Shebang That Had Its Share of Guff," _Newsday_ , February 9, 1986; Roger Kimball, "Politics, Politics, Politics—the PEN Congress in New York," _New Criterion_ , March 1986; see also Francis King, _Visiting Cards_ , HarperCollins, 1990; **SS's Senate testimony on Rushdie:** Reprinted in _The Rushdie File_ , edited by Lisa Appignanesi and Sara Maitland (Fourth Estate, 1989). **Rushdie:** We drew on Lloyd Grove and Charles Trueheart, "Silence in the Eye of The 'Satanic' Storm: Authors, Bookstores Fear Reprisals," _Washington Post_ , February 18, 1989; Edwin McDowell, "Furor Over 'Satanic Verses' Rises as Two More Book Chains Halt Sales," _New York Times_ , February 18, 1989; D. D. Gutterplan, "Fear Chills Writers' Defense," _Newsday_ , February 18, 1989; "Devil's Work: How to Foil Khomeini," [editorial] _Newsday_ , February 21, 1989; Vivienne Walt and Scott Ladd, "The Storm Over 'Verses': Rushdie Supporters Return Iran's Fire, Writers Call on Bush for Backing," _Newsday_ , February 21, 1989; Vivienne Walt, "A Day of Demonstrations," _Newsday_ , February 22, 1989; Paula Span, "The Writers' Bloc, Authors Rally for Freedom of Expression," _Washington Post_ , February 23, 1989; Robert L. Koenig, "Khomeini Stands Firm, U.S. Writers Stage Protest, Authors Read Aloud from _Satanic Verses," St. Louis Post-Dispatch_ , February 23, 1989; Richard Bernstein, "Passages in Defense of a Colleagues: Writers Read and Speak for Rushdie," _New York Times_ , February 23, 1989; Shauna Snow, "Morning Report," _Los Angeles Times_ , February 27, 1989; Richard Cohen, "Writers Don't Merit Charge of Cowardice," _St. Louis Post-Dispatch_ , March 4, 1989; Charles Trueheart, "Witnesses for 'Verses': Senate Panel Weighs U.S. Response to Iran," _Washington Post_ , March 9, 1989; Charles Krauthammer, "Heroism Comes Cheap 6,000 Miles from Iran," _St. Louis Post-Dispatch_ , March 13, 1989; David Sheff, "Playboy Interview: Salman Rushdie," _Playboy_ , April 1996.

**24: PITCHING SUSAN SONTAG (1986–89)**

**SS's trip to Hawaii:** int. Jeanette Paulson, Cobey Black. **Helen Benedict:** int. See also Benedict's profile, published in several newspapers, including the _Chicago Tribune_ (December 11, 1988), and collected in _Portraits in Print_. **Andrew Wylie:** Wasserman; Enright; the "People" column in _Newsday_ , February 24, 1989. **Endicott Booksellers:** Correspondence and interview with Stuart Bernstein. See also Mandell. **SS at Books & Company:** int. Brandon Larson.

**25: "THE WAY WE LIVE NOW" (1987–92)**

**Paul Thek:** His letters to SS are at UCLA. **Nadine Gordimer:** SS and Gordimer exchanged letters on 6/29 and 9/2/87, UCLA. **Cynthia Ozick:** 12/31/87, UCLA. **To Andrew Britton:** 7/28/85, UCLA. **Critics on "The Way We Live Now":** David Leavitt is quoted in Elaine Showalter, _Sexual Anarchy: Gender and Culture at the Fin de Siècle_ (Viking, 1990). See also Joseph Cady, "Immersive and Counterimmersive Writing About AIDS: The Achievement of Paul Monette's _Love Alone_ ," in _Writing Aids: Gay Literature, Language, and Analysis_ , edited by Timothy F. Murphy and Suzanne Poirier (Columbia University Press, 1993); Sylvie Drake, "Bearing the Pain of AIDS in 'The Way We Live Now,'" _Los Angeles Times_ , February 24, 1989; Annie Dawid, "The Way We Teach Now: Three Approaches to AIDS Literature," in _AIDS: The Literary Response_ , ed. Emmanuel S. Nelson (Twayne, 1992); see also Patricia Morrisroe, _Mapplethorpe: A Biography_ (Random House, 1995); Fries int., CSS. **Reviews of _AIDS and Its Metaphors_ :** SS received an excellent review in _Newsday_ (January 8, 1989), where Dan Cryer judged that she displayed the same "precision, clarity, and wide-ranging learning" to be found in _Illness as Metaphor_ ; in the _Washington Post_ (January 15, 1989), Dennis Drabelle commended her "erudition." Mixed to negative reviews appeared in the _New York Times_ , January 16, 1989, _Chicago Tribune_ (January 22, 1989), _Wall Street Journal_ (January 20, 1989), _San Francisco Chronicle_ (January 29, 1989), _Orlando Florida Sentinel_ (March 2, 1989), _Village Voice_ (March 14, 1989), Scott McLemee, "On Demythologizing AIDS," _New Politics_ 2 (Summer 1989), Joseph Sobran, _National Review_ (February 24, 1989), D. A. Miller, "Sontag's Urbanity," _October_ 49 (1989). **SS's sexual orientation:** Gross. **Sarah Schulman:** See her _My American History: Lesbian and Gay Life During the Reagan/Bush Years_ (Routledge: 1994). **Camille Paglia:** Int. and correspondence with Paglia; int. with Christopher Lydon; **The party at RS's house:** Int. with Hilton Kramer; letter to CR from James Lord, 3/22/97.

**26: THE VOLCANO LOVER (1990–92)**

**MacArthur Award:** "4 Californians Among 36 Winners of MacArthur Foundation Grants," _Los Angeles Times_ , July 17, 1980; "Sudden Wealth... Grant Lets a Writer Write, An Activist Act, and a Professor Buy a Rain Forest," _St. Louis Post-Dispatch_ , July 18, 1990; int. E. L. Doctorow; McMurtry to SS: 7/17/90, UCLA. **Her archive:** McMurtry to SS, 7/29/89, UCLA. **London Terrace:** We are grateful to our friend and colleague, Bert Hanson, for taking us on a tour of London Terrace and for providing the following articles: "Where Seventh Avenue Goes to Sleep," _New York Times_ , March 26, 1995; Christopher Gay, "Time Erodes Unity of a 1,665 Unit City Within a City," _New York Times_ , October 30, 1988. See also Holland Cotter, "A Tour Through Chelsea, Art's New Center of Gravity," _New York Times_ , May 15, 1998. **AL:** Vicky Allen, "Call us lovers. It sounds romantic. I want to be perfectly clear. I love Susan. HOW SUSAN SONTAG CHANGED THE LIFE... AND WORK...OF ANNIE LEIBOVITZ," _Sunday Herald_ , October 12, 2008. For our view of AL and SS together, we are grateful to comments from James Vernon, one of AL's interns. **In Milan:** Karla Eoff to Kazue Kobata, 5/28/91, UCLA. **David Stacton:** Robert Nedelkoff alerted us to Disch's comment. Sontag's UCLA archive does not include a copy of Stacton's novel. **SS's opinion of _The Volcano Lover_ :** SS, "Singleness," in _Who's Writing This: Notations on the Authorial I with Self-Portraits_ , ed. Daniel Halpern (Ecco Press, 1995). For SS's comments on _The Volcano Lover_ , we drew on personal recordings of interviews conducted by Irene Borger, Scott Simon, and Eleanor Wachel, and printed interviews by Paula Span (see CSS). **EH:** Sara Mosle, "Talking with Susan Sontag," _Newsday_ , August 30, 1992; Mary Ann Grossmann, "Shaking Loose," _St. Paul Pioneer Press_ , September 10, 1992; Inga Saffron, "Sontag's Stuff," _Philadelphia Inquirer_ , September 24, 1992; Samuel R. Delany, "Under the Volcano," _Reflex_ , October 6, 1992; D. C. Denison, "The Interview: Susan Sontag," _UpFront_ , November 1, 1992; Margaría Fichtner, "Sontag Basks in Success of Romantic Novel," _Miami Herald_ , November 22, 1992. **Sontag as collector:** See AL's photograph of Sontag's seashell collection in APL; SS to David Campbell, 8/16/91, UCLA.

The reviews of _The Volcano Lover_ ran something like three to one in its favor. Sven Birkerts called the novel a "wonderful fusion of the concrete and the conceptual," and he paid SS an enormous compliment by claiming that her work reminded him of Marguerite Yourcenar's _Memoirs of Hadrian_ , the standard by which modern historical novels are measured ( _Newsday_ , August 2, 1992). Novelist John Banville found SS's novel "impressive, at times enchanting, always interesting, always entertaining" (New _York Times_ , August 9, 1992). Kevin Ray praised a "magnificent and generous novel, recalling Lampedusa's 'The Leopard' in insight as well as in venue" ( _St. Louis Post-Dispatch_ , August 9, 1992).

Reviewers like Peter Kemp ( _Sunday Times_ [London] October 4, 1992) objected to SS's aggressive presence, both on her book tour and in her book. In the _New Republic_ (September 7 & 14, 1992), Richard Jenkyns wrote, "What Sontag says of Hamilton could be applied to herself: 'He wanted to make sure that their amusement was as saturated with knowledge as his own. Wherever he was, the Cavaliere was prone to cast himself in the role of guide or mentor.'" See also John Simon, _National Review_ (August 31, 1992); Adam Begley ( _Miami Herald_ , August 9, 1992); Rhoda Koenig (New _York Magazine_ , August 17, 1992).

