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text:
Q: matrix with 'row space = column space', but 'null space $\neq$ left null space'. Would you please give an example of a matrix with row space equal to the column space but null space is not equal to the left nullspace? Or explain why it is not possible?
Thanks

A: Recall:
row space is perpendicular to null space
column space is perpendicualr to left null space
It is given row space = column space, so the matrix has to be square singular.
The null space contains every vector perpendicular to the row space.  So when row space = column space, all the vectors that are perpendicular to the column space span the null space.
But all the vectors that are perpendicular to the column space is the left null space.
So left null space = null space

As an example consider a $3\times 3$ matrix and say the row space is the $x$ axis. Then the null space is the entire $yz$ plane.
Since you have column space= rowspace, the $yz$ plane which is perpendicular to the rowspace is also the left null space.

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaStackExchange


text:
{-# LANGUAGE CPP #-}
module GHCJS.DOM.MediaQueryListListener (
#if (defined(ghcjs_HOST_OS) && defined(USE_JAVASCRIPTFFI)) || !defined(USE_WEBKIT)
  module GHCJS.DOM.JSFFI.Generated.MediaQueryListListener
#else
#endif
  ) where
#if (defined(ghcjs_HOST_OS) && defined(USE_JAVASCRIPTFFI)) || !defined(USE_WEBKIT)
import GHCJS.DOM.JSFFI.Generated.MediaQueryListListener
#else
#endif

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaGithub


text:
The University of Ottawa throws academic freedom under the bus
Konrad Yakabuski
This article was published more than 1 year ago. Some information may no longer be current.
The people who run Canada's institutions of higher learning can no longer be trusted to stand up for the very principle for which those institutions exist in the first place. When faced with a choice between defending or silencing open debate on campus, they invariably pick the latter.
This cowering in the face of controversy sets the entirely wrong example for the young minds universities were invented to develop. Yet, university administrators who know better would rather give in to the dictates of cancel culture than face the wrath of those who do not.
Consider the response of University of Ottawa Arts dean Kevin Kee in the face of complaints that an art-history professor had used the N-word during an online seminar to illustrate the concept of subversive resignification, or the process by which an insult is reappropriated by those it is meant to insult. The songs of mainstream Black hip-hop artists provide ample proof of this phenomenon. But apparently this is a topic too hot to handle at the U of O.
"This language was offensive and completely unacceptable in our classrooms and on our campus," Prof. Kee said in a statement this month after a backlash erupted on social media against art-history professor Verushka Lieutenant-Duval. "Everyone at the University of Ottawa has the right to an environment free of discrimination and harassment, and the right to be treated with dignity and respect."
The dean's statement was highly problematic in and of itself. That someone in Prof. Lieutenant-Duval's class was offended by her use of the N-word is no excuse for its blanket prohibition in an academic setting. The professor obviously did not use it as a slur. She used it to illustrate a form of cultural expression that seeks to gut offensive words of their power to debase by reappropriating them as markers of identity. She also used the word "queer" as an example.
The U of O's administration was having none of it, however. On Monday, president and vice-chancellor Jacques Frémont, a former head of Quebec's human-rights commission, weighed in on the matter with this: "Members of dominant groups simply have no legitimacy to decide what constitutes a microaggression." According to this point of view, a white professor's right to freedom of expression comes second to the "right to dignity" of minority students.
To put these two concepts on equal footing is a sophism unacceptable from someone in Mr. Frémont's position. Academic freedom means having the freedom to offend, even if that was most definitely not Prof. Lieutenant-Duval's intention. Mr. Frémont added insult to injury by saying that Prof. Lieutenant-Duval, who was briefly suspended from teaching this month, "could have chosen not to use the full N-word. Yet she did and is now facing the consequences."
The consequences? What is that supposed to mean? That she was only asking for online harassment and threats directed at her by daring to treat her students as adults? If those who attacked Prof. Lieutenant-Duval are unwilling to discuss difficult topics, and risk being offended in the process, perhaps a university classroom is the wrong place for them.
The controversy at the U of O, which bills itself as the world's largest bilingual university, has particularly reverberated in Quebec. Many of the online attacks directed at Prof. Lieutenant-Duval referenced the fact that she is francophone; some used well-worn slurs to do so.
"What also troubles me is seeing the university throw this professor to the wolves of aggressive militants who use violent language against her and [other] francophones. I can't help but see a certain cowardice on the part of the administration," Quebec Deputy Premier Geneviève Guilbault wrote in a Facebook post defending Prof. Lieutenant-Duval's academic freedom.
"It's as if there is a censorship police," Premier François Legault added on Tuesday, saying he would take up the matter with his Ontario counterpart, Doug Ford.
Prof. Lieutenant-Duval needs better advocates than these two. Mr. Legault's government has stubbornly resisted calls to recognize systemic racism in provincial institutions, on the grounds that doing so would be tantamount to labelling Quebec a racist society. His government's attempt to make a cause célèbre of Prof. Lieutenant-Duval's case only muddies the water.
Still, francophones also make up most of the nearly three dozen U of O professors who signed a letter defending Prof. Lieutenant-Duval, suggesting many of her anglophone colleagues are too afraid to speak up on her behalf. After all, there would be "consequences."
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redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


text:
Leaving To or Leaving For?
by Mubashir
(Lahore)
What's the difference between "leaving to" and "leaving for"?
Should I say:
"I am leaving for Pakistan?"
"I am leaving to Pakistan?"
Comments for Leaving To or Leaving For?
by: Chelsey
"I am leaving for Pakistan" is correct.
FOR is a preposition with a few definitions.
One definition of for is to indicate, or show, a future goal.
"I am leaving for Pakistan" means that you are leaving your present place, and your future goal is to arrive in Pakistan.
TO is also a preposition, but it shows movement toward a place.
So, you would not say, "I am leaving to Pakistan," because "leaving" does not indicate movement toward a new place.
You could say:
1. "I am traveling to Pakistan."
2. "I am driving to Pakistan."
3. "I am flying to Pakistan."
4. "I am going to Pakistan."


Michael is a manager in the Mergers and Acquisitions Tax practice at KPMG. Michael specializes in providing US and international tax planning and structuring advice to institutional investors, including sovereigns and pensions, on investments, acquisitions, refinancing and exit strategies across various asset classes. Prior to his current role, Michael focused on advising private equity and strategic investors on the US state and local tax implications of M&A transactions. Michael has advised on transactions involving various industries, including real estate, infrastructure, financial services, manufacturing, telecommunications, technology and healthcare.


text:
KGB Spetsnaz & World War III
April 17, 2015 Mark Hackard	8 Comments
On the drizzly autumn Friday of November 11th, 1983, US President Ronald Reagan would have no time for his customary Oval Office nap. Besides delivering a speech that morning to the American Legion in honor of Veterans Day, Reagan then filled the rest of his schedule taking part in a NATO nuclear war exercise under the designation Able Archer. The president found the subject matter fascinating but frightening; despite his firebrand speeches, he also hoped the Soviets understood they had nothing to fear from America. His hope was in vain.
In Moscow, General Secretary Yuri Andropov saw Reagan's role in Able Archer, underscored by America's recent invasion of Grenada and a worldwide security alert of US forces, as the cover for a nuclear first strike. Escorted early after a freezing sunrise along with chief of the General Staff Marshal Nikolai Ogarkov to the Politburo's subterranean command bunker by his elite KGB troops, with crushing sadness and dread Andropov transmitted his directive, a desperate attempt to minimize the looming devastation his country faced.
Reagan delivers his "Evil Empire" speech on March 8th, 1983.
Later that evening, the NATO exercises having concluded, Reagan conferred with National Security Advisor Bud McFarlane, ate dinner, and set out with his wife Nancy for Andrews Air Force Base to begin his long trip to Japan. Marine One happened to pass over a wholly ordinary US Air Force Jeep on the highway below as the chopper made its approach to Andrews. Inside that Jeep were four airmen in the smart blue berets of the Air Force Security Police, the sergeant speaking with a southern Illinois accent, though he had grown up in Khabarovsk. The group had transited the Canadian border a week prior, having been directed to a safe house in a suburb of Washington, DC, to await orders. Their orders were in: under the guise of a Security Police patrol and with the right documents and no questions asked, they managed to enter Andrews, filter through layers of security and conceal a device the size of a large briefcase, to be activated by satellite signal, in some brush opposite the tarmac an hour before the president's arrival.
Reagan, greeted at Air Force One for a short debriefing on Able Archer by Secretary of Defense Cap Weinberger and Chairman of the Joint Chiefs John Vessey, was looking forward to being the first American president to address Japan's parliament, the Diet. Yet the day would never come – the pouring rain simply evaporated as a fireball of hellish intensity rose up to incinerate Andrews Air Force Base.
The four airmen in the Jeep, on their way southward into Virginia, witnessed the terrible flash illuminate the night sky behind them. Here and across the Atlantic, other groups, heretofore invisible, were descending like packs of wolves upon their targets. Speaking little amongst themselves while checking their weapons, they raced down I-95 toward their next objective in darkness: the power grid of the whole eastern seaboard had just gone dead.
Such a horrific turn of events was more likely than we would care to consider. Thankfully, Reagan decided not to participate in Able Archer and rather went straight to Japan to address the Diet. Andropov and the Soviet leadership, while on razor's edge over what they viewed as provocative US-NATO moves, didn't overreact. Instead of this nightmare scenario coming true, East and West would live to tell of another narrow escape from Armageddon during the dark days of the Cold War. Yet the armed services and spies of both sides would continue to stand at the ready for any eventuality – the following is the true story of the KGB's special units.
The KGB – Instrument of Soviet Global Power
From the mid-1970s to the 1980s, the Soviet KGB created a fearsome capability for counter-terrorism and special operations, one that made Western strategists nervously re-evaluate their plans and projections. With the potential for conflict with the United States and NATO – from the risk of nuclear exchange to brushfire wars in the Third World – only growing, such dangerous circumstances required the creation of special units distinct from those of the General Staff's GRU (Glavnoe Razvedyvatel'noe Upravlenie– Main Intelligence Directorate).
