text:
Rokko Housing 1,2,3 by Tadao Ando
3 Comments	/ International Architecture / By Masud Rana
Rokko housing is one hell of a project and only an architect like Ando could have designed this magnificent structure.
Rokko Housing 1-2-3 (Ja Library No 3)
Ando, Tadao (Author)
English (Publication Language)
10/01/1994 (Publication Date) - Gingko Pr Inc (Publisher)
The site is a south-facing hillside with a 6o-degree slope in the foothills of the Rokko Mountains in Kobe. Architect Tadao Ando took on the challenge offered by the site with great determination.
This complex, which clings to the side of a hill like a rock-climber, is unique in appearance and a masterpiece of architecture in Japan. The project was risky from the standpoint of technology, laws and regulations, and economics.
The building could not have been designed by anyone other than Ando. Shown the original hillside, who else would have had the madcap idea of constructing an apartment budding on this incline after they had seen it?
The first phase was begun in 1978 and completed in 1983. Two years after its completion, Ando published the second phase for an apartment complex four times the size of the first phase.
After nearly eight years, the second phase was completed, whereupon he immediately embarked on a third. That was completed in 1999.
Also Read: Church on the Water, Hokkaido designed by Tadao Ando
Architect Ando has continued building in this area for 3o years, as if determined to cover the entire hillside with his buildings.
He has overseen the development of this cluster of apartment buildings in great detail, even taking the time to occasionally water plants himself. He has a unit of his own here.
Rokko Housing one
The first-phase complex is a three-dimensional grid, based on a unit 5.4 meters by 4.8 meters in plan, following the slope. The 20 apartment units step back on the hillside, using the roofs of lower levels as terraces; the result is a cluster of independent units, each with its own character.
Greenery penetrates the interiors of the building, enabling the occupants to lead lives at one with nature. The idea of the roof terrace has often been used in subsequent projects by Tadao.
Rokko Housing 2
The second-phase complex is next to the first phase, but the two projects are independent of one another. A square module, 17 feet by 17 feet in plan, was used in the second phase; the vertical overlapping of square grids has created unexpected views.
Also Read: Koshino House, Ashiyo, Japan designed by Tadao Ando
Three-dimensional geometrical arrangements help establish straightforward, uninhibited relationships between residents and between residents and nature.
Rokko housing ii Plan
Three types of gardens are provided in order to generate various communal relationships: the terraces that serve as the front gardens of individual units; a middle courtyard that serves as a plaza where people gather; and the rear garden, a stroll path where seasonal flowers bloom in profusion. These three gardens are respectively private, communal and public in nature.
They are places for different types of communication that can enliven everyday life: the terrace provides a view of the harbour and a nightscape of Kobe; the middle courtyard is a place for a brief chat among neighbors; the path is a place where a resident can stroll alone to appreciate the effects of the changing season on the landscape.
The third phase is a large project, approximately seven times the size of the second phase. Here, Ando sought to lower the cost by introducing prefabrication.
Rokko Housing interiors
Besides low-rise buildings with courtyards, there are, for the first time, high-rise buildings. As in the earlier two phases, the spaces between buildings are designed as common spaces, but in the third phase, the stepped path in the north-south direction following the slope of the site and green areas that extend in the east-west direction criss-cross in plazas.
The common spaces are highly nuanced and remind one of the Halen Housing Project (1 955-1961) near Bern, Switzerland, by Atelier 5.
The three phases are actually three development projects for different clients on different sites, carried out at different times. Ando's ability to endow the three projects with a harmonious, continuous townscape commands admiration.
He has analysed the relationship between individual elements and the group, and has translated the principles for combining units in a housing complex into clear rules of spatial composition.
Also Read: Meditation Space UNESCO, Paris
People can face each other, look out in the same direction or stand back to back. It should be noted that the prototypes for these forms of spatial organization, based on human relationships, correspond to Ando's Row House in Sumiyoshi, the Koshino House and the Kidosaki House.
Ando is a diligent student; in his youth he did research to see how the neighborhood-unit theory or the idea of the Unite d'habitation could be adopted in Japan.
The Kingohusene Housing Project (1957-1960) near Helsingor by Jorn Utzon and Sohoim Terraced Housing (1950) near Copenhagen by Arne Jacobsen are among his favourite residential projects.
To get from the individual element to the group, Ando begins by establishing the individual element, then translates into space the relationship between individual elements to organize a larger group form. Rokko Housing by Tadao Ando is a space that has been logically developed on the basis of rules of combination.
Moreover, three factors—rules of spatial organization that apply to the entire complex, highly individualistic interior spaces, and shared spaces that make full use of the advantages of being a group rise to the ambience of a quiet, high-class residential district.
3 thoughts on "Rokko Housing 1,2,3 by Tadao Ando"
he should also pay a visit this website on regular basis
to obtain updated from newest reports.
(well, almost…HaHa!) Wonderful job. I really enjoyed what you had to say, and more than that, how you presented it.
Sua may giat
Everything is very open with a clear description of the issues.
It was truly informative. Your site is useful. Thanks for sharing!


After three events, hundreds of participants, and well over 1,300 meetings, we have decided to move on and pursue other projects in the industry.
We devoted a great deal of time and energy to make Pitch Expo such a success and couldn't be happier with the results. We are proud of the initiative and are delighted to have brought such an event to the Toronto industry.
It's been a privilege to bring such a diverse group of people together to further their creative pursuits. We wish everyone great success in their future projects!


text:
\section{Introduction}

The exploration of the dynamic properties of complex systems has been
massively boosted by modern microscopic techniques allowing single-particle
tracking (SPT) of micron- and submicron-sized tracers or even single molecules.
SPT is routinely used to probe the local properties of materials and even live
biological cells and tissue by passive and active microrheology \cite{zia}.
SPT by now is a key tool to interrogate the structure--function relationships
in biophysical applications \cite{shen,manzo}, and it plays a central role
in uncovering thermal and energy-fuelled intracellular transport of tracer
particles or single molecules in biological cells and tissues \cite{mogre}.
SPT is thus at the heart of the new emerging era of quantitative life
sciences \cite{golding,pt,pccp,manzo,norregaard,pt1,seisenhuber,he,platani,
PSD_Diego,etoc,song,krzysiek,ramm,normanno,wuite,rienzo,golan,shen,moerner,
granick,mogre,tabei,garini,weber,lene,thapa2019, ohad, Nathan_Science,
Erickson2015}.
Specifically, SPT unveiled different intracellular motion patterns of virus
particles \cite{seisenhuber}, Cajal bodies \cite{platani}, molecular motor-driven
transport \cite{song,granick,ramm}, the motion of telomeres \cite{garini},
green fluorescent proteins \cite{golan}, DNA-binding proteins
\cite{normanno,wuite}, mRNA molecules \cite{moerner,golding,weber},
membrane proteins \cite{rienzo, PSD_Diego, he}, or endogenous granules
\cite{tabei,lene} and vesicles \cite{thapa2019}.
SPT has also revealed protein interactions \cite{krzysiek} as well as key
details of submicron tracer motion in mammalian cells \cite{etoc} and
in the movement ecology of larger animals \cite{Nathan_Science, Vilk_PRX}.

In contrast to pre-averaged data such as those obtained from
fluorescence correlation spectroscopy (FCS) or fluorescence recovery after
photobleaching (FRAP), SPT provides high resolution "unprocessed" data:
As raw data of test particle trajectories, SPT offers the best possible basis
for statistical analysis \cite{braeuchle}. Indeed, a large toolbox of methods
are available for analysing position time series $X_t$. Frequently, these
data have revealed that particles exhibit an anomalous diffusion behaviour,
defined by the power-law dependence $\langle X^2_t\rangle\simeq t^{\alpha}$
of the mean squared displacement (MSD), where the angular brackets
denote averaging over different realisations of recorded trajectories. The
anomalous diffusion exponent $\alpha$ is commonly used to tell whether
normal (Brownian, $\alpha=1$) or anomalous diffusion ($\alpha\ne1$)
is observed. Here, the regimes of sub- and superdiffusion correspond to
$0<\alpha <1$ and $\alpha>1$, respectively. Distinguishing normal
from anomalous diffusion is vital for predicting various characteristics
of the systems under investigation---e.g., the diffusion-control of
molecular reactions or the relaxation dynamics after manipulating the
system---eventually allowing us to understand the actual physical
mechanisms underlying the observations.

Fitting the scaling exponent $\alpha$ to finite measured time series is
known to be a major challenge. For instance, contamination of the true
trajectories by measurement noise was shown to lead to the erroneous
conclusion to observe anomalous diffusion ($\alpha\neq1$) \cite{kaes}.
There exist methods to alleviate this problem, e.g., the mean-maximal
excursion statistics \cite{vincent}. Moreover, Bayesian-maximum likelihood
methods \cite{samu,samusoft,michael}, deep learning strategies \cite{gorka,
yael,janusz,januszentro,andi}, or feature-based methods \cite{janusz,
januszentro,amanda,jakub} also provide best estimates for $\alpha$.
However, all these methods have their shortcomings. Quite severely,
$\alpha$ values (along with $D$ values \cite{boyer,Flyvbjerg}) retrieved
from fitting the MSD $\langle X^2_t\rangle$ will vary from one trajectory
to the next due to finite statistics within single trajectories. Indeed,
trajectories from real experiments display different regimes with different
scaling exponents \cite{samu,samusoft,yaelprr}, or due to the spatial
heterogeneity of the environment \cite{lanoiselee, nickelife}. This leads to strong
variability in the scaling exponents measured for different trajectories and
renders predictions based on such fitting procedures even less accurate.
Moreover, for realistic situations with $\alpha$ values closer to the
Brownian value $\alpha=1$ it becomes increasingly difficult to distinguish
anomalous from Brownian motion \cite{januszentro}. This latter caveat
is further exacerbated when considering the unavoidable experimental
sources of error in many SPT setups, especially when based on
fluorescence microscopy methods.