**27: SARAJEVO (1993–95)**

**Epigraph:** SS's short essay on Goya: _Where the Stress Falls_. **Sarajevo:** We found the following published accounts most helpful in documenting SS's stays in Sarajevo: Armada int., CSS; Charlie Rose interview transcript, August 2, 1995; a taped interview on National Public Radio (n.d.); "Pass Notes: No. 206: Susan Sontag," _Guardian_ , July 28, 1993; "Moreover...," _Guardian_ , July 30, 1993; Charlotte Eager, "Play Shapes Up Amid Bomb Blasts," _Cleveland Plain Dealer_ , August 2, 1993; Gordon Coales, "Coales' Notes: War Efforts," _Independent_ , August 2, 1993; Marcus Tanner, "A Long Wait for Godot," _Independent_ , August 2, 1993; Janine De Diovanni, "Waiting For the Barbarians," _Sunday Times_ (London), August 8, 1993; Neely Tucker, "In Sarajevo, The Backdrop Is War Still, Actors Are Fighting to Keep the Theater Alive," _Detroit Free Press_ , August 8, 1993; John Pomfret, "Godot Amid the Gunfire; In Bosnia, Sontag's Take on Beckett," _Washington Post_ , August 19, 1993; Hilton Kramer, "In Sarajevo, False Echoes of Spain," _Wall Street Journal_ , August 24, 1993, (see the letters criticizing Kramer, September 3, 1993); Jean Baudrillard, "No Reprieve for Sarajevo," _Liberation_ , January 8, 1994, translated by Patrice Riemens <patrice@xs4all.nl>, Amsterdam; Slavenka Drakulic, "A Winter's Tale," _New Republic_ , January 10, 1994; Luke Clancy, "Rising Above the Rubble of War," _Irish Times_ , January 22, 1994, 4; Joanna Coles, "Commentary: When Sweet Charity Begins at Germaine's Own Home," _Guardian_ , February 4, 1994, 18; Tom Disch, "A Sestina for Susan Sontag," _Poetry_ 167 (March 1996); Julie Lasky, "Art Out of Rubble," _American Scholar_ , 66 (Spring 1997); George Spiro, _Dobardan: A Tragedy in 12 Scenes_ , <http://www.drames.org/plays/scripts/dobardan.txt>; Caroline Bayard and Graham Knight, "Vivisecting the 90s: an Interview with Jean Baudrillard," <http://www.ctheory.com/a24-vivisecting_9s.html> (the French version appears in _Research in Semiotic Inquiry/Recherches semiotiques_ 16 [Spring 1996]). SS's _El Pais_ interview appears in CSS. We also had the benefit of interviews with Victor Navasky, E. L. Doctorow, Erika Munk, and people close to SS who do not wish to be identified here. See also Todd Gitlin's, "The Culture Wars: Lost Cause: Why Intellectuals of the Left Miss Communism," _Los Angeles Times_ , January 14, 1996: "Some, including myself, wanted the United States to bomb the Bosnia Serbs shelling Sarajevo; others said American had no business meddling. It couldn't have been any plainer that, on foreign matters at least, the left had broken up." **SS's abandoned essay on intellectuals and revolutionary power:** Manion and Simon int., CSS. **Leibovitz in Bosnia:** David Van Biema, "Face to Face: The Eye of Annie Leibovitz," _Life_ , April 1, 1994; Andrew Palmer, "Photography: A Ride on the Back of a Horse Called Fame," _Independent_ , March 9, 1994; Angela Lambert, "Talking Pictures with Annie Leibovitz: From Jagger to Trump," _Independent_ , March 3, 1994. **Erika Munk:** int.; "Notes from a Trip to Sarajevo," _Theater_ 24 (1994); "Only the Possible: An Interview with Susan Sontag," _Theater_ 24 (1993); Thomas Akstens, "Under Fire: Sontag, Godot, Sarajevo," _Assaph: Studies in the Theatre_ 11 (1995); see also SS's article, "Being Translated," _RES_ 32 (Autumn 1997). **Christopher Hitchens:** See his preface to Kemal Kurspahic's _As Long as Sarajevo Exists_ (Pamphleteer's Press, 1997). **Endgame:** See the exchange of letters between Martin Garbus and Robert Brustein in the _New York Times Book Review_ , February 21, 1999. **SS's primary schooling project:** SS discusses her Sarajevo experience in Robert Vorlicky, ed., _Tony Kushner in Conversation_ (University of Michigan Press, 1998). **The Montblanc Award:** See Nadine Broan, "Chronicle," _New York Times_ , February 17, 1994, for a brief article on SS's award; see also Peter Goodman, "Writer's $25,000 Prize Will Go For Relief, Sontag's Bosnia Work Honored," _Newsday_ , February 21, 1994. SS continued her commentary on the Balkans in "Why Are We in Kosovo?" _New York Times Magazine_ , May 2, 1999, expressing her support for the NATO bombing of Serbia and declaring, "There is such a thing as a just war."

**28: THE END AND THE BEGINNING (1991–99)**

**Joan Schenkar:** Int. and e-mail correspondence with CR, 11/29/14. **Joan McIntosh: letter** to SS, n.d., 2/26.88, UCLA. **Robert Brustein:** E-Mail to CR and LP, 2/2/99. **Reviews of _Alice in Bed_ :** John O'Mahony, "Dramatically Seeking Susan," _Guardian_ , September 20, 1993; Marie Olesen Urbanski, "A Festering Rage: _Alice in Bed: A Play in Eight Scenes_ by Susan Sontag," _Los Angeles Times_ , October 10, 1993; Boyd Tonkin, "The Sleep of Grievance," _Guardian_ , September 6, 1994; Patti Hartigan, "Notes on the Bed: Susan Sontag, Woman of Ideas, Takes to the ART Stage to Dramatize Ideas of Women," _Boston Globe_ , April 7, 1996; Terry Byrne, "Theater: Sontag in Wonderland," _Boston Herald_ , April 10, 1996; Iris Fanger, "Alice James Faced Life in a Nightgown," _Christian Science Monitor_ , April 24, 1996. **SS to Greg Johnson:** 6/19/92, UCLA. **PEN minutes:** The full story has been published in CR's article, "PEN'S Iron Curtain" in the May 1997 issue of _New Criterion_. A slightly different version is also available in the notes and comments section in the first edition of _Susan Sontag: The Making of an Icon_ (1988). **On the efforts to suppress this biography:** Celia McGee, "Susan Sontag Stonewalls Norton's Biographers," _New York Observer_ , July 21, 1997; Elizabeth Manus, "Susan Sontag Gets Jumpy," _New York Observer_ , January 17, 2000, <http://observer.com/2000/01/susan-sontag-gets-jumpy-pat-conroy-gets-left-out/>; Ian Parker, "Showboat: Roger Straus and His Flair for Selling Literature," <http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2002/04/08/showboat>; SS to John Hollander, 12/5/96, UCLA; SS to Andrew Wylie, 1/8/97, UCLA; to Chip (Samuel R. Delany): 2/10/97, UCLA; Delany to SS, 2/13/97, UCLA; Stephen Koch to SS, 1/11/97, UCLA; Christopher Hitchens to SS, 2/27/97, UCLA; SS to Christopher Hitchens, 3/3/97, UCLA; Christopher Hitchens to SS, 12/16/99, UCLA; Ted Mooney to SS, 3/8/97, UCLA; Ned Polsky to SS, 11/22/97, UCLA; John Richardson to SS, 7/9/98, UCLA; Janny Scott, "For Unauthorized Biographers the World Is Very Hostile," _New York Times_ , October 6, 1996. **Sontag's uterine cancer:** to Kazue Kobata, 10/14/98, UCLA; SS to Terry Castle, 12/7/98, UCLA; SS to Bengt Jangfeldt, 10/2/2000, UCLA.

**29: RECOVERY AND REJECTION (1999–2003)**

**Joyce Wadler:** Exchanges between Wadler and Sontag: 7/10/03, 10/10/03, 10/11/03, UCLA. **DR on AL:** DR to SS, 1/30/03, UCLA. **AL as SS's lover:** Justin Jones, "Annie Leibovitz Talks About 'Pilgrimage,' Susan Sontag & More," _Daily Beast_ , November 14, 2014, <http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2014/11/20/annie-leibovitz-talks-about-pilgrimage-susan-sontag-vogue-more.html>. See also Vicky Allan, "Call Us Lovers," _Sunday Herald_ , October 12, 2008; Galvin. **SS and AL'S photography:** SS to Werthheimer, 3/1/03, UCLA; int. Maja Herman Sekulić. **SS on celebrity culture:** SS to Andrew Wylie, Sarah Chalfant, Tracy Bohan at the Wylie agency, 8/6/03, UCLA. **Plagiarism controversy:** Thomas Disch, <http://www.strangehorizons.com/2001/20010730/sermonettes.shtml>; Ed Vulliamy, "Sontag Pleads Poetic Licence in Using Uncredited 'Scraps of History,'" _Guardian_ , May 28, 2000; Judith Shulevitz, "The Strange Case of Susan Sontag," _Slate_ , June 8, 2000. Shulevitz's article stimulated a lively exchange of views from June 9 to 14 in _Slate_ 's _Culture Box_ , nearly all of them highly critical of Sontag. See also a blog which points out Sontag's borrowings from film historian Richard Roud's book on Godard for her essay on the director in _Styles of Radical Will_ : <http://worrylater.blogspot.co.uk/2011/08/susan-sontags-plagiarism-few.html>. **Jerusalem Prize:** "Jerusalem Prize for Israel Critic Sontag," May 10, 2001, <http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/1323032.stm>; SS-Said correspondence, 4/27 and 5/5/01, 2001. SS's Jerusalem Prize speech is included in AST. **SS's responses to 9/11:** Reprinted in AST; SS and DR emails, 9/16, 9/17/01, UCLA. **AL's photographs of SS:** See APL. **SS's response to AL's becoming a mother:** SS to Joan McIntosh, 11/26, 01; SS to David Rieff, 11/5/01, UCLA; DR to SS, 1/30/02, UCLA; SS to Luisa Valenzuela, 5/24/02, UCLA; AL to SS, 5/24/03; AL to SS, 5/24/03, UCLA. **AL's photographs of SS in the Bahamas and in Paris:** APL.

