text:
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Biomedical Journal of Scientific & Technical Research
April, 2019, Volume 17, 1, pp 12440-12444
Lab Grown Meat: The Future Sustainable Alternative to Meat or a Novel Functional Food?
Daniel Sergelidis*
Laboratory of Food Hygiene of Animal Origin-Veterinary Public Health, Greece
Received: April 02, 2019 | Published: April 10, 2019
Corresponding author: Daniel Sergelidis, Laboratory of Food Hygiene of Animal Origin-Veterinary Public Health, School of Veterinary Medicine, Thessaloniki 54124, Greece
DOI: 10.26717/BJSTR.2019.17.002930
Lab grown or cultured meat belongs to the emerging field of cellular agriculture and represents a promising technology to deliver products that have so far produced through livestock. This technological innovation aims to offer a possibility of reducing the negative effects of current meat production and consumption on humans, livestock and the environment. For the creation of lab grown meat, it is required to add to a collagen matrix (obtained either from living or dead animals) adult muscle stem cells from a living animal, which is propagated in skeletal muscle strips in the laboratory. A circulatory system is also required to deliver oxygen and nutrients and to remove the metabolic waste. Although its production is possible, so far there is no significant progress for large-scale production and basic components of this process need deeper research. Among them, the production of cultured meat requires suitable cells and appropriate growth media, ideally non-animal in origin, to avoid animal components containing agents for communicable diseases, and the necessary edible materials for the matrices for cell growth to produce thicker and continuous pieces of meat such as steaks. Lab grown meat could be also an excellent functional food to cover specific dietary needs for people with various ailments. This is due to the capability of the technology to modify the profile of essential amino acids and fats, and to be enriched in vitamins, minerals and bioactive compounds. However, there are still some unanswered questions with regard especially to ethical and socioeconomic aspects.
Keywords: Lab Grown Meat; Cultured Meat; Cellular Agriculture
The rising world population is expected to reach 9.5 billion by 2050. This population growth coupled with factors such as social, economic and demographic changes (urbanization, rising incomes in emerging economies, etc.) and the resulting changes of consumer patterns will exert increased pressure on global resources for the production and availability of more food but also different food items associated with different diets [1,2]. According to an analysis conducted by Henchion et al. [3], an increase of meat consumption by about 60% has been estimated between 1990 and 2009 and this trend is expected to continue due to increased income in Asian, Latin American and Middle Eastern countries. Increased demand for proteins, mainly of animal origin, is expected to have a negative impact on the environment causing greenhouse gas emissions (GHG), requiring even more water consumption and land exploitation for their production [4]. In order to address this critical problem, an even more sustainable production is required, with the use of existing protein sources as well as additional alternatives for direct human consumption minimizing as the possible intervention of animals.
In order to support sustainable production and disposal of proteins, there are several possible scenarios regarding both the exploitation of existing sources of protein but also the discovery and development of new ones, always taking into account the nutritional, environmental and technological challenges as well as the consumer's and market response. Lab grown meat although still at an early stage, seems to be a promising alternative technology for the production of proteins of animal origin and the availability of products traditionally produced through animals in a way that requires significantly reduced animal participation or not even at all. This technological innovation has also an ambitious objective to offer the possibility of reducing the negative impact of today's meat production and consumption on humans, animals and the environment. Consumers need also to respond to various questions about the cost of production, the possibility of mass production, food safety and the potential ethical dilemmas posed by different population groups.
Technology and Cost of Lab Grown Meat Production
A 43 year old male presented with NSTEMI, which was treated conservatively, with an uneventful recovery. He was of normal height and weight and was of South Indian origin. Risk factor for CAD was smoking for 5 years only. There was no history of previous chest pain, unusual childhood illness or any inflammatory disease. Echocardiography showed an ejection fraction of 55%. Coronary angiography showed dissection in all the three vessels, with the LAD occluded following the dissection (Figure 1). Autoantibody screening, inflammatory screening and CT scan of chest and abdomen was normal. He underwent CABG with uneventful recovery.
The rapid growth rates of the stem cells achieved in this way involve a shorter period of tissue growth compared to that required for animal husbandry and consequently the required nutrient and energy inputs are reduced. The cultivation of cells and tissues in the laboratory is not currently effective in energy, water and raw materials' demand, and so far has been used only in scientific and medical applications [8]. Economic benefits as well as sustainability benefits are also unclear because reductions in some inputs may be offset by the extra cost due to a stricter sanitation regime and other energy inputs required [7]. The cell culture medium can be produced either from animal materials, such as bovine and horse serum, which reduce many viability benefits of the cultured meat [7], or from a suitable culture medium produced from non-animal origin, such as hydrolyzed cyanobacteria referred as blue-green algae [9] and Maitake mushroom extract [7]. No significant progress has yet been made for large-scale production and decisive factors and parameters of this process still need to be researched in depth. Among these, the production of cultured meat requires appropriate cells and growth media, preferably of non-animal origin, in order to avoid animal components containing agents for communicable diseases, and edible materials suitable for cell growth matrices to produce thicker and more continuous meat pieces such as steaks. A such efficient process for the production of non-animal culture media is still considered as a great challenge and a very important step towards the acceptance of the cultured meat [10].
Impact on Public Health
Lab grown meat could be an excellent functional food since can be modified to alter the profile of essential amino acids and fats, to be enriched in vitamins, minerals and bioactive compounds so that not only is it in proportionate amounts of natural meat but also exceeds it to cover specific dietary needs for people with various ailments [11]. Additionally, after the appearance of functional and fortified foods, consumers are more willing to test products that have been modified to have particular functional and nutritional characteristics [12,13]. Strictly controlled hygiene conditions in sterile systems applied to the production of lab grown meat contribute significantly to improving its safety by minimizing the risk of zoonotic and food-borne pathogens, viruses such as avian influenza and swine flu or prions for transmissible spongiform encephalopathies [14]. Scientists also hope that the need for pesticides, fungicides, growth factors and antimicrobials which are used in excess for conventional meat production, may be significantly reduced as the consumption of culture meat increases [15-17]. In the future, the ever-growing production and cost reduction of lab grown meat, possibly below traditional animal husbandry, would make its consumption more affordable and could increase access to meat even in developing countries. In this case, the cultured meat could help alleviate certain nutritional deficiencies in these populations and support the physical and mental development of children [17].
Environmental Consequences
The potential benefits of developing and expanding the production and consumption of lab cultured meat are referred to in some Life Cycle Assessments although they are based on hypothetical models of the form that cultured meat can take. Replacing conventionally produced meat with cultured meat could potentially help mitigate greenhouse gas emissions, because instead of using larger land for the necessary agricultural crops required for livestock farming, large areas could be released and redeveloped or used for other purposes such as carbon capture. Tuomisto and de Mattos [9] reported that if the cultured meat is grown in algae culture medium, although energy consumption will not decrease dramatically, GHG emissions will fall by 78- 96%, land use by 99%, water consumption by 82-96% and energy consumption by 7-45% compared to those from the conventional farming depending upon the type of meat, except conventional poultry meat that requires less energy. In a similar research [18] it was reported that the cultured beef has a lower heating potential than the conventional, on the contrary cultured pork and poultry meat may involve significant energy use leading to higher heating potential than the conventional products.