Likely the most notorious source of uncertainty is the static localisation
error that arises from the finite number of fluorescence photons
garnered during an image of the particle from which its position
will be retrieved by elaborate tracking schemes: Each of these photons
is emitted from a point-like source in the sample (the emitting
fluorophore) and will hence be captured on a locus of the camera
sensor according to the microscope's point-spread function (PSF).
In other words, individual photons are stochastically recorded on the
camera sensor, with a distribution of positions around the actual particle
location determined by the PSF \cite{ober2004localization}. As a
consequence, recording only a few photons will yield a poor estimate
for the actual particle position, and the characteristic deviation is
determined by the standard error. The latter scales with the inverse root
of the number of photons, i.e., for a large number of photons the static
localisation error can be as small as a few nanometres \cite{yildiz2005fluorescence}.
However, for very large numbers of photons another perturbation
becomes visible, the so-called dynamic localisation error: Recording an
image to determine a particle's position takes a finite time during which
particles are constantly on the move. As a result, many different positions
are visited during the acquisition of a single image and only the temporal
mean of these is retrieved from the acquired image as the, apparent,
particle position. This dynamic localisation error effectively adds a negative
offset to $\langle X^2_t\rangle$ whereas the static localisation error adds
a positive offset \cite{Doyle,backlund2015chromosomal}. Both sources
of error will therefore perturb the analysis of the scaling behaviour on short
time scales for which experimental trajectories typically yield best statistics.
Thus, determining the value of $\alpha$ and deciding whether diffusional
anomalies are present is indeed a major challenge.

The aim of this article is the analysis of a robust and easy to
implement method that allows one to decide on the type
and significance of an apparent anomaly, without being spoiled
by localisation errors. We concentrate here on the situation when $X_t$
belongs to a wide, experimentally-relevant class of anomalous
diffusions---the so-called fractional Brownian motion (FBM) \cite{Mandelbrot}.
Note, however, that the methodology we develop here will be amenable
to generalisation to any anomalous--diffusion process.
FBM is a Gaussian stochastic process characterised by a zero mean value
and the covariance function
\begin{equation}
\langle X_{t_1}X_{t_2}\rangle=D\left(t_1^{2H}+t_2^{2H}-\left|t_1-t_2
\right|^{2H}\right),
\label{covFBM}
\end{equation}
where $D$ is a proportionality factor with physical units of $\mathrm{length}
^2/\mathrm{time}^{2H}$ commonly referred to as generalised diffusion
coefficient and $H\in(0,1)$ is the traditionally used Hurst index, such that
the anomalous diffusion exponent is $\alpha=2H$. FBM thus describes
a process that can be subdiffusive ($H<1/2$), diffusive ($H=1/2$), or
super-diffusive $(H>1/2)$. From a physical point of view, FBM is well
suited to model diffusion in viscoelastic media \cite{fBM_Weiss,lene,lene1,
weber,pvar}, but it also governs observed motion patterns in movement
ecology \cite{ohad}, the density profiles of serotonergic brain fibres
\cite{skirmantas}, or roughness in financial data \cite{beran}.

As mentioned before, localisation errors are usually divided into two kind
of contributions \cite{berglund, Doyle}: the static error, due to intrinsic
properties of the experimental setup, and the dynamic one, due to the
finite time needed for data acquisition, i.e., the exposure time. From a
mathematical point of view the former is generally treated as an independent
additive noise source whereas the latter is defined via temporal integration
over the finite exposure time. The effect of measurement error in SPT has
been investigated mainly by focusing on the MSD \cite{Doyle,michalet,Weiss2019}.
Few results are also present in literature concerning correlation functions
and power spectra \cite{Doyle,backlund2015chromosomal}, but with a small
range of applicability. Spectral analysis of stochastic processes can be very
helpful in their characterisation, however the power spectrum, according
to the text-book definition, is a property that relies on the measurement
time going to infinity and on a very large statistical ensemble. Both of these
assumptions are typically not met when dealing with state-of-the-art SPT data,
and this is why the spectral analysis of individual trajectories was only recently
introduced \cite{PSD_BM}. The study of single-trajectory spectral densities has
been carried out for different stochastic processes \cite{PSD_fBM,PSD_SBM,
PSD_DD,PSD_AS,PSD_Diego,PSD_SC, Vilk_JPhysA} and is based on the
study of the random variable
\cite{PSD_BM, PSD_fBM}
\begin{eqnarray}
\label{S}
\nonumber
S(f,T)&=&\frac{1}{T}\left|\int^T_0dte^{ift}X_t\right|^2\\
&&\hspace*{-1.2cm}=\frac{1}{T}\int^T_0dt_1\int^T_0dt_2\cos
\left(f(t_1-t_2)\right)X_{t_1}X_{t_2},
\end{eqnarray}
where $f$ is the frequency, $T$ is the finite observation time, and $X_t$
is an individual realisation of a given stochastic process. We will refer
to this quantity as the single-trajectory power spectral density (PSD).

When the parental process $X_t$ is Gaussian, the probability density
function (PDF) of the random variable $S(f,T)$ is, likewise, entirely
defined by its first moment and variance
\begin{eqnarray}
\mu(f,T)&=&\left< S(f,T)\right>,\\
\sigma^2(f,T)&=&\left< S^2(f,T)\right>-\left< S(f,T)\right>^2.
\end{eqnarray}
Note that by taking the limit $\lim_{T\to\infty}\mu(f,T)=\mu(f)$, we recover
the standard definition of the power spectrum. Interestingly it was
shown that the characteristic trend of the ensemble averaged power
spectrum $\mu(f,T)$ of several stochastic processes at high frequencies
can be inferred already from a single-trajectory PSD \cite{PSD_BM,PSD_fBM,
PSD_SBM,PSD_DD,PSD_AS,PSD_Diego,PSD_SC}.

A very interesting quantity to study when performing single-trajectory spectral
analyses is the so-called coefficient of variation of the associated PDF,
$P(S(f,T))$,
\begin{equation}
\gamma(f,T)=\frac{\sigma(f,T)}{\mu(f,T)}.
\label{def_gamma}
\end{equation}
In particular, when dealing with FBM-like motion the limiting value of
$\gamma(f,T)$ at high frequencies (or for a fixed frequency but for long $T$)
turns out to be distinctly different in the cases of subdiffusion ($\gamma(f,T)
\sim1$), normal diffusion ($\gamma(f,T)\sim\sqrt{5}/2$) and superdiffusion
($\gamma(f,T)\sim\sqrt{2}$) \cite{PSD_fBM}.  This quantity was
proposed in \cite{PSD_fBM} as criterion of anomalous diffusion. Here, we
go a significant step further and study how its trend towards specific
limiting values is affected by the experimentally unavoidable presence of
localisation errors in tracked trajectories. In particular, we show
that: (i) this criterion is very robust for subdiffusion; (ii) in the case of
superdiffusion the limiting value of $\gamma(f,T)$ is affected by the static
measurement error and not by the dynamic error; (iii) for normal diffusion both
static and dynamic errors introduce correction terms in the limiting value of
$\gamma(f,T)$. Knowledge of these results allows a reliable determination of
the anomalous nature of measured signals.

\section{Results and Discussion}

As already mentioned above, for pure FBM trajectories it was shown
\cite{PSD_fBM} that the coefficient of variation at high frequencies reaches
the limiting values: (i) $\gamma=1$ for subdiffusion, regardless of the value
of $H$, (ii) $\gamma=\sqrt{5}/2$ for normal diffusion, and (iii)
$\gamma=\sqrt{2}$ for superdiffusion, regardless of the value of $H$.
Here, we analyse the case of FBM trajectories in the presence of
localisation errors.

\subsection{Analytical predictions}

Let us start by introducing the mathematical description of the two
localisation errors:

(i) The static error is usually modelled as an additive noise term, thus
we denote with $Y_t$ the joint stochastic process of the form
\begin{equation}
\label{Y_t}
Y_t=X_t+e_t,
\end{equation}
where $X_t$ is a pure FBM trajectory and $e_t$ is the static error due to
an imperfect measurement. In a standard fashion \cite{michalet,berglund},
we stipulate that $e_t$ is given by the stationary Ornstein-Uhlenbeck (OU)
process
\begin{equation}
e_t=\int^t_{-\infty}d\tau e^{-(t-\tau)/\tau_0}\zeta_{\tau},
\label{stat_err}
\end{equation}
where $\tau_0$ is the characteristic relaxation time and $\zeta_t$ is a
Gaussian white noise with zero mean and covariance $\overline{\zeta_t
\zeta_{t'}}=2\sigma_e^2\delta(t-t')$. Moreover, it is commonly assumed
that $\tau_0 \ll \Delta t$, where $\Delta t$ is the temporal resolution of the
trajectory. In other words, we suppose that each time when an instantaneous
position $X_t$ is recorded, the latter is specified up to a random "error" with
the distribution
\begin{equation}
P(e_t)=\sqrt{\frac{1}{4\pi\sigma^2_e\tau_0}}\exp\left(-\frac{e^2_t}{4\sigma_e
^2\tau_0}
\right),
\label{Pe}
\end{equation}
and is independent of the previous measurements.

(ii) The dynamic error depends on the acquisition or exposure time $\tau_e$,
such that the acquired position $Y_t$ can be written as $\overline{X_t}=
(1/\tau_e)\int_0^{\tau_e}X_{t-\xi}d\xi$, meaning that we cannot resolve
the particle motion below $\tau_e$.

Note that the parameters $\sigma_e$ and $\tau_0$ for the static error
and $\tau_e$ for the dynamic error are characteristic of the experimental
setup and thus they are usually known quantities when analysing SPT
experiments.

As treating the dynamic error within the single-trajectory PSD framework is
quite tedious and involved, we limit our analytical study to the joint
process \eqref{Y_t} in which only the static error is present and leave the
dynamic error for numerical study, see "Simulations" subsection
in Methods.

Selecting the process in \eqref{Y_t} and performing the single-trajectory
spectral analysis as described above we obtain our central result,
\begin{equation}
\label{main}
\gamma_Y^2(f,T)=\frac{\sigma_Y^2(f,T)}{\mu_Y^2(f,T)}=\frac{\sigma^2_X+
\sigma^2_\mathrm{OU}+2\mu_X\mu_\mathrm{OU}}
{\left(\mu_X+\mu_\mathrm{OU}\right)^2},
\end{equation}
expressing the coefficient of variation of the single-trajectory PSD of the
joint process $Y_t$ via the first moments and the variances of the spectral
densities of its constituents.
In particular, for the OU process under the assumption stated above,
we have $\mu_\mathrm{OU}\sim2\sigma_e^2\tau_0^2$ and
$\sigma^2_\mathrm{OU} \sim4\sigma_e^4\tau_0^4$ (see Supplementary Note 1).
The results for the FBM process are dependent on $H$ and are in general
quite involved. We report here just the asymptotic trends and refer the
interested readers to \cite{PSD_fBM} for more details,
\begin{subequations}
\begin{eqnarray}
H<1/2:&\mu_X(f,T) &\sim \frac{2c_H D}{f^{2H+1}}, \\
H=1/2:&\mu_X(f,T)& \sim \frac{4 D}{f^2},   \\
H>1/2:&\mu_X(f,T)& \sim \frac{2 D}{f^2}T^{2H-1},
\end{eqnarray}
\end{subequations}
and $\sigma^2_X(f,T) \sim 4D^2 \left( \frac{c_H^4}{f^{4H+2}} +
\frac{2c_H}{f^{2H+3}}T^{2H-1} +\frac{2}{f^4}T^{4H-2} \right)$, where
$c_H=\Gamma(2H+1)\sin(\pi H)$, and $\Gamma(z)$ is the Gamma
function \cite{PSD_fBM}. Note that in the case of superdiffusion for
fixed $T$ the $1/f^2$ trend could erroneously lead us to the conclusion
of having standard diffusion. In addition, the superdiffusive result also
shows a dependence on $T$, a clear feature of ageing, that helps
in differentiating it from normal diffusion.