**30: FINIS (2004)**

This account of Sontag's last illness and death derives from DR's _Swimming in a Sea of Death_ , Katie Roiphe, _The Violet Hour_ , APL, and RSS. **AL and DR:** Galvin. Just as DR acts as though AL had very little role in SS's last days, AL ignores DR's role in his mother's death and includes only one photograph of him in APL. In _Swimming in a Sea of Death_ , DR refers to his mother as "humiliated posthumously by being 'memorialized'... in those carnival images of celebrity death taken by Annie Leibovitz." In APL, Leibovitz states, "I forced myself to take pictures of Susan's last days. Perhaps the pictures completed the work she and I had begun together when she was sick in 1998. I didn't analyze it then. I just knew I had to do it." In an interview with Cathy Galvin, Leibovitz explained, "I showed the book to everyone I was worried about before it was published—with the exception of David Rieff. Most of those people were close to Susan, like Joan Didion and Susan's sister, Judith. The most important person I showed it to was Andrew Wylie, who knows David and was executor of Susan's estate, and he was very supportive and said, 'Leave David to me and I'll talk to him.'" If Wylie did speak to DR, it is clear that what the agent said did nothing to appease DR's outrage.

**CODA**

This account derives from DR's _Swimming in a Sea of Death_ , Katie Roiphe, _The Violet Hour_ , APL, and RSS.
WORKS CITED

**BY SUSAN SONTAG**

_**Books (all published by Farrar, Straus & Giroux)**_

_Against Interpretation, and Other Essays_ (1966)

_AIDS and Its Metaphors_ (1989)

_Alice in Bed: A Play in Eight Scenes_ (1993)

_As Consciousness Is Harnessed to Flesh: Journals and Notebooks, 1963–1980_ (2012)

_At the Same Time: Essays and Speeches_ (2007)

_The Benefactor, a Novel_ (1963)

_Brother Carl_ (1974)

_Death Kit_ (1967)

_Duet for Cannibals_ (1970)

_I, etcetera_ (1978)

_Illness as Metaphor_ (1978)

_In America_ (1999)

_On Photography_ (1977)

_Reborn: Journals and Notebooks, 1947–1963_ (2008)

_Regarding the Pain of Others_ (2003)

_Styles of Radical Will_ (1969)

_A Susan Sontag Reader_ (1982)

_Trip to Hanoi_ (1968)

_Under the Sign of Saturn_ (1980)

_Where the Stress Falls: Essays_ (2001)

_**Uncollected Essays, Stories, and Interviews**_

Foreword to _A Place in the World Called Paris_ , edited by Steven Barclay. Chronicle Books, 1994.

Interview with Elzbieta Sawicka. "Ostatni Chorazy Oswiecenia," _Rzeczpospolita_ [Polish daily newspaper], Stycznia and Stycznia 31 and 1 lutego 1998.

"A Letter from Sweden," _Ramparts_ , July 1969.

"The Letter Scene," _New Yorker_ , August 18, 1986.

"Pilgrimage," _New Yorker_ , December 21, 1987.

Preface to _Maria Irene Fornés Plays_. PAJ Publications, 1986.

"Singleness," in Daniel Halpern, ed., _Who's Writing This? Notations on the Authorial I with Self-Portraits_. Ecco Press, 1995.

"Susan Sontag: The Art of Fiction," _Paris Review_ [interview] 37 (Winter 1995).

_The Way We Live Now_. Jonathan Cape, 1991.

**SECONDARY SOURCES**

Alexandre, Marianne. _Viva Che! Contributions in Tribute to Ernesto "Che" Guevara_. Dutton, 1968.

Als, Hilton. "A Singular Woman," _New Yorker_ , July 13, 1998.

Altman, Dennis. _Defying Gravity_. Allen & Unwin, 1979.

_Arizona Memories_ , ed. Anne Hodges Morgan and Rennard Strickland. University of Arizona Press, 1984.

_Arizona: A State Guide_. Hastings House, 1951.

Armes, Roy. "Three Women Directors," _London Magazine_ , February 9, 1970.

Ashmore, Harry S. _Unseasonable Truths: The Life of Robert Maynard Hutchins_. Little Brown, 1989.

Athill, Diana. _Stet: An Editor's Life_. Grove Press, 2001.

Bassoff, Bruce. "Private Revolution: Sontag's _The Benefactor_ ," _Enclitic_ 3 (1979).

Bates, Milton J. _The Wars We Took to Vietnam: Cultural Conflict and Storytelling_. University of California Press, 1996.

Benedict, Helen. _Portraits in Print: A Collection of Profiles and the Stories Behind Them_. Columbia University Press, 1991.

Berg, Beatrice. "Intellectuals' Darling," _Washington Post_ , January 8, 1967.

Bergman, David. "Camp." _The Gay and Lesbian Heritage_ , ed. Claude J. Summers. Henry Holt, 1995.

Bergman, David, ed. _Camp Grounds: Style and Homosexuality_. University of Massachusetts Press, 1993.

Black, Cobey. "High Priestess in Bluejeans," _Honolulu Star-Bulletin_ , July 12, 1977.

Bograd, Larry. "An Interview with Susan Sontag," _Muse: An Arts Newspaper for Colorado_ , June/July 1985.

"The Books That Saved Their Lives," _Washington Post_ , December 7, 1997.

Bonetti, David. "Salutes Traditional Photography," _San Francisco Examiner_ , December 23, 1996.

Braudeau, Michel. "Petit Dejeuner chez Sontag," _L'Express_ (magazine), June 9, 1979.

Bruss, Elizabeth W. _Beautiful Theories: The Spectacle of Discourse in Contemporary Criticism_. Johns Hopkins University Press, 1982.

Brustein, Robert. "If an Artist Wants to be Serious and Respected and Rich, Famous and Popular, He is Suffering From Cultural Schizophrenia," _New York Times Magazine_ , September 26, 1971.

Bullock, Alan. "Pirandello in Florence 1980–81," _Bulletin of the Society for Italian Studies_ 14 (November 1981).

Burke, Kenneth. _Towards a Better Life: Being a Series of Epistles, or Declamations_. Harcourt, Brace, 1932; republished in 1966 by University of California Press.

Caute, David. _The Fellow-Travellers: Intellectual Friends of Communism_ , revised edition, Yale University Press, 1988.

Chester, Alfred. _Head of a Sad Angel: Stories 1953–1966_ , ed. Edward Field (Black Sparrow Press, 1990).

Ching, Barbara, and Jennifer A. Wagner-Lawler, eds. _The Scandal of Susan Sontag_. Columbia University Press, 2009.

Christy, Marian. "Sontag Brought Personal Passion to Tale of Romance," _Chicago Tribune_ , September 27, 1992.

Cohen, Sharon. "Nobel-ist of All: U. of Chicago," _Sun-Sentinel_ (South Florida), September 29, 1991.

Colford, Paul D. "Could This Be the End of an Era for Farrar, Straus?" _Newsday_ , October 31, 1994.

Cott, Jonathan. _Susan Sontag: The Complete Rolling Stone Interview_. Yale University Press, 2013.

D'Antonio, Michael. "Little David, Happy at Last," _Esquire_ , March 1990.

Dassanowsky, Robert von. "'Wherever You May Run, You Cannot Escape Him': Leni Riefenstahl's Self-Reflection and Romantic Transcendence of Nazism in _Tiefland_ ," _Camera Obscura_ 35 1995/96. Also available at <http://powernet.net/~hflippo/cineam/tiefland.html>.

David, Catherine. "Les diagnostics de Susan Sontag," _Le Nouvel Observateur_ , June 25, 1979.

Dawid, Annie. "The Way We Teach Now: Three Approaches to AIDS Fiction." _AIDS: The Literary Response_ , ed. Emmanuel S. Nelson. Twayne 1992.

Dickstein, Morris. _Gates of Eden: American Culture in the Sixties_. Basic Books, 1977.

——— . _Why Not Say What Happened: A Sentimental Education_. Liveright, 2015.

Dzuback, Mary Ann. _Robert M. Hutchins: Portrait of an Educator_. University of Chicago Press, 1991.

Ellmann, Mary. "In the land of _Vogue_ , People are Talking About Susan Sontag," _Atlantic Monthly_ , September 1966.

Enright, Robert. "Style and Radical Will: An Interview with Susan Sontag," _Border Crossings_ 7 (April 1988).

_The Feminist Companion to Literature in English_ , ed. Virginia Blain, Isobel Grundy, Patricia Clements. Yale University Press, 1990.

Fichtner, Margaria. "Susan Sontag's Train of Thought Rolls into Town," _Miami Herald_ , February 19, 1989.

——— . "The Outsider," _Miami Herald_ , August 8, 1993.

Field, Edward. _The Man Who Would Marry Susan Sontag_. University of Wisconsin Press, 2005.

——— . "The Mystery of Alfred Chester," _Boston Review_ , 1997.

Fonrobert, Charlotte Elisheva, and Amir Engel, ed. _Jacob Taubes, From Cult to Culture: Fragments Toward a Critique of Historical Reason_. Stanford University Press, 2010.

Frank, Marcie. "The Critic as Performance Artist: Susan Sontag's Writing and Gay Cultures," _Camp Grounds: Style and Homosexuality_ , ed. David Berman. University of Massachusetts Press, 1993.

Galassi, Jonathan. _Muse_. Knopf, 2015.