The KGB's Kremlin Regiment performs the changing of the guard outside Lenin's Mausoleum by Red Square.
As the USSR's premier secret service, the KGB (Komitet Gosudarstvennoi Bezopasnosti – Committee for State Security) carried out intelligence and covert action worldwide. Soviet power was approaching its global zenith during the era of détente, and Lubyanka looked to field a more comprehensive special-forces capability then it had previously. The GRU, after all, was already focused on wiping out key military personnel and facilities of the "main adversary" shortly before war would break out. As chairman of the KGB, Yuri Andropov wanted to craft a similar instrument that the Kremlin could apply to the wider geopolitical spectrum. Andropov and his men were truly innovators in this regard, founding elite special-missions units that provided the Soviet leadership with options for discrete, direct action during crisis conditions with the West.
Alpha: The KGB's Shield
Andropov first devoted a considerable amount of attention and effort to the formation of new spetsnaz (special purpose) groups because of their value in guarding the Soviet Union from potential blackmail by terrorists, which could produce a corrosive effect on political stability. The Politburo and KGB leadership were particularly concerned by the possibility of hijackings and terrorist acts by nationalist groups that called for independence from Moscow. An Armenian extremist cell, for example, committed three nearly simultaneous bombings in Moscow on the 8th of January 1977 before they were apprehended by the KGB eight months later[i].
To answer the terrorist threat, Andropov decided to institute a brand-new commando force within the KGB. In 1974 Unit "A" was formed under the 7th Directorate (Surveillance), but was subordinated directly to the chairman of the KGB[ii]. The team, now popularly known as "Alpha", was trained for anti-terrorist functions on Soviet territory. Alpha originally consisted of approximately 30 hand-picked men, but as its utility was recognized, the number of officers, as well as funds and special equipment, increased. Alpha also participated in the interdiction of hostile intelligence operations and the seizure of Western agents ("snatch-and-grabs") within the Soviet Union[iii].
KGB Deputy Chairman Vladimir Pirozhkov reviews Alpha.
Alpha, however, was endowed with a strategic purpose apart from just combating terrorist phenomena or snatching spies. Andropov was well aware of the West's development of elite special operations forces such as Delta, SAS, and GSG-9 and sought a counter to their likely infiltration into the USSR in the event of hostilities. US and NATO special-missions units would be tasked with the assassination of the Party leadership and Soviet high command and the sabotage of strategic objects. Alpha, therefore, was designed to protect the Politburo's senior members and key facilities during war or periods of heightened tension.
The group's strategic task is confirmed by another fact relating to the optimization of the KGB's structure. In the same year of Alpha's founding, 1974, the 15th Directorate, responsible for servicing the Kremlin leadership's underground bunkers, was accorded the title of a chief directorate, a significant upgrade in status[iv]. Detachments from both Alpha and the 15th Chief Directorate conducted training exercises escorting Politburo and Central Committee officials into command-and-control nodes buried well below the famous Moscow Metro system. It is reported that Andropov viewed these rehearsals with utmost seriousness, despite his chronic physical ailments, after he assumed the General Secretary's seat in the early 1980s[v]. By the time of the failure of détente and escalating tensions over US intermediate-range missile deployment in Europe, Andropov had reason to plan out contingencies.
Vympel: The KGB's Sword
The KGB did not cease the development of special operations forces with Alpha; Andropov sought to create a special-missions unit that could infiltrate hostile territory and execute direct actions, such as assassinating the enemy high command and destroying strategic infrastructure. The First Chief Directorate, responsible for foreign intelligence, maintained within its apparatus the super-secret Directorate S (Illegal intelligence). This was the KGB's arm responsible for highly covert intelligence work without the refuge of diplomatic status or any association with the Soviet government. Directorate S operations typically involved the penetration of an intelligence officer (often with a spouse) into a country as natives of that land or immigrants from a third country in order to gather intelligence and run agents. Henceforth, the illegals would also facilitate the missions of deep-cover commando teams.
Foreshadowing: a 1971 KUOS photo of course graduates posing with famous Soviet illegal Col. William Fisher (Rudolf Abel).
There was certainly an organizational base for Andropov to draw on for his new project, and previous endeavors showed the need for a more systematized, permanent structure for special operations. Earlier a Department V for planning sabotage and assassinations, heir to the infamous 13th Department of the 1950s, had been created within the First Chief Directorate in 1969. Concurrently there was established an Officer Corps Development Course (KUOS) in Balashikha, on the outskirts of Moscow, to prepare a "special reserve" of KGB operatives for crisis and war. Department V was disbanded, though, after one of its officers, Major Oleg Lyalin, had defected to the United Kingdom while there on assignment in 1971[vi].
Clearly the KGB needed a highly secret, cohesive combat unit in a constant state of readiness to be deployed abroad at a moment's notice to protect Soviet interests. Such an elite commando group would be of inestimable value during a crisis situation or war, for it could potentially succeed in "decapitating" the enemy's leadership, thereby forcing a more beneficial outcome to a conflict for the Soviet Union. In 1976, five years after Lyalin's disastrous defection, Foreign Intelligence's Directorate S, the Illegals, assumed control of KUOS and instituted the 8th Department, henceforth responsible for assassinations and sabotage in foreign countries[vii]. The time was coming when such actions would be ordered by the Politburo.
KGB Directorate S chief Maj. Gen. Yuri Drozdov with participants of Storm-333, the assassination of Afghan President Hafizullah Amin, December 1979.
KGB special groups- the temporarily formed Zenit from the First Chief Directorate and the Grom detachment from the 7th Directorate's Alpha – did indeed manage the textbook decapitation of a target state[viii]. Yet this operation did not take place in a NATO member state, but rather in crisis-ridden Afghanistan in late December 1979. The action could be seen as a dress-rehearsal, albeit under differing conditions, for the strategic paralysis of NATO governments if the Warsaw Pact were ever to launch its armored divisions into West Germany. The spetsnaz teams accomplished an operational success in assassinating Afghan President Hafizullah Amin at the behest of Leonid Brezhnev's Politburo, yet the Soviet Union was dragged into a brutal, decade-long morass that was a strategic catastrophe. Nonetheless, the KGB's special detachments continued to show their operational and tactical effectiveness throughout the Afghan war. Such activities included reconnaissance, intelligence and sabotage operations, as well as killing or seizing leading figures among the CIA-backed mujahedin[ix].
The KGB's most elite special missions unit, Vympel (Pennant), was finally established in August of 1981 within the 8th Department of Directorate S. Maj. Gen. Yuri Drozdov, a veteran of the Illegals Directorate and its chief from 1979 until the end of the Cold War, characterized Department 8 as "nothing less than an information and research intelligence structure, which followed by operational means everything concerning NATO special forces." Drozdov says that his illegals even underwent special-forces training in NATO armies[x]. One can only wonder which Western nations unwittingly played host to Soviet deep-cover officers in their most sensitive commando outfits, but such first-hand knowledge would have been put to good use by the KGB in order to fashion Vympel a cut above its competitors.
Known officially as the Separate Training Center, Vympel was tasked with special operations abroad, including sabotage and direct-action missions against hostile states. The officers who composed the unit were selected not only from the KGB, but from all the Soviet armed services, and passed through an extremely rigorous regimen of all-conditions commando training, language instruction, intelligence work, and instruction in driving all manner of vehicles[xi].
A Soviet KGB Vympel advisor in Angola.
Along with combat duty in Afghanistan, officers of the unit undertook "advisory" assignments in Vietnam, Nicaragua, Angola, Mozambique, and other locations of the Cold War's proxy conflicts throughout the 1980s[xii]. Vympel operators also likely engaged in "force protection" for vital intelligence operations in dangerous conditions in addition to hunting down terrorists threatening Soviet interests. Drozdov tells of Vympel's 1985 action against a Palestinian group that had kidnapped three Soviet diplomats in Lebanon:
In Lebanon citizens of the USSR were taken hostage. Negotiations with the terrorists weren't producing any results. And suddenly, one after the other, the bandit leaders began dying under unclear circumstances. Those who were still alive received an ultimatum: if the hostages are not released, then they will have to choose among themselves who will be next. After two and a half months, they released our men[xiii].
The veteran spymaster then mentions an operation in which Vympel operators disembarked from a submarine onto the coastline of a foreign country during a midnight storm, penetrated deep inland, and snatched a person targeted by the KGB for their possession of crucial intelligence. Within hours the team was back on the submarine, along with a new passenger, and on its way to the Soviet Union[xiv].
On the Brink of Doomsday
Aside from counter-terror work and high-risk intelligence missions, Alpha and Vympel's ultimate purpose was to short-circuit World War III, or at least provide the Soviet Union with an opportunity to win it. Andropov ordered the creation of Vympel in particular amidst Kremlin fears over what actions newly-elected US President Ronald Reagan might undertake vis-à-vis the USSR. The Soviet intervention in Afghanistan and the deployment of intermediate-range SS-20s within striking distance of European cities were all within the context of increasing tensions with the West. Along with an arms buildup already ongoing since the late 1970s, under Reagan the US struck an offensive policy course of "containment" and covert warfare. Andropov, soon to be General Secretary, was among the first to realize that the Soviet economic engine was considerably weakening, and the shift in the balance of power was not in Moscow's favor.
The systemic factor of long-term Soviet decline was accompanied by harsher rhetoric from Washington. Reagan's stance was not a matter of mere words; he sanctioned the placement of Pershing II and Cruise missiles in West Germany as well as the wide-scale renewal of US "ferret flights" to test Soviet radar and air defenses[xv]. To Soviet planners the juxtaposition of such data was alarming. With analysts believing that US Pershing-II missiles could reach Moscow within five minutes, the Kremlin leadership began to fear the possibility of a US first strike[xvi]. In May 1981, Andropov had initiated the joint KGB-GRU strategic monitoring program RYAN (Raketno-Iadernoe Napadenie– Nuclear Missile Attack) to monitor any preparations for any such US action[xvii].