Using a different comparison field, in another survey [19] cultivated meat was compared with a range of meat protein alternatives (plant, mycoprotein, dairy and chicken). The researchers found that the lab grown meat can have less environmental impact than conventional beef and possibly pork, but higher than for chicken and plant protein production, mainly due to high energy requirements, with only exceptions the effects of land use and ecotoxicity of terrestrial soils and freshwater. However, in all the aforementioned cases, there are significant environmental benefits in all types of cultured meat in terms of land use. Production of lab grown meat could also have potential benefits for the conservation of wildlife by reducing pressure to convert natural habitats to farmland and also providing an alternative way of producing meat from endangered and rare species that are currently at high risks by over hunting or fishing for food.
However, according to Tuomisto and de Mattos [9] the largescale replacement of conventional meat production may have some negative effects on rural biodiversity due to a reduction in the need for meadows and pastures. The possible conversion of the meadows into forests may benefit certain species, but others may be threatened. Potential additional benefits are the reduction of large direct and indirect emissions from agriculture (e.g. digestion gasses from livestock, production of fertilizers and other agrochemicals, use of fossil fuels by tractors, etc) [20]. According to FAO [21], the livestock sector is a significant contributor to GHG emissions with an estimated total of 8.1 gigatonnes CO2 -eq in 2010 (using 298 and 34 as global warming potential for N2O and CH4 respectively). The production of lab grown meat also results in significantly lower losses of nutrients in waste compared to conventionally produced meat because the effluents from the production of cyanobacteria can be controlled more effectively in relation to the runoff from the agricultural fields [9].
The effects of transporting the lab grown meat are likely to be lower because animals will not be transported to the slaughterhouses (from long or even short distances) as well as carcasses or large cuts of meat from slaughterhouses will not be transported to the market or to installations for further processing under cooling, and with an appropriate design, its production sites may be closer to the markets and the points of consumption. As a result, there would be a significant reduction in energy consumption for chilled transport, as the cultivated meat has a lower mass because there are no nonedible parts (bones, blood, etc.). In addition, slaughterhouse waste and the environmental and economic consequences associated with it are significantly reduced [9]. However, further research is required to assess the overall environmental impact of cultured meat production during the life cycle from production to the final consumer
Ethical, Socio-Political and Economic Aspects
Consumers' perceptions and ethical dilemmas are crucial and also a potential barrier to the acceptance of the lab grown meat and its commercial success [22]. The product should have as much as possible similar sensory and organoleptic characteristics (taste, texture and appearance) with the natural meat, which is widely accepted by consumers; however, this is currently difficult to achieve [8]. The extent to which muscle biology can be copied will determine the complexity of the tissue production process. The production of a whole muscle piece is the long-term goal. This requires a complex system that involves multiple types of cells grown together in an organized manner, and a structure that will require a reproducible blood vessel network. A simpler and most feasible goal in the near future is the production of a muscle protein component based on muscle cells alone. Among the serious benefits of lab grown meat, the resulting reduction in the population of meat-producing animals is reported in the international literature [5]. Although it is an exaggeration to see that an animal is sufficient to meet world meat needs, it is feasible and understandable that the reduced populations of animals required for conventional meat production would make it possible to obsolete intensive and industrialized livestock farming and would contribute to improving livestock conditions that will still be needed [6].
Another important moral issue is the treatment of stem cell donors as these cells have to be collected from an animal source (live or not). In that case, the necessary invasive technique to obtain the right type of muscle tissue may be painful. Also, the necessary serum for the growth of cell cultures should also be taken from adult animals, newborns or fetal sources raising also ethical concerns. In the future, this substrate of animal origin could be replaced by sources of plant origin such as mushroom extract which achieves higher growth rates compared to fetal bovine serum and is more cost-effective [23]. Vegetarians and other people such as members of certain religious groups, opposing the use of animals, and consider the consumption of meat or other foods of animal origin is not necessary for human health and thus these issues could eventually be an obstacle. Acceptance criteria are mainly ethical in terms of technology and its application, as well as its relationship to the natural product, the expected qualitative characteristics and the potential benefits or risks. Consumer knowledge of the lab grown meat is currently very poor. Although surveys conducted so far show that most consumers are reluctant to answer when asked if they are willing to test cultured meat in the future, only a small minority categorically rejects the idea [24].
The willingness of consumers to consume lab grown meat is also related to a great degree to the viability benefits in relation to conventionally produced meat and the information provided about these benefits seems to be critically important to increase consumer's confidence and acceptance. Another key challenge for the socioeconomic status of this novel technology, as it happens with all innovative technologies entering the market, is the disruption of the livestock industry, where millions of people are directly or indirectly involved [25]. What will be the reactions of the stakeholders of this huge and very important economic field of global economy? To which extend it will replace the conventional meat production or instead it will increase the meat consumption globally? Who will produce the cultured meat and profit from it? Will it provide a new frontier for capital accumulation for multinational corporations or a shift towards localized production? All these difficult questions remain unanswered and will soon need to be addressed by governments and society.
Legislative Regulatory Framework
Some start-ups companies in the US and other countries claim that the lab grown meat (or clean meat or artificial meat or laboratory meat) may be placed on retail shelves perhaps before 2021. However, before this happens, a legislative regulatory framework for this innovative food should be introduced. This legislative framework should specify, among other things, which controls are to be carried out and which bodies are responsible to carry them out at the production and disposal level. In the EU, lab grown meat should be adopted as a novel food and comes under the Regulation EU 2015/2283 [26] regime for novel foods. In order to be approved as a novel food, growers are required to submit an application which must include a complete dossier with all relevant data (production process, product safety issues, ethics, labeling, etc.). If the product is considered safe after a scientific assessment by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), the Commission may adopt a regulation approving this product.