The limiting value at high frequencies of the coefficient of variation
obtained in \eqref{main} is then given by
\begin{subequations}
\begin{eqnarray}
\label{eq:sub}
\hspace*{-0.8cm}H<1/2:&&\gamma_Y^2(f,T)\sim1,\\
\label{eq:diff}
\hspace*{-0.8cm}H=1/2:&&\gamma_Y^2(f,T)\sim1+\frac{1}{4}\left(1+\frac{
\sigma_e^2\tau_0^2}{2D}f^2\right)^{-2},\\
\label{eq:sup}
\hspace*{-0.8cm}H>1/2:&&\gamma_Y^2(f,T)\sim1+\left(1+\frac{\sigma_e^2\tau_
0^2}{D}\frac{f^2}{T^{2H-1}}\right)^{-2}.
\end{eqnarray}
\end{subequations}
Thus, $\gamma_Y$ is completely independent of the static noise for
subdiffusion, while for normal and superdiffusion correction terms enter.
In these, the limit of zero frequency leads us back to the values in absence of
noise, that is $\gamma^2_Y (f=0) = 2$ (see Supplementary Note 2
for more details).
Note that for superdiffusion  the limit of long measurement times also leads
to the noise-independent value of $\gamma_Y$.

\subsection{Analysis of simulation data}

\begin{figure*}
\includegraphics[width=16cm]{Fig1.eps}
\caption{{One-dimensional fractional Brownian motion (FBM) trajectories.
We show the coefficient of variation from Monte Carlo simulations of
one-dimensional FBM trajectories in the presence of localisation noise.}
We set the generalised diffusion coefficient to $D=1$ and the Hurst exponent
to (a)--(b) $H=1/3$ (subdiffusion), (c)--(d) $H=1/2$(normal diffusion) and
(e)--(f) $H=2/3$ (superdiffusion).  Panels (a), (c) and
(e): $n=10^4$ realisations consisting of $N=2^{23}$ discrete time steps with
$\Delta t=1$ from the joint process defined in \eqref{Y_t}, for static error
only. The dashed lines represent the expected high-frequency asymptotic trend
reported in Eqs.~\eqref{eq:sub} to \eqref{eq:sup} for the different values of
$\sigma_e$ and $\tau_0=1$. Panels (b), (d) and (f): $n=10^4$ realisations consisting
of $N=2^{14}$ final steps with $\Delta t=1$ obtained for pure FBM (black) and
in the presence of dynamic error with $\tau_e$.  The dashed lines represent
the limiting value at high-frequencies for pure FBM.  Note that $\gamma$
is reported as a function of $f T$, thus the limiting values obtained here
for high-frequencies are also valid for the case of fixed $f$ and large $T$.}
\label{img1}
\end{figure*}

We start our discussion with results from analytical predictions and simulations
({see "Analytical predictions" and "Simulations" subsections in
Methods}). Results from 1D simulations are shown in Fig.~\ref{img1}.
The main goal of this analysis is to elucidate the separate contributions of the two
localisation errors, i.e. static and dynamic, in the study of the coefficient
of variation $\gamma$. Results from simulations in 2D are reported in
Fig.~\ref{img2}. The latter are obtained following a procedure that imitates
a real experiment ({see "Simulations" subsection in
Methods} for more details) and thus provide more realistic results to be
compared with the ones showed below from experiments.

\begin{figure*}
\includegraphics[width=16cm]{Fig2.eps}
\caption{{Two-dimensional fractional Brownian motion (FBM) trajectories.
We show the time-averaged mean squared displacements (TA-MSDs) and the
coefficient of variation from Monte Carlo simulations of two-dimensional
FBM trajectories in the presence of localisation noise.}
(a) Representative time-averaged mean squared displacements
(TA-MSDs) of individual two-dimensional FBM trajectories created with
$H=0.3$ (red circles), $H=0.5$ (black diamonds), and $H=0.7$ (blue
squares) follow the anticipated power-law scaling (grey dashed lines)
for sufficiently long lag times $\tau$. Ensemble averages of TA-MSDs
are superimposed as coloured full lines. For short lag times,
significant deviations due to a dominant dynamic localisation error
($n_p=900$, filled symbols) or a dominant static localisation error
($n_p=50$, open symbols) are visible. These may significantly perturb
the extraction of the TA-MSD's scaling exponent, $\alpha=2H$. (b) The
coefficient of variation $\gamma$, for the case of a dominant dynamic
localisation error (filled symbols) converges towards the predicted
values $\gamma=1,\sqrt{5}/2$ and $\sqrt{2}$ (highlighted by the
coloured dashed lines). While the subdiffusive case (red) converges
rapidly, normal diffusion and superdiffusion (black and blue,
respectively) may need longer trajectories to eventually reach the
predicted value. In contrast, for a dominant static localisation error
(open symbols) only the subdiffusive case (red) is in agreement with the
predicted value $\gamma=1$ whereas normal diffusion and superdiffusion
(black and blue) are very sensitive to this perturbation.}
\label{img2}
\end{figure*}

In Fig.~\ref{img1}, panels (a)-(b) we immediately observe that the limiting
value of $\gamma$ in the case of subdiffusive FBM ($H=1/3$) is not affected
by any of the two measurement noises. In the presence of static error only
this result was proved also analytically in Eq.~\eqref{eq:sub}.

For the normal diffusive case ($H=1/2$), in Fig.~\ref{img1},
panels (c)-(d), the situation differs distinctly from the subdiffusive case.
Namely, the limiting value of $\gamma$ is affected by both types of
measurement noise, resulting in two opposite effects. On the one hand,
the static localisation error leads to a drop in the value of $\gamma$
(Fig.~\ref{img1}, panel (c)). In particular, from the analytical
result Eq.~\eqref{eq:diff} one can see that when the ratio $\sigma^2_e/D$
grows, $\gamma$ decreases, approaching the new limiting value
$\gamma=1$ at very high frequencies. On the other hand, from our
numerical study in Fig.~\ref{img1}, panel (d) one can see
that the dynamic localisation error causes an increase in the limiting
value of $\gamma$. The greater $\tau_e$ the smaller the value of $fT$ at
which we observe a deviation from the pure value $\gamma=\sqrt{5}/2$.

For superdiffusive FBM, the results are reported in Fig.~\ref{img1},
panels (e)-(f), showing that the limiting value of $\gamma$ is mostly
affected by the presence of static localisation errors. The latter, similarly
to the diffusive case, leads to a drop in the limiting value of $\gamma$. In
particular, if we look at the explicit analytic expression reported in
Eq.~\eqref{eq:sup} we see that upon increasing the ratio $\sigma^2_e/D$
the coefficient of variation drops, until it reaches the new limiting value
$\gamma=1$, as for BM ($\alpha=1$). Moreover, in this case the trajectory
length $T$ also turns out to be a key parameter in determining the final
trend of $\gamma$: for very long trajectories the presence of static
measurement noise becomes less and less influential. For the dynamic
error instead we see from Fig.~\ref{img1}, panel (f) that, regardless
of the value of $\tau_e$, the trend of $\gamma$ does not present any
relevant change.

In general, we observe that localisation errors affect the trend of
$\gamma$ for normal diffusion and superdiffusive FBM only. For both cases
($\alpha=1$ and $\alpha>1$), when the variance $\sigma_e$ of the static
error increases, the drop of $\gamma$ to the ultimate value 1 occurs at
progressively lower values of $fT$. Instead, when changing the key
parameter of the dynamic error ($\tau_e$), the trend of $\gamma$
is affected only in the case of normal diffusion, showing an increase in
its limiting value.

The analysis of numerically obtained FBM data in 2D with different localisation
errors is reported in Fig.~\ref{img2}. As can be seen, these results agree with
the discussion for the case of the 1D simulations. On the one hand, in the case
of subdiffusive FBM the coefficient of variation is insensitive to any of the
localisation errors, always converging to the prediction $\gamma=1$. Therefore,
this measure is a very robust mean to explore whether tracking data indeed
show a subdiffusive behaviour. On the other hand, diffusive and superdiffusive
FBM data do not appear to be very sensitive to the presence of dynamic noise,
but their results change dramatically when static noise is present, causing
a clear drop in the value of $\gamma$ at high frequencies.