In all of Cold War history, November of 1983 was perhaps the moment of greatest danger between the US and Soviet Union. On the heels of the White House's spring initiation of the Strategic Defense Initiative and the tensions after the September 1st Soviet downing of Korean Airlines Flight 007, NATO had scheduled nuclear command exercises, code-named Able Archer 83, to be held from the November 2nd to the 11th. Judging from October telegrams from Moscow Center to the KGB's London residency, Soviet attention was trained – with grave intensity – on the exercises as a potential prelude to a Western surprise attack[xviii].
Artist's depiction of the downing of KAL 007. Painting by Andrei Zhirnov.
While Euro-Atlantic leaders were largely unaware of the extent of Andropov's alarm at the NATO exercises, miscalculations mistaken as war indicators might have triggered Soviet preemption – spearheaded by spetsnaz. As intelligence scholar Benjamin Fischer bluntly states, "The war scare was for real" during the early 1980s[xix]. Far from a product of some clinical paranoia, Soviet strategic culture was forged by historical experience. Hitler's ability to launch Operation Barbarossa – due to Stalin ignoring numerous intelligence reports that a German attack was imminent – resulted in a war of annihilation. The Kremlin could never permit such a disaster again, and now the margin of error was measured in minutes. Andropov's creation of KGB special operations units was well-timed: Alpha was the Soviet leadership's shield, and Vympel its sword.
At the critical juncture of a crisis like Able Archer, Vympel's combat groups would have deployed and infiltrated into the US and allied countries to near-simultaneously assassinate the enemy's leadership and destroy vital command and control facilities. Suppressing NATO military-political coordination and additionally disabling its nuclear launch assets in the European theatre, groups of spetsnaz operators from both the KGB and GRU would have cleared the way for the surge of Warsaw Pact armor across the Fulda Gap[xx]. And before such a notion is dismissed as idle speculation in the style of Tom Clancy yarns, in the early 1980s the communications of the entire US Navy, the most potent arm of Washington's nuclear triad, were an open book to Moscow thanks to the Walker espionage ring[xxi].
The prospective operations of KGB spetsnaz, in conjunction with those of the GRU, were designed to induce strategic paralysis in a hostile state and enable the Soviet Union to carry off an advantageous preemptive nuclear strike if necessary. It is not publicly known whether any such visitors filtered into Western capitals during November 1983 or other periods, but the likelihood is high. Developing such an elite unit capable of unique assignments must be evaluated as strategic foresight on the part of Yuri Andropov. A consummate practitioner of statecraft in the shadows, this master of the KGB appreciated the value that could be brought to bear at pivotal moments by a handful of specially trained men.
Lessons Learned?
We should all be grateful that cooler heads and providential restraint prevailed in the dark days of 1983, and that the signal for Soviet spetsnaz to commence action never came. Yet a generation later, we again find ourselves in a similar crisis: after the Soviet collapse NATO has pushed deep eastward. A resurgent Russia sees not only its sphere of interests, but also its sovereignty and very survival under threat. The nation that defeated Napoleon's Grande Armee and the once-invincible Wehrmacht is again developing contingency options, from nuclear forces to cyber-warfare and spetsnaz. None of this renewed bipolar confrontation, however, is inevitable. If mutual respect amongst peoples is more than just rhetoric, men of good will can step back from the brink and make peace possible.
Primary Sources/ Interviews
Andrew, Chistopher & Gordievsky, Oleg. Comrade Kryuchkov's Instructions. Stanford University Press, 1994. Stanford.
Drozdov, Yuri. Vymysel Iskliouchen. Vympel-Almanakh, 1996. Moscow.
Earley, Pete. "Interview with the Spymaster." The Washington Post, April 23, 1995. http://www.freerepublic.com/focus/f-chat/695402/posts
Kryuchkov, Vladimir. Lichnoe Delo. Eksmo, 2003. Moscow.
Kuznetsova, Tatyana. "Razvedchik Spetsnaznachenia." Argumenty I Fakty, August 16, 2006. http://www.fsb.ru/fsb/smi/interview/single.htm!id%3D10342720@fsbSmi.html
Samodelova, Svetlana. "Kogti Andropova." Moskovskii Komsomolets, June 19, 2004. http://www.mk.ru/numbers/1136/article33242.htm
Secondary Works
Lubyanka 2: Iz Zhizni Otechestvennoi Kontrrazvedki. Mosgorarkhiv, 1999. Moscow.
Atamanenko, Igor. "Porkhaya kak Babochka, Zhalit kak Pchela." Nezavisimoe Voennoe Obozrenie, July 31, 2009. http://nvo.ng.ru/spforces/2009-07-31/12_alpha.html
Boltunov, Mikhail. Vympel: Diversanty Rossii. Yauza/Eksmo, 2003. Moscow.
Campbell, Capt. Erin E. "The Soviet Spetsnaz Threat to NATO." Air Power Journal, Summer 1988. http://www.airpower.maxwell.af.mil/airchronicles/apj/apj88/sum88/campbell.html
Fischer, Benjamin B. "A Cold War Conundrum." Center for the Study of Intelligence, 1997. http://www.cia.gov/csi/monograph/coldwar/source.htm
Kokurin, A.I., & Petrov, N.V. Lubyanka: Spravochnik. Izdatel'stvo Materik, 2004. Moscow.
Medvedev, Roy. Neizvestnyi Andropov. Pheniks, 1999. Moscow.
Prokhorov, Aleksandr, & Kolpakidi, Aleksandr. Vneshniaia Razvedka Rossii. Neva, 2001. St. Petersburg.
[i] Lubianka 2: Iz Zhizni Otechestvennoi Kontrrazvedki. (Mosgorarkhiv, 1999. Moscow), 304.
[ii] Medvedev, Roy. Neizvesntnyi Andropov. (Pheniks, 1999. Moscow), 188.
[iii] Atamanenko, Igor. "Porkhaya kak Babochka, Zhalit kak Pchela." (Nezavisimoe Voennoe Obozrenie, July 31, 2009) http://nvo.ng.ru/spforces/2009-07-31/12_alpha.html
[iv] Kokurin & Petrov. Lubyanka: Spravochnik. (Izdatelstvo Materik, 2004. Moscow), 218.
[v] Samodelova, Svetlana. "Kogti Andropova." (Moskovskii Komsomolets, June 19, 2004) http://www.mk.ru/numbers/1136/article33242.htm
[vi] Prokhorov & Kolpakidi. Vneshnyaya Razvedka Rossii. (Neva, 2001. St. Petersburg), 74.
[vii] Ibid.
[viii] Ibid, 88.
[ix] Kryuchkov, Vladimir. Lichnoe Delo. (Eksmo, 2003. Moscow), 234.
[x] Drozdov, Yuri. Vymysel Isklyuchen. (Vympel-Almanakh, 1996. Moscow), 161.
[xi] Boltunov, Mikhail. Vympel: Diversanty Rossii. (Yauza/Eksmo, 2003. Moscow), 19-24.
[xii] Drozdov, Vymysel Isklyuchen, 170.
[xiii] Kuznetsova, Tatyana. "Razvedchik Spetsialnogo Naznachenia." (Argumenty I Fakty, August 16, 2006) http://www.fsb.ru/fsb/smi/interview/single.htm!id%3D10342720@fsbSmi.html
[xiv] Ibid.
[xv] Fisher, Benjamin B. "A Cold War Conundrum." (Center for the Study of Intelligence, 1997) http://www.fsb.ru/fsb/smi/interview/single.htm!id%3D10342720@fsbSmi.html
[xvi] Andrew & Gordievsky. Comrade Kryuchkov's Instructions. (Stanford University Press, 1994. Stanford), 74.
[xvii] Ibid, 67.
[xviii] Ibid, 86.
[xix] Fisher, "A Cold War Conundrum."
[xx] Campbell, "The Soviet Spetsnaz Threat to NATO."
[xxi] Earley, Pete. "Interview with the Spymaster." (The Washington Post, April 23, 1995) http://www.freerepublic.com/focus/f-chat/695402/posts
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8 thoughts on "KGB Spetsnaz & World War III"
Wow, awesome site!
Neo-Pelagius says:
Reblogged this on Blinded by the Darkness and commented:
Very interesting and gives some context to the current situation … great photos too.
Thank you, Neo-Pelagius.
This was a very fascinating read, very enlightening. Thank you.
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The Alberta division of Canadian Manufacturers and Exporters (CME-Alberta) today announced the Finalists for the second annual Alberta Export Awards.
Strata Health Solutions Inc., a leader in delivering unique technology and operational expertise across complex health economies has made a significant breakthrough within the UK marketplace over the last year.
Don Schick, President and CEO of Strata Health Solutions Inc. comments, "We have embarked on targeted export opportunities globally – primarily focused within countries where health systems share many of the traits of our own Canadian marketplace. Our investment in building these markets has and will continue to be significant and is clearly defining itself as a core part of our ongoing corporate growth strategy".
Award winners in each category, along with the prestigious Exporter of the Year recipient, will be honored as Alberta's top exporters by CME-Alberta, provincial government officials and leaders from the export community at the Alberta Export Awards Gala luncheon.
Strata Health Solutions Inc. is headquartered in Calgary, Alberta and has expanded and shared it's expertise on a global basis, gaining particular presence within the United Kingdom in 2009/2010.


When we have potlucks at work, I get at least a dozen requests for these. And there are never any leftovers.
mix all ingredients, except olives in food processor or ziptop bag.
snip corner off of baggie & squeeze mixture into olives. Refridgerate until ready to serve.
Can also be made into wraps. Mix chopped olives in with cream cheese mixture & spread on wraps. Top with shredded cheese & roll. Chill 30-60 minutes then slice.