The Commission has recently confirmed that no application for the approval of lab grown meat has been submitted so far and that such a product cannot yet be placed on the market and any such meat will be seized by the authorities. The Novel Food Regulation stipulates that approved novel foods on the list may be subject to labeling requirements in order to fully inform the consumer, for example, of the description of the food or its composition. It is therefore very likely to add specifications for the lab grown meat. In any case, the EU regulation Regulation (EU) 2011/1169 [27] on consumer information on food will also apply to lab grown meat as soon as it is approved, but its implementation may prove difficult. For example, there is an obligation to indicate on the label the name of the food, but at present there are unresolved issues regarding the name of the lab grown meat. Lab grown meat or cultured meat has not yet been released in the market and there is neither a registered name nor even a common name. Many names already exist, but the choice of the final name is a very sensitive affair and not at all easy.
A serious problem for its final name is the fact that consumers must be provided with clear and precise information about their method of manufacture or production, so producers should ensure that the name of the product makes it clear that the meat has been grown in laboratory. In accordance with the current regulations [28,29], meat means "all parts of domestic bovine animals, swine, sheep, goats and solipeds which are suitable for human consumption". Therefore, the process towards a regulatory framework will actually start in the EU as and when an application for approval to EFSA. In the United States the there is no any regulation yet, although most cultured meat companies are based there. The definition of "meat product" for lab grown meat does not comply also in the US under the Federal Meat Inspection Act [30], in which meat and meat products should come from carcass.
Lab grown meat appears to be a particularly interesting alternative to conventional meat from animal carcasses, the problems caused by its production methods and its shortcomings in meeting future emerging global demands for protein availability. In addition, the possibilities offered by the flexible production process and the modification of its composition, make it a promising functional food with the capability to meet the specific needs of many different consumer groups. However, so far it is still at an embryonic stage without large-scale production technology being developed. Important questions, especially moral ones are also unanswered yet. Information and involvement of social stakeholders and consumers in any decisions to be taken is necessary in order to build acceptance through a transparent process. The big challenge of a sustainable future food supply can only be achieved by pursuing a number of viable solutions that will only become effective when combined. Such solutions include the prudent meat consumption, the abolition of "industrial" livestock farming and the promotion of organic farming as well as support for the development and exploitation of plant or other protein sources. Cultured meat is among the many possible factors that can contribute to solve the problem.
(2015) United Nations, Revision of World Population Prospects, United Nations.
Henchion M, Hayes M, Mullen AM, Fenelon M, Tiwari B (2017) Future protein supply and demand: Strategies and factors influencing a sustainable equilibrium. Foods 6(7): 53.
Henchion M, Mc Carthy M, Resconi V, Troy D (2014) Meat consumption: Trends and quality matters. Meat Science 98(3): 561-568.
Westhoek H, Rood T, Van Den Berg M, Jansej Nijdam D, Reudink M, et al. (2011) Foof and Agricultural Organization of the united states.
Woll S, Böhm I (2018) In-vitro-meat: a solution for problems of meat production and consumption? Ernahrungs Umschau 65(1): 12-21.
Bhat ZF, Kumar S, Fayaz H (2015) In vitro meat production: challenges and benefits over conventional meat production. Journal of Integrative Agriculture 14(2): 241-248.
Bhat ZF, Bhat H, Pathak V (2014) Prospects for In Vitro Cultured Meat-A Future Harvest: Principles of Tissue Engineering, (4th edn.). Elsevier.
Moritz MSM, Verbruggen SEL, Post MJ (2015) Alternatives for large-scale production of cultured beef: a review. Journal of Integrative Agriculture 14(2): 208-216.
Tuomisto HL, Teixeira De Mattos, MJ (2011) Environmental impacts of cultured meat production. Environmental Science and Technology 45(14): 6117-6123.
Mattick CS, Landis AE, Allenby BR (2015) A case for systemic environmental analysis of cultured meat. Journal of Integrative Agriculture 14(2): 249-254.
Van Eelen WF, van Kooten WJ, Westerhof W (1999) WO/1999/031223: industrial production of meat from in vitro cell cultures. Patent Description.
Korhonen H (2002) Technology options for new nutritional concepts. International Journal of Dairy Technology 55(2):79-88.
Burdock GA, Carabin GI, Griffiths GC (2006) The importance of GRAS to the functional food and nutraceutical industries. Toxicology 221(1): 17- 27.
Genovese N, Notaro K (2011) The Crusade for a Cultured Alternative to Animal Meat: An Interview with Nicholas Genovese, PhD PETA. Institute of Ethics and Emerging Technologies.
De Haan C, Steinfeld H, Blackburn H (1997) Livestock and the environment: finding a balance. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, World Bank and US Agency for International Development.
Reay D (2002) Intensive farming, US-style, is not sustainable worldwide. Nature 417(6884): 15.
Bhat ZF, Fayaz H (2011) Prospectus of cultured meat-advancing meat alternatives. Journal of Food Science and Technology 48(2): 125-140.
Mattick CS, Landis AE, Allenby BR, Genovese NJ (2015) Anticipatory life cycle analysis of in vitro biomass cultivation for cultured meat production in the United States. Environmental Science Technology 49(19): 11941-11949.
Smetana S, Mathys A, Knoch A, Heinz V (2015) Meat Alternatives: Life cycle assessment of most known meat substitutes. International Journal of Life Cycle Assess 20(9): 1254-1267.
Smith P, Gregory PJ (2013) Climate change and sustainable food production. Proc Nutr Soc 72: 21-28.
FAO (2017) Global Livestock Environmental Assessment Model (GLEAM), Rome.
Hocquette J (2016) Is in vitro meat the solution for the future. Meat Science 120: 167-176.
Benjaminson MA, Gilchriest JA, Lorenz M (2002) In vitro edible muscle protein production system (MPPS). Acta Astronautica 51(12): 879-889.
Verbeke W Sans P, Van Loo EJ (2015) Challenges and prospects for consumer acceptance of cultured meat. Journal of Integrative Agriculture 14(2): 285-294.
Stephens N, Di Silvio L, Dunsford I, Ellis M, Glencross A, et al. (2018) Review: Bringing cultured meat to market: Technical, socio-political, and regulatory challenges in cellular agriculture. Trends in Food Science and Technology 78: 155-166.
(2015) Regulation (EU) 2015/2283 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 25 November 2015 on novel foods, amending Regulation (EU) No 1169/2011 of the European Parliament and of the Council and repealing Regulation (EC) No 258/97 of the European Parliament and of the Council and Commission Regulation (EC) No 1852/2001.
Regulation (EU) No 1169/2011 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 25 October 2011 on the provision of food information to consumers, amending Regulations (EC) No 1924/2006 and (EC) No 1925/2006 of the European Parliament and of the Council, and repealing Commission Directive 87/250/EEC, Council Directive 90/496/EEC, Commission Directive 1999/10/EC, Directive 2000/13/ EC of the European Parliament and of the Council, Commission Directives 2002/67/EC and 2008/5/EC and Commission Regulation (EC) No 608/2004 15: 169-213.
(1991) Council Directive 91/497/EEC of 29 July 1991 amending and consolidating Directive 64/433/EEC on health problems affecting intra-Community trade in fresh meat to extend it to the production and marketing of fresh meat.
(2001) Commission Directive 2001/101/EC of 26 November 2001 amending Directive 2000/13/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council on the approximation of the laws of the Member States relating to the labelling, presentation and advertising of foodstuffs 15: 168-213.
Federal Meat Inspection Act (FMIA) Subchapter I-Requirements; Adulteration and Misbranding, pp. 572.
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text:
Island Xtreme Stunts is a mixture of different genres in a single game. The player explores a LEGO-based environment in an open world format: ride a skateboard, drive, fly and pilot a range of vehicles all whilst performing stunts and tricks while taking on the bad guy, Brickster. The player is cast as Pepper Roni, a lead stuntman in a big movie production set on LEGO Island. Even though the player is free to go wherever he wants, there is a story behind the game divided over 25 missions. All the missions are stunt-based. Running around the world in 3rd-person view, the controls are pretty basic and do not offer the trick combinations of other stunt/trick-based games. It is easy to pick up and play, even for the younger players, without worrying too much about what button combination will do what trick. Instead the player can focus on the missions by only having to complete basic tricks with a few button presses.
Rating: E - Everyone
Publisher: EA Games