Galvin, Cathy. "Exposing Annie Leibovitz," _Australian_ , October 25, 2008.

Garis, Leslie. "Susan Sontag Finds Romance," _New York Times Magazine_ , August 2, 1992.

Garrett, George. _My Silk Purse and Yours: The Publishing Scene and American Literary Art_ , University of Missouri Press, 1992.

Gee, Helen. _Limelight: A Greenwich Village Photography Gallery and Coffeehouse in the Fifties: A Memoir_. University of New Mexico Press, 1997.

Goodheart, Eugene. _Pieces of Resistance_. Cambridge University Press, 1987.

Green, Jonathan. _American Photography: A Critical History 1945 to the Present_. Abrams, 1984.

Grondahl, Paul. "Sontag Laments on State of Literature," _Albany Times Union_ , July 25, 1990.

Gross, Larry. _Contested Closets: The Politics and Ethics of Outing_. University of Minnesota Press, 1993.

Grossman, Judith. _Her Own Terms_. Soho Press, 1988.

Grossman, Ron. "At the C Shop with Susan Sontag," _Chicago Tribune_ , December 1, 1992.

Gussow, Mel. "Susan Sontag Talks About Filmmaking," _New York Times_ , October 3, 1969.

Hall, N. John. _Max Beerbohm Caricatures_. Yale University Press, 1997.

Haskell, Molly. "Film: _Duet for Cannibals_ ," _Village Voice_ , October 30, 1969.

Hassan, Ihab. "Negative Capability Reclaimed: Literature and Philosophy Contra Politics," _Philosophy and Literature_ 20 (1996).

Heller, Zoe. "Side by Side with Sontag," _Irish Times_ , September 26, 1992.

Hellman, John. _American Myth and the Legacy of Vietnam_. Columbia University Press, 1986.

Highwater, Jamake. _Shadow Show_. Alfred Van Der Marck Editions, 1986).

Hoberman, J. _Vulgar Modernism: Writing on Movies and Other Media_. Temple University Press, 1991.

Holdsworth, Elizabeth. "Susan Sontag: Writer-Filmmaker," Ohio University PhD dissertation, 1981.

Hollander, Paul. "Intellectuals, Estrangement, and Wish Fulfillment," _Society_ : 35 (January–February 1998).

——— . _Political Pilgrims_. Transaction Publishers, 1997.

Hopkins, Ellen. "Susan Sontag Lightens Up," _Los Angeles Times Magazine_ , August 16, 1992.

Horowitz, David. _Radical Son: A Generational Odyssey_. Free Press, 1997.

Howe, Irving. _The Decline of the New_. Harcourt, Brace, 1970.

_Idealism at Work: Eighty Years of AAUW Fellowships_ , a report by the American Association of University Women, 1967.

Indiana, Gary. _I Can Give You Anything But Love_. Rizzoli, 2015.

Jacobson, Julius. "Reflections on Fascism and Communism." _Socialist Perspectives_ , ed. Phyllis Jacobson and Julius Jacobson. Karz-Cohl Publishing, 1983.

Jeffords, Susan. "Susan Sontag." _Modern American Critics Since 1955. Dictionary of Literary Biography_. Volume 67, ed. Gregory S. Jay. Gale Research, 1988.

Johnson, Greg. _Invisible Writer: A Biography of Joyce Carol Oates_. Dutton, 1998.

Judt, Tony. _Past Imperfect: French Intellectuals, 1944–1956_. University of California Press, 1992.

Kachka, Boris. _Hothouse: The Art of Survival and the Survival of Art At America's Most Celebrated Publishing House, Farrar, Straus and Giroux_. Simon and Schuster, 2013.

Kael, Pauline. "Films," _New Yorker_ , November 1, 1969.

Kahn, Carol. "Alone Against Illness," _Family Health_ , November 10, 1978.

Kaplan, Alice. _Dreaming in French: The Paris Years of Jacqueline Bouvier Kennedy, Susan Sontag, and Angela Davis_. University of Chicago Press, 2012.

——— . _French Lessons: A Memoir_. University of Chicago Press, 1993.

Karl, Frederick R. _American Fictions 1940/1980: A Comprehensive History and Critical Evaluation_. Harper & Row, 1983.

Karnow, Stanley. _Paris in the Fifties_. Random House, 1997.

Kauffman, Stanley. "Stanley Kauffman on Films," [ _Duet for Cannibals_ ], _New Republic_ , November 15, 1969.

——— . "Stanley Kauffman on Films," [ _Promised Lands_ ], _New Republic_ , June 29, 1974.

Kazin, Alfred. _Bright Book of Life: American Novelists and Storytellers from Hemingway to Mailer_. Little Brown, 1973.

Kennedy, Liam. _Susan Sontag: Mind as Passion_. Manchester University Press, 1995.

Kent, Leticia. "Susan Sontag Speaks Up," _Vogue_ , August 1971.

Kimball, Roger. "A Nostalgia for Molotovs: 'The New York Review,'" _New Criterion_ , April 1998.

Kingsolver, Barbara. _The Bean Trees_. HarperCollins, 1988.

Klein, Carole. _Mothers and Sons_. Houghton Mifflin, 1984.

Kleinschmidt, Hans J. "The Angry Act: The Role of Aggression in Creativity," _American Imago_ (Spring/Summer 1967).

Kopkind, Andrew. "From Hanoi with Love," _The Thirty Years' Wars: Dispatches and Diversions of a Radical Journalist 1965–1994_. Verso, 1995.

Krupnick, Mark. "Criticism as an Institution." _The Crisis of Modernity: Recent Critical Theories of Culture and Society in the United States and West Germany_ , ed. Guner H. Lenz and Kurt L. Shell. Westview Press, 1986.

Ledger, Marshall. "The Master Teacher," _Pennsylvania Gazette_ , March 1977.

Leibovitz, Annie. _A Photographer's Life, 1990–2005_. Random House, 2006.

Lemkhin, Mikhail. _Joseph Brodsky: Leningrad_. Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1998.

Lopate, Phillip. _Notes on Sontag_. Princeton University Press, 2009.

Lottman, Herbert. _The Left Bank_. Halo Books, 1991.

Mackenzie, Suzie. "Finding Fact from Fiction," _Guardian_ , May 27, 2000.

McCredie, Marsha. _Women and Film: The Critical Eye_. Praeger, 1983.

McLemee, Scott. "Fear and Learning," _Lingua Franca_ , January 1998.

McQuade, Molly, ed., _An Unsentimental Education: Writers and Chicago_. University of Chicago Press, 1995.

Mandell, Jonathan. "Notes on Sontag," _Newsday_ , February 7, 1989.

Marx, Leo. _The Pilot and the Passenger: Essays on Literature, Technology, and Culture in the United States_. Oxford University Press, 1988.

Maunsell, Jerome Boyd. _Susan Sontag_. Reaktion Books, 2014.

Mileur, Jean-Pierre. _The Critical Romance: The Critic as Reader, Writer, Hero_. University of Wisconsin Press, 1990.

Minogue, Kenneth. "Friends and Foes," _TLS_ , August 2, 1996.

Moran, David. " _Promised Lands_ ," _Boston Phoenix_ , August 6, 1974.

Morgan, Ted. "Feeding the Stream," _Saturday Review_ , September 1, 1979.

Morris, Willie. _New York Days_. Little Brown, 1993.

Naunton, Eva. "Gasping for Life," _Miami Herald_ , June 12, 1989.

Navasky, Victor. "Notes on Cult; or, How to Join the Intellectual Establishment," _New York Times Magazine_ , March 27, 1966.

Nelson, Cary, _The Incarnate Word: Literature as Verbal Space_. University of Illinois Press, 1973.

Nobile, Philip. _Intellectual Skywriting_. Charterhouse, 1974.

Nunez, Sigrid. _Sempre Susan_. Atlas & Co., 2011.

O'Brien, Thelma. "A Close-up Picture of Susan Sontag," _Los Angeles Times_ , April 23, 1978.

Ozick, Cynthia. "Alfred Chester's Wig," in _Fame and Folly: Essays_. Knopf, 1996.

Paglia, Camille. "Sontag Bloody Sontag" in _Vamps and Tramps_. Random House, 1994.

Perron, Wendy. "Style and Radical Will: An Interview with Susan Sontag," _Soho Weekly News_ , December 1, 1997.

Phillips, William. _A Partisan View: Five Decades of the Literary Life_. Stein and Day, 1983.

Poague, Leland, ed. _Conversations with Susan Sontag_. University Press of Mississippi, 1995.

Poague, Leland, and Kathy A. Parsons. _Susan Sontag: An Annotated Bibliography 1948–1992_. Garland, 2000.

Polizzotti, Mark. _Revolution of the Mind: The Life of André Breton_. Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1995.

Porter, William. "Romancing the Novel, Susan Sontag Dumps Essay for Freedom of Fiction," _Arizona Republic_ , November 24, 1992.

Rabb, Margo. "Publishing with Passion: Farrar, Straus and Giroux Celebrates 50," _Poets & Writers Magazine_, March/April 1997.

Reginato, James. "Nobel House," _New York Magazine_ , November 9, 1987.

Rieff, David. _Going to Miami: Exiles, Tourists, Refugees in the New America_. Bloomsbury, 1987.

——— . _Swimming in a Sea of Death: A Son's Memoir_. Simon & Schuster, 2008.

Rieff, Philip. "The Miracle of College Politics," _Harper's_ , October 1961.

Robertson, William. "Exiled Soviet Poet Wins Nobel Prize," _Miami Herald_ , October 23, 1987.

Robinson, Alice M., Vera Mowry Roberts, and Milly S. Barranger. _Notable Women in the American Theatre_ (Greenwood Press, 1989).