The Red Hatters senior group recently took an educational and cultural tour of the Martial Arts History Museum in Burbank. Museum owner Michael Matsuda gave members a personal tour of the museum highlighting the impact that Asian culture and tradition have had on American society.
Rotary International's coveted Silver Bell award was presented to Burbank Sunrise Rotary for being the best small club in its 33-club district for the past year. The presentation was made at the Rotary District 5260 Conference in North Hollywood in June.
District Governor Tom Hardy presented the award to club President Rod Gregson in recognition of outstanding achievement for the club's hard work in numerous areas of Rotary endeavors. In addition, Gregson was presented with the Changemaker Award for the club. He was one of only seven people in the district to be so awarded.
The club met demanding criteria in all five of Rotary's Avenues of Service. It also was given a "100% Paul Harris Fellow Club" banner for everybody in the club being a Paul Harris Fellow, an award given for donating money for Rotary International's Polio Plus program.
Burbank Sunrise Rotary meets at 7:15 a.m. Tuesdays at the Holiday Inn, 150 E. Angeleno Ave., Burbank.
Burbank high school and college students have received scholarships from the Glendale Area Alumnae Panhellenic, a nonprofit organization of sorority alumnae volunteer women.
Awards are given annually to eligible area high school senior girls and college women who are planning to attend a four-year college or university in the fall.
The college recipient from Burbank is Celina Rodriguez, a member of Alpha Delta Pi at Duke University, majoring in public policy.
The high school recipients from Burbank are Alyssa Ehredt, a graduate of Burroughs High School, who will attend Cal State Fresno; Elizabeth Pascual, a graduate of Burroughs High School, who will attend Cal State San Diego; and Valery Vasquez, a graduate of Burbank High School, who will attend Stanford University.
The Glendale Panhellenic membership has also installed its officers. They are President Harriet Rector, of Glendale, Phi Mu; Vice President/Benefit Chairwoman Deb Ann Orfalea, Glendale, Zeta Tau Alpha; Secretary Janice Paul, La Cañada Flintridge, Delta Delta Delta; Treasurer Georgine Archer, Burbank, Delta Gamma; Benefit Co-chairwoman Kim Westhoff, Glendale, Alpha Omicron Pi; and Social Chair Elaine Chapman, La Cañada Flintridge, Kappa Kappa Gamma.
More are Scholarship Chairwoman Jackqueline Dwight, Burbank, Alpha Xi Delta; Scholarship Committee members Jerri Johnson, Pasadena, Sigma Sigma Sigma, Cathy Daniel, South Pasadena, Pi Beta Phi, and Julie Weller, Glendale, Delta Zeta; and Files Chair Lynne Graves, La Cañada Flintridge, Alpha Delta Pi. The Website Coordinator is Janis Rosebrook, Glendale, Alpha Xi Delta. Rondi Redmann, Glendale, Zeta Tau Alpha will be assisting Orfalea and Westhoff with the 2013 Scholarship benefit.
For more information, visit www.glendalepanhellenic.org.
Orochon Ramen, a Japanese ramen restaurant, opened for business in the Burbank Town Center with a ribbon-cutting on June 24.
Mayor Dave Golonski and his son, John, attended the grand opening event along with about 100 of the restaurant's fans.
Orochon means "the brave" in Ainu, the language of an indigenous people in northern Japan. Orochon Ramen is known for its intensely spicy Special #2 Challenge and was featured on the "Man vs. Food" television show, which is still being shown in reruns on the Travel Channel. Only about 200 out of 20,000 customers have been able to eat the entire bowl of ramen noodles and the spiciest soup to the last sip in 30 minutes. If one is able to complete the challenge, the tab is on the house.
Restaurant owner Shigeki Matsuda also makes Burbank his home.


Angela Kulig recently moved from the desert to the beach, so she's used to sand between her toes. Driven mad by the sun (or maybe all writers are mad), she produces stories faster than she can write them down. Journey into her world, where art schools harbor secrets whispered through the centuries, or skeletons with false flesh live among unsuspecting humans. At the very least, follow her on Twitter, where she can often be found communicating in the form of demotivational posters and book quotes.


text:
IALS Library Guides
Public International Law: IALS Library Guides
An introduction to legal research in public international law
Treaty indexes
Travaux préparatoires
Customary international law: state practice
Teachings of publicists
Journals and yearbooks
Hester Swift, June 2020
About the author HS
This guide was created by Hester Swift, Foreign & International Law Librarian at the IALS Library.
Email hester.swift@sas.ac.uk
Reference Desk hours:
Tel (0)20 7862 5790
Email ials@sas.ac.uk
We'd love to hear your comments about this Research Guide.
Related IALS Guides
Databases Guide
An introduction to IALS Library's electronic resources for different jurisdictions
European Union: Legal Research Guide
A guide to researching the law of the EU
United Nations: Legal Research Guide
A guide to researching the law of the UN
We also recommend the following online research guides for international law.
GlobaLex
A large collection of legal research guides covering foreign and international law, published by the Hauser Global Law School Program at the New York University School of Law.
Public international law governs the conduct of states and international organisations and the relations between them. Areas of public international law include air law, diplomatic law and the law of armed conflict.
The Statute of the International Court of Justice, article 38(1), is often used to define the sources of public international law. It lists the following sources: treaties; international custom (hence 'customary international law'); generally recognised principles of law; judicial decisions; and the teachings of publicists (leading scholars in the field of public international law). Judicial decisions and the teachings of publicists are classed as secondary sources (art. 31(1) (d)).
IALS Library has a large public international law collection, comprising several treaty series; numerous series of international law reports; hundreds of yearbooks and journals; and thousands of monographs. A large area of the third floor reading room is devoted to international law, while additional holdings are kept in the basement Reserve and Offsite Store. IALS also subscribes to many online databases with substantial international law content.
A treaty is a written agreement between two or more states, governed by international law (Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, 1969, art.2(1)(a)). It does not necessarily have the word 'treaty' in its title: it could call itself a 'convention', 'agreement', or something else.
IALS Library has produced a free online course covering treaty research.
Treaty glossary
Some common terms are listed below; for others, see the glossary and Treaty Handbook on the UN Treaty Collection website.
Accession: the formal acceptance of a treaty by a state which was not one of the original signatories.
Depositary (or depository): the state or international organisation responsible for keeping the original treaty instruments and for registering ratifications and other subsequent treaty actions.
Ratification: means by which a state may express its definitive consent to be bound by a treaty (but note that not all treaties have to be ratified).
Reservation: a unilateral statement made by a state when signing, ratifying, accepting, approving, or acceding to a treaty, aiming to exclude or to modify the legal effect of certain treaty provisions in their application to that state.
Signature: the official affixing of names to a treaty by the representatives of the negotiating states, expressing consent to be bound by the treaty, or provisional consent to be bound subject to ratification or other procedures.
General treaty sources
The United Nations Treaty Series (UNTS, 1946 - ): the leading publication for multilateral and bilateral treaties. The international law section of the Oxford Standard for the Citation of Legal Authorities says the UNTS should be cited in preference to other treaty sources (OSCOLA 2006: Citing International Law Sources, p.25). All treaties entered into by UN member states have to be registered with the UN Secretariat and published by it (Charter of the UN, art. 102), although a few treaties are not published in full (the UNTC website has information about limited and partial publication). Some treaties are missing from the UNTS and publication of new treaties is slow; if the treaty you want is not in the UNTS, find an alternative source using a treaty index (see below).
The entire UNTS is available free on the UN Treaty Collection website, with details of signatures, ratifications and so on. It is also in Hein Online's UN Law Collection. IALS has the bound set up to vol. 2174 (2002), including cumulative indexes; all volumes are kept in the IALS Offsite Store.
Multilateral Treaties Deposited with the Secretary General (MTDSG): this UN publication records signatures, ratifications and other treaty actions, but only covers the 560 or so treaties formally deposited with the Secretary General, a very small proportion of the treaties published in the UNTS. MTDSG covers a few treaties pre-dating the UN. It used to be an annual print publication (1949-2009, in IALS 1949 to 2006) but has been superseded by a continually-updated online version, which is on the UN Treaty Collection website (under Status of Treaties). HeinOnline's UN Law Collection has an online version of the old annual print edition (1981-2009).
League of Nations, Treaty Series (LNTS, 1920 -1946): contains treaties made by member states of the League of Nations from 1920 to 1945, with indexes. Its full title is Treaty series and international engagements registered with the Secretariat of the League of Nations. The LNTS is on the UN Treaty Collection website and on HeinOnline. IALS has the bound LNTS volumes in its Offsite Store.
International Legal Materials (ASIL, 1962 - ): ILM publishes introductory notes to important new multilateral treaties, occasionally accompanied by the text of the treaty (but now that most multilaterals are available on the internet it usually gives the URL instead of reproducing the text). IALS has the printed ILM volumes and the series is also on Lexis®Library (all volumes), Westlaw International Materials (1980 onwards) and HeinOnline (1962 to pre-current volume); these databases may be accessed by authorised users via the IALS Electronic Law Library.
Regional treaty sources
Council of Europe (CoE): treaties concluded under the aegis of the Council of Europe are published in the Council of Europe Treaty Series (CETS), formerly known as the European Treaty Series (ETS, 1949-2003). IALS holds the entire series at classmark FOL GO1.A.20.E.1. All CoE treaties are also on the Council of Europe website, together with explanatory reports and status information (details of ratifications and so on). For more information about CoE treaties, please see our Council of Europe research guide.
European Union (EU): the EU uses the term 'treaty' specifically for its fundamental treaties, such as the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union; it categorises other international instruments as 'international agreements'. EU treaties and international agreements are published in the Official Journal of the European Union, which is on the EUR-Lex website. EU treaties and international agreements are also on Lexis®Library and Westlaw UK (see IALS Electronic Law Library). The bound volumes of the Official Journal are held in the IALS Offsite Store.