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


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text:
"""
The MIT License (MIT)

Copyright (c) 2015 Guillermo Romero Franco (AKA Gato)

Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal
in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:

The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
copies or substantial portions of the Software.

THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
SOFTWARE.
"""

import libs.transformations as T
from glcompat import *
from gltools import getViewportSize
import numpy as N
from mathtools import *

class Scene:

    def __init__(self):
        pass

    def init(self):
        self.resetModelview()
        self._normal_m = N.array([(1,0,0),(0,1,0),(0,0,1)],dtype="f")
        self._light_m = T.identity_matrix()

        self._perspective_m = frustumProjMtx(60, 0.5, 500.0)
        vpw, vph = getViewportSize()
        self._ortho_m = T.clip_matrix(0, vpw, vph, 0, -1, 1)#  0.,0.,.,1.,-1.,1.,False)
        self._modelview_m_stack = []

        self.setPerspectiveMode()

        print self._modelview_m
        print self._projection_m

        self.pushTransform()

    def setPerspectiveMode(self):
        self._projection_m = self._perspective_m

    def setOrthoMode(self):
        self._projection_m = self._ortho_m

    def advance(self, screen, time, inp):
        raise RuntimeError("Call a subclass method")

    def freezeLight(self):
        self._light_m = N.linalg.inv(self._modelview_m[0:3,0:3])

    def uploadMatrices(self, shader):
        glUniformMatrix4fv(shader.uni_modelview_m,1,GL_TRUE, self._modelview_m.ravel())
        glUniformMatrix3fv(shader.uni_normal_m,1,GL_TRUE, self._normal_m.ravel())
        glUniformMatrix3fv(shader.uni_light_m,1,GL_TRUE, N.dot(self._light_m, self._modelview_m[0:3,0:3]).ravel())
        glUniformMatrix4fv(shader.uni_projection_m,1,GL_TRUE,self._projection_m.ravel())

    def updateNormalMatrix(self):
        m = self._modelview_m[0:3,0:3]
        try:
            self._normal_m = N.transpose(N.linalg.inv(m))
        except:
            self._normal_m = m

    def replaceLastTransform(self, transform):
        self._modelview_m = N.dot(self._modelview_m_stack[-1], transform)
        self.updateNormalMatrix()

    def pushTransform(self, add_transform=None):
        self._modelview_m_stack.append(self._modelview_m)
        if add_transform is not None:
            self._modelview_m = N.dot(self._modelview_m, add_transform)
            self.updateNormalMatrix()

    def popTransform(self):
        self._modelview_m = self._modelview_m_stack.pop()
        self.updateNormalMatrix()

    def resetModelview(self):
        self._modelview_m = T.identity_matrix()

    def destroy(self):
        pass

    def __enter__(self):
        return self

    def __exit__(self, *args, **kargs):
        print "With exited"
        self.destroy()

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaGithub


Do you love handmade quilts?
How many quilts do you own?
I think we create personal attachment to quilts. They are made to commemorate an event such as a Wedding, Birth, or purchase of a New Home. Sometimes quilts are for decoration and sometimes for artistic expression. Mostly quilts are functional: Used on a bed or but on the grass to have a picnic.
And there are so many uses for a quilt top like the pillows, pictured above, I was able to create these pillows with the quilt top made by my husband's grandmother, Grandma Whearty. It was stored away in a truck for over 60 years. Found recently my sister-in-law and we were able to create 3 sets of 4 pillows, a set for each of Grandma Whearty's 3 children.
These quilting apps will help you figure out the yardage needed, make great color choices and allow you to keep a pictorial log of the fabric you have at home.
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Square-in-a-Square Calculator: Works out the key dimensions of a square-in-a-square block.
Set-in and Corner Triangle Calculator: Determines the size of the square piece you'll need to cut in order to create both unfinished set-in triangles and unfinished corner triangles.
Just went out shopping for some fabric for a table runner. Couldn't figure out which shade of black and cream went well with red and gold. Was it the right shade of black I wanted? Was the cream too yellow?
Just found this app. I'm working on step 1, taking pictures of my inventory. Then step 2 and 3, will help me create a beautiful handmade quilt.
(4) Take photos of fabrics at the shop or quilt show. Leave a note so you can remember where you have seen this fabrics. Incorporate it into your existing block design, and immediately see the result on screen. Not looking good? Try another fabrics !
My once a month lunch buddy is a girlfriend that like to find new restaurants. Since we both like to quilt, I thought it would be fun to use this quilt store locator to find the local shops.
We both like to see beautiful, gorgeous handmade quilts. The stitches small and even. The old, soft quilts are the best. Find the fabric you need. Meet new people. Learn something new.
Have fun on the road. You might find a great place to eat too.
So far I like the way I am able to keep my stash available to me when I need it. When fabrics are on sale I seem to buy too many blacks and blues. So now I check and see that I have enough of the dark colors. It allows me to pick other colors that might go well to create dark handmade quilt. I guess, I'm thinking that a dark quilt is a beautiful quilt.


How can a terrorist stop terrorism?
A joint Congressional panel released a report that supposedly scathingly criticizes the FBI and CIA for failing to stop the September 11 terrorist attacks, even though the terrorists were planning their attack directly under the noses of both agencies.
So, what does the Congressional committee recommend? The usual bureaucratic proposals: Establish an intelligence "czar." Create still another list of terrorist organizations.
Most controversial in the report is the fact that the part that deals with the Saudi government's ties and financing of the terrorists was blacked out, censored. Not to mention ties with certain wealthy administration figures. Apparently, Congress was afraid to publish what everyone has known for years.
But what no one mentions, least of all Congress, is the fact that the Saudi government is not alone in financing terrorism. As a matter of fact, both the FBI and CIA support terrorist organizations. The CIA actually recruited a certain Osama bin Laden. They set him up in business, trained him, financed him and armed him in the 1980s with the purpose of overthrowing the Afghanistan government before the Taliban came to power. For them, that was business as usual. In fact, the CIA – a terrorist organization if there ever was one – worked with terrorists all over the world, to overthrow governments (Chile in 1973, Iran in 1953, Iraq in 1958 to name a few) and to break workers movements and militant unions all over the world.
Don't leave out the FBI when we're compiling the list of terrorist organizations. They have given the Cuban exile terrorists the means to carry out plane hijackings, bombings, sabotage of electric supplies, etc. The FBI has its own rich history, working with the Ku Klux Klan and other violent racist organizations to terrorize the black population in this country.
The biggest omission from this report was any discussion of what prompted the development of terrorism. Not a word about U.S. policies throughout the Middle East and especially Palestine. Not a single word about the current war in Iraq – terrorism against a whole people – which is creating a much larger reserve of angry young people, not just in Iraq, but throughout vast stretches of the Middle East – an ocean in which the terrorists can fish for new recruits. Of course not. One can't expect terrorists to denounce themselves.