\subsection{Analysis of experimental data}

Analytical and numerical results are nicely confirmed by the analysis of
experimental data. Fig.~\ref{img3} shows results from subdiffusive tracking
data on (i) telomeres in the nucleus of mammalian culture cells \cite{SW2017},
and (ii) p-granules in the cytoplasm of {\em C. elegans embryos} \cite{BW2021},
all distinctly displaying a convergence to $\gamma=1$, fully consistent with
our predictions.

\begin{figure}
\includegraphics[width=8cm]{Fig3.eps}
\caption{{Coefficient of variation obtained from experimental subdiffusive
trajectories with a marked anti-persistence.} Results from two
datasets are shown: experimental tracking of p-granules in {\em C. elegans}
embryos (open red circles) and telomeres in the nucleus of mammalian
culture cells (filled red circles). They both comply with the expectation
for subdiffusive data that $\gamma$ converges to unity (indicated by the
black dashed line). In both cases, the MSDs contained a non-negligible
static localisation error.}
\label{img3}
\end{figure}

Experimental data obtained by tracking the motion of beads in water, reported
in Fig.~\ref{img4}, show some nice results for the normal-diffusion regime.
For the pure experimental data (base-line) we can see an increase in the value of
$\gamma$ at high frequencies. We showed that this deviation from the expected
value is due to the effect of the dynamic error. Moreover, if in a post-analysis
we artificially increase the static localisation error, we observe that the
value of $\gamma$ starts decreasing upon increase of $\sigma_e$, approaching
the new limiting value $\gamma=1$ (red dashed line in Fig.~\ref{img4}). These
observations are fully in line with our predictions.

\begin{figure}
\includegraphics[width=8cm]{Fig4.eps}
\caption{{Coefficient of variation obtained from diffusive data of beads
in water.} The base-line is marked in blue. Static localisation errors
are artificially added to the data to obtain the other two curves. The red
and black dashed lines indicate $\gamma=1$ and $\sqrt{5}/2$, respectively,
which are the values to which $\gamma$ converges in the case of
subdiffusion and normal diffusion, when no error is present.}
\label{img4}
\end{figure}

We now move to the analysis of superdiffusive experimental data.
Cytoskeleton fluctuations were measured by attaching RGD-coated
beads to the surface of human alveolar epithelial cells (see sketch in
Fig.~\ref{img5}, panel (a)). The beads were connected to the
actin cytoskeleton and rearranged by internal molecular motors.
Given that molecular motor activity depends on temperature, the data
show a marked superdiffusive behaviour at high temperatures
($\geq$ 29$^{\circ}$C, green triangles and blue circles in Fig.~\ref{img5},
panel (b)). Interestingly, at low temperatures ($\leq$ 21 $^{\circ}$C)
the data show that cytoskeleton fluctuations transition from a subdiffusive
behaviour at short timescales to a superdiffusive behaviour at longer
timescales (black squares in Fig.~\ref{img5}, panel (b)). This crossover
can be explained by the Arrhenius dependence of the activity of molecular
motors on temperature \cite{preFR}. Using the coefficient of variation $\gamma$
to assess the diffusion regime, we observe that cytoskeletal fluctuations
obtained at high temperatures (29 and 37 $^{\circ}$ C) display a robust
superdiffusive behaviour at all different timescales. The subdiffusive
to superdiffusive crossover at 13 and 21 $^{\circ}$ C is well captured
as $\gamma$ approaches $1$ for frequencies $>20$ rad/s (Fig.~\ref{img5},
panel (c)). At longer timescales the value of $\gamma$ indicates
superdiffusive behaviour, showing that at low temperatures, molecular
motors are active at longer timescales. From the analysis of this dataset
we can draw two conclusions. First, we see that there is no statistically
relevant effect due to localisation errors. Second, we observe that the
value of $\gamma$ is very sensitive to crossovers between different
diffusive regimes, confirming that this quantity is useful for the statistical
analysis of experimental data.

\begin{figure*}
\includegraphics[width=16cm]{Fig5.eps}
\caption{{Cytoskeleton fluctuations of living cells exhibit superdiffusive
behaviour.} (a) Sketch of the experimental system for microbeads
attached to the surface of epithelial cells (see the "Experiments"
subsection in the Methods for more details) together with a
representative experimental trajectory. (b) MSD at varying temperatures.
The straight lines show that the dynamics are superdiffusive with
$2H$ between $1.5$ and $1.7$, depending on temperature.
(c) Coefficient of variation of the power spectrum of the motion of
the surface-bound microbeads. The dashed lines indicate
$\gamma=1$, $\sqrt{5}/2$, and $\sqrt{2}$, the predicted limiting values of
$\gamma$ for the different diffusion regimes.}
\label{img5}
\end{figure*}

Finally, we consider the diffusion of nanoparticles in the cytoplasm of human
Mesenchymal stem cells. In Fig.~\ref{img6}, panel (a) we report the MSD
showing a mildly superdiffusive ($\alpha=1.23$) regime, in agreement
with the fact that the nanoparticles are embedded into the active intracellular
environment. However, the MSD trend is strongly affected by the presence
of the static localisation error, making the fit less reliable. By calculating the
coefficient of variation, reported in Fig.~\ref{img6}, panel (b), we clearly confirm
the superdiffusive trend, as $\gamma$ converges nicely to the analytical
value for superdiffusion regime, that is $\sqrt{2}$, without displaying large
deviations due to the static error.

\begin{figure*}
\includegraphics[width=10cm]{Fig6.eps}
\caption{{Mean squared displacement (MSD) and coefficient of variation for
superdiffusive nanoparticles in hMSCs.} (a) MSD showing a superdiffusive
regime with large deviations due to the presence of the static localisation error.
(b) The coefficient of variation confirms the superidffusive trend. }
\label{img6}
\end{figure*}

\section{Conclusions}

Departures from the Brownian behaviour of diffusive processes are
observed in a wide variety of systems of practical interest across many
disciplines, and these phenomena call for explanations and understanding
of the underlying physical processes and microscopic mechanisms. Without
such a knowledge one cannot fully comprehend and reach a full picture
of the phenomena. Concurrently, a conclusion that the dynamics is indeed
anomalous relies on proper data treatment, the size of statistical samples,
blurring measurement errors and errors incurred by the fitting procedures,
or due to transients obscuring the true scaling exponents. It is therefore
indispensable to have at hand robust methods allowing one to reach justified,
sound conclusions on the dynamics.

In this work we test the coefficient of variation $\gamma$ of the
single-trajectory power spectral density and show that it represents a
valuable method towards a robust criterion for anomalous diffusion.
We combine analytical, numerical and experimental
studies of diffusive dynamics in very diverse systems, to demonstrate how
the values of $\gamma$ for trajectories belonging to FBM are affected by
the presence of localisation errors. Within such a combined effort, numerical
simulations which imitate real experiments performed here serve us to
elucidate the relative contributions of static and dynamic measurement
noise in a controllable way, and therefore to prove our theoretical results
and concepts. A further comparison with experimental data obtained for
rather diverse systems permits us to verify the predicted trends and thus
obtain a fully comprehensive picture.

Apart from the case $f\to 0$ in which the coefficient of variation $\gamma(f,T)$
converges to the universal value $\sqrt{2}$, we found that our results vary
depending on the specific diffusive regime and on the kind of localisation error.
In particular, the coefficient of variation represents a very robust way to define
whether tracking data show a subdiffusive behaviour. This can be of decisive
help in data analysis, in particular, when the deviation of the anomalous exponent
from unity is small and thus the fitting of the MSD can produce misleading
results. Conversely, diffusive and superdiffusive data are more sensitive
to measurement noise. In these regimes the value of $\gamma$ displays a
clear drop at high frequencies in the presence of a static localisation error,
which is corroborated by both numerical and experimental data,
while the effect of a dynamic error appears to be relevant for the normal-diffusive
regime only, causing an increase in the limiting value of $\gamma$ at high
frequencies. As well, this theoretical prediction is confirmed by our numerical
and experimental results. Thus, in the case of superdiffusion the criterion
remains very robust in the presence of dynamic error while in general it is not
when static localisation error is present. Nevertheless, the analytical expression
obtained for the correction term still allows us to control the effect of the
measurement error in this case. Finally, the criterion appears to be the least
robust for normal diffusion, which is affected by both static and dynamic
localisation errors.
Arguably, the observed trends in $\gamma$ can be used also to post-process
the data by adding static and dynamic error to explore the limiting values
of $\gamma$ as function of noise intensity.

The application of our method to diverse experimental systems presented in our
paper evidences that it provides a very robust tool for the analysis of the
anomalous character of random motion. In conjunction with the MSD analysis,
it will permit to make conclusive statements on the actual departures from
standard diffusive motion, even in the presence of unavoidable errors in
experimental measurements, and thus to point towards the necessity
to understand the actual underlying physical mechanisms. Apart from a
stand-alone criterion our power spectral method will also represent an
important ingredient in decision trees and feature-based neural
network approaches.

\section{Methods}

\subsection{Simulation methods}

We perform simulations of FBM trajectories in 1D and 2D in order to complement
and support our analytical predictions as well as the analysis of experimental
data. The simulations are performed in Python for the 1D case and in Matlab
for the 2D case.

\subsubsection{1D case}

FBM trajectories of length $T=N\times\Delta t$, where $N$ corresponds to the
total number of time steps and $\Delta t$ to the discretisation time step,
are generated for different values of the Hurst index $H$ to explore all 3
regimes via the {\em fbm} package in Python. In order to include the dynamic
error, given a fixed exposure time $\tau_e$ corresponding to $n_e=\tau_e/
\Delta t$ time steps, we first simulate longer FBM trajectories with a total
number $N_e=N\times n_e$ of time steps. Then, from each of these trajectories
a new trajectory is obtained, whose points are given by the average over $n_e$
subpoints of the original trajectory, i.e., $\overline{X}(t_i)=\frac{1}{n_e}
\sum_{j=0}^{n_e-1} X(t_i-j\Delta t)$. As far as the static error is concerned
we use its definition (\ref{stat_err}) and generate stationary OU trajectories
with relaxation time $\tau_0=\Delta t$ and varying noise amplitude $\sigma_e$.

\subsubsection{2D case}

An ensemble of $M=100$ two-dimensional FBM trajectories, each with
$N=2500$ positions covering a total time $T=N \times\Delta t$ with
$\Delta t=0.1$~s was created with the Matlab routine {\em wfbm} for the Hurst
coefficients $H=0.3$, $0.5$, and $0.7$, hence exploring FBM from the
subdiffusive to the superdiffusive regimes. Mean step sizes within $\Delta t$
along each coordinate were chosen to be $0.01~\mu$m.  To account for the
dynamic and static localisation errors, each time step was subdivided into
$n_e=10$ substeps during each of which $n_p$ positions according to a
diffraction-limited Gaussian PSF, centred at the particle position at that
time, were calculated. To this end, initial FBM tracks had a length $i=1,
\ldots,Nn_e$ and at each substep location $x_i$, a total of $j=1,\ldots,n_p$
positions $x_{i,j}=x_i+\xi_j$ were produced, where $\xi_j$ are Gaussian
random numbers with zero mean and standard deviation $\sigma=0.220~\mu$m.
From this, track positions were determined via
\begin{equation}
X_k=X(k\Delta t)=\frac{1}{n_e n_p}\sum_{i=(k-1)n_e+1}^{kn_e}
\sum_{j=1}^{n_p} x_{i,j}.
\end{equation}
For $n_p<100$, this procedure creates a dominant static localisation error
whereas for $n_p\gg100$ only a dynamic localisation error is seen.

\subsection{Experimental systems}

To assess the applicability to experimental data of the coefficient of
variation analysis in the presence of localisation errors, we analysed
experimental data displaying different diffusive regimes. In what follows
we report a short description of the experimental systems.