Rodgers, Bernard F., Jr. _Voices & Visions_. University Press of America, 2001.

——— . "Susan Sontag." Unpublished book manuscript, courtesy of Bernard F. Rodgers Jr. Roiphe, Katie. _The Violet Hour: Great Writers at the End_. Dial Press, 2016.

Rojas, Rafael. _Fighting Fidel: The New York Intellectuals and the Cuban Revolution_. Princeton University Press, 2015.

Rollyson, Carl. _Essays in Biography_. iUniverse, 2005.

——— . _Female Icons: Marilyn Monroe to Susan Sontag_. iUniverse, 2005.

——— . _Norman Mailer: The Last Romantic_. iUniverse, 2005.

——— . _Reading Susan Sontag: A Critical Introduction to Her Work_. Ivan R. Dee, 2001.

——— . _Understanding Susan Sontag_. University of South Carolina Press, 2016.

Rollyson, Carl, and Lisa Paddock. _Susan Sontag: The Making of an Icon_. Norton, 2000.

Romano, Carlin. "Straus, A Prince Among Publishers," _Philadelphia Inquirer_ , September 23, 1996.

Rorem, Ned. _Knowing When to Stop: A Memoir_. Simon and Schuster, 1994.

——— . _The Nantucket Diary of Ned Rorem 1973–1985_. North Point Press, 1987.

Rowes, Barbara. "Author Susan Sontag Rallies From Dread Illness to Enjoy Her First Commercial Triumph," _People_ , March 20, 1978.

Ruas, Charles. "Susan Sontag: Past, Present and Future," _New York Times_ , October 24, 1982.

Sage, Lorna. "Bitter Fruit." _TLS_ , April 19, 1996.

Salkeld, Audrey. _A Portrait of Leni Riefenstahl_. Jonathan Cape, 1996.

Sayres, Sohnya. _Susan Sontag: Elegiac Modernist_. Routledge, Kegan & Paul, 1990.

Schlesinger, Arthur, Jr. _Journals 1952–2000_. Penguin Press, 2007.

Schor, Esther H. "Susan Sontag." _Modern American Women Writers_ , ed. Elaine Showalter, Lea Baechler, and A. Walton Litz. Scribner's, 1991.

Schreiber, Daniel. _Susan Sontag: A Biography_. Northwestern University Press, 2014.

Scott, Janny. "New _York Review's_ Guiding Light: One Mind, But What a Mind," _New York Times_ , November 1, 1997.

Sedgwick, Eve Kosofsky. _The Epistemology of the Closet_. University of California Press, 1990.

Seligman, Craig. _Sontag and Kael: Opposites Attract Me_. Counterpoint, 1994.

Showalter, Elaine. _Sexual Anarchy: Gender and Culture at the Fin de Siècle_. Viking Penguin, 1990.

Simon, John. " _Promised Lands_ ," _Esquire_ , October 1974.

Sky, Jennifer. "Friendship of Letters: The Rumpus Interview with Sigrid Nunez," April 14, 2011, <http://therumpus.net/2011/04/friendship-of-letters-the-rumpus-interview-with-sigrid-nunez/>.

Smith, George Bruce. "Who Was Leo Strauss," _American Scholar_ , Winter, 1997.

Sokolowski, Thomas W., ed. _Peter Hujar_. Grey Art Gallery & Study Center, New York University, 1990.

Sollers, Phillipe. _Women_. Columbia University Press, 1990.

Sonnichsen, C. L. _Tucson: The Life and Times of an American City_. University of Oklahoma Press, 1982.

Stahel, Urs, and Hripsime Visser, eds. _Peter Hujar: A Retrospective_. Scalo Publishers, 1994.

Stansell, Christine. "The Strangely Inspired Hermit of Andover," _London Review of Books_ , June 5, 1997.

Starkman, Ruth. "Mother of all Spectacles: Ray Muller's 'The Wonderful, Horrible Life of Leni Riefenstahl,'" _Film Quarterly_ 51 (Winter 1997).

Starr, Kevin. _The Dream Endures: California Enters the 1940s_. Oxford University Press, 1997.

Steiner, George. "Inscrutable and Tragic," _TLS_ November 14, 1997.

Stern, Richard. _One Person and Another: On Writers and Writing_. Baskerville, 1993.

Stieglitz, Perry. _In a Little Kingdom_. M. E. Sharpe, 1990.

Tanner, Tony. _City of Words: American Fiction 1950–1970_. Harper & Row, 1971.

Taubes, Jacob. _From Cult to Culture: Fragments Toward a Critique of Historical Reason_ , ed. Charlotte Elisheva Fonrobert and Amir Engel. Stanford University Press, 2010.

Taubes, Susan. _Divorcing_. Random House, 1969.

——— . _Die Korrespondenz Mit Jacob Taubes 1950–1951_. Wilhelm Fink, 2011.

——— . _Die Korrespondenz Mit Jacob Taubes 1952_. Wilhelm Fink, 2014.

Taylor, Benjamin. "A Centered Voice: Susan Sontag's Short Fiction," _Georgia Review_ 34 (Winter 1980).

Teres, Harvey. _Renewing the Left: Politics, Imagination, and New York Intellectuals_. Oxford University Press, 1996.

Tucker, Martin. "Please Don't Eat the Cannibals," _Commonweal_ , December 5, 1969.

Vidal, Gore. _United States Essays_. Random House, 1993.

Volkov, Solomon. _Conversations with Joseph Brodsky: A Poet's Journey Through the Twentieth Century_. Free Press, 1998.

Wakerman, Elyce. _Father Loss: Daughters Discuss the Man That Got Away_. Doubleday, 1984.

Walcott, Derek. _What the Twilight Says_. Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1998.

Wald, Alan. _The New York Intellectuals_. University of North Carolina Press, 1987.

Wasserman, Harriet. _Handsome Is: Adventures with Saul Bellow_. Fromm International, 1997.

Wilson, Edmund. _The Sixties_. Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 1993.

"The Wonderful World That Almost Was: Paul Thek." Rotterdam: Witte de With, 1996.

York, Pete. _Style Wars_. Sidgwick & Jackson, 1980.

Zwerling, Harriet Sohmers. _Abroad: An Expatriate's Diaries 1950–1959_. Spuyten Duyvil, 2014.

——— . "A Memoir of Alfred Chester," Raritan 12 (Winter 1993).

——— . _Notes of a Nude Model & Other Pieces_. Spuyten Duyvil, 2003.
INDEX

The index that appeared in the print version of this title was intentionally removed from the eBook. Please use the search function on your eReading device to search for terms of interest. For your reference, the terms that appear in the print index are listed below.

Aaron, Daniel

ABC-TV

Abel, Lionel

Abortion rights

_Adam Resurrected_ (Kaniuk)

Adams, Robert

Adler, Mortimer

_Advocate_

"Aesthetics of Silence, The"

"A Few Weeks, After"

_Against Interpretation_

"Against Interpretation"

AIDS

_AIDS and Its Metaphors_

Albigensian Crusade

Alcott, Louisa May

Aletti, Vince

"Alfred Chester's Wig" (Ozick)

_Alice in Bed_ (Sontag)

_All About Eve_

Allen, Woody

Al-Qaeda

Als, Hilton

Altman, Dennis

"America, Seen Through Photographs Darkly" (Sontag)

American Academy of Arts and Letters

American Association of University Women

American Communist Party

American Council of Education

American Repertory Theater

_American Review_

American-Soviet Friendship Society

_American Spectator_

"American Spirits" (Sontag)

Amis, Martin

Anchor Books

Anders, Jaroslav

Anti-Americanism

Anti-Communism

"Anti-Communism and the Sontag Circle" (Kramer)

Anti-intellectualism

Anti-Semitism

"Approaching Artaud"

Aquinas, Thomas

_American Photo_

Arab-Israeli conflict

Aragon, Louis

Arbus, Diane

_Arcade_

Arendt, Hannah

Aristotle

Arizona, University of

Armada, Alfonso

_Armance_ (Stendhal)

Armenian genocide

Arnold, Matthew

Aronowitz, Stanley

Artaud, Antonin

Ashbery, John

Associated Press

Asti, Adrianna

Astor House (Tientsin)

_As You Desire Me_ (Pirandello)

_Atlantic Monthly_

_At This Time: Essays and Speeches_

Atwan, Helene

Atwood, Margaret

Auden, W. H.

Augustine, Saint

Austen, Jane

Authors Guild

Avedon, Richard

Avon Books

Ayer, A. J.

"Baby" (Sontag)

Bacon, Francis

Baez, Joan

Baldwin, James

_Balkan Express, The_ (Drakulic)

Ball, George

Balzac, Honoré

Banks, Russell

Banville, John

Bard College

Barnes, Djuna

Barnes & Noble

Barth, John

Barthelme, Donald

Barthes, Roland

_Barthes Reader, A_ (Sontag, ed.)

Batista, Fulgencio

Baudelaire, Charles-Pierre

Bausch, Pina

Baxter, Anne

B. Dalton

Beatles

Beaton, Cecil

Beatty, Warren

Beckett, Samuel

Beerbohm, Max

Begley, Adam

Behar, Jack

_Behold Goliath_ (Chester)

Bellow, Saul

Benedict, Helen

_Benefactor, The_

Benjamin, Walter

Bennington College

Berek, Peter

"Berenice" (Poe)

Berger, John

Bergman, Ingmar

Berkeley, University of California at

Berman, Marshall

Bernhardt, Sarah

Bernstein, Stuart

_Best Short Stories 1987_

Bettelheim, Bruno

Bibanovi, Dubravko

Biema, David Van

Bin Laden, Osama

Birkerts, Sven

Bjorkman, Stig

Black, Cobey

Black Mountain College

Blum, John Morton

Bobbsey Twins books

_Body in Pain, The_ (Scarry)

Bogart, Humphrey

Books & Company

Borger, Irene

Borges, Jorge Luis

Boswell, James

Botstein, Leon

Bowen, Elizabeth

Bowles, Jane

Bowles, Paul

Boxer Rebellion

Boyers, Robert

_Boy's Own Story, A_

Brandeis University

Braudy, Leo

Brecht, Bertolt

Brennan, Paul

Bresson, Robert

Breton, André

Brien, Alan

Broch, Hermann

Brodsky, Joseph

Bromwich, David

Brook, Peter

Brooks, Louise

Brooks, Peter

Brooks, Russell E.