As far as civil construction is concerned, the northern portion of Australia typically doesn't receive as much attention as the south.
For one thing, the most populous cities lie further south, which hasn't driven much interest in developing the northern parts of Queensland, Western Australia (WA) and, of course, the Northern Territory (NT).
Serving as a comprehensive plan with multiple projects in the works, there's no doubt this initiative will require the expertise of water engineers, structural specialists and other such professionals.
The north may not be a major topic of discussion in the media, but it's economy has offered promise. A green paper released by the Department of the Prime Minister and the Cabinet noted that global interest in natural resources, for example, prompted the construction of the Ichthys Liquefied Natural Gas Project - the largest building initiative ever to take place in the Northern Territory.
Northern Australia is known for its unique landscape, but what about it's economy?
About one million people in Australia call the north their home - approximately 5 per cent of the nation's population. However, it has grown 0.4 per cent more than the rest of Australia over the past decade. Most of those residing in the north inhabit northeast Queensland.
Northern Australia also has plenty of natural resources. Bauxite, uranium, iron ore, base metals, oil and gas are just a few commodities energy and mining companies are interested in accessing.
Despite the fact that more than 60 per cent of Australia's total rainfall occurs in the north, a few parts are known as some of the most arid regions in the country. Lake Argyle, in Western Australia, for example, loses about a quarter of its volume every year due to evaporation.
This presents a unique challenge to water engineers who will need to figure out how to conserve natural water season when the drier parts of the year roll around.
In general, environmental engineers will have to apply myriad concepts in order to support infrastructure development initiatives throughout Northern Australia. All things considered, it's a diverse region, meaning one solution in Northeast Queensland may not be applicable in other parts, for example.
In a recent article, we discussed some of the engineering priorities highlighted in the Bruce Highway Action Plan, which aims to renovate the disruption-prone motorway.
However, the state government isn't stopping at improving Queenlsand's traffic infrastructure. A recent announcement by the Queensland Cabinet and Ministerial Directory maintained that green energy investment is on the agenda.
According to Minister Assisting the Premier on North Queensland Coralee O'Rourke, Townsville may be the first of many municipalities to have a service station where electric vehicle (EV) drivers can plug in. The power won't come from coal-fired plants, but rather on-site solar panels.
"Our vision is for this to be the start of an 'electric super highway' by facilitating fast-charging service locations for drivers travelling up and down the length of Queensland," said Mrs O'Rourke.
"Up to two electric vehicles could charge at the same time, with an expected average charge time of 15-30 minutes."
The initiative is being supported by both Economic Development Queensland (EDQ) and Ergon Energy. The latter is offering small businesses the chance to lease 25 kilowatts (kW) of solar panels, while EDQ will help enterprises cover the costs of leasing EV charge equipment.
How will EVs impact Queensland's transit infrastructure?
At first glance, it's hard to imagine that EVs would have a dramatic impact on urban engineering solutions, highway traffic, and Queensland's wider transportation infrastructure. The Energy Supply Association of Australia (ESAA) wrote a discussion paper that alluded to these concerns, highlighting a mix of concerns and benefits.
When developing urban streets or highways, traffic analysts always consider how their decisions will impact driver safety. Road safety audits, impact assessments and intersection capacity analyses all provide insight into this concern.
Because EVs don't have large combustion engines, EVs typically weigh less than gas-powered vehicles. EV manufacturers can utilise this lighter weight to improve their automobiles' structural safety, according to the ESAA. This trait also makes for a vehicle that is more easy to manoeuvre, suggesting that drivers will be able to exercise better control.
The idea of placing solar panels at petrol stations to provide power for electric vehicles may relieve pressures on the main grid. Researchers from the University of New South Wales noted that the average EV has a range of about 160 kilometres.
While the technology is improving, this range means those travelling long distances will have to charge up quite frequently. Assuming that EVs become immensely popular in the state, Queensland's grid will have to accommodate them.
No matter what sort of solution an engineer is developing, be it water or structural, he or she must understand the environmental repercussions of those projects.
Given the fact that humans are the dominant species on the planet, it's easy to forget that we're a part of a global ecological community. Like any living organism, our actions have an effect on our ecosystems.
The SPA emphasises three ideals.
In 2009, Queensland passed the Sustainable Planning Act (SPA), which serves as a framework under which developers and other parties can establish and execute ecologically-conscious projects. This article will discuss some of the larger points within the SPA and how they impact engineering.
Protecting the integrity and operability of natural systems on a local, regional, State and greater level.
Upholding the cultural, fiscal, physical and social prosperity of people and communities.
In regard to these values, engineers must determine how their solutions will impact not only the environment, but also economic opportunities and social development. What are the monetary implications of installing a berm? How will this bridge impact communal connectivity? These are just a few examples of the questions specialists must ask themselves.
The SPA provides a formula to structural engineers and other such specialists committed to developing ecologically sustainable solutions. The Act identifies this practice as the Integrated Development Assessment System (IDAS).
Before construction begins, Engineers must determine how their solutions impact ecosystems.
The IDAS is designed to consider legislative policies while supporting flexibility in case original plans need to be adjusted. As any experienced engineer knows, changes are bound to occur, so it's constructive to adhere to a system that allows experts to make adjustments when necessary.
Comprehensive: Considers approvals for all projects occurring in the state.
Scaleable: Applicable to both small and complex solutions.
Modular: Guides four phases inherently found in development initiatives.
Assuring: Assesses a solution's ability to deliver functions optimally.
Balanced: Ensures everything between community needs and legal obligations are adhered to.
Accountable: Forces participants and stakeholders to hold themselves responsible for any and all decisions made.
From the outside looking in, IDAS leaves no room for error. It favours thoroughness so that no specific items compromise the success and sustainability of a solution.
The SPA leaves no room for error. Legislation or not, it delivers an effective set of rules that can help environmental engineers and other parties create solutions that do not waste the precious resources our earth has to offer.
Whenever a city's population expands, its infrastructure encounters greater stress. Some regions handle this pressure better than others.
If traffic engineers develop roadways designed to handle projected expansion, communities will experience minimal disruption. Queensland officials are hoping they can achieve this feat in the near future.
Queensland may have to accommodate 7.1 million people by 2036.
Recent figures from the Queensland Government Statistician's Office shows that the state's population rose by 70,540 people between June 2013 and June 2014, a 1.5 per cent growth rate. Currently, more than 4.7 million individuals call Queensland home.