\subsubsection{Subdiffusive data}

{\em Experimental tracking data for p-granules in C. elegans embryos.}
The data were obtained and analysed as described in \cite{BW2021}.
As shown before, p-granule trajectories have a noticeable static localisation
error that perturbs, e.g., the velocity autocorrelation function. Here, only
trajectories with $N=100$ positions at a time increment $\Delta t=210$~ms
with a subdiffusive TA-MSD scaling were considered. Trajectories with
scaling exponents $\alpha\in[0.7,0.9]$, $\alpha\in[0.5,0.7]$, and
$\alpha\in[0.3,0.5]$ were grouped into three distinct sets. For each,
$\gamma$ was calculated as a function of $fT$, and the average of these
was used for Fig.~\ref{img3} to soften fluctuations induced by the fairly
short trajectories.

{\em Trajectories for telomeres in the nucleus of mammalian culture cells.}
The data were obtained similar to our previous work \cite{SW2017}: U2OS
cells (DSMZ Cat\# ACC-785, RRID:CVCL\_0042) were cultured as described
and telomeres were highlighted by transient transfection with a plasmid for
GFP-tagged TRF-2 (24~h prior to microscopy, using Lipofectamine3000
according to the manufacturer's protocol). For live-cell microscopy, cells
were plated 24~h prior to transfection in 4-well $\mu$-slide microscopy chambers;
15~min prior to imaging, the medium was changed to MEM without
phenol red supplemented with 5\% FCS and 5\% HEPES.
Imaging was performed with a customised spinning-disk confocal microscope
based on a DMI~4000 stand (Leica Microsystems, Germany) with a custom-made
incubation chamber, a CSU-X1 spinning-disk unit (Yokogawa Microsystems, Japan),
an HC PL APO 100x/1.40NA oil immersion objective, and an Evolve 512 EMCCD
camera (Photometrics, USA). Samples were illuminated at 488~nm
and fluorescence was detected in the range 500-550~nm. Trajectories were
recorded at a time increment $\Delta t=110$~ms and only trajectories with
at least $N=1000$ positions were retained (and trimmed to the same
length if trajectories were longer). In line  with our previous finding,
trajectories featured an anti-persistent subdiffusion with an average
scaling exponent of $\alpha\approx 0.55$.

In both cases, the generalised diffusion coefficients of individual
trajectories varied log-normally. To soften the influence of this locus-
and particle-dependent prefactor in the PSD analysis, each trajectory was
normalised in each coordinate by its respective root-mean-squared step
taken within $\Delta t$ before calculating $\gamma$.

\subsubsection{Diffusive data}

We analysed the motion of 1.2 $\mu\rm{m}$-sized polystyrene beads in aqueous
solution as representative experimental data for Brownian motion. Namely, we
suspended the beads in phosphate-buffered saline with 1\% bovine serum
albumin and 0.05\% Tween 20 to avoid aggregation, and introduced the
suspension into a flow cell chamber. Subsequently, the flow cell chamber was
sealed for imaging. The beads were imaged at 100 frames per second in an
inverted microscope with a 40x objective (Olympus PlanApo, N.A. 0.95) and
a sCMOS camera (Andor Zyla 4.2). Bead tracking in the plane was performed
in LabView using a cross-correlation based tracking algorithm. A set of 150
trajectories, each consisting of 4096 frames, was used in the analysis.

\subsubsection{Superdiffusive data}

{\em Cytoskeleton fluctuations of living cells at different temperatures \cite{preFR}.}
Cytoskeleton fluctuations were measured by tracking the trajectory of
refractive microbeads attached to the surface of human alveolar epithelial cells
(A549). The microbeads were previously coated with Arginine-Glycine-Aspartic
acid (RGD) containing peptide (Peptide 2000, Integra life Sciences, San Diego,
CA) to link the probe to the actin cytoskeleton through integrin membrane
receptors. The movement of these beads was sensitive to a wide range of
cytoskeleton manipulations including actin polymerisation/depolymerisation
drugs, actomyosin relaxation, cell stretching, temperature changes, and
ATP depletion \cite{NM_Bursac} indicating that spatial fluctuations of
microbeads linked to integrin membrane receptors reflect intrinsic
cytoskeleton dynamics.

Microbead positions were tracked at 40x magnification using an inverted
microscope (TE-2000E, Nikon, Japan) equipped with a charge coupled device
(CCD) camera (Orca, Hamamatsu, Japan). The spontaneous microbead movement was
tracked for 200-400s at a sampling rate of 5 Hz. The position of the microbead
was determined with subpixel resolution by computing the microbead centroid
with an intensity-weighted average algorithm implemented with a custom-made
software (LABVIEW, National Instruments, U.S.). Data were corrected for
the drift of the stage of the microscope, which was computed as the average
change in the position of all microbeads within the field of view.

The temperature dependence of cytoskeleton fluctuations was measured by
heating or cooling the microscope stage with a microincubator system
(HCMIS MicroIncubator System, ALA Science, Westbury, NY) and closed-loop
control. The sample temperature was measured with a negative temperature
coefficient thermistor (332 Temperature Controller, Lakeshore, Westerville,
OH). Measurements were taken in $n=6$ wells ($\sim$ 20 microbead/well)
per temperature.

Human alveolar epithelial cells (A549) (cell line CCL-185 ATCC, Manassas,
VA) were cultured in RPMI 1640 medium supplemented with 1 mM L-glutamine,
100 U/ml penicillin, 100 mg/ml streptomycin and 2 $\mu$g/ml amphotericin
B (all from GIBCO, Gaithersburg, MD), 10$\%$ inactivated fetal calf serum
(Biological Industries, Kibbutz Beit Haemek, Israel), and buffered with HEPES
(Sigma, St. Louis, MO). One day before experiments cells were harvested
with a brief exposure to trypsin-EDTA (Sigma) and plated (900 cells/mm$^2$)
on collagen-coated wells.

{\em Diffusion of nanoparticles in the cytoplasm of human
Mesenchymal stem cells.} Here we tracked yellow-green fluorospheres
of size 100~nm injected carefully in the cytoplasm of human mesenchymal
stem cells (hMSCs). The fluorospheres (FluoSpheres\textsuperscript{TM}
ThermoFisher, Cat.~No: F8803) were negatively charged (carboxylated-modified)
polystyrene beads that are suitable for intracellular tracking. Samples
were prepared by diluting the suspension to 2 $\text{mg}/\text{ml}$
concentration after 20 minutes sonication of the stock solution to ensure
even dispersion of the particles in the solution.
The diluted solution subsequently was vortexed
for two minutes for optimised mixing and then loaded via a microloader
pipette (Eppendorf) in manufactured glass capillaries appropriate for
microinjection (Femtotips\textsuperscript{\textregistered} Eppendorf Cat.~Nr.:
5242952008). Their microinjection was executed at room temperature using
a micromanipulation system (Eppendorf) at controlled pressure. Immediately
after the injection, imaging was performed 100 s at room temperature with an
Olympus IX81 inverted microscope using a Olympus UPLSAPO40X/0.95 Objective
and a Hamamatsu Orca-2 camera. At each frame of the resulting video files
the particles were identified and their movement were tracked using a publicly
available Python package which also provides tools to spot the candidate
features based on high intensity matches, filtering and different type of
corrections such as drift correction \cite{trackpy}.

\begin{acknowledgments}
RM acknowledges the German Science Foundation (DFG, grant No. ME 1535/12-2)
for support. MW and RB acknowledge financial support by VolkswagenStiftung
(Az 92738) and by the Elite Network of Bavaria (Study Program Biological
Physics). CS acknowledges the VolkswagenStiftung (Az 96733).
\end{acknowledgments}

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaArXiv


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text:
The Holy Bible: According to the Authorized Version, Containing ..., Volume 3
6. The sea coast," &c.—See the previous note on Ascalon, under Judges xiv. A more striking corroboration of the Divine prediction could not be given than is supplied in the account which Volney gives of the modern state of the coasts of Philistia. " In the plain between Ramla and Gaza, we meet with a number of villages, badly built, of dried mud, and which, like their inhabitants, exhibit every mark of poverty and wretchedness. The houses, on a nearer view, are only so many huts, sometimes detached, and sometimes arranged in the form of cells around a court-yard enclosed by a mud wall
. In winter they and their cattle may be said to live together, the part of the dwelling allotted to them being only raised two feet above that in which they lodge their beasts. The peasants are by this means kept warm without burning wood; an economy indispensable in a country absolutely destitute of fuel. The fires needed for culinary purposes are made of dung, kneaded into cakes and dried in the sun. In summer their lodging is more airy ; but all their furniture consists of a single mat, and a pitcher for drinking. The environs of these villages are sown, at the proper season, with grain and water melons ; all the rest is a desert, and abandoned to the Bedouin Arabs, who feed their flocks on it." "Travels,' ii. 281, 282.
13. "Will make Nineveh a desolation," &c.—How Nineveh was made a desolation has been shown in the notes on Nahum. The desolation in which it still remains will sufficiently appear from a foregoing engraving.
We have already mentioned that the earliest of the Greek writers who mention Nineveh, wrote a good while after that city was destroyed; and from the manner in which they indicate its situation, and the discrepancies between them, it almost appears uncertain whether they were acquainted with its position. Indeed, Lucian, who lived in the second century after Christ, distinctly avows, that so utterly had Nineveh been destroyed, that no vestige of it remained, nor could it be easily ascertained where it had once stood. There is indeed no ground on which to feel positively certain as to the site of Nineveh; and this uncertainty is itself a most striking corroboration of Scripture prophecy.' But there is considerable probability in the now generally received opinion which finds the site of Nineveh on the eastern bank of the Tigris, opposite Mousul, where the site of an extensive ancient city may be traced by such earth-covered hills and ridges of ruin as now mark the place of Babylon and other ancient towns of Assyria and Chaldea. The longcontinued state of desolation in which Nineveh has remained for ages might be illustrated Irom the successive notices of various travellers and historians. Thus, we are told of an occasion (in A.D. 627) when the emperor Heraclius defeated the Persiaus in a great action fought on the convenient battle-field offered by the vacant site of Nineveh (Gibbon, ch. xlvi). Benjamin of Tudela says that Al-Mutsal (Mousul) was separated only by a bridge from the ancient Nineveh : but Nineveh was utterly destroyed, although there were some streets and many castles within the ancient circuit-meaning, of course, modern erections within the limits of the ancient city. Haitho, the Armenian, (about 1300 a.d.) also mentions Nineveh as lying in total ruin. Our own " Master John Cartwright," who was there in the latter part of the sixteenth century, after giving the substance of the ancient accounts of the great Nineveh, adds, " Now it is destroyed (as God foretold it should bee by the Chaldeans), being nothing else than a sepulchre of her selfe." In a later age, Thevenot mentioned the great extent of its ruins; and Tavernier Jescribed the remains as " a heap of rubbish only." Such still is the site of Nineveh. Kinneir says, " I examined these remains in November, 1810, and found them to consist of a rampart and fosse, forming an oblong square, not exceeding four miles in compass, if so much. I saw neither stones nor rubbish of any kind. The wall is, on an average, twenty feet high; and as it is covered with grass, the whole has a striking resemblance to some of the Roman entrenchments which are extant in England." ("Geographical Memoir of the Persian Empire,' p. 250.) More complete accounts have recently been furnished by Buckingham and Rich.
If the prolonged mounds, mentioned by Kinneii, and disposed in the form of a square, were walls, as he supposes, it is clear that they could not have been the city walls ; but must have belonged to the citadel or the palace and its enclosures. The dimensions of the square as given by Kinneir appear to be much too small; however, these mounds do not by any means form the only indications of ancient ruin, for there are appearances of mounds and ruins extending for several miles to the southward, and still more distinctly seen to the northward of this, though both are less marked than the mounds of the centre. The alleged tomb of Jonah is on the southernmost of these central mounds, which extenis nearly east and west from the neighbourhood of the river. A Mohammedan village has been formed around the tumb. It appears that, where openings are made in the soil-covered mounds, sections of sun-dried brickwork are exposed ; and some important conclusions might perhaps be deduced from more extended researches. The space between and about the central mounds is a level plain, over every part of which broken pottery, and the other usual debris of ruined cities in this region, are seen scattered about. Buckingham thus speaks of the view over the site obtained from the most northern of the central mounds: "As far as I could perceive, from our elevated point of view, on the highest summit of Tel Nivoa, there were mounds of ruins similar to those near us, but less distinctly marked, as far as the eye could reach to the northward ; and the plain to the eastward of us, or between the river and the mouatains, had a mixture of large brown patches, like heaps of rubbish, seen at intervals, scattered over a cultivated soil." The low grounds near the river, where not cultivated, are covered to a considerable extent with tamarisk bushes. Mr. Rich holds that it is impossible to determine what part of the site was occupied by the ancient Nineveh, observing that, • In such a country it is not easy to say what are ruins and what are not; what is art, converted by the lapse of ages into a semblance of nature, and what is merely nature broken by the hand of time into ruins approaching in their appearance those of art." One reinarkable circumstance is, that the remains obtained from the mounds are very similar to those afforded by the mounds of Babylou ; and this even to fragments of cuneiform inscriptions ou stone, resembling in every respect those which Babylon offers. Mr. Rich arrived at one important conclusion, which was, that all the remains belonged to the same age and character ; but, as he adds, " Whether they belonged to Nineveh or some other city is another question, and one not so easily determined."
not 'correction; she trusted not in the LORD; 1 A sharp reproof of Jerusalem for divers sins. 8
she drew not near to her God. An exhortation to wait for the restoration of 3 *Her princes within her are roaring Israel, 14 and to rejoice for their salvation by lions; her judges are evening wolves; they God.
gnaw not the bones till the morrow. Woe to 'her that is filthy and polluted, to 4 Her 'prophets are light and treacherous the oppressing city!
persons: her priests have polluted the sanc2 She obeyed not the voice; she received tuary, the
tuary, they have done 'violence to the law. 1 Or, glultonuus. * Or, instruction.
6 Esek. 22. 26.
* Heb. craw.
Ezek. 22. 97
Micah 3.9, 10.
3 Jer. 23. 11. Hos. 9. 7.
The just LORD is in the midst thereof; an afflicted and poor people, and they shall rill not do iniquity: 'every morning doth trust in the name of the LORD. oring his judgment to light, he faileth 13 The remnant of Israel shall not do but the unjust knoweth no shame. iniquity, nor speak lies; neither shall a deI have cut off the nations: their ®towers ceitful tongue be found in their mouth : for desolate; I made their streets waste, they shall feed and lie down, and none shall none passeth by: their cities are de- make them afraid. yed, so that there is no man, that there 14 | Sing, o daughter of Zion; shout, one inhabitant.
O Israel; be glad and rejoice with all the : I said, Surely thou wilt fear me, thou heart, O daughter of Jerusalem.
receive instruction; so their dwelling 15 The Lord hath taken away thy judguld not be cut off, howsoever I punished ments, he hath cast out thine enemy: the 1: but they rose early, and corrupted king of Israel, even the Lord, is in the heir doings.
midst of thee: thou shalt not see evil any Therefore wait ye upon me, saith the more. D, until the day that I rise up to the 16 In that day it shall be said to Jeru*: for my determination is to gather salem, Fear thou not: and to Zion, Let not nations, that I may assemble the king-thine hands be "slack. 8, to pour upon them mine indignation, 17 The Lord thy God in the midst of
all my fierce anger: for all the earth thee is mighty; he will save, he will reI be devoured with the fire of my 'jea- joice over thee with joy; "she will rest in his y.
love, he will joy over thee with singing. For then will I turn to the people a 18 I will gather them that are sorrowful : "language, that they may all call upon for the solemn assembly, who are of thee, to name of the LORD, to serve him with whom the reproach of it was a burden. consent.
19 Behold, at that time I will undo all 9 From beyond the rivers of Ethiopia that afflict thee: and I will save her that suppliants, even the daughter of my dischalteth, and gather her that was driven "ed, shall bring mine offering.
out; and I will get them praise and fame In that day shalt thou not be ashamed in every land where they have been put to ll thy doings, wherein thou hast trans- shame. :
20 At that time will I bring you again, out of the midst of thee them that re- even in the time that I gather you : for I in thy pride, and thou shalt no more will make you a name and a praise among naughty because of my holy moun- all people of the earth, when I turn back
your captivity before your eyes, saith the ! I will also leave in the midst of thee | LORD.
? Heb. morning by mourning. 8 Or, corner
Chap. 1. 18. 13 Isa. 19. 6, ard 54. 1. li Or, faint.
15 Heb. he will be silent, '18 Heb, I will set them for a praise.
10 Hab. lip.
11 Heb. shoulder. 18 Heb. in my holy. 16 Heb. the burden upon it was reproach. 17 Micah 4.7.
19 Heb. of their shame.
7 Thus saith the Lord of hosts; Con.
sider your ways. 1 Haggai reproveth the people for neglecting the building of the house. 7. He inciteth them to the
8 Go up to the mountain, and bring building. 12 He promiseth God's assistance to wood, and build the house; and I will take them being forward.
pleasure in it, and I will be glorified, saith
the LORD. N the second 9 Ye looked for much, and, lo, it came to year of Dari- little; and when ye brought it home, I did us the king, blow upon it. Why? saith the Lord of in the sixth hosts. Because of mine house that is waste, month, in the and ye run every man unto his own house. first day of the 10 Therefore the heaven over you is month, came stayed from dew, and the earth is stayed the word of from her fruit. the Lord 'by
11 And I called for a drought upon the Haggai the land, and upon the mountains, and upon prophet unto the corn, and upon the new wine, and upon
Zerubbabel the oil, and upon that which the ground the son of bringeth forth, and upon men, and upon Shealtiel, 'go- cattle, and upon all the labour of the hands. vernor of Ju- 12 , Then Zerubbabel the son of Sheal
dah, and to tiel, and Joshua the son of Josedech, the Joshua the son of Josedech, the high priest, high priest, with all the remnant of the saying,
people, obeyed the voice of the LORD their 2 Thus speaketh the Lord of hosts, say- God, and the words of Haggai the prophet, ing, This people say, The time is not come, as the LORD their God had sent him, and the time that the Lord's house should be the people did fear before the LORD. built.
13 Then spake Haggai the Lord's mes3 Then came the word of the LORD by senger in the Lord's message unto the peoHaggai the prophet, saying,
ple, saying, I am with you, saith the LORD. 4 Is it time for you, o ye, to dwell in 14 Ånd the LORD stirred up the spirit of your cieled houses, and this house lie waste? Zerubbabel the son of Shealtiel, governor
5 Now therefore thus saith the Lord of of Judah, and the spirit of Joshua the son hosts ; Consider your ways.
of Josedech, the high priest, and the spirit 6 Ye have 'sown much, and bring in of all the remnant of the people; and they little; ye eat, but ye have not enough; ye
came and did work in the house of the LORD drink, but ye are not filled with drink; ye of hosts, their God, clothe
but there is none warm; and he 15 In the four and twentieth day of the that earneth wages carneth wages to put it sixth month, in the second year of Darius into a bag 'with holes.
1 Heb. by the hand of Haggai. 8 Or, captain. 8 Heb. Set your heart on your wnys.
• Deut. 28. 38. Mic. 6. 14, 15. 3 Heb. pierced through. Haggar:— There is no doubt concerning the date of this prophecy, which is given with much precision in the first verse ; and from which, as well as from the book of Ezra (iv. 24), we learn that it was delivered after the Jews had returned to Jerusalem from their captivity, to stimulate and encourage them in the rebuilding of the temple. Bishop Lowth considers the style of Haggai's prophecy to be altogether prosaic ; but Archbishop Newcome's translation proceeds on the idea that the greater part of it admits of a metrical division.
Haggai was probably born at Babylon, or in one of the towns in which the Hebrew captives were placed by the Babylonians. We know not when or where he died: the pseudo-Epiphanius says at Jerusalem, which is probable ; and he adds, that he was buried among the priests: but the Cippi Hebraici place his sepulchre in a cave on the de clivity of the mount of Olives. But whatever, in this and other instances, we state on these authorities, we regard as very uncertain.
& Or, blow it away.
7 Deut. 28. 23
meat, shall it be holy? And the priests anCHAPTER II.
swered and said. No. 1 He encourageth the people to the work, by promise 13 Then said Haggai, If one that is unof greater glory to the second temple than was in clean by a dead body touch any of these, the first. 10 In the type of holy things and un- shall it be unclean?' And the priests anclean he sheveth their sins hindered the work.
swered and said, It shall be unclean. 20 God's promise to Zerubbabel.
14 Then answered Haggai, and said, So In the seventh month, in the one and twen is this people, and so is this nation before tieth day of the month, came the word of me, saith the LORD; and so is every work the Lord 'by the prophet Haggai, saying, of their hands; and that which they offer
2 Speak now to Zerubbabel the son of there is unclean. Shealtiel, governor of Judah, and to Joshua 15 And now, I pray you, consider from
the son of Josedech, the high priest, and to this day and upward, from before a stone was pis the residue of the people, saying,
laid upon a stone in the temple of the LORD: 3 Who is left among you that saw this 16 Since those days were, when one came house in her first glory? and how do ye see to an heap of twenty measures, there were
it now? is it not in your eyes in comparison but ten: when one came to the pressfat for 1 of it as nothing?
to draw out fifty vessels out of the press, 4 Yet now be strong, O Zerubbabel, saith there were but twenty. the LORD; and be strong, O Joshua, son of 17 I smote you with blasting and with Josedech, the high priest; and be strong, mildew and with hail in all the labours of all ye people of the land, saith the LORD, your hands; yet ye turned not to me, saith and work: for I am with you, saith the LORD the LORD. of hosts :
18 Consider now from this day and up5 According to the word that I covenanted ward, from the four and twentieth day of with you when ye came out of Egypt, so my the ninth month, even from the day that the spirit remaineth among you: fear ye not.
foundation of the Lord's temple was laid, 6 For thus saith the Lord of hosts ; 'Yet consider it. once, it is a little while, and I will shake the 19 Is the seed yet in the barn? heavens, and the earth, and the sea, and the yet the vine, and the fig tree, and the pomedry land;
granate, and the olive tree, hath not brought 7 And I will shake all nations, and the forth: from this day will I bless you. desire of all nations shall come: and I will 20 | And again the word of the Lord fill this house with glory, saith the Lord of came unto Haggai in the four and twentieth hosts.
day of the month, saying, 8 The silver is mine, and the gold is 21 Speak to Zerubbabel, governor of Jumine, saith the LORD of hosts.
dah, saying, I will shake the heavens and 9 The glory of this latter house shall be the earth; greater than of the former, saith the LORD 22 And I will overthrow the throne of of hosts: and in this place will I give peace, kingdoins, and I will destroy the strength saith the Lord of hosts.
of the kingdoms of the heathen; and I will 10 1 In the four and twentieth day of the overthrow the chariots, and those that ride ninth month, in the second year of Darius, in them; and the horses and their riders came the word of the LORD by Haggai the shall come down, every one by the sword of prophet, saying,
his brother. 11 Thus saith the LORD of hosts; Ask 23 In that day, saith the Lord of hosts, now the priests concerning the law, saying, will I take thee, O Zerubbabel, my servart,
12 If one bear holy flesh in the skirt of the son of Shealtiel, saith the LORD, and his garment, and with his skirt do touch will make thee as a signet: for I have chosen bread, or pottage, or wine, or oil, or any thee, saith the Lord of hosts.
1 Heb. by the hand of. Verse 7. " The desire of all nations shall come : and I will fill this house with glory."—Many Jewish and some Christian interpreters understand the clause, rendered the desire of all nations," to mean not a person, but things-the desirable things of all nations-their wealth, their treasure, and productions, which should be brought to adorn and glorify the second house. It does indeed appear, from the account of the valuable things taken away by Antiochus (1 Macc. i. 21, 22), that this temple did becoine very rich: and still more so, when, in a later age. Herod expended immense sums un rebuilding, improving, and ornamenting the sacred structure-producing the temple which stood in the time of our Saviour, and which was destroyed by Titus ; and of which Josephus says that with respect to magnitude, building, and VOL. III. 2 s
yea, as
! Heb. 12. 26.
8 Amos 4.9.

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text:
Home DOPT Orders 2020 Counting of the limitation period for the diverse purposes under CCS (CCA)...
Counting of the limitation period for the diverse purposes under CCS (CCA) Rules, 1965, CCS(Pension) Rules, 1972
F.No.11012/09/2016 – Estt.A-III
Department of Personnel and Training
(Establishment A-III Desk)
North Block, New Delhi
Dated the 30th March, 2020
Subject – Counting of the limitation period for the diverse purposes under CCS (CCA) Rules, 1965, CCS(Pension) Rules, 1972 – reg.
The undersigned is directed to refer to Central Civil Services (Classification, Control & Appeal) Rules, 1965 [CCS(CCA) Rules, 1965] and Central Civil Services (Pension) Rules, 1972 [CCS(Pension) Rules, 1972] and the instructions issued under these Rules wherein certain time-limes have been prescribed for various activities/events/procedures relating to procedures under the said Rules. For instance, in the said Rules/instructions, time limits have been prescribed for the following: –
(i) Review of order of suspension before its expiry date [Rule 10(6) of CCS(CCA) Rules,1965]
(ii) Submission of written statement of defence on the charge-sheet by the charged officer [Sub Rule 4 in Rule 14 of CCS (CCA) Rules, 1965]
(iii) issuance of charge-sheet once a decision is taken by the Disciplinary Authority to initiate Disciplinary proceedings.[DoP&T's O.M. No. 425/04/2012-AVD-N(A) dated 29.11.2012]
(iv) completion of Inquiry and submission of report by the Inquiring Authority [Sub rule (24) in Rule 14 of CCS (CCA) Rules, 1965]
(v) disciplinary proceedings initiated against a Pensioner shall not be in respect of an event which took place four years before such initiation.[Rule 9 of CCS(Pension) Rules, 1972]
(vi) Acceptance of notice of VRS under Rule 48A of CCS(Pension) Rules, 1972
(The list is only illustrative and not exhaustive)
2. Consequent upon the outbreak of COVID-19, and considering the unprecedented situation of the Lockdown w.e.f. 24th March 2020, it may not be feasible to adhere to the timelines prescribed in the said Rules and to the instructions issued under the Rules. It has accordingly been decided not to count the period of the Lockdown for the purposes of adherence to the prescribed timelines, including those listed above. For example, if the due date for completing a process/work/event at the start of the Lockdown falls after 20 days, then the due date will get postponed by the number of Lockdown days and the same number (20) of days will be available to complete the work after the Lockdown is lifted.
3. However, after the Lockdown is lifted, if the time left to complete the task is less than 15 days, then the processes may be allowed to be completed within 15 days.
4. In addition, timelines may have been prescribed for receipt of applications for direct recruitment, deputation, etc. Where the last date of receipt of application for direct recruitment, deputation etc. falls within the period of the Lockdown, the last date shall be extended by the number of days of the Lockdown. Similarly, the time limits prescribed in the CCS (Conduct) Rules, 1964, for various purposes shall also be extended by the number of days of the Lockdown.
5. These instructions are applicable only in such cases where there is an intervening Lockdown period and it will not be applicable otherwise.
(Sujata Chaturvedi)
Additional Secretary to the Government of India
CCS Pension Rules 1972
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डीओपीटी ने गर्भवती महिला अधिकारियों और स्‍टाफ के सदस्‍यों को कार्यालय आने से छूट दी
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text:
List of ships of World War II
(Redirected from List of ships of the Second World War)
Ships of World War II
coastal ships
minor warships
mine warfare
amphibious warfare
This list of ships of the Second World War contains major military vessels of the war, arranged alphabetically and by type. The list includes armed vessels that served during the war and in the immediate aftermath, inclusive of localized ongoing combat operations, garrison surrenders, post-surrender occupation, colony re-occupation, troop and prisoner repatriation, to the end of 1945. For smaller vessels, see also list of World War II ships of less than 1000 tons. Some uncompleted Axis ships are included, out of historic interest. Ships are designated to the country under which they operated for the longest period of the Second World War, regardless of where they were built or previous service history.
Naval warfare changed dramatically during the war, with the ascent of the aircraft carrier, and the impact of increasingly capable submarines. Destroyers saw dramatic improvements, as the Fubuki-class destroyer set a new standard not only for Japanese vessels, but for navies around the world, and are considered to be the world's first modern destroyer.[1] Submarines were critical in the Pacific and Atlantic theatres. Advances in submarine technology included the snorkel, though advanced German submarine types came into service too late to impact the war effort. The German Kriegsmarine also introduced the pocket battleship, to get around constraints imposed by the Treaty of Versailles.
Naval innovations included the use of diesel engines, and welded rather than riveted hulls. But the most important naval advances were in the field of anti-submarine warfare. Driven by the desperate necessity of keeping Britain and Japan supplied by sea, technologies for the detection and destruction of submarines were a high priority. While Japanese efforts proved futile, the Allied use of ASDIC (SONAR) became widespread as did the installation of shipboard and airborne radar. The construction and launch of new ships during the war was limited due to protracted development and production timelines, but important developments were often retrofitted to older vessels.[2][3][4][5]
^ Parshall and Tully, Shattered Sword: The Untold Story of the Battle of Midway. p. 336.
^ Naval Vessel Register Index Archived 30 June 2007 at the Wayback Machine
^ "US Navy Inactive Classification Symbols". Naval Vessel Register. NAVSEA Shipbuilding Support Office. Archived from the original on 18 January 2012. Retrieved 21 April 2015.
^ Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships Index
^ Archives, The National. "Royal Navy operations in the Second World War – The National Archives". The National Archives. Retrieved 29 March 2016.
Ader, Clement. Military Aviation, 1909, Edited and translated by Lee Kennett, Air University Press, Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama, 2003, ISBN 978-1-58566-118-3.
"Allied warships". uboat.net. Guðmundur Helgason. 1995–2007.
"Battleships-Cruisers.co.uk". Cranston Fine Arts. 2001–2007.
Colledge, J. J.; Warlow, Ben (2006) [1969]. Ships of the Royal Navy: The Complete Record of all Fighting Ships of the Royal Navy (Rev. ed.). London: Chatham Publishing. ISBN 978-1-86176-281-8. OCLC 67375475.
Collins, J.T.E. The Royal Indian Navy, 1939–1945. Official History of the Indian Armed Forces In the Second World War. New Delhi: Combined Inter-Services Historical Section (India & Pakistan), 1964.
Francillon, René J, Tonkin Gulf Yacht Club US Carrier Operations off Vietnam, (1988) ISBN 978-0-87021-696-1.
Friedman, Norman, U.S. Aircraft Carriers: an Illustrated Design History, Naval Institute Press, 1983. ISBN 978-0-87021-739-5.
Hone, Thomas C., Norman Friedman, and Mark D. Mandeles. "Innovation in Carrier Aviation," Naval War College Newport Papers (no. 37, 2011), 1–171.
Mark, Chris (1997). Schepen van de Koninklijke Marine in W.O.II. Alkmaar: Uitgeverij De Alk B.V. ISBN 90 6013 522 9.
Melhorn, Charles M. Two-Block Fox: The Rise of the Aircraft Carrier, 1911–1929 (Naval Institute Press, 1974)
navy.mil: List of homeports and their ships
NavSource Naval History
Nordeen, Lon, Air Warfare in the Missile Age, (1985) ISBN 978-1-58834-083-2
Polak, Christian (2005). Sabre et Pinceau: Par d'autres Français au Japon. 1872–1960 (in French and Japanese). Hiroshi Ueki (植木 浩), Philippe Pons, foreword; 筆と刀・日本の中のもうひとつのフランス (1872–1960). éd. L'Harmattan.
Sturtivant, Ray (1990). British Naval Aviation, The Fleet Air Arm, 1917–1990. London: Arm & Armour Press. ISBN 0-85368-938-5.
Till, Geoffrey. "Adopting the Aircraft Carrier: The British, Japanese, and American Case Studies" in Murray, Williamson; Millet, Allan R, eds. (1996). Military Innovation in the Interwar Period. Cambridge University Press.
Trimble, William F. Admiral William A. Moffett: Architect of Naval Aviation (Smithsonian Institution Press, 1994)
Wadle, Ryan David. United States navy fleet problems and the development of carrier aviation, 1929–1933 PhD dissertation Texas A&M University, 2005. online
Whitley, M J (2000). Destroyers of World War Two: An International Encyclopedia. London: Arms and Armour Press. ISBN 1-85409-521-8.
Whitley, M J (1995). Cruisers of World War Two: An International Encyclopedia. London: Arms and Armour Press. ISBN 1-85409-225-1.
Wise, James E. Jr. (1974). "Catapult Off – Parachute Back". United States Naval Institute Proceedings.
Royal Navy in World War II
Naval history website
World Aircraft Carriers List
Regia Marina
Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_ships_of_World_War_II&oldid=891107074"
World War II-related lists
Military equipment of World War II
World War II naval ships
Lists of World War II ships
CS1 French-language sources (fr)


text:
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redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaGithub


text:
Perry Hewitt
Social media strategy for leadership
Today large organizations face a pervasive gap in social media competency among their ranks. A recent Stanford GSB report highlights that executives are aware of social media opportunities and risks, but that few have put into place the kind of systemic practices that advance an organization. As a result, there's a lack of understanding of and preparedness for the rapidly changing terms of communications and engagement. Leadership risks being well equipped for fighting the last war.
McKinsey Quarterly makes a similar argument, and identifies six social media skills every leader needs [free registration required]. The six skills are divided into Personal Level (Producer, Distributor, and Recipient) and Strategic/organizational Level (Adviser, Architect, Analyst.) Using GE as a case study, the article describes each role in detail and how strong execution can have an impact on culture and outcomes.
The role of the social media leader as architect and enabler across the organization is particularly powerful. The word is out on the social media revolution: with their parents on Facebook and their kids on Snapchat, employees are by and large eager to get on board with new technologies. Leaders who develop an organizational culture that celebrates and empowers rather than censors and condones social media adoption will identify more loyal champions and idea generators among its ranks.
leadership social strategy
COVID as catalyst for digital transformation
By Perry Hewitt
It's both hard and easy to believe that the sentiment "Digital will become the core" still attracts a lot of attention in 2020. It's hard to believe: Isn't that the pivot we have all been making for more than twenty years? But it's easy to believe when we experience interactions with enterprise companies that are mired in literal paperwork and cumbersome processes that clearly require a digital...
AI summit takeaways
For several years I've served on the business council for Glasswing, an early stage venture firm focused on AI and frontier tech. Working with Glasswing has broadened my knowledge of where AI is currently viable, particularly its application under the hood in marketing technology. Three takeaways from their recent annual summit at MIT Media Lab: AI ethics are top of mind everywhere. Forget...
Talking digital problem solving with Postlight
Fun to do this Track Changes podcast with the Postlight team. In this episode, Paul Ford and Rich Ziade mock a bunch of CxO titles, and then dig in on the hard slog of marketing knowledge and learning. In the end, I make the case for closer collaboration between marketing and product teams.
New from Pew: Artificial Intelligence and the Future of Humans
Almost every event I've been to lately — whether it's within the marketing, technology, or social entrepreneurship communities — raises both the inevitability and the risks of artificial intelligence. There's a lot of excitement and trepidation, and early consideration about where the responsibility for ethical AI resides. A new Pew report captures some of those...
By Perry Hewitt February 14, 2013
Facebook intent by age cohort
Crowdfunding models in media
Translating startup-speak for the corporate buyer
hello@perryhewitt.com


text:
The United Kingdom of the Internet
The screenwriter of The Social Network, Aaron Sorkin, slipped a rather telling piece of dialogue into his Oscar-winning screenplay – 'We lived on farms, then we lived in cities, and now we're going to live on the internet.'
Sorkin's screenplay was written from 2008 to 2009 and whilst the emergence of a truly global social media and internet was still burgeoning during this period of time, ten years later his words have become even more prescient.
Whilst Facebook has been operating to the wider public since 2006 and Twitter launched in the same year, three other major social media sites all launched within the same 18-month period; WhatsApp in 2009; Instagram in 2010; and Snapchat in 2011.
Social Media Becomes the Social Norm
The growth of these five major sites over the course of the last decade has seen us arrive in an age where we truly can live, in the social sense, online. The key facets of socialising, such as dating, chatting, arguing, debating and sharing opinions, can all be engaged in online.
In addition to the social aspect that the online world enables us to inhabit, there are also several other elements of our lives that have been, if you will, outsourced to the internet.
Outsourcing Our Sourcing of Tomato Sauce
Online shopping has lessened the need to trawl through the supermarket or along the high street. Online TV let's you watch what you want, when you want. Online newspapers cancel out the need to spend upwards of £1.60 everyday on what is effectively yesterday's news, due to the alacrity with which online news sites act as an conduit of immediacy to the people.
One of the other major totems of our lives that has been drastically changed by the growth of the internet is the way that we work and, more specifically, the job sectors that have been created in order to meet the needs of the online world.
The Growth of Industries and Employment
Sorkin's observation that society moved from farms to cities and that, it will in turn, move to the internet is largely relative to the key inventions that have been made over the past 250 year. It's all about how these technological advancements have shaped the employment sector and, as such, society at large.
We Lived on Farms…
Key technological innovations within the agricultural industry are identified as being the introduction of the cradle and scythe in the 1790s and the cast-iron plough in 1797. These devices helped to enable crop production on a much more efficient and economical scale, which led to the widespread growth of the farming industry and an increase in the number of people investing in their own farms.
This had the knock-on effect of creating numerous job opportunities for the layperson within this industry and increasing rural populations across the United Kingdom.
Then We Lived in Cities…
Similarly, two of the most important innovations of the industrial revolution were the spinning jenny (a multi-spindle spinning frame that made cloth production much more efficient), which ushered in the factory system in the late 18th century, and the James Watt steam engine in 1781.
Prior to Watt's steam engine being introduced, factories had been powered by water, which meant that they had to be located close to large bodies of water. Watt's invention effectively allowed a small amount of water to be converted into steam power which meant that no large water source was needed to power a factory, thus factories could be located anywhere in the country providing a small river source was located nearby.
Such was the scale of the produce created by the factory system, employers sort to locate their factories within heavily populated cities, whereby workers would literally queue around the block waiting to be allocated work in the morning.
This oversubscription of a workforce effectively allowed factory masters to pay their employees as little as possible, safe in the knowledge that the larger populations of cities meant that people were scrambling for paid work at any rate.
Now We're Going to Live on the Internet: The Digital Revolution of the 21st Century
The common similarities between innovations within the agricultural industry and innovations within the industrial world were that key inventions enabled a product to be produced and dispersed on a massive scale. This, in turn, led to the need for a workforce that could produce and disperse items on a massive scale.
The digital revolution that we are currently living through is similar, in principle, to the agricultural and industrial revolutions of the past, in the sense that the invention of the internet and, in turn, social media and social media marketing, has enabled information to be produced and dispersed on a massive scale. This, likewise, has led to the need for a workforce that can produce and disperse this information on a large scale.
The Search Engine is the New Steam Engine
The digital revolution creates less in the way of a tangible end product and is instead more focussed upon marketing and driving consumers to an end product or service.
In 2017 the world's three most in demand professions were software engineers, developers and electronics engineers (outstripping even the demand for doctors and nurses). In addition to these core professions of the digital age, the internet has also enabled the creation of numerous other professions that simply didn't exist twenty years ago.
Indeed, occupations such as App Developer, Market Research Data Miner, Social Media Manager, Content Writer and Database Manager are all branches of the same digital sector and are, again, some of the most in demand occupations within the job market.
The UK Internet Economy is Booming
The internet is now the UK's second biggest economic contributor, behind the property sector, and has recently overtaken both the retail sector and the manufacturing sector.
Moreover, it is estimated that the internet will contribute £200 billion to the UK's economy by 2020, which will represent a projected 14.2% of GDP. In short, one industry alone will contribute around one-sixth to the entire economy of the UK.
Consider this in comparison with other G-20 Member States, where respective internet economies contribute an average of 5.3% to each countries GDP, and you can see why this sector of growth is particularly strong within the UK.
Why Is the Digital Job Market and the Digital Economy Booming in the UK?
The clearest indicators of the UK's massive internet GDP contributions relate to the number of active internet users within the UK. A list of countries by the most number of internet users sees China being first with 747 million users, India second with 391 million users, and the USA third with 245 million users.
When these figures are taken as a percentage of the total population of each of these countries, however, the 747 million people who use the internet in China constitute only 53.2% of the total population. Similarly, in India 29.6% of the population use the internet and the USA has 76.2% active users.
The UK, on the other hand, has a massive 94.8% of its entire population using the internet, which linearly affects both the need for employment within this sector and the internet's contribution towards the economy.
Hence, the workforce of the UK is steadily shifting in line with the way that the British public are increasingly living their lives online, buying products online, reading online, watching TV online and being influenced by what they see online.
This had created a digital revolution, also widely referred to as the Third Industrial Revolution, in which vast numbers of British citizens largely work in the digital industry and predominantly live their lives outside of work online as well. Such circumstances suggest that we truly have become the United Kingdom of the Internet.
94.8% united, in fact.
Chris Gallacher
This piece was written by Chris Gallacher. Chris is an experienced content writer who believes that the glass is neither half-full, nor half-empty. Chris believes that the glass has fallen off the table completely!
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i always thought you had a GT.
you need new rims, otherwise nice sixxer.
how do you live ON a course??
ditch the grill, and where you get the mach1 lip and how much and is it made by ford and etc?
yea, the side skirt stripes will be gone (im worried about faded paint under them though- the car is 5 years old…) and wheels and tires when i have more $$.