Status information for EU treaties and international agreements (and the full text of these documents) is given on the EU's Consilium website. The European Commission has a database of EU international agreements which includes summaries, citations and other information, plus full-text documents. For more information, please see our EU research guide.
African Union (AU): all African Union treaties are on the AU website; some have also been published in International Legal Materials and/or the African Yearbook of International Law, both of which are available at IALS in hard copy and online (see Library Catalogue).
Organization of American States (OAS): treaties concluded by the OAS are known as 'inter-American treaties'; they appear in the OAS' Treaty Series / Serie sobre tratados (held at IALS 1970-1985 only); they are also on the OAS website, with status information.
National treaty sources
Many common law jurisdictions , such as the UK, publish the treaties to which they are a party in their own national treaty series, while civil law jurisdictions, such as France, tend to publish treaties in their official gazettes; some states provide a treaty database online, often on the website of the foreign ministry. National treaty sources for Australia, France, Germany, the United Kingdom and the United States are detailed below. For other jurisdictions, try the Eagle-I web portal (resource type: treaties) or WorldLII's International Treaties Collection; see also Winterton and Moys, Information Sources in Law (2nd edn, Bowker Saur 1997).
Australia: treaties in force for Australia are officially published in the Australian Treaty Series (ATS, 1901- ). IALS does not hold this title, but the whole series is on AustLII, with cross-references to protocols and so on (click on 'Note-Up'). Other treaty information on AustLII includes: status lists for multilateral treaties deposited with the Australian Government; Australian Treaty Action Monthly Update; and Australian Treaties Not Yet in Force (ATNIF). The Australian Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade provides status information for Australian treaties in its Australian Treaty Database.
France: the official source of French treaties is the Journal officiel de la République française (JO). IALS does not hold the printed JO, but it is on the official Légifrance website from 1990 onwards. The French Foreign Ministry also provides a database of current and historical treaties, with status information, called Base des Traités et Accords de la France.
Germany: German treaties are published in part two ('Teil II') of the Bundesgesetzblatt (BGBl; formerly the Reichs-Gesetzblatt, or RGBl).The BGBl is available free on the internet from 1951 onwards. IALS has the printed RGBl from 1899 to 1945 (plus incomplete holdings of earlier volumes) and the BGBl on microfiche from 1949 to 1980.
United Kingdom: treaties involving the UK are published as command papers (a type of official publication); before they come into force, new bilateral treaties are published in the Country series of command papers, multilaterals in the Miscellaneous series and EC/EU treaties in the European Communities/Union series; once they come into force for the UK, all types of treaties are published in the Treaty Series (UKTS, 1892 - ).
IALS Library holds the UKTS from 1946 onwards (including indexes), the whole European Communities/Union series and selected items from the Miscellaneous series. All treaties to which the UK is (or has been) a party are included in the UK Treaties Online database on the Foreign and Commonwealth Office (FCO) website. Recent treaties are available on the FCO's UK Treaties page.
Information about changes to the status of UK treaties is added to the UK Treaties Online database weekly; details are also published in the United Kingdom Treaty Action Bulletin (2013 onwards; appears to have superseded the Supplementary List: Treaty Ratifications, Accessions, Withdrawals). Status information for treaties to which the UK is a party can also be obtained by contacting the FCO Treaty Section. Status information for the 40 or 50 multilateral treaties deposited with the UK is available from the FCO's Depositary page.
United States: in the US, international instruments are categorised either as 'treaties' or as 'international agreements', and different procedures are used to approve each type. Both types are published first as individual pamphlets, in the Treaties and Other International Acts Series (TIAS); this publication is now issued online only. Treaties/agreements concluded from 1950 to 1982 were collected into the bound volumes of United States Treaties and Other International Agreements (UST), but UST then ceased publication; before UST started, treaties and international agreements were collected into the annual volumes of Statutes at Large.
IALS Library holds UST and Statutes at Large and also offers online collections of US treaties/agreements, via HeinOnline, Lexis®Library and Westlaw International Materials.
Online sources of US treaties and agreements:-
State Department website: Treaties and Other International Acts Series (TIAS), 1981 onwards;
HeinOnline: US Treaties and Agreements Library has treaties and agreements from 1776 onwards (includes TIAS)
Lexis Library: US Treaties on Lexis has treaties and agreements from 1776 onwards;
Westlaw International Materials: Westlaw's United States Treaties and Other International Agreements collection covers treaties and agreements involving the US from 1778 onwards;
Federal Digital System (FDsys): this official website has treaties from the 104th Congress (1995-96) onwards, in its Congressional Documents collection.
Status information and indexes: treaties and agreements in force for the US are listed in the annual title Treaties in Force, with details of signatories, parties, the date in force, amendments and so on. The current edition is on the State Department website; both current and previous editions are on Lexis, Westlaw International and Hein Online; IALS has the print editions from 1964 onwards. See also Kavass's Guide to the United States Treaties in Force and the United States Treaty Index, both held at IALS.
A detailed guide to US treaty research is available from the Arthur W. Diamond Law Library at Columbia University.
Treaties by subject
Selected subject-based collections are listed below:-
Children: Van Bueren, G. (ed.), International documents on children (2nd rev edn, Martinus Nijhoff 1998).
Human rights: the University of Minnesota Human Rights Center provides an online library of human rights treaties; see also Brownlie, I., and Goodwin-Gill, G. (ed.s), Brownlie's documents on human rights, (6th edn, OUP 2010).
Intellectual property: the WIPO website makes available all the treaties that WIPO administers.
International trade: the WTO and GATT agreements are on the WTO website; they are also on the subscription database TradeLawGuide (via IALS Electronic Law Library).
Investment: UNCTAD 's Investment Policy Hub provides a collection of international investment agreements.
Taxation: IBFD Online, a subscription database available via the IALS Electronic Law Library, has a large collection of tax treaties.
Historical treaty collections
Clive Parry's Consolidated treaty series (CTS / Consol TS) is an important collection of treaties concluded between 1648 and 1920. IALS Library has the whole series (more than 230 volumes).
HeinOnline's World Treaty Library is a vast collection of treaties from 1648 onwards; for historical treaties it has very similar coverage to the Consolidated Treaty Series (it also has thousands of more recent treaties, up to the present day).
Other historical collections available from IALS Library include: -
British and Foreign State Papers (BFSP): treaties concluded by Britain/the UK from 1812 to 1968, plus some earlier treaties. The whole series is on HeinOnline; IALS Library's print set is incomplete.
Hertslet's Commercial Treaties: trade and other commercial treaties concluded from 1354 to 1921, with indexes. Also available on HeinOnline.
Martens, G. F. de, et al, Recueil de traités… (1761-1808); Nouveau recueil de traités... (1808-1839); Nouveau recueil général de traités.... (three series, covering 1840 to 1944), et cetera. The various Martens compilations include treaties in a variety of languages, not just French. Many are available on HeinOnline as well as being held at IALS.
See also: the Avalon Project: documents in law, history and diplomacy (Yale University), which includes key treaties from the ninth century onwards.
IALS Library has a collection of treaty indexes at classmark BS40, and online indexes are also available:-
FLARE Index to Treaties: free web resource provided by IALS Library, covering about 2,000 multilaterals (seventeenth century onwards) and some bilaterals (1353 to 1815). Gives citations, place and date of signature, et cetera, and links to the full text where available.
HeinOnline's Treaty Index (part of the World Treaties Library): covers the period from 1648 onwards; available via IALS Electronic Law Library.
Bowman, M. and Harris, D., Multilateral Treaties: Index and Current Status (Butterworths 1984) and 11th Cumulative Supplement (1995). Arranged chronologically, with subject and keyword indexes; gives citations, location, parties, signatories and status. The online FLARE Index to Treaties (see above) is partly based on the contents of Bowman and Harris.
Rohn, P., World Treaty Index (2nd edn, ABC-Clio 1984): covers bilaterals and multilaterals, 1920-1984. Offers access by keyword, parties, date, or subject. Has been incorporated into HeinOnline's Treaty Index.
World Treaty Index: updated online version of Rohn's 1984 index; under development, in a project directed by Paul Poast (Assistant Professor of Political Science, University of Chicago).
UK indexes
Parry, C. and Hopkins, C., An index of British Treaties: 1101-1988, is the main source for information about treaties signed by the UK and its forerunners during this period; covers multilaterals and bilaterals.
UK Treaties Online (Foreign and Commonwealth Office) indexes treaties from around 1835 onwards (and provides full-text treaties from 1892 onwards).
US indexes
Kavass, United States Treaty Index (also known as Kavass's Current Treaty Index) covers treaties and agreements 1776 onwards. IALS has the hard copy; also in HeinOnline's US Treaties and Agreements Library.
Kavass's Guide to the United States Treaties in Force: covers treaties and international agreements, 1776 onwards. IALS has the hard copy; also in HeinOnline's US Treaties and Agreements Library.
Working documents produced during the drafting of treaties are known as 'travaux préparatoires'. They are not usually published, but for some of the more important treaties they may be available either in print editions or online. For example, the travaux for the European Convention on Human Rights have been published as Collected edition of the "travaux préparatoires" of the European Convention on Human Rights (held at IALS); a free online version is also available on the website of the Library of the European Court of Human Rights.
Ryan Harrington's list of Collected Travaux Préparatoires, on Yale University's website, is a good place to start your research. It give details of available travaux préparatoires in printed form and/or on the internet. Many of the print publications listed are held at IALS Library.
For further guidance, see:
Jonathan Pratter, 'À la Recherche des Travaux Préparatoires: An Approach to Researching the Drafting History of International Agreements', on New York University's Globalex website.
'What are travaux préparatoires and how can I find them?', a United Nations FAQ.
Customary international law develops when the general practice of states comes to be accepted as a legal obligation. For a useful introduction to the concept of state practice, see M. Wood, 'State Practice', in R. Wolfrum (ed.), The Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law (print and online versions available at IALS - see Catalogue).