Assuming medium rates of natural increase and migration remain consistent, Queensland will have to accommodate 7.1 million people by 2036, according to the Queensland Treasury. This means that Brisbane, the Gold Coast and other cities throughout the state must be prepared to support a greater number of workers and families.
Does the state have a plan?
The DILGP recognised the interests of bodies such as the Business Council of Australia (BCA) and Public Infrastructure Productivity Commission.
The BCA called for thorough assessments that detailed projected land usage trends. In addition, the organisation expressed the need for public infrastructure development initiatives directly tied to strategic plans. From the BCA's perspective, these strategies should be scrutinised by third parties to determine their effectiveness and feasibility.
Put simply: There's no room for wasted or ineffective investments. It's evident that specialists will need to develop well-researched, feasible civil engineering plans.
Highways, urban public transport and city road expenses are expected to increase markedly over the next 16 years. The Australian Infrastructure Audit showed that government-funded transit and roadways' direct economic contribution will increase 138 per cent between 2011 and 2031, reaching $4.47 billion.
As business relationships between Gold Coast and Brisbane intensify, Infrastructure Australia asserts that the number of passenger hours travelled (PHT) in a given day will rise. Currently, the Carindale to Brisbane Inner bus route experiences 1,850 PHT on a daily basis.
These statistics shouldn't be cause for panic. Instead, developers must keep these insights in mind when creating infrastructure investment strategies. The future of Queensland's economy depends on it.
Between 1990 and 2012, Queensland's carbon dioxide emissions output rose from 78.8 million tonnes to 134.5 million tonnes, according to the state government.
Whether or not you believe climate change to be fact or fiction, there's no doubt that public authorities are developing policies geared toward curtailing this trend. Queensland's implementation of the 5-star energy code for multi-unit residential buildings is an example of such standards.
Although all new multi-residential dwellings must be designed according to the 5-star rating standard, structural engineers can leverage it as an assessment model. Doing so will help them identify ways to expand the standard, developing more eco-friendly multi-tenant housing.
Although developers may feel morally gratified by funding sustainable construction projects, they don't want to lose money after doing so. Like any similar initiative, the finished product must have a market price that does not exorbitantly exceed the mean or median cost.
All owners and/or managers believed their structures were resilient to future energy expenses and more stringent building legislation.
Owners typically marketed their dwellings' sustainability to attract tenants. In a related matter, buildings with Green Star ratings "appear easier to sell."
There is a strong correlation between long-term leases (i.e. 15- to 20- year agreements) and sustainable residential structures.
According to the Queensland Department of Housing and Public Works, a building's sustainability largely depends on its shell design - the walls, windows, floor and roof. For the most part, positioning and facade composition determine just how green a structure is.
Passive design decisions, while promoting energy efficiency, can be integrated with little to no costs. Orienting living areas toward the north, decreasing the number of east- and west-facing windows and installing wider eaves or window awnings are all actions that foster sustainability.
Identifying green materials isn't as simple as some may think. When engineering consultants consider the eco-friendliness of construction products, they assess the energy used to produce, and transport them. They also consider how easily materials can be recycled and the emissions caused by the manufacturing process.
Sustainable building is a multifaceted endeavour. Between design principles and careful selection of materials, green development supports a more compatible future between humans and global ecosystems.
How is Queensland preparing for the Gold Coast 2018 Commonwealth Games?
A tradition that coincided with the coronation of King George the Fifth in 1911, The Commonwealth Games features competitions and exhibitions from boxers, swimmers and other athletes from throughout the Commonwealth of Nations.
In 2018, Gold Coast is scheduled to host the fabled event. Some people may be asking whether the city will make a viable host. Both city planners and civil engineers based in Queensland are doing all they can to prepare the area's infrastructure and sporting arenas.
If last year's event in Glasgow, Scotland are any indication of what Gold Coast will encounter in 2018, the city certainly has its work cut out for it. According to the Glasgow 2014 Commonwealth Games website, the organisers sold approximately 1.2 million tickets.
Preparing Gold Coast, as well as its sports facilities, for the Commonwealth Games requires a mix of technical insights and demographic behaviours. While traffic engineers may conduct parking studies, marketers could provide developers with insights into which facilities will accommodate the greatest number of attendees.
The Coomera Indoor Sports Centre and Queensland State Velodrome are two out of 18 buildings that will serve the purposes of the Commonwealth Games.
A fact sheet detailing the Velodrome's development states that approximately 31,000 cubic metres of spoil will be removed from the site and recycled during construction. When completed, the venue will deliver a 250-metre timber cycling track and a function room capable of accommodating up to 100 people, among other facilities.
The Coomera Indoor Sports Centre isn't going to leave anything to be desired, either. A $40 million-dollar endeavour, the building will feature eight mixed-use sports courts and a gymnastics arena. It will also provide 350 permanent seats and be capable of expanding to a capacity of 7,600 if necessary.
In summation, Queensland isn't putting these projects on the back burner. The state is taking constructive measures to accommodate the many attendees the Commonwealth games will likely attract.
The completion of the Western Corridor Recycled Water Project marked a monumental time in South East Queensland's water engineering history.
A $2.5 billion project, the Queensland Department of State Development lauded it as the largest recycled water scheme ever built in Australia. The system is an impressive feat, capable of supplying up to 232 megalitres of purified, recycled water on a daily basis.
1. What should be detailed in a recycled water management plan?
2. Does Queensland classify recycled water?
The Queensland Department of Energy and Water Supply (DEWS) assigns recycled water either A+, A, B, C or D classifications if the liquid is sourced from a utility's sewage system. The same categorisation also applies when a water provider uses sewage or effluent to produce recycled water.
DEWS uses log reduction metrics (percentage of microorganisms eliminated or mollified via a certain process) to develop classifications. So, when a recycled water scheme's virus filtration system receives a '4-log' rating, it means the solution removed 99.99 per cent of viruses.
3. What classification must drinking water receive?
Bacteria (Salmonella, Escherichia colia, etc.) must register an 8-log valuation.
Viruses (Adenovirus, Hepatitis A and Coronavirus) must receive a 9.5-log rating.
Protozoa (Cryptosporidium, Naeglergia fowleri) requires an 8-log appraisal.
Helminths (parasites or worms) must receive an 8-log appraisal.
In this regard the A+, A, B, C and D categories do not apply, as the aforementioned valuations exceeded the standards highlighted in each of these classifications.
Given the effects of climate change, concerns regarding devastating droughts and other such issues, recycled water will likely become an integral part of Queensland's metropolitan infrastructures and rural communities.
In 2012, the Bruce Highway Technical Advisory Group was put in charge of creating a 10 year 'Crisis Action Plan' to address the issues posed by Queensland's Bruce Highway.