_Brother Carl_

Brown, E. K.

Brownings, the

Brown University

Bruni, Frank

Brustein, Robert

Buckley, William F.

Bullock, Alan

Burch, Noël

Burke, Kenneth

Burns, John

Bush, George

Butterfield, Herbert

Cabezas, Omar

Caen, Herb

_Caleb Conover, Railroader_

Calisher, Hortense

Callas, Maria

Cameron, Julia Margaret

Campbell, David

Cancer. _See also_ Sontag, Susan: cancer diagnosis and treatment of

Candide

Canetti, Elias

Cannes Film Festival

Cantor, Norman F.

Čapek, Karel

Capitalism

Capote, Truman

_Captive Mind, The_ (Milosz)

_Caracole_ (White)

Carlson, Jocelyn

Carr, Gladys

Carter, Albert Howard

Carvajal, Doreen

Cassinelli, Claudio

Cassirer, Ernst

Castiglione, Baldassare

Castle, Terry

Castro, Fidel

Catholic Church

Ceballos, Jackie

Chaikin, Joseph

Chekhov, Anton

Chesler, Phyllis

Chester, Alfred

Chicago, University of

_Children's Hour, The_

Childs, Lucinda

China. _See also_ "Project for a Trip to China"

Chinkhan, Sookhee

Christianity

Christy, Marian

Chute, Joy

Cioran, E. M.

City College of New York

_City of Night_

_City of Words_

_Civilization and Its Discontents_

Clancy, Luke

Clemons, Walter

Clift, Montgomery

Clinton, Bill

Coales, Gordon

Cockburn, Alexander

Cocteau, Jean

Cohen, Ira

Cohen, Richard

Cohn, Roy

Cold War

Coleridge, Samuel Taylor

Coles, Joanna

Coles Books

Columbia University

_Commentary_

_Commonweal_

Communism

_Compton's Encyclopedia_

Connecticut, University of

Conrad, Joseph

Constitution, US

Cornell, Joseph

Cozarinsky, Edgardo

Crampton, Nancy

Crane, Hart

Crane, R. S.

Craven, David

_Critter and Other Dogs, The_ (Terhune)

Croce, Benedetto

_Crowds and Power_ (Canetti)

Cuban Revolution

Cunningham, Imogen

Curie, Eve

Curie, Marie

Curie, Pierre

Curtis, Charlotte

Czechoslovakia

Dartmouth College

Davidson, Ann Morrisett

Davis, Bette

Dayton Peace Accord

_Death Kit_

_Death of a Salesman_

De Beauvoir, Simone

"Debriefing"

DeLano, Sharon

Delany, Samuel R.

Dell

Del Pezzo, Carlotta

Delta

DeMott, Benjamin

Detroit Institute of Arts

Dewey Commission

Diaghilev, Sergei

Diamond, Paula

Dick, Philip K.

Dickey, James

Dickstein, Morris

_Dictionary of National Biography_

_Dictionary of Slang_

Diderot, Denis

Didion, Joan

Di Giovanni, Janine

Disch, Thomas

_Divorcing_ (Taubes)

Doctorow, E. L.

_Dog Named Chips, A_ (Terhune)

Donadio, Candida

"Double Standard of Aging, The"

Drakulic, Slavenka

_Dreaming in French. See_ Kaplan, Alice

"Dreams of Hippolyte." See _Benefactor, The_

"Dr. Jekyll"

Dryden, John

_Duet for Cannibals_

"Dummy, The"

Duncan, Robert

_Dustbin of History, The_ (Marcus)

Dutton

Editions du Seuil

Ehrlich, Arnold

Einstein, Albert

Eisenhower, Dwight

Eisenstein, Sergey

Eliot, George

Eliot, T. S.

Elizabeth I

_Ellipsian, The_

_El Pais_

_Emperor Jones, The_ (O'Neill)

_Endgame_ (Beckett)

Endicott Booksellers

_Enfants Terribles, Les_ (Cocteau)

Enlightenment

Eoff, Karla

_Epistemology of the Closet_ (Sedgwick)

Epstein, Barbara

Epstein, Jason

_Esquire_

Estabrook, Alison

_Exquisite Corpse, The_ (Chester)

Eyre & Spottiswoode

Fabians

Fame. _See_ Sontag, Susan: fame and iconic status of

"Family of Man"

Farrar, Straus and Giroux

"Fascinating Fascism"

Faulkner, William

Feigen-Fasteau, Brenda

Feingold, Michael

Fellini, Federico

Feminism

Field, Edward

Firbank, Ronald

First, Elsa

First Amendment

Flamand, Paul

Fleming, Thomas

_Flying Carpet, The_ (Halliburton)

Fonda, Jane

"Foot, The" (Chester)

Ford, Henry

Fornés, María Irene

_For Whom the Bell Tolls_

Foster, Jodie

Fothergill, Brian

Frakes, James B.

Francis, Kay

Frankenstein

Franklin, Benjamin

Franz Ferdinand, Archduke

_Frenzy of Renown, The_ (Braudy)

Freud, Sigmund

_Freud: The Mind of a Moralist_ (Rieff)

Friedman, Leon

Fries, Kenny

Frost, Robert

Fulbright Fellowships

_Further Adventures of Lad_ (Terhune)

Gaddis, William

Galassi, Jonathan.See also _Muse_

Galsworthy, John

Garapedian, Seda

Garbo, Greta

Garbus, Martin

Garner, Frances

Garner, Joan Taylor

Garrett, George

Gass, William

_Gay and Lesbian Biography_

_Gay and Lesbian Heritage, The_

Gee, Helen

Genet, Jean

Genette, Gérard

German American Hospital (Tientsin)

German Democratic Republic

Getty Institute

_Ghostly Lover, The_ (Hardwick)

Giacometti, Alberto

Gide, André

Ginsberg, Allen

Girard, Robert

Giroux, Robert

Glass, Norman

Glass, Philip

Gnostics

Godard, Jean-Luc

"Godot Comes to Sarajevo"

Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von

Goldin, Nan

Goldman, Emma

Goldstein, Laurence

Goodman, Paul

"Good Morning America"

Goodwin, Richard

Gordimer, Nadine

Gordon, Barry

Gordon, Suzanne

Gornick, Vivian

Gottlieb, Robert

_Grammar of Motives, A_ (Burke)

Greeks, ancient

Greenberg, Clement

Greenberg, Martin

Greenblatt, Robert

Greer, Germaine

Greville, Charles

Groffsky, Maxine

Grossman, Judith

Grotowski, Jerzy

Grove, Lloyd

_Guardian_

Guevara, Che

Gussow, Mel

Guttenplan, D. D.

Haidu, Peter

Hald, Peter

Hall, N. John

Halliburton, Richard

Halsman, Philippe

Hamilton, Catherine

Hamilton, Lady Emma

Hamilton, Sir William

_Hamlet_

Hammett, Dashiell

Hanscomb, Leslie

Happenings

Harcourt, Brace & World

Hardwick, Elizabeth

Harlequin Club

Harper's

_Harper's_

_Harper's Bazaar_

Harvard University

Haskell, Molly

Hassan

Hassan, Ihab

Havel, Vaclav

Hawaii

Hawaii, University of

Hawkes, John

Hawthorne, Nathaniel

Hayden, Tom

Hayes, Harold

Hitchens, Christopher

Hollander, John

Horace

Hume, David

"I, Etc." (Chester)

_I, etcetera_

_Illness as Metaphor_

"Image World, The"

"Imagination of Disaster, The"

imperialism

_In America_

_Independent_

Indiana, Gary

International War Crimes Tribunal

_Inter/View_

_Invitée_ , L'

_Irish Times_

Isherwood, Christopher

Islam

Israel

Italy

Jackson, Charles

Jacobs, Jane

Jacobson, Dan

Jacobson, Dora Glasskovitz (grandmother)

Jacobson, Isaac (grandfather)

Jacobson, Mildred (mother)

_Jacques and His Master_ (Kundera)

Jaffe, Irv

James, Alice

James, Henry

_Jamie Is My Heart's Desire_ (Chester)

Janklow, Mort

Jefferson, Margo

Jenkyns, Richard

Jerusalem

Jerusalem Prize

Jewish Theological Seminary

Jews and Jewishness

John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation fellowship

John Paul II, Pope

Johns, Jasper

Johnson, Greg

Johnson, Lyndon

Johnson, Samuel

Johnston, Jill

Jones, James

Jong, Erica

Joyce, James

Kachka, Boris

Kafka, Franz

Kakutani, Michiko

Kaniuk, Yoram

Kant, Emanuel

Kaplan, Alice

Karpf, Lila

Kauffmann, Stanley

Kazin, Alfred

Keats, John

Kendrick, Walter

Kennedy, Edwin J.

Kennedy, John F.

Kennedy, Liam

Kennedy, Robert

Kennerly, Karen

Kentucky, University of

Kermode, Frank

Kerr, Sarah

Khomeini, Ayatollah Ruhollah

Kimball, Roger

King, Francis

_King Kong_

Kinsley, Michael

Kiš, Danilo

Klee, Paul

Klein, Carole

Kleinberg, Seymour

Kleinschmidt, Hans J.