Researchers may find evidence of state practice in diplomatic correspondence, legislation, legal opinions, national and international court decisions, treaties, parliamentary debates and elsewhere.
IALS Library has produced a free interactive online course introducing printed and online sources for researching customary international law.
Bibliographies of state practice materials
IALS Library holds several bibliographies that explain where to find state practice documentation:-
Ralph Gaebler and Alison Shea (ed.s), Sources of State Practice in International Law (2nd edn, Brill 2014): covers 31 different jurisdictions.
Armin von Bogdandy and Anne Peters (ed.s), Public International Law: a Current Bibliography of Books and Articles (Springer 1975 - ), section 1.2, 'Surveys of State Practice'. This bibliography comes out twice a year; it is compiled at the Max Planck Institute for Comparative Public Law and International Law.
J.G. Merrills, A Current Bibliography of International Law (Butterworths 1978), section 2, 'State Practice'.
See also: Silke Sahl and Catherine Deane, Researching Customary International Law, State Practice and the Pronouncements of States Regarding International Law (2018), on New York University's Globalex website.
State practice in yearbooks and digests of international law
Yearbooks and digests outline state practice under systematic subject headings. They reproduce extracts from state practice documentation, summarise national court decisions in matters of international law and give details of treaty actions. Most yearbooks are national in scope, such as the British Year Book of International Law, but some are regional, for example the African Yearbook of International Law and the Asian Yearbook of International Law. Selected national yearbooks and digests are detailed below (Australia, France, Germany, UK and US); for others, see bibliographies, or search the IALS Library Catalogue.
IALS has a large collection of yearbooks, including the following titles:-
Australia: Australian Yearbook of International Law (Butterworths, 1966 - ; vol. 1 covers 1965); has a section called 'Australian Practice in International Law', as well as summaries of Australian international law cases and details of Australian treaty actions. Held at IALS; also on HeinOnline (except latest volumes); partially available on AustLII website.
France: Annuaire français de droit international (Centre national de la recherche scientifique, 1956 - ; vol. 1 covers 1955); has a section called 'Pratique française du droit international', as well as summaries of French cases on international law. Held at IALS; also on Persée website (except latest volumes).
Germany: German Yearbook of International Law (Duncker & Humbolt, 1948 - ): originally published in German, as Jahrbuch für internationales und ausländisches offentliches Recht; has appeared in English since 1978; 'German practice' section covers German court decisions on international law and other matters. Held at IALS.
British Yearbook of International Law (OUP, 1920- ): summarises British international law cases from around 1918 onwards; from 1978, has a section called 'United Kingdom Materials on International Law'. Held at IALS; also on Oxford Academic (1974/75) and HeinOnline (1920-1972/73).
British Digest of International Law (Stevens, 1965-67): systematic statement of British practice; vols. 2b and 5-8 were published - covering various topics, 1860-1914 - but the work was never completed.
Digest of United States Practice in International Law (OUP 1974-c.2012), annual; held at IALS up to 2012 volume but now online-only: see State Department website (where it is available from 1989 onwards). For updates to the Digest, see American Journal of International Law, under 'Practice of the United States Relating to International Law'.
Murphy, Sean D., United States Practice in International Law (Cambridge University Press, 1999 - 2004).
Restatement of the law, third: the foreign relations law of the United States (American Law Institute, 1987)
There are also older US digests: see Columbia Law School's public international law research guide.
State practice in international law journals
Many international law journals cover state practice, for example, the American Journal of International Law, the Chinese Journal of International Law and the Heidelberg Journal of International Law (latter freely available on the internet up to pre-current volume).
For details of other journals with state practice material, see bibliographies.
State practice by subject
There are a few published surveys covering state practice in particular areas of law. They include the following:
Customary international humanitarian law, J.-M. Henckaerts and L. Doswald-Beck (eds.), Cambridge University Press, 2005
State practice regarding state immunities, Gerhard Hafner, M. G. Kohen and S. Breau (eds.), Martinus Nijhoff, c2006.
State practice on the internet
Information about a state's current practice in the field of international relations may be found on the website of its foreign ministry: see WorldLII for links. Websites for state practice are also listed in Gaebler and Shea (ed.s), Sources of State Practice in International Law.
Decisions on international law matters are made not only by international courts and tribunals, but also by the courts of individual states (also known as 'municipal courts', in the international law context). Cases constitute a subsidiary source of international law (ICJ Statute, art.38(1)(d)).
IALS Library has produced a free interactive online course introducing printed and online sources for researching international cases.
General sources
The broadest collections of international law cases are found in the International Law Reports, Oxford Reports on International Law, International Legal Materials and WorldLII's International Courts & Tribunals Collection.
International Law Reports (ILR): the leading reporter of international law decisions in English, ILR publishes the decisions of international courts and tribunals as well as the decisions of municipal courts in matters of international law; it now includes more than 10,000 cases, from 1919 to the present day. ILR began in the 1920s under the title Annual Digest of Public International Law Cases (ADIL); formerly published by Longman, then Butterworths, it is now a Cambridge University Press title. IALS Library has the whole series, in print and online: see Catalogue.
Oxford Reports on International Law (ORIL): an Oxford University Press database of more than 5,500 international cases, available via the IALS Electronic Law Library. Our ORIL subscription covers five modules:-
International Law in Domestic Courts (ILDC): selected municipal decisions in the field of international law, from all over the world, with scholarly commentary; judgments are available in the vernacular, but key passages are translated into English, where necessary; most ILDC cases are from the twenty-first century.
International Courts of General Jurisdiction: cases from the International Court of Justice, Permanent Court of International Justice, International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea and Permanent Court of Arbitration, 1902 onwards.
International Criminal Law: decisions of the International Criminal Court, the tribunals for Rwanda and the former Yugoslavia, the Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia, the Special Court for Sierra Leone, the Special Court for Lebanon, the Nuremberg International Military Tribunal and a couple of municipal courts; most cases are from the 1990s onwards.
International Human Rights Law: cases from the African Commission on Human and Peoples Rights, Inter-American Court of Human Rights, European Court of Human Rights, UN committees and elsewhere, 1960s onwards.
International Investment Claims: all publicly available awards and decisions in international investment arbitration cases, together with enforcement or review decisions from national courts; includes cases from ICSID, the ICC International Court of Arbitration and many other arbitral bodies, 1960s onwards.
WorldLII's International Courts and Tribunals Collection: this collection on the WorldLII website brings together cases from about thirty international courts and tribunals, plus UN committees. Generally speaking the content starts in the 1980s, 1990s, or later; however, for some courts it goes back much further. The content is not always current - the court's own website may be more up-to-date than WorldLII.
International Legal Materials (ILM): this series, produced by the American Society of International Law, publishes a selection of international law decisions with introductory notes. IALS holds the whole series (1962- ); it is also on Lexis®Library (whole series), Westlaw International Materials (1980 onwards) and HeinOnline (up to pre-current volume); all these databases are available via the IALS Electronic Law Library.
IALS Library's holdings include the following national sources:-
American International Law Cases: US court decisions on international law, 1783 onwards.
British International Law Cases: British court decisions on international law, c.1600 to 1970, arranged by subject.
Commonwealth International Law Cases: a compilation of decisions from courts in Commonwealth countries, arranged by subject. Most of the cases date from the 19th century or the first half of the 20th.
The International Law Reports and ORIL's International Law in Domestic Courts (both described above) publish important municipal cases on international law.
See also: yearbooks of international law, many of which have a section devoted to municipal court decisions on points of international law.
Decisions of individual courts
Each international court and tribunal provides its decisions on its own website and many also produce hard copy law reports. Selected courts are covered below: -
The International Court of Justice (ICJ, 1946 - ): the ICJ publishes its decisions and related documents in two series: Reports of Judgments, Advisory Opinions and Orders and Pleadings, Oral Arguments and Documents, both held at IALS.
All ICJ judgments, opinions, pleadings and other case documents are on the ICJ website. Westlaw International Materials, HeinOnline and Lexis Library have a comprehensive collection of ICJ judgments and opinions; Lexis also has some of the pleadings and other documents, but not all of them. Selected ICJ decisions are found in general sources such as ILR and ORIL.
The Permanent Court of International Justice (PCIJ, operated 1922 to 1940, was dissolved in 1946): the forerunner of the ICJ. PCIJ decisions and related documents were published by the Court in the following series, all of which are held at IALS:
Publications of the Permanent Court of International Justice. Series A, Collection of Judgements
Publications of the Permanent Court of International Justice. Series B, Collection of Advisory Opinions
Publications of the Permanent Court of International Justice. Series A./B., Judgments
Permanent Court of International Justice. Series C, Pleadings, Oral Statements and Documents
PCIJ cases are also on the ICJ website and HeinOnline, and selected ones appear in sources such as the International Law Reports and Oxford Reports on International Law.
The International Criminal Court (ICC): established in 2002, gave its first judgment in March 2012. The ICC website provides transcripts and other court documents, for both ongoing and concluded cases. WorldLII has ICC procedural decisions and transcripts up to 2010. Summaries of selected ICC decisions appear in The Annotated Digest of the International Criminal Court, edited by Cyril Laucci (Martinus Nijhoff, 2007- ); IALS subscribes to this series. A large collection of ICC cases is available in the International Criminal Law module of ORIL (see IALS Electronic Law LIbrary), while selected ICC cases are found in ILR and ILM (outlined above).
Outlines of ongoing proceedings are included in the ICC's annual reports to the UN, entitled Report of the International Criminal Court: Note by the Secretary-General. These reports are available on the ICC website and in the UN Official Document System.
The ICC Legal Tools website is an extensive resource for researching international criminal law. It provides documents and decisions of the International Criminal Court, scholarly commentary and national legislation implementing the ICC Statute (it also covers other international criminal courts/tribunals, municipal cases and more). The site was developed by the Legal Advisory Section (LAS) of the Office of the Prosecutor at the International Criminal Court.
 International criminal tribunals: many international / internationalised criminal tribunals provide their decisions on the internet, including the Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia; the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda; the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY); the Special Court for Sierra Leone; and the Special Tribunal for Lebanon. Some of these tribunals have completed all their cases, but maintain their websites as information sources.
Key international criminal decisions appear in Annotated Leading Cases of International Criminal Tribunals (Intersentia, 1999 - ), which is held at IALS. The International Criminal Law module of ORIL (see IALS Electronic Law Library) includes cases concerning Sierra Leone, Lebanon, Cambodia, Rwanda and Yugoslavia; it also covers the Nuremberg Tribunal, the Mechanism for International Criminal Tribunals and a few other bodies. IALS has the ICTY's print series, Judicial Reports.
The ICC Legal Tools website covers selected decisions, founding documents, regulations and other documentation relating to a wide range of international and internationalised criminal tribunals and related bodies: the Bosnian War Crimes Chamber (BWCC); the Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia; the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia; the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda; the International Military Tribunal at Nuremberg; the International Military Tribunal for the Far East; the International Residual Mechanism for Criminal Tribunals; the Iraqi High Tribunal; the Special Court for Sierra Leone; the Special Panel for Serious Crimes (East Timor); the Special Tribunal for Lebanon; and the UN Mission in Kosovo
Other sources of international criminal cases include WorldLII's International Courts and Tribunals collection, the International Law Reports and International Legal Materials.
Further information about international criminal justice is available in Mackenzie et al, Manual on international courts and tribunals (2nd edn, OUP 2010; print and e-book available - see Catalogue).
European Court of Human Rights and European Commission of Human Rights
The European Court of Human Rights was set up by the Council of Europe to hear cases involving alleged breaches of the European Convention on Human Rights; it delivered its first judgment in 1960. It is not to be confused with the European Court of Justice, which is an EU institution (see below). The Council of Europe used to have a body called the European Commission of Human Rights, as well as the Court, but the Commission was merged into the Court in 1998.
The Court's database, HUDOC, provides all European Commission of Human Rights reports and decisions and almost all European Court of Human Rights decisions. The HUDOC-EXEC database covers the execution of ECHR rulings.
European Court of Human Rights decisions and other documents are published in these official series, all held at IALS:-
Publications of the European Court of Human Rights. Series A: Judgments and Decisions (cases 1960 to 1995), cited as 'ECHR', or 'Series A'.
Publications of the European Court of Human Rights. Series B, Pleadings, oral arguments, and documents (cases 1960-1988), cited as 'Series B'.
Reports of Judgments and Decisions (cases 1996 onwards), cited as 'ECHR'; publication of this series is slow, so cases are likely to appear first in commercially-published series such as European Human Rights Reports and Butterworths Human Rights Cases (both held at IALS; EHRR also on Westlaw, BHRC on Lexis).
The decisions of the now-defunct European Commission of Human Rights were published in the following series, both held at IALS:-
Collection of Decisions of the European Commission of Human Rights (cases up to 1974), cited as 'CD' or ' Coll of Dec'.
Decisions and Reports (cases 1975 - 1998); cited as 'DR'.
General sources such as ILR, ORIL and ILM (see above) also publish European human rights cases. Further information about researching European human rights may be found in IALS Library's Council of Europe research guide.
The Court of Justice of the European Union
Decisions of the Court of Justice and the General Court (formerly 'Court of First Instance') are officially published by the EU in Reports of Cases before the Court of Justice and the General Court. This series is usually known as the 'European Court Reports' (ECR); IALS holds the whole series.
The print edition of ECR published cases decided from 1954 to 2011, then it was replaced by an authenticated online-only edition.
EU cases also appear in UK publications such as Common Market Law Reports and All England Law Reports (European Cases). Both titles are held at IALS, though the latter ceased publication in December 2015.
There are many online sources of EU cases, including the EU's own Curia and EUR-Lex websites and the subscription databases Lexis and Westlaw UK.
For further information about EU research, see IALS Library's European Union research guide.
Inter-American Human Rights System (Organization of American States)
The websites of the Inter-American Court of Human Rights and the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights provide their decisions and associated information. The official reports of the Inter-American Court are: Series A: Judgments and Opinions; Series B: Pleadings, Oral Arguments and Documents [relating to cases in Series A]; Series C: Decisions and Judgments; Series D: Pleadings, Oral Arguments and Documents [relating to cases in Series C]; Series E: Provisional Measures. These reports are freely available in the University of Minnesota Human Rights Library; they are not held at IALS.
At IALS Library, the largest source of cases from the Inter-American Court of Human Rights is probably Oxford Reports on International Human Rights Cases (see IALS Electronic Law Library). Selected cases are found in International Law Reports and International Legal Materials (ILM); ILM provides introductory notes to cases, as well as the judgments. Another source held at IALS is Burgorgue-Larsen, The Inter-American Court of Human Rights: case law and commentary (OUP 2011; print and e-book - see Catalogue).
The Inter-American Commission's decisions are published in the Annual Report of the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, which is held at IALS from 1988/1989 to 2007 (incomplete) and also available from the University of Minnesota Human Rights Library. The documents contained in the Annual Report are on Westlaw International Materials from 1994 onwards, under 'Organization of American States: Inter-American Commission on Human Rights'.
Indexes to Inter-American Commission cases have appeared in the American University Journal of International Law and Policy (10 Am.U.J.Int'l L.& Pol'y 19) and the American University International Law Review (16 Am. U. Int'l L. Rev. 353). Both journals are held at IALS and are also on HeinOnline.
For more information about inter-American human rights, see Naddeo and Avalos, The Inter-American System of Human Rights: A Research Guide (2016), on New York University's Globalex website.
International law cases by subject
Arbitration falls into the category of public international law when it involves the resolution of disputes between states. Commercial arbitration is not covered by this guide, but ASIL's Electronic Resource Guide has a chapter on researching international commercial arbitration. The following sources cover arbitral awards in disputes between states:
ICSID Reports: Reports of Cases Decided under the Convention on the Settlement of Investment Disputes.... (Grotius, 1993 - ). Has cases dating from 1975 onwards; held at IALS; also available online - see Library Catalogue. There is also a database of ICSID cases on the World Bank website.
Iran-United States Claims Tribunal Reports (Grotius, 1983 - ): all the decisions of the Tribunal since it was established in 1981. Held at IALS; also on Westlaw International Materials.
Reports of International Arbitral Awards (RIAA; United Nations, c.1948 - ): arbitrations between states from the 1920s onwards. IALS has the printed series and it is also available on the UN website and HeinOnline.
See International Criminal Court and International Criminal Tribunals, above.
The International Human Rights Law module of Oxford Reports on International Law has decisions from all the major human rights bodies, including UN committees. Further information is available above, under the headings 'European Court of Human Rights', 'Inter-American Court of Human Rights; and ;General Sources'.
The International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea (ITLOS) provides all its cases on its website and also publishes them in Reports of judgments, advisory opinions, and orders (IALS Library's holdings are incomplete). ITLOS cases are included in the International Courts of General Jurisdiction module of Oxford Reports on International Law (ORIL, via IALS Electronic Law Library). Selected cases have been reported in ILR.
World Trade Organization decisions are available on the WTO website and in the printed series Dispute Settlement Reports (held at IALS). They are also on the subscription databases Lexis Library, Westlaw International and TradeLaw Guide (all available via IALS Electronic Law Library); commentary on WTO decisions is available on TradeLawGuide.
Teaching of publicists
The teachings of leading publicists - scholars in the field of international law - may be cited as evidence of the rules of international law (ICJ Statute art.38(d)). These teachings may be found in books, journals, encyclopedias, the publications of the International Law Commission and elsewhere; they are even available in video format, in the UN Lecture Series.
The selection of particular authorities is a subjective process. In the UK, established books on international law include Robert Jennings, Oppenheim's International Law (9th edn., OUP 1992); James Crawford, Brownlie's Principles of Public International Law (9th edn, OUP 2019); and Arnold McNair, Law of Treaties (Clarendon Press,1961). The Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law is a convenient source of commentary by leading authorities, arranged by topic. The UN has made a collection of scholarly writings available on the internet via its Research Library, under an arrangement with HeinOnline. Further information about books, journals and the Max Planck Encyclopedia is given below.
IALS has a very large collection of books on public international law, both printed and online: see Library Catalogue.
The e-book collections include Brill Online's International Law collection, Elgar Online's International Economic Law and Public International Law collections, Oxford Scholarly Authorities on International Law, Cambridge Core and Oxford Scholarship Online (see IALS Electronic Law Library). Many old treatises on international law are available in HeinOnline's Legal Classics library (see Electronic Law Library) and/or the free Hathi Trust Digital Library.
The main location for printed books on public international law is at classmarks starting 'SG', on the third floor of the library, but some key texts are in the Short Loan Collection. Many older works are kept the basement Depository; they can be brought out on request (please ask at the Enquiries Desk).
Introductory titles on international law include the following small selection:
Malcolm Shaw, International Law (8th edn, Cambridge University Press 2017)
James Crawford, Brownlie's Principles of Public International Law, (9th edn, Oxford University Press 2019); e-book version also available (see Catalogue).
Malcolm Evans, International Law (5th edn, Oxford University Press 2018)
IALS holds a substantial collection of international law journals and yearbooks, in hard copy and online: see Library Catalogue. A yearbook is similar to a journal, but only comes out once a year, and as well publishing scholarly articles, yearbooks of international law often have a section devoted to reporting state practice in international law; some journals of international law also report state practice (see Customary International Law: state practice, above).
The following are a selection of leading international law journals held at IALS:
American Journal of International Law (AJIL), American Society of International Law, 1907 - . Also available online (see Library Catalogue)
International and Comparative Law Quarterly (ICLQ), British Institute of International and Comparative Law,1952 - . Also available online (see Library Catalogue).