Upon consulting traffic engineers as to what could be done, the authority created an action plan that outlined the motorways problems and actionable solutions.
The Bruce Highway is approximately 1,700 kilometres long, and serves as Queensland's primary north-south transportation corridor, running from Cairns to Brisbane along the coast. Given that these, as well as the other cities along the Pacific Ocean are essential to the state economy, it's not surprising that authorities are giving so much attention to renovating the motorway.
There's a reason why the Technical Advisory Group referred to the Bruce Highway as a crisis. Studies have identified the corridor as one of the most dangerous roads in Australia. More than 17 per cent of fatal road accidents occur on the Bruce Highway.
Flooding is another major concern. Authorities have identified nine areas that, on average, close for longer than 48 hours every year due to ineffective water engineering solutions. An another six locations are shut down for more than five days because of the same issue.
On top of these concerns, both urban and rural traffic along the Bruce Highway is expected to increase in tandem with economic development. Congestion has worsened from Brisbane to Maryborough and other areas.
Average travel speed (ATS) is greatly impacted by the number of heavy-duty vehicles on the road.
For the most part, the ATS is higher in median lane than it is in the shoulder lane, even when traffic density is the same between the two.
It is often advisable to regard each lane separately when performing traffic studies, because lane position typically has the greatest effect on traffic performance.
What's being done to fix the Bruce Highway?
To address flooding issues, engineers are drafting solutions that will dramatically decrease delays. The goal is to design embankments that can withstand peak flood events.
Extra lanes are scheduled to be constructed in key rural areas were only temporary relief is required. Two-lane portions near metropolitan areas will be upgraded to four-lane or six-lane stretches, depending on current congestion data.
The project is currently underway, and is scheduled to be completed by 2022. It's hoped that these additions will sustain future traffic trends.
While structural engineers draw from fundamental principles when designing commercial facilities, they also adjust designs according to prospective locations.
Constructing a warehouse in Longreach, Queensland carries different implications than building a 20-storey office complex in downtown Brisbane. Of course, each structure has a different form and function - one supports traditional white collar operations while the other caters to logistics.
Yet, it's also necessary to address environmental disparities between Longreach and Brisbane. The latter is a coastal metropolis while the former is an outback township. In regard to building in Brisbane, what would structural engineers and developers need to be aware of?
Natural disasters have cost Queensland more than $5.4 billion in recent years.
Why Brisbane? According to the South East Queensland (SEQ) Council of Mayors, SEQ is a rapidly growing region, and will house approximately one in six Australians within the next two decades. Given this estimate, demand for both commercial and residential property is increasing.
The Council released a document proposing a joint effort between itself and the Federal government to support infrastructure initiatives throughout the region. The first priority it highlighted was bolstering SEQ's ability to recover from and resist natural disasters.
According to the Council, natural disasters have cost Queensland more than $5.4 billion in recent years. These expenses are associated with the reinstatement of assets that have been impacted by such events.
What sort of natural disasters is SEQ up against?
Queensland Disaster Management conducted a state-wide risk assessment of natural disasters in 2012, collecting data from 1900 to 2011.
The analysis concluded that tropical cyclones and flooding were the two greatest natural threats to Queensland. Combined, these two hazards accounted for approximately 72 per cent of structural damage. Flooding has caused 50 per cent of Queensland's total building losses.
These are all factors structural engineers working in SEQ are likely cognisant of these issues. The question is, how are they applying this knowledge when spearheading commercial construction projects?
Tropical cyclones pose a risk to SEQ.
Engineers take a few basic measures to ensure buildings are resistant to cyclones, many of which were detailed by the Development Workshop Foundation.
For one thing, use a regular shape for the basic structure layout to reduce pressure concentration.
Then, strengthen junctions to reinforce the building's bracin.
Ultimately, choosing a location that does not receive the full wind force is a good necessary measure to take.
As for floods, if a building is going to be located in a vulnerable location, it's recommended that the lowest level be raised above anticipated flood levels. Some situations may warrant the construction of floodwalls, but these aren't always necessary.
SEQ offers a lot of economic promise, but it can be detrimentally affected by disaster-related disruptions. Developing commercial real estate that are built for floods, cyclones and other events ensures that fiscal activity can progress uninterrupted.
Constructing an industrial solar farm has a number of implications on Queensland's existing infrastructure. Integrating these energy assets into a complex network of civil solutions isn't as simple as plugging into the grid.
Careful analysis of civil systems by city planning experts reduces the chances of project hindrances occurring. Before construction commences, engineers must conduct several assessments to determine where solar fields can be positioned.
That being said, is Queensland primed for solar projects?
A bright summer day in Queensland produces 1,400 Watts W/m2.
In a May 15 statement, Minister for Energy and Water Supply Mark Bailey asserted the public authority's willingness to do whatever it can for developers expressing tangible interest in building commercial or industrial-grade solar projects.
This statement comes at a time when investment in renewable technology remains quite meagre, despite the fact that a bright summer day in Queensland can produce around 1,400 Watts per square metre (W/m2), according to The University of Queensland.
What are the preliminary concerns?
The Queensland Department of Energy and Water Supply (DEWS) created a comprehensive guide to assist municipalities and project managers working to launch utility-scale solar farms. Many of the processes described within the DEWS' model could be conducted by a civil engineering consulting knowledgeable of Queensland's regions.
Speaking of location, this was the first item the DEWS recommended stakeholders analyse. A solar field should be constructed in an area where sunshine is consistently abundant and electricity distribution facilities readily accessible.
Assessing a solar field's feasibility is part of an engineer's job.
At this point, the engineering team must create a connection enquiry based on mandates cited in Chapter 5 of the National Electricity Rules Version 71. Chapter 5 details connection requirements for "Registered Participants" looking to feed electricity into a transmission network.
Once the steps above are addressed, the project team can move forward with establishing a granular blueprint of how the endeavour will be executed.
Again, legislation will have to be taken into account. For instance, if a solar field near Gold Coast is proposed, a team of Gold Coast-based engineers should address the city's litigious requirements. Consulting the Department of State Development, Infrastructure and Planning is also a good measure to take.
Compounding expenses related to construction, installation and the expected output of the solar farm (once it's operational).
Connecting project managers with local investors interested in such ventures.
Overall, working with an engineering consultancy that knows the lay of the land streamlines the regulatory appraisal process. Specific knowledge regarding Queensland's energy portfolio certainly won't hurt, either.