Kluger, Richard

Kobata, Kazue

Koch, Stephen

Koenig, Rhoda

Kolovakos, Gregory

Kopkind, Andrew

Korvettes

Kotz, Liz

Kramer, Hilton

Kramer, Larry

Kraus, Karl

Krauthammer, Charles

Kresevljakovic, Muhamed

Krim, Seymour

Kundera, Milan

Kung Chen Fur Corporation

Kurland, Joan

_Ladies' Home Journal_

"Lament for Bosnia, A"

Lamm, Donald S.

Lamont, Corliss

Lane, Dot

Laos

Lardner, James

Larson, Brandon

_Last of the Nuba, The_ (Riefenstahl)

Laughlin, James

Lawrence, D. H.

Lawrence, Starling

Leavitt, David

Lee, Ellen

Leibniz, Gottfried

Leibovitz, Annie

Leibovitz, Sarah Cameron

Leigh, Vivien

Lenin, V. I.

Leningrad

_Leni Riefenstahl: A Memoir_

Lennon, John

Leonard, John

_Lesbian Nation_ (Johnston)

Leshing, Sophia

Lesser, Wendy

Levine, Don Eric

_Libre_

Lichtheim, George

Liebmann, Dorothea. _See_ Straus, Dorothea

_Life_

_Life with Father_

Lincoln, Abraham

Lindbergh syndrome

Lindgren, Goran

Lipscomb, Thomas

"Literary Agent as Zelig, The" (Bruni)

Literary Guild

_Little Women_ (Alcott)

_Little Women_ (film)

_Lives of the Poets_ (Johnson)

Living Theater

Locke, John

London

London, Jack

_London Magazine_

_London Review of Books_

London Terrace

_London Times_

"Looking at the Unbearable: On Francisco Goya"

Lopate, Philip

Lorca, Federico Garcia

Lord, James

Los Angeles

_Los Angeles Times_

_Lost Weekend, The. See_ Jackson, Charles

Low, Robert

Lowell, Robert

Lukas, Anthony

Macdonald, Dwight

Machiavelli, Niccolo

_Madame Curie: A Biography_

_Mademoiselle_

Madison, James

_Magic Mountain, The_

Mailer, Norman

Malamud, Bernard

Mallon, Thomas

Maloff, Saul

Malraux, André

Mandell, Jonathan

Mandelstam, Osip

Manin, Eileen

Mann, Thomas

Mano, D. Keith

Mansfield, Jayne

Mansfield Junior High

_Man Who Would Marry Susan Sontag, The_ (Field)

Mao Tse-tung

Mapplethorpe, Robert

Marcus, Greil

Marcuse, Herbert

Margolin, Fred

Marshall, Judith

_Martin Eden_ (London)

Marx, Karl

Marx, Leo

Marxism

Mason, Felicity

Mass, Larry

Maunsell, Jerome Boyd

_Maximes_ (La Rochefoucauld)

Maxwell, Elsa

Mayer, Peter

_McCall's_

McCarran-Walter Immigration and Nationality Act

McCarthy, Mary

McClintock, James

McIntosh, Joan

McKeon, Richard

McMurtry, Larry

McNulty, Rose

McQuade, Molly

Mead, Rebecca

Meade, Marion

_Meistersinger, Die_ (Wagner)

"Melancholy Objects"

Melville, Herman

Melville, Jean-Pierre

Memorial-Sloan Kettering Cancer Institute

Merrill

Mexico

Mexico City

Meyer, Catharine

Miami

Michelangelo

Michigan, University of

_Michigan Quarterly Review_

Michigan State University

Mid-Century Book Society

_Middlemarch_ (Eliot)

Milland, Ray

Millay, Edna St. Vincent

Millbank, Tweed, Hadley & McCloy

Miller, Arthur

Miller, Jonathan

Millet, Kate

Milton, John

_Misalliance_ (Shaw)

_Misérables, Les_ (Hugo)

"Mister Pitch" (Mead)

Mitgang, Herbert

Modernism

Modernity

Modern Library

Modern novel

Modjeska, Helena

Monroe, Marilyn

_Monsieur Phot_

Montaigne, Michel de

Montblanc de la Culture Award

Mooney, Ted

Moran, David

More, Sir Thomas

Moreau, Jeanne

Morgan, Frederick

Morillon, Philippe

Morocco

Morrison, Toni

Morrone, John

Moscow

Moscow Purge Trials

"Movable Doom, A"

Mowbray, Alan

Moynihan, Daniel Patrick

Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus

_Ms_.

Mudrick, Marvin

Müller, Ray

Munk, Erika

Murdoch, Iris

_Muse_ (Galassi)

Museum of Modern Art

_Mystery and Manners_ (O'Connor)

_Mythology of Transgression, The_

"My Warszawa: 1980" (Oates)

Naipaul, V. S.

Nairn, Tom

Napoleon I, Emperor of France

_Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym, The_ (Poe)

_Nation_

National Arts Club

National Book Award

National Book Critics Circle Award

National Endowment for the Arts

National Mobilization Committee to

End the War in Vietnam

National Portrait Gallery

National Organization for Women

_National Review_

National University (Mexico City)

Navasky, Victor

Nazis

Ne'eman, Yuval

Neier, Aryeh

Nelson, Cary

Nelson, Lord Horatio

_New Criterion_

New Criticism

New Directions

New Left

Newman, Edwin

_New Republic_

New School for Social Research

_Newsday_

_New Statesman_

_Newsweek_

New York City

_New Yorker_

New York Film Festivals

_New York Herald Tribune_

New York Hospital

"New York Intellectuals, The"

_New York Magazine_

_New York Observer_

New York Public Library

_New York Review of Books_

_New York Times_

_New York Times Book Review_

_New York Times Magazine_

New York University

Nicaragua

Nichols, Mike

Nietzsche, Friedrich Wilhelm

_Nightwood_

Nijinksy, Vaslav

d Street Y

Nobel Prize

Nobile, Philip

Noonday Press

North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)

North Hollywood High School

North Vietnam

"Notes on 'Camp'" and camp sensibility

_Nouvel Observateur_

Nunez, Sigrid

Oates, Joyce Carol

Occidental College

O'Connor, Flannery

Offit, Sidney

"Old Complaints Revisited"

Old Left

Olivier, Laurence

Olson, Elder

_Olympiad_

Olympic games

_Omsetter's Luck_ (Gass)

Onassis, Jackie

O'Neill, Eugene

_On Photography_

"On Style"

Orwell, George

Orwell, Sonia

_Oslobodjenje_

Ostriker, Alicia

Oxford University

Oz, Amos

Ozick, Cynthia

Paddock, Lisa. _See_ Rollyson, Carl

Padilla, Heberto

Paglia, Camille

Paine, Tom

Paley, Grace

Palmer, Andrew

Pandarus

Papp, Joe

Paris

_Paris Review_

_Partisan Review_

Partridge, Eric

Pasovic, Harris

PATCO

Pater, Walter

Pathet, Lao

Paulson, Jeanette

PEN

Penguin Books

Penn, Irving

Peretz, Martin

Perrone, Peter

_Persona_

Petrement, Simone

Phelps, Robert

_Philadelphia Inquirer_

Philbrook, Peter

Philistinism

Phillips, William

_Philosophy of Literary Form, The_

_Photographer's Life, A_ (Leibovitz)

"Photographic Evangels"

Picasso, Pablo

_Picasso and Dora_ (Lord)

Pickwick bookstore

_Pierre_ (Melville)

Pima Indians

Pirandello, Luigi

Plath, Sylvia

Plato

_Playboy_

Plimpton, George

_PM_

Pochoda, Philip

Poe, Edgar Allan

Poland

_Political Pilgrims_ (Hollander)

Pollinger, Laurence

Pollitt, Katha

Polsky, Ned

Pomfret, John

"Pornographic Imagination, The"

pornography

_Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man, A_ (Joyce)

_Portraits in Life and Death_ (Hujar)

Pound, Ezra

Prentice Hall

Priestley, J. B.

Princep, Gavrilo

Princeton University

_Prisoner of Sex, The_ (Mailer)

"Project for a Trip to China"

_Promised Lands_

_Psychology Today_

Public Theater

Puddington, Arch

Purdy, James

Puritanism

Quinlan, Encarnita V.

Raban, Jonathan

Racism

Radcliffe College

Rahv, Philip

_Ramparts_

Random House

_Rat Bohemia_

_Raw and the Cooked, The_

_Reader's Digest_

"Read-in for Peace in Vietnam"

Reagan, Ronald

Rechy, John

_Recognitions, The_ (Gaddis)

_Red Hot Vacuum, The_ (Solataroff)

_Red River_

_Regarding Susan Sontag_

_Regarding the Pain of Others_

_Renewing the Left_ (Teres)

_Republic, The_ (Plato)

Revson, James

Reynolds, Joshua

Rhode Island School of Design

Rich, Adrienne

Rich, Frank

_Richard Halliburton's Complete Book of Marvels_

Richardson, John

Riefenstahl, Leni

Rieff, David

Rieff, Philip

Riesman, David

Rilke, Rainer Maria

Ritchie, Donald

Robbe-Grillet, Alain

Rogan, Helen

Rogart-Roth, Patricia

Roiphe, Katie

_Rolling Stone_

Rollyson, Carl

Roman Empire

Romney, George

_Room of One's Own, A_ (Woolf)

Rorem, Ned

Rose, Charlie

Roseman, Mel

Rosenblatt, Aaron (uncle)

Rosenblatt, Gussie Kessler (grandmother)

Rosenblatt, Jasy "Jack" (father)

Rosenblatt, Mildred Jacobson (mother). _See_ Sontag, Mildred Jacobson

Rosenblatt, Samuel (grandfather)

Rosenheim, Ned

Roth, Philip

Rothschild family

Roud, Richard

Rousseau, Jean-Jacques

_Royal Road to Romance, The_ (Halliburton)

Ruas, Charles

Rudge, Olga

Rukeyser, Muriel

_R.U.R_. (Čapek)

Rushdie, Salman

Russell, Bertrand

SAGA

Said, Edward

Sale, Faith

Sale, Roger

_Salmagundi_

Sandinistas

Sandrews film company

San Francisco

_San Francisco Chronicle_

San Francisco Film Festival

_Sarah_

Sarah Lawrence College

Sarajevo

_Sarajevo Ground Zero_

Sartre, Jean-Paul

_Sartre: Romantic Realist_ (Murdoch)

_Satanic Verses, The_ (Rushdie)

_Saturday Review_

Sawicka, Elzbieta

Sawyer, Tom

Sayres, Sohnya

Scagliotti, Jack

Scarf, Maggie

Scarry, Elaine

Schenkar, Joan

Schlesinger, Arthur, Jr.