Journal du droit international, formerly Journal du droit international privé et de la jurisprudence comparée (cited by the name of its founder, Clunet), various publishers (currently LexisNexis), 1874 - ; historical issues free on the internet (1874-1914).
European Journal of International Law (EJIL): European University Institute, 1990 - ; back issues free on the internet; also available on various subscription databases (see Library Catalogue).
Recueil des cours / Collected Courses, Hague Academy of International Law, 1923 - . Also available online (see Library Catalogue).
Zeitschrift für ausländisches öffentliches Recht und Völkerrecht / Heidelberg Journal of International Law, (ZaoRV / HJIL): Max Planck Institute for Comparative Public Law and International Law, 1929 - ; back issues free on the internet
The Library's large collection of international law yearbooks includes the British Year Book of International Law and numerous other national titles. We also have regional yearbooks, such as African Yearbook of International Law and the Asian Yearbook of International Law.
Many journals and yearbooks of international law are available online as well as in printed format, via links on the Library Catalogue. An overview of online resources for international law, including journals/yearbooks, is given in our Databases Guide.
The Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law (MPEPIL) is the leading source. It is edited by Rüdiger Wolfrum, Director of the Max Planck Institute for Comparative Public Law and International Law. The online version is available via the IALS Library Catalogue and the Electronic Law Library, and we also have the ten-volume print edition (OUP 2012). The Encyclopedia consists of more than 1,700 articles by experts, embracing all aspects of public international law, and each article has a detailed bibliography.
The Max Planck Encyclopedia of International Procedural Law (MPEiPro) was recently launched as a companion to the online MPEPIL. Edited by Professor Hélène Ruiz Fabri, Director of the Max Planck Institute Luxembourg for Procedural Law, it is an online-only title, available via the IALS Library Catalogue and the Electronic Law Library.
IALS also holds the one-volume title, The Parry & Grant Encyclopaedic Dictionary of International Law (3rd edn, Oxford University Press 2009).
Some key websites are listed below; links to other sites are given in each section of this guide, above.
Audiovisual Library of International Law: the UN's free international law library, consisting of videoed lectures, scholarly writings, treaties, cases, research guides and other material.
Electronic Resource Guide (ERG): the American Society of International Law's guide to international law resources on the web, arranged in subject-based chapters.
Electronic Information System for International Law (EISIL): gateway to international law websites, provided by the American Society of International Law; at the time of writing (June 2020) a new version was under development.
International Law Commission (ILC): this UN body develops and codifies international law; its website provides ILC publications from 1949 onwards, and a research guide.
Researching Public International Law: substantial, detailed research guide by Kent McKeever, Director of the Arthur W. Diamond Law Library at Columbia University in the US, maintained by Deborah L. Heller (last updated December 2017).
UN Treaty Collection: free access to the UN Treaty Series, League of Nations Treaty Series and related information.
United Nations Documents: gateway to the documentation of the UN General Assembly, Security Council, Secretariat and other UN bodies. (See also the IALS UN Research Guide.)
WorldLII International Law Library: free collection of treaties, international court decisions, journals, yearbooks and other international law material.
URL: https://libguides.ials.sas.ac.uk/publicinternationallaw
Subjects: Legal research guides for international law


text:
Scion of wealthy NYC family, Morgenthau was DA for decades
By Insider Last updated Jul 23, 2019 148
FILE – In this Dec. 16, 2009 file photo, Manhattan District Attorney Robert Morgenthau speaks during a press conference in New York. Morgenthau, the longest-serving former Manhattan district attorney who tried mob kingpins, music stars and white-collar criminals and inspired a character on "Law & Order" has died. He was 99. His wife, Lucinda Franks, told The New York Times that Morgenthau died Sunday, July 21, 2019, at a Manhattan hospital after a short illness. (AP Photo/Bebeto Matthews, File)
NEW YORK — He seemed almost like he was out of Central Casting — tall and patrician, with a cultivated above-the-fray presence. And in fact, former Manhattan District Attorney Robert M. Morgenthau inspired some television casting of his own, as the model for the avuncular character of prosecutor Adam Schiff, played by actor Steven Hill on the long-running television series, "Law and Order."
"Law & Order" creator Dick Wolf called Morgenthau "the greatest district attorney in the history of New York."
Morgenthau, who died Sunday at 99, just 10 days before turning 100, spent nearly half his life jailing criminals from mob kingpins and drug-dealing killers to a tax-dodging Harvard dean.
He served as U.S. Attorney for New York's southern district during the Kennedy and Johnson administrations, returned to law enforcement as Manhattan's top state prosecutor in 1974 and didn't leave for 35 years, with his office handling around 100,000 criminal cases yearly.
In 2005, at age 86, Morgenthau was elected for the eighth and last time, turning back a challenge from Leslie Crocker Snyder, a popular former state judge who tried without success to turn his age and lengthy tenure into campaign issues.
He was 90 when he stepped down from office in 2009, throwing his support to his eventual successor Cy Vance.
"I looked at my birth certificate, and I said, 'It's about time,'" he told The Associated Press at the time of his retirement.
In his position at the forefront of Manhattan's legal and political scene, Morgenthau was widely acknowledged by allies and foes alike as effective, nonpartisan and incorruptible.
Under Morgenthau's watch, New York County prosecutors took on many high-profile cases: political payoffs by mob boss Anthony "Tony Ducks" Corallo, the shooting of four black youths by white subway gunman Bernhard Goetz, the weapons-possession arrest of hip-hop mogul Sean "Diddy" Combs.
Over the years, Morgenthau's office also prosecuted mob boss John Gotti, acquitted on state charges of ordering a hit on a union official, and former Tyco CEO L. Dennis Kozlowski, convicted of fraud and larceny in a case seen as an emblem of corporate excess. The office also produced guilty pleas from "Preppie Killer" Robert Chambers Jr. and John Lennon's killer, Mark David Chapman.
Morgenthau, who had claimed a 97% conviction rate while U.S. attorney, lost the Combs case, but in the late 1990s, his state DA's office was winning guilty verdicts in three of four cases.
However, Morgenthau insisted that convictions weren't everything.
"The prosecutor's job is to protect the public and to administer the laws," Morgenthau once said, deriding district attorneys who collected convictions like "notches on a gun."
That premise was put to the test in the Central Park jogger case, one of the most sensational prosecutions handled by his office. Thirteen years after a female jogger was attacked in the infamous gang "wilding" spree, Morgenthau asked a judge in 2002 to throw out the convictions of five men because DNA evidence and another man's confession put them into question.
Morgenthau was born into a wealthy, prominent New York family. His grandfather, Henry Morgenthau Sr., was U.S. ambassador to the Ottoman Empire during World War I, and his father, Henry Morgenthau Jr., was secretary of the treasury under President Franklin D. Roosevelt, a family friend.
His childhood reflected his lineage. Morgenthau had a lifelong friendship with members of the Kennedy clan; he once cooked hot dogs with Eleanor Roosevelt for Great Britain's King George VI; on another occasion he prepared a mint julep for Winston Churchill.
He joined the U.S. Navy one day after graduating Amherst College in 1941 and spent 4 ½ years in the service during World War II, earning the rank of lieutenant commander while seeing action aboard destroyers in the Mediterranean and the Pacific.
After the war, Morgenthau earned a law degree from Yale and joined a New York law firm headed by former U.S. secretary of war Robert P. Patterson.
In 1960, Morgenthau campaigned in New York for his friend and fellow Democrat, John F. Kennedy. The next year, the new president named him to the prestigious post of U.S. attorney for the Southern District of New York, the nation's busiest such office.
Morgenthau resigned after 17 months to run for governor against incumbent Republican Nelson Rockefeller. After his defeat in a disastrous campaign in 1962, Morgenthau was reappointed federal prosecutor by Kennedy.
Morgenthau developed a reputation for targeting white-collar criminals. In 1963, his office successfully prosecuted former Harvard law school dean James M. Landis for tax evasion. More than 40 years later, as state district attorney he convicted Kozlowski and a subordinate of looting Tyco of $600 million.
Morgenthau was forced out as federal prosecutor in January 1970 by President Richard M. Nixon after months of resisting political pressure to resign. He briefly joined Mayor John Lindsay's administration as a deputy mayor, then waged another losing gubernatorial race before leaving the public eye for the next four years, engaged in private law practice.
In 1974, Manhattan District Attorney Frank Hogan resigned due to health problems after 32 years on the job. Morgenthau then launched his first successful run for public office.
Over the next quarter-century, Morgenthau was elected another seven times as head of one of the nation's largest law offices, with 550 prosecutors and 700 other staffers. Among prominent figures who served in the office was the late John F. Kennedy Jr., U.S. Supreme Court Justice Sonia Sotomayor and Snyder, who ran against him in 2005.
Snyder mounted a vigorous campaign in which she pointed out that "Law & Order" had three district attorneys in 17 years on the air whereas Morgenthau had served alone for 30. The New York Times agreed that "three decades is more than enough time for any executive to accomplish his or her mission," but that endorsement did not help Snyder overcome his advantage at the polls.
In addition to jailing Goetz in the 1984 wounding of four black youths who tried to rob him on a subway train, Morgenthau's notable convictions included a crack dealer who killed the son of AOL Time-Warner head Gerald Levin; the murderous mother-and-son grifter team, Sante and Kenneth Kimes Jr.; and seven youths who killed a Utah tourist in a subway mugging in 1990.
His civic work included a relationship with the Police Athletic League that dates to 1962, and his position as chairman of the Museum of Jewish Heritage, which opened in 1997.
He collected a variety of awards and honors, including the Citation of Merit from Yale Law School and the Thomas Jefferson Award in Law from the University of Virginia.
Morgenthau was survived by his wife, Pulitzer Prize-winning reporter Lucinda Franks, and seven children. His first wife, the former Martha Pattridge, died of cancer in 1972.
Scionwealthy
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