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For the Least of These: Against Inflation Economics
By on May 8, 2022 Investing
Reprinted from Public Discourse
Just twenty years ago, economists and bureaucrats triumphantly proclaimed the apotheosis of macroeconomic stabilization policy. The "Great Moderation" saw a long spell of full employment, income growth, and low and steady inflation. How we long for those days now!
While labor markets appear healthy, this could quickly change. Meanwhile, inflation has surged: Consumer prices are up more than 8 percent, and producer prices more than 11 percent, from a year ago. We haven't seen inflation this bad in more than a generation. Wages are rising, too, but not enough to keep up with inflation. American households are getting squeezed. Political unrest is increasing. And continuing global conflict will only make market turmoil worse.
It's very tempting to return to the policy consensus of yesteryear. But that would be a mistake. While U.S. economic performance was admirable during the late twentieth century, it rested on a Faustian bargain: we accepted the harmful idea that economies needed some inflation—just a little bit—to grease the wheels. As a result, we put far too much power in the hands of unaccountable central bankers. Subjecting monetary policy to bureaucratic whims is one reason we experienced, in barely over a decade, a crippling financial panic and record-breaking inflation.
It's time to set the record straight. We don't need inflation to achieve full employment and economic growth. Dollar-depreciation economics just isn't true. Furthermore, there are strong moral arguments against tolerating inflation. Descriptive economics and prescriptive political economy concur: When it comes to monetary policy, we need to fundamentally change the rules of the game.
Inflation doves claim dollar depreciation has beneficial economic consequences. Inflation increases investment by raising the returns on securities relative to highly liquid forms of wealth, such as cash or checking accounts. Furthermore, because inflation decreases real (purchasing power–adjusted) wages, it makes hiring workers easier. If central bankers keep inflation in the 2 percent range, they can supposedly give the economy a permanent shot in the arm.
Not so fast. Markets don't work this way. These views rely on a permanently exploitable form of "money illusion," whereby the public never gets wise to policymakers' tricks. But even a passing conversation with American citizens reveals they're well aware of when inflation happens and what it does to their earnings. Nor are they rubes when it comes to their investment choices. When we dig a little deeper, we see the inflation doves make two big errors.
Two Economic Errors of Inflationary Policy
First, inflation doves fail to recognize that investment returns respond to the dollar's purchasing power. Interest rates on securities such as bonds have two components: the desired rate of return and a compensation for inflation over the duration of the asset. When markets expect more inflation, suppliers of capital demand higher returns. Demanders of capital are happy to oblige: paying more in depreciated dollars doesn't sacrifice real purchasing power. This blunts the effects of inflation on investment.
It's true inflation disincentivizes holding cash and other liquid forms of wealth. But if anything, this is a cost, not a benefit! As a tax on liquidity, inflation causes people to reduce their liquid wealth holdings, because these holdings rarely scale with inflation the way other securities do. Cash, of course, has no yield, so when inflation increases, holders of cash eat the entire dollar erosion. To the extent people try to avoid this stealth-tax, society becomes poorer. Having cash and cash-substitutes on hand is useful to meet regular transaction demands. Avoiding the inflation tax means people use up other resources, including time, to economize on liquidity. All those resources could have been put to some beneficial purpose in the absence of inflation.
The second error is a special case of the first. It merely happens in labor markets instead of capital markets. Just as investors are sensitive to their purchasing power–adjusted returns, workers are sensitive to their purchasing power–adjusted wages. People aren't blind. They see prices rising at the car lot, the rental office, the gas pump, and the grocery store. Because we negotiate wages less frequently than other prices, inflation does lower wage values for a little while. But once people get wise and are free to renegotiate, they demand higher dollar wages to compensate for their lost purchasing power. Since employers are enjoying higher dollar incomes, they don't mind paying higher dollar wages. But the dollar is cheaper than it once was. Net result: neither employers nor employees can afford more goods and services than before.
The persistence of dollar-depreciation economics is best explained by the prejudices of the political class, not the strength of its arguments. Many policymakers, including central bankers, believe the economy would flounder without their constant supervision and intervention. They exaggerate the problems with markets and—much more importantly—the efficacy of technocratic solutions. Yet there's something more insidious than policy ineffectiveness going on here. If the only problem with inflation were that it didn't work, it would be, at most, an irritant. This overlooks the moral aspects of inflation, which are grave indeed.
If economics is a science, political economy is an art. When we participate in public discourse, we're not having a narrow economic conversation. We're having a broad political-economic conversation. Value-free economics ends where value-laden policy proposals begin. And when we look at the values implicit in inflationary policy schemes, we see much that should offend us. To paraphrase the great Chicago political economist Frank Knight, we must grab the bull by the tail and stare the situation square in the face.
Inflationary Policy Fails Conventional Normative Tests
If, as we've argued, the positive economic analysis of low-inflation-as-shot-in-the-arm for the economy does not hold, what does that imply for normative judgment and prescription?
There are some who are unable to avoid inflation. As we noted, cash has no yield. Those who rely heavily on cash, such as the unbanked, are hurt the most by a depreciating currency. Who are these people? According to a 2019 Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation report, "Younger households, less-educated households, and Black, Hispanic, and American Indian or Alaska Native households were more likely to use [nonbank financial]transaction services, as were lower-income households and households with volatile income."
Simply put: the poor with low credit, and especially minorities among them. Not only do their cash holdings suffer under an inflationary regime, but their relative lack of formal education—itself likely a reflection of broader social injustices—means they have less leverage with which to negotiate for better wages to compensate for eroded real incomes.
There is virtually no normative framework that justifies a policy regime that burdens the poor and marginalized. Since there's no clear upside to inflation, its regressive effects are prima facie unjustifiable. Consider two of the most prevalent political-philosophical paradigms:
Rawlsian justice-as-fairness would say that from the "original position" behind the "veil of ignorance," no reasonable person would favor an institutional arrangement that disproportionately hurts those at the bottom of our economy as does inflationary monetary policy. If one were to enter into this economy not knowing in what socioeconomic position one would start, no one would favor a system in which those at the margins of our society are handicapped against upward mobility by monetary policy. Yet this is precisely the barrier current policy places in their way.
Similarly, if the supposed benefit to investment is illusory, as detailed above, Pareto optimality would also come down in favor of monetary stability. Since market bargaining eliminates the supposed beneficial effects of inflation on investment and employment, the poor would gain and nobody else would lose if we could transition to a non-inflationary regime. Our current monetary framework is not Pareto optimal: by rejecting inflationary monetary policy, we could benefit one or more groups of people—in this case, the poor—without hurting others.
Toward a More Humane Monetary Policy
Yet both of these examples, while normative, are not quite moral. They are instrumental arguments, rather than intrinsic arguments, and thus neglect an important dimension of normativity. Morality has to do with what is best because it is good for its own sake. It is concerned with what is and contributes to the "good life" for human beings qua persons. Several interrelated moral perspectives add additional weight to our critique.
The personalist tradition, adopting Immanuel Kant's second formulation of his categorical imperative, insists that persons, as rational beings, must never be treated as means to an end but always as ends in themselves with inherent dignity and worth. Imposing the costs of inflation upon the savings and incomes of the poor for the sake of an ephemeral—or worse, imaginary—economic stimulant effectively uses one group of people for the ends of another. The cash holdings of the poor may not be much, but those savings should be theirs to use as they choose, without being stealth-taxed by misguided inflationary policy with no justification in the common good.
Speaking of the common good, the Catholic tradition of social thought defines it as "the sum of those conditions of social life which allow social groups and their individual members relatively thorough and ready access to their own fulfillment." Certainly, the capital and income needed for one's livelihood fall within these categories. Furthermore, we cannot simply look out for our own interests, but through the principle of solidarity, "every social group must take account of the needs and legitimate aspirations of other groups, and even of the general welfare of the entire human family." Thus, morally speaking, the inherent dignity of each human person not only serves as the foundation of individual rights but of our responsibilities one to another. Inflationary policy injures, rather than serves, the common good, and by the principle of solidarity people cannot overlook the harm done to others, even if it does not directly harm them.
There is a relation here to Kant, whose principle incidentally has ancient Christian antecedents and has been integrated into broader personalist social thought by figures such as the nineteenth-century Orthodox Christian philosopher Vladimir Soloviev or Pope John Paul II, among others. As Soloviev put it, "Pity which we feel towards a fellow-being acquires another significance when we see in that being the image and likeness of God. We then recognise the unconditional worth of that person; we recognise that he is an end in himself for God, and still more must be so for us."
So, too, on this personalist moral basis we must regard inflationary policy not merely as mistaken but, in a sense, inhumane. Indeed, this personalist ethic formed the anthropological foundation of the German economist Wilhelm Röpke's Humane Economy: "I see in man the likeness of God; I am profoundly convinced that it is an appalling sin to reduce man to a means." And Röpke, too, criticized inflationary policy along the same lines we have above, writing, "no great perspicacity is needed to recognize the close kinship between lack of respect for property and indifference to the value of money." To the extent the poor often must rely on cash as a store of value, the two coincide. Inflationary policy lacks basic respect for the property of the poor.
Of course, public policy is always imperfect—morality is not reducible to law. But neither may law violate morality. Rather, as Thomas Aquinas argued, civil law must be based upon, while also striving to approximate, the natural moral law in the particular circumstances of our political life together. Likewise, our monetary policy ought to contribute to the common good, rather than detract from it as it does now.
A more responsible monetary regime isn't about scoring partisan points, nor is it reducible to economic soundness. Good money does require good economics, but this isn't sufficient. Rather, monetary stability is a matter of striving for a more humane economy, especially for the poor. Like all economic institutions, monetary institutions should enable all persons to flourish. As inflation ravages the U.S. economy, it's clear our monetary policy—and the unaccountable technocratic-bureaucratic class that implements it—fails this basic test.
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