Schoenman, Ralph

Schorer, Mark

Schreiber, Peter

Schulman, Sarah

Schultz, Victoria

Schwab, Joseph

Schwed, Peter

Screen Actors Guild

Seaton, James

Secker & Warburg

_Second Sex, The_ (de Beauvoir)

Sedgwick, Eve Kosofsky

_Seduction and Betrayal_ (Hardwick)

Seeger, Pete

Sekulić, Maya Herman

Selzer, Richard

Selznick, David

Senate, US

Sennett, Richard

"Sensational Susan Sontag, The" (Ellmann)

Servan-Schreiber, Jean-Louis

Sexism

_Sexual Personae_ (Paglia)

Shakespeare, William

Shaw, George Bernard

Shawn, William

Shepro, Harry

Shorris, Earl

_Show_

Showalter, Elaine

Shultz, George

"Side by Side with Sontag" (Heller)

Sidney, Sir Philip

_Silence de la Mer, Le_

Silvers, Robert

Simon, John

Simon, Sherry

Simon & Schuster

Singer, Isaac Bashevis

"Singleness"

_Sir William_

_Slaughterhouse: Bosnia and the Failure of the West_ (Rieff)

_Slave, The_ (Singer)

Slung, Michele

Smith, Lillian

Smith, Maurice Temple

Snow, C. P.

_Snow White_ (Barthelme)

Socialism

Socialist Workers Party (SWP)

Socrates

_Soho News_

Sol, Art

Sollers, Philippe

Solomon, Deborah

Solomon, Harold

Solotaroff, Theodore

Solzhenitsyn, Aleksandr

"Some Thoughts on the Right Way (for Us) to Love the Cuban Revolution"

Sontag, Henriette

Sontag, Judith (sister)

Sontag, Mildred Jacobson (mother)

Sontag, Nathan "Nat" (stepfather)

Sontag, Susan: abortion and; academic excellence of; alimony and child support; androgyny and; ascetic living environment of; asthma attacks of; birth of; cancer diagnosis and treatment of; in care of relatives and nannies; character and personality of; childhood and adolescence of; early newsletter published by; elementary education of; entourage of, fame and iconic status of; fascination of caves and tunnels for; father, death of, ( _see also_ Rosenblatt, Jack); father figures and; feminism and ( _see_ Feminism); fictional characters based on ( _see_ Grossman, Judith; King, Francis; _Muse_ ; Schulman, Sarah; Sollers, Philippe; White, Edmund); gossip and rumors about; hair and hairstyles of; high school education of ( _see_ North Hollywood High School); honors, awards, and public recognition of; humanitarian work of; image-makers attractive to; interviews with; Jewish heritage of ( _see_ Jews and Jewishness); junior high school education of; lawsuits of; Leftist leanings and activism of; literary ambition of; literary influences on; medical fund raised for; motherhood and; musical taste of; mystique of; persona of; personal appearance, style, and clothing of; photographic memory of; photographs of; political awakening of; political reorientation of; postgraduate education of; pregnancy of; public persona disclaimed and avoided by; public speaking and lectures of; reading habits and taste of; as role model; self-created image of; self-promotion of; senate testimony of; sexual orientation guarded by; teachers and mentors of ( _see_ Chester, Alfred; Crane, R. S.; Burke, Kenneth; Frances, Sophia; Leshing, Garner; McKeon, Richard; Rosenheim, Ned; Strauss, Leo; Taubes, Jacob); teaching positions of ( _see_ Brown University; City College of New York; Columbia University; New School for Social Research; Sarah Lawrence College; Temple University); television appearances of; theater experience of, ( _see also_ Nichols, Mike); undergraduate college education of; war experiences of; writing group formed by; youth friends of ( _see_ Highwater, Jamake; Margolin, Fred; Roseman, Mel)

"Sontag Bloody Sontag" (Paglia)

Sorbonne

_Soundings_

South Carolina, University of

Southern California

Souvanna Phouma

Soviet Union

Span, Paula

Spanish Civil War

"Speaking of Susan Sontag" (Heilbrun)

_Spectator_

Spender, Stephen

Spinoza, Baruch

Spock, Benjamin

Stacton, David

Staël, Madame de

Stalin, Joseph

Stalinists

Stallone, Sylvester

Stanford University

Stansell, Christine

_Star Is Born, A_

State Department, US

Steichen, Edward

Stein, Elliott

Stein, Gertrude

Steinberg, Saul and Gayfryd

Steinem, Gloria

Steiner, George

Stendhal (Marie-Henri Beyle)

Stéphane, Nicole

Stephenson, Peter

Stern, Richard

Stevens, Elizabeth

Stevenson, Robert Louis

Stieglitz, Perry

St. John the Divine Cathedral

_St. Louis Post-Dispatch_

St. Luke's Hospital

Stonewall riot

"Stop the Draft Week"

Straus, Roger

Strauss, Leo

Strouse, Jean

Student Mobilization Committee

_Styles of Radical Will_

Styron, William

Sullivan, Jane

Surrealism

Sutherland, John

_Susan Sontag Reader, A_

_Swan Lake_

Sweden

Swedish Film Institute

"Syberberg's Hitler"

Talese, Gay

Talmud

Tanner, Tony

Taubes, Jacob

Taubes, Susan

Taylor, Benjamin

_Tel Quel_

Temple University

Teres, Harvey

Terhune, Alfred Payson

Terzieff, Laurent

Thackeray, William Makepeace

_That Hamilton Woman_

Thek, Paul

Theroux, Paul

_These Three_

"Third World of Women, The"

Thoreau, Henry David

_Three Guineas_

_Threepenny Review_

_Three Sisters, The_ (Chekhov)

Tiananmen Square massacre

Tillich, Paul

_Time_

_Times_ (London)

Tokyo Rose

Toole, David

_Towards a Better Life_ (Burke)

Trilling, Diana

Trilling, Lionel

_Trip to Hanoi_

Tristman, Richard

_Triumph of the Will_

Trollope, Anthony

Trotsky, Leon

Trueheart, Charles

Trump, Donald

Tucson, Arizona

Tuten, Frederic

Tyler, Anne

UAW

UCLA, University of California at Los Angeles

_Under the Sign of Saturn_

"Under the Sign of Saturn"

_Unfinished Woman, An_

"Unguided Tour"

United Nations

United States Information Service (USIS)

Unsworth, Mike

Updike, John

_Vamps and Tramps_ (Paglia)

Van Biema, David

Van Gogh, Theo

Van Gogh, Vincent

_Vanity Fair_

Vargas Llosa, Mario

Venice

Venice Biennale on Dissent

Venice Film Festival

Victor, Tom

_Victory_ (Conrad)

Vidal, Gore

Viet Minh

Vietnam, North. _See_ North Vietnam

Vietnam Moratorium Day

Vietnam War

Viking Penguin

_Village Voice_

_Visiting Cards_ (King)

_Vogue_

_Voice Literary Supplement_

_Volcano Lover, The_

Vonnegut, Kurt

Vreeland, Diana

Vursell, Hal

Wadler, Joyce

Wagner, Richard

Wain, John

_Waiting for Godot_ (Beckett)

Walcott, Derek

Wald, Alan M.

Wallace, Henry A.

Walser, Robert

_War and Peace_ (Tolstoy)

Warhol, Andy

Warner, Marina

_Washington Post_

Wasserman, Harriet

"Way We Live Now, The"

Webb, Sidney and Beatrice

Weil, Simone

Wells, H. G.

Welty, Eudora

_We Must Love One Another or Die_ (Mass)

Wenkart, Henny

Wertheimer, Jurgen

West, Mae

West, Rebecca

"What's Happening in America"

_Where the Stress Falls_

Whistler, James Abbott McNeill

White, Edmund

White House

Whitman, Walt

"Why I Hate Susan Sontag" (website)

Wieseltier, Leon

Wilde, Dolly

Wilde, Oscar

Wilson, Ann

Wilson, Edmund

Wilson, Mark

Wintour, Anna

Wolfe, Tom

_Women_ (Leibovitz)

_Women_ (Sollers)

Women's lib

Women's magazines

Women's movement

Women's National Book Association

Wood, Natalie

Woolf, Virginia

World Association of Authors (WAA)

World Friendship Oratorical Contest

_World in the Evening, The_ (Isherwood)

World War I

World War II

"Writers Talk Among Themselves"

W. W. Norton

Wyler, William

Wylie, Andrew

Yale University

"Year of the Ox, The"

Yeats, William Butler

Yom Kippur War

York, Peter

Young Socialist Alliance (YSA)

Yourcenar, Marguerite

Zappa, Frank

_Zelig_

Zionism

Zwerling, Harriet Sohmers

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaBook