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In telecommunications, packet switching is a method of grouping data  into packets that are transmitted over a digital network. Packets are made of a header and a payload. Data in the header is used by networking hardware to direct the packet to its destination, where the payload is extracted and used by an operating system, application software, or higher layer protocols. Packet switching is the primary basis for data communications in computer networks worldwide.

In the early 1960s, American computer scientist Paul Baran developed the concept that he called "distributed adaptive message block switching", with the goal of providing a fault-tolerant, efficient routing method for telecommunication messages as part of a research program at the RAND Corporation, funded by the United States Department of Defense. His ideas contradicted then-established principles of pre-allocation of network bandwidth, exemplified by the development of telecommunications in the Bell System. The new concept found little resonance among network implementers until the independent work of British computer scientist Donald Davies at the National Physical Laboratory in 1965. Davies is credited with coining the modern term packet switching and inspiring numerous packet switching networks in the decade following, including the incorporation of the concept into the design of the ARPANET in the United States. The ARPANET was the primary precursor network of the modern Internet.

Concept

A simple definition of packet switching is:

Packet switching allows delivery of variable bit rate data streams, realized as sequences of packets, over a computer network which allocates transmission resources as needed using statistical multiplexing or dynamic bandwidth allocation techniques. As they traverse networking hardware, such as switches and routers, packets are received, buffered, queued, and retransmitted (stored and forwarded), resulting in variable latency and throughput depending on the link capacity and the traffic load on the network. Packets are normally forwarded by intermediate network nodes asynchronously using first-in, first-out buffering, but may be forwarded according to some scheduling discipline for fair queuing, traffic shaping, or for differentiated or guaranteed quality of service, such as weighted fair queuing or leaky bucket. Packet-based communication may be implemented with or without intermediate forwarding nodes (switches and routers). In case of a shared physical medium (such as radio or 10BASE5), the packets may be delivered according to a multiple access scheme.

Packet switching contrasts with another principal networking paradigm, circuit switching, a method which pre-allocates dedicated network bandwidth specifically for each communication session, each having a constant bit rate and latency between nodes. In cases of billable services, such as cellular communication services, circuit switching is characterized by a fee per unit of connection time, even when no data is transferred, while packet switching may be characterized by a fee per unit of information transmitted, such as characters, packets, or messages.

A packet switch has four components: input ports, output ports, routing processor, and switching fabric.

History

Invention and development
The concept of switching small blocks of data was first explored independently by Paul Baran at the RAND Corporation in the early 1960s in the US and Donald Davies at the National Physical Laboratory (NPL) in the UK in 1965.

In the late 1950s, the US Air Force established a wide area network for the Semi-Automatic Ground Environment (SAGE) radar defense system. Recognizing vulnerabilities in this network, the Air Force sought a system that might survive a nuclear attack to enable a response, thus diminishing the attractiveness of the first strike advantage by enemies (see Mutual assured destruction). Baran developed the concept of distributed adaptive message block switching in support of the Air Force initiative. The concept was first presented to the Air Force in the summer of 1961 as briefing B-265, later published as RAND report P-2626 in 1962, and finally in report RM 3420 in 1964. Report P-2626 described a general architecture for a large-scale, distributed, survivable communications network. The work focuses on three key ideas: use of a decentralized network with multiple paths between any two points, dividing user messages into message blocks, and delivery of these messages by store and forward switching.

Davies independently developed a similar message routing concept and more detailed network design in 1965. He coined the term packet switching, and proposed building a commercial nationwide data network in the UK. He gave a talk on the proposal in 1966, after which a person from the Ministry of Defence (MoD) told him about Baran's work. Roger Scantlebury, a member of Davies' team met Lawrence Roberts at the 1967 Symposium on Operating Systems Principles and suggested it for use in the ARPANET. Davies had chosen some of the same parameters for his original network design as did Baran, such as a packet size of 1024 bits. In 1966, Davies proposed that a network should be built at the laboratory to serve the needs of NPL and prove the feasibility of packet switching. To deal with packet permutations (due to dynamically updated route preferences) and to datagram losses (unavoidable when fast sources send to a slow destinations), he assumed that "all users of the network will provide themselves with some kind of error control", thus inventing what came to be known the end-to-end principle. After a pilot experiment in 1969, the NPL Data Communications Network entered service in 1970.

Leonard Kleinrock conducted research into the application of queueing theory in the field of message switching for his doctoral dissertation at MIT in 1961-2 and published it as a book in 1964. In 1968, Lawrence Roberts contracted with Kleinrock to carry out theoretical work at UCLA to measure and model the performance of packet switching in the ARPANET, which underpinned the development of the network in the early 1970s. The NPL team also carried out simulation work on packet networks, including datagram networks.

The French CYCLADES network was designed by Louis Pouzin in the early 1970s to study internetworking. It was the first to implement the end-to-end principle of Davies, and make the hosts responsible for the reliable delivery of data on a packet-switched network, rather than this being a service of the network itself. His team was thus first to tackle the highly complex problem of providing user applications with a reliable virtual circuit service while using a best-effort service, an early contribution to what will be Transmission Control Protocol (TCP).

In May 1974, Vint Cerf and Bob Kahn described the Transmission Control Program, an internetworking protocol for sharing resources using packet-switching among the nodes. The specifications of the TCP were then published in  (Specification of Internet Transmission Control Program), written by Vint Cerf, Yogen Dalal and Carl Sunshine in December 1974. This monolithic protocol was later layered as the Transmission Control Protocol, TCP, atop the Internet Protocol, IP.

In the late 1970s and early 1980s, national and international public data networks emerged based on the X.25 protocol. X.25 is built on the concept of virtual circuits emulating traditional telephone connections.

For a period in the late 1980s and early 1990s, the network engineering community was polarized over the implementation of competing protocol suites, commonly known as the Protocol Wars. It was unclear which of the OSI model and the Internet protocol suite would result in the best and most robust computer networks.

Complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor (CMOS) VLSI (very-large-scale integration) technology led to the development of high-speed broadband packet switching during the 1980s1990s.

'Paternity' dispute
Beginning in the mid-1990s, Leonard Kleinrock sought to be recognized as the "father of modern data networking". However, Kleinrock's claims that his work in the early 1960s originated the concept of packet switching and that this work was the source of the packet switching concepts used in the ARPANET are disputed by other Internet pioneers, including by Robert Taylor, Paul Baran, and Donald Davies. Baran and Davies are recognized by historians and the U.S. National Inventors Hall of Fame for independently inventing the concept of digital packet switching used in modern computer networking including the Internet.

Connectionless and connection-oriented modes
Packet switching may be classified into connectionless packet switching, also known as datagram switching, and connection-oriented packet switching, also known as virtual circuit switching. Examples of connectionless systems are Ethernet, Internet Protocol (IP), and the User Datagram Protocol (UDP). Connection-oriented systems include X.25, Frame Relay, Multiprotocol Label Switching (MPLS), and the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP).

In connectionless mode each packet is labeled with a destination address, source address, and port numbers. It may also be labeled with the sequence number of the packet. This information eliminates the need for a pre-established path to help the packet find its way to its destination, but means that more information is needed in the packet header, which is therefore larger. The packets are routed individually, sometimes taking different paths resulting in out-of-order delivery. At the destination, the original message may be reassembled in the correct order, based on the packet sequence numbers. Thus a virtual circuit carrying a byte stream is provided to the application by a transport layer protocol, although the network only provides a connectionless network layer service.

Connection-oriented transmission requires a setup phase to establish the parameters of communication before any packet is transferred. The signaling protocols used for setup allow the application to specify its requirements and discover link parameters. Acceptable values for service parameters may be negotiated. The packets transferred may include a connection identifier rather than address information and the packet header can be smaller, as it only needs to contain this code and any information, such as length, timestamp, or sequence number, which is different for different packets. In this case, address information is only transferred to each node during the connection setup phase, when the route to the destination is discovered and an entry is added to the switching table in each network node through which the connection passes. When a connection identifier is used, routing a packet requires the node to look up the connection identifier in a table.

Connection-oriented transport layer protocols such as TCP provide a connection-oriented service by using an underlying connectionless network. In this case, the end-to-end principle dictates that the end nodes, not the network itself, are responsible for the connection-oriented behavior.

Packet switching in networks
Packet switching is used to optimize the use of the channel capacity available in digital telecommunication networks, such as computer networks, and minimize the transmission latency (the time it takes for data to pass across the network), and to increase robustness of communication.

Packet switching is used in the Internet and most local area networks. The Internet is implemented by the Internet Protocol Suite using a variety of link layer technologies. For example, Ethernet and Frame Relay are common. Newer mobile phone technologies (e.g., GSM, LTE) also use packet switching. Packet switching is associated with connectionless networking because, in these systems, no connection agreement needs to be established between communicating parties prior to exchanging data.

X.25 is a notable use of packet switching in that, despite being based on packet switching methods, it provides virtual circuits to the user. These virtual circuits carry variable-length packets. In 1978, X.25 provided the first international and commercial packet switching network, the International Packet Switched Service (IPSS). Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) also is a virtual circuit technology, which uses fixed-length cell relay connection oriented packet switching.

Technologies such as Multiprotocol Label Switching (MPLS) and the Resource Reservation Protocol (RSVP) create virtual circuits on top of datagram networks. MPLS and its predecessors, as well as ATM, have been called "fast packet" technologies. MPLS, indeed, has been called "ATM without cells". Virtual circuits are especially useful in building robust failover mechanisms and allocating bandwidth for delay-sensitive applications.

Packet-switched networks

The history of packet-switched networks can be divided into three overlapping eras: early networks before the introduction of X.25; the X.25 era when many postal, telephone, and telegraph (PTT) companies provided public data networks with X.25 interfaces; and the Internet era which initially competed with the OSI model.

Early networks
Research into packet switching at the National Physical Laboratory (NPL) began with a proposal for a wide-area network in 1965, and a local-area network in 1966. ARPANET funding was secured in 1966 by Bob Taylor, and planning began in 1967 when he hired Larry Roberts. The NPL network, ARPANET, and SITA HLN became operational in 1969.

Before the introduction of X.25 in 1976, about twenty different network technologies had been developed. Two fundamental differences involved the division of functions and tasks between the hosts at the edge of the network and the network core. In the datagram system, operating according to the end-to-end principle, the hosts have the responsibility to ensure orderly delivery of packets. In the virtual call system, the network guarantees sequenced delivery of data to the host. This results in a simpler host interface but complicates the network. The X.25 protocol suite uses this network type.

AppleTalk
AppleTalk is a proprietary suite of networking protocols developed by Apple in 1985 for Apple Macintosh computers. It was the primary protocol used by Apple devices through the 1980s and 1990s. AppleTalk included features that allowed local area networks to be established ad hoc without the requirement for a centralized router or server. The AppleTalk system automatically assigned addresses, updated the distributed namespace, and configured any required inter-network routing. It was a plug-n-play system.

AppleTalk implementations were also released for the IBM PC and compatibles, and the Apple IIGS. AppleTalk support was available in most networked printers, especially laser printers, some file servers and routers. AppleTalk support was terminated in 2009, replaced by TCP/IP protocols.

ARPANET
The ARPANET was a progenitor network of the Internet and one of the first networks, along with ARPA's SATNET, to run the TCP/IP suite using packet switching technologies.

BNRNET
BNRNET was a network which Bell-Northern Research developed for internal use. It initially had only one host but was designed to support many hosts. BNR later made major contributions to the CCITT X.25 project.

Cambridge Ring

The Cambridge Ring was an experimental ring network developed at the Computer Laboratory, University of Cambridge. It operated from 1974 until the 1980s.

CompuServe
CompuServe developed its own packet switching network, implemented on DEC PDP-11 minicomputers acting as network nodes that were installed throughout the US (and later, in other countries) and interconnected. Over time, the CompuServe network evolved into a complicated multi-tiered network incorporating ATM, Frame Relay, Internet Protocol (IP) and X.25 technologies.

CYCLADES
The CYCLADES packet switching network was a French research network designed and directed by Louis Pouzin. First demonstrated in 1973, it was developed to explore alternatives to the early ARPANET design and to support network research generally. It was the first network to use the end-to-end principle and make the hosts responsible for reliable delivery of data, rather than the network itself. Concepts of this network influenced later ARPANET architecture.

DECnet
DECnet is a suite of network protocols created by Digital Equipment Corporation, originally released in 1975 in order to connect two PDP-11 minicomputers. It evolved into one of the first peer-to-peer network architectures, thus transforming DEC into a networking powerhouse in the 1980s. Initially built with three layers, it later (1982) evolved into a seven-layer OSI-compliant networking protocol. The DECnet protocols were designed entirely by Digital Equipment Corporation. However, DECnet Phase II (and later) were open standards with published specifications, and several implementations were developed outside DEC, including one for Linux.

DDX-1
DDX-1 was an experimental network from Nippon PTT. It mixed circuit switching and packet switching. It was succeeded by DDX-2.

EIN
The European Informatics Network (EIN), originally called COST 11, was a project beginning in 1971 to link networks in Britain, France, Italy, Switzerland and Euratom. Six other European countries also participated in the research on network protocols. Derek Barber directed the project,and Roger Scantlebury led the UK technical contribution; both were from NPL. The contract for its implementation was awarded to an Anglo French consortium led by the UK systems house Logica and Sesa and managed by Andrew Karney. Work began in 1973 and it became operational in 1976 including nodes linking the NPL network and CYCLADES. The transport protocol of the EIN was the basis of the one adopted by the International Networking Working Group. EIN was replaced by Euronet in 1979.

EPSS
The Experimental Packet Switched Service (EPSS) was an experiment of the UK Post Office Telecommunications. It was the first public data network in the UK when it began operating in 1977. Ferranti supplied the hardware and software. The handling of link control messages (acknowledgements and flow control) was different from that of most other networks.

GEIS
As General Electric Information Services (GEIS), General Electric was a major international provider of information services. The company originally designed a telephone network to serve as its internal (albeit continent-wide) voice telephone network.

In 1965, at the instigation of Warner Sinback, a data network based on this voice-phone network was designed to connect GE's four computer sales and service centers (Schenectady, New York, Chicago, and Phoenix) to facilitate a computer time-sharing service.

After going international some years later, GEIS created a network data center near Cleveland, Ohio. Very little has been published about the internal details of their network. The design was hierarchical with redundant communication links.

IPSANET
IPSANET was a semi-private network constructed by I. P. Sharp Associates to serve their time-sharing customers. It became operational in May 1976.

IPX/SPX
The Internetwork Packet Exchange (IPX) and Sequenced Packet Exchange (SPX) are Novell networking protocols from the 1980s derived from Xerox Network Systems' IDP and SPP protocols, respectively which date back to the 1970s. IPX/SPX was used primarily on networks using the Novell NetWare operating systems.

Merit Network
Merit Network, an independent nonprofit organization governed by Michigan's public universities, was formed in 1966 as the Michigan Educational Research Information Triad to explore computer networking between three of Michigan's public universities as a means to help the state's educational and economic development. With initial support from the State of Michigan and the National Science Foundation (NSF), the packet-switched network was first demonstrated in December 1971 when an interactive host-to-host connection was made between the IBM mainframe systems at the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor and Wayne State University in Detroit. In October 1972, connections to the CDC mainframe at Michigan State University in East Lansing completed the triad. Over the next several years, in addition to host-to-host interactive connections, the network was enhanced to support terminal-to-host connections, host-to-host batch connections (remote job submission, remote printing, batch file transfer), interactive file transfer, gateways to the Tymnet and Telenet public data networks, X.25 host attachments, gateways to X.25 data networks, Ethernet attached hosts, and eventually TCP/IP; additionally, public universities in Michigan joined the network. All of this set the stage for Merit's role in the NSFNET project starting in the mid-1980s.

NPL
In 1965, Donald Davies of the National Physical Laboratory (United Kingdom) designed and proposed a national commercial data network based on packet switching. The proposal was not taken up nationally but, in 1966, he designed a local network using  "interface computers", today known as routers, to serve the needs of NPL and prove the feasibility of packet switching.

By 1968 Davies had begun building the NPL network to meet the needs of the multidisciplinary laboratory and prove the technology under operational conditions. In 1976, 12 computers and 75 terminal devices were attached, and more were added until the network was replaced in 1986. NPL and the ARPANET were the first two networks to use packet switching, and were interconnected in the early 1970s.

Octopus
Octopus was a local network at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. It connected sundry hosts at the lab to interactive terminals and various computer peripherals including a bulk storage system.

Philips Research
Philips Research Laboratories in Redhill, Surrey developed a packet switching network for internal use. It was a datagram network with a single switching node.

PUP
PARC Universal Packet (PUP or Pup) was one of the two earliest internetworking protocol suites; it was created by researchers at Xerox PARC in the mid-1970s. The entire suite provided routing and packet delivery, as well as higher level functions such as a reliable byte stream, along with numerous applications. Further developments led to Xerox Network Systems (XNS).

RCP
RCP was an experimental network created by the French PTT. It was used to gain experience with packet switching technology before the specification of TRANSPAC was frozen. RCP was a virtual-circuit network in contrast to CYCLADES which was based on datagrams. RCP emphasised terminal-to-host and terminal-to-terminal connection; CYCLADES was concerned with host-to-host communication. RCP influenced the X.25 specification, which was deployed on TRANSPAC and other public data networks.

RETD
Red Especial de Transmisión de Datos (RETD) was a network developed by Compañía Telefónica Nacional de España. It became operational in 1972 and thus was the first public network.

SCANNET
"The experimental packet-switched Nordic telecommunication network SCANNET was implemented in Nordic technical libraries in the 1970s, and it included first Nordic electronic journal Extemplo. Libraries were also among first ones in universities to accommodate microcomputers for public use in the early 1980s."

SITA HLN
SITA is a consortium of airlines. Its High Level Network (HLN) became operational in 1969 at about the same time as ARPANET. It carried interactive traffic and message-switching traffic. As with many non-academic networks, very little has been published about it.

SRCnet/SERCnet

A number of computer facilities serving the Science Research Council (SRC) community in the United Kingdom developed beginning in the early 1970s. Each had their own star network (ULCC London, UMRCC Manchester, Rutherford Appleton Laboratory). There were also regional networks centred on Bristol (on which work was initiated in the late 1960s) followed in the mid-late 1970s by Edinburgh, the Midlands and Newcastle. These groups of institutions shared resources to provide better computing facilities than could be afforded individually. The networks were each based on one manufacturer's standards and were mutually incompatible and overlapping. In 1981, the SRC was renamed the Science and Engineering Research Council (SERC). In the early 1980s a standardisation and interconnection effort started, hosted on an expansion of the SERCnet research network and based on the Coloured Book protocols, later evolving into JANET.

Systems Network Architecture
Systems Network Architecture (SNA) is IBM's proprietary networking architecture created in 1974. An IBM customer could acquire hardware and software from IBM and lease private lines from a common carrier to construct a private network.

Telenet
Telenet was the first FCC-licensed public data network in the United States. Telenet was incorporated in 1973 and started operations in 1975. It was founded by Bolt Beranek & Newman with Larry Roberts as CEO as a means of making packet switching technology public. Telenet initially used a proprietary virtual connection host interface, but changed the host interface to X.25 and the terminal interface to X.29. It went public in 1979 and was then sold to GTE.

Tymnet
Tymnet was an international data communications network headquartered in San Jose, CA that utilized virtual call packet switched technology and used X.25, SNA/SDLC, BSC and ASCII interfaces to connect host computers (servers) at thousands of large companies, educational institutions, and government agencies. Users typically connected via dial-up connections or dedicated asynchronous serial connections. The business consisted of a large public network that supported dial-up users and a private network business that allowed government agencies and large companies (mostly banks and airlines) to build their own dedicated networks. The private networks were often connected via gateways to the public network to reach locations not on the private network. Tymnet was also connected to dozens of other public networks in the U.S. and internationally via X.25/X.75 gateways.

XNS
Xerox Network Systems (XNS) was a protocol suite promulgated by Xerox, which provided routing and packet delivery, as well as higher level functions such as a reliable stream, and remote procedure calls. It was developed from PARC Universal Packet (PUP).

X.25 era

There were two kinds of X.25 networks. Some such as DATAPAC and TRANSPAC were initially implemented with an X.25 external interface. Some older networks such as TELENET and TYMNET were modified to provide a X.25 host interface in addition to older host connection schemes. DATAPAC was developed by Bell-Northern Research which was a joint venture of Bell Canada (a common carrier) and Northern Telecom (a telecommunications equipment supplier). Northern Telecom sold several DATAPAC clones to foreign PTTs including the Deutsche Bundespost. X.75 and X.121 allowed the interconnection of national X.25 networks. A user or host could call a host on a foreign network by including the DNIC of the remote network as part of the destination address.

AUSTPAC
AUSTPAC was an Australian public X.25 network operated by Telstra. Started by Telecom Australia in the early 1980s, AUSTPAC was Australia's first public packet-switched data network and supported applications such as on-line betting, financial applications—the Australian Tax Office made use of AUSTPAC—and remote terminal access to academic institutions, who maintained their connections to AUSTPAC up until the mid-late 1990s in some cases. Access was via a dial-up terminal to a PAD, or, by linking a permanent X.25 node to the network.

ConnNet
ConnNet was a network operated by the Southern New England Telephone Company serving the state of Connecticut. Launched on March 11, 1985, it was the first local public packet-switched network in the United States.

Datanet 1
Datanet 1 was the public switched data network operated by the Dutch PTT Telecom (now known as KPN). Strictly speaking Datanet 1 only referred to the network and the connected users via leased lines (using the X.121 DNIC 2041), the name also referred to the public PAD service Telepad (using the DNIC 2049). And because the main Videotex service used the network and modified PAD devices as infrastructure the name Datanet 1 was used for these services as well.

DATAPAC
DATAPAC was the first operational X.25 network (1976). It covered major Canadian cities and was eventually extended to smaller centers.

Datex-P
Deutsche Bundespost operated the Datex-P national network in Germany. The technology was acquired from Northern Telecom.

Eirpac
Eirpac is the Irish public switched data network supporting X.25 and X.28. It was launched in 1984, replacing Euronet. Eirpac is run by Eircom.

Euronet
Nine member states of the European Economic Community contracted with Logica and the French company SESA to set up a joint venture in 1975 to undertake the Euronet development, using X.25 protocols to form virtual circuits. It was to replace EIN and established a network in 1979 linking a number of European countries until 1984 when the network was handed over to national PTTs.

HIPA-NET
Hitachi designed a private network system for sale as a turnkey package to multi-national organizations. In addition to providing X.25 packet switching, message switching software was also included. Messages were buffered at the nodes adjacent to the sending and receiving terminals. Switched virtual calls were not supported, but through the use of logical ports an originating terminal could have a menu of pre-defined destination terminals.

Iberpac
Iberpac is the Spanish public packet-switched network, providing X.25 services. It was based on RETD which was operational since 1972. Iberpac was run by Telefonica.

IPSS
In 1978, X.25 provided the first international and commercial packet-switching network, the International Packet Switched Service (IPSS).

JANET
JANET was the UK academic and research network, linking all universities, higher education establishments, and publicly funded research laboratories following its launch in 1984. The X.25 network, which used the Coloured Book protocols, was based mainly on GEC 4000 series switches, and ran X.25 links at up to 8 Mbit/s in its final phase before being converted to an IP-based network in 1991. The JANET network grew out of the 1970s SRCnet, later called SERCnet.

PSS
Packet Switch Stream (PSS) was the Post Office Telecommunications (later to become British Telecom) national X.25 network with a DNIC of 2342. British Telecom renamed PSS Global Network Service (GNS), but the PSS name has remained better known. PSS also included public dial-up PAD access, and various InterStream gateways to other services such as Telex.

REXPAC
REXPAC was the nationwide experimental packet switching data network in Brazil, developed by the research and development center of Telebrás, the state-owned public telecommunications provider.

TRANSPAC
TRANSPAC was the national X.25 network in France. It was developed locally at about the same time as DATAPAC in Canada. The development was done by the French PTT and influenced by the experimental RCP network. It began operation in 1978, and served commercial users and, after Minitel began, consumers.

UNINETT
UNINETT was a wide-area Norwegian packet-switched network established through a joint effort between Norwegian universities, research institutions and the Norwegian Telecommunication administration. The original network was based on X.25; Internet protocols were adopted later.

VENUS-P
VENUS-P was an international X.25 network that operated from April 1982 through March 2006. At its subscription peak in 1999, VENUS-P connected 207 networks in 87 countries.

Venepaq
Venepaq is the national X.25 public network in Venezuela. It is run by Cantv and allows direct and dial-up connections. Venepaq provides nationwide access at low cost. It provides national and international access and allows connection from 19.2 to  in direct connections, and 1200, 2400 and  in dial-up connections.

Internet era

When Internet connectivity was made available to anyone who could pay for an Internet service provider subscription, the distinctions between national networks blurred. The user no longer saw network identifiers such as the DNIC. Some older technologies such as circuit switching have resurfaced with new names such as fast packet switching. Researchers have created some experimental networks to complement the existing Internet.

CSNET
The Computer Science Network (CSNET) was a computer network funded by the NSF that began operation in 1981. Its purpose was to extend networking benefits for computer science departments at academic and research institutions that could not be directly connected to ARPANET due to funding or authorization limitations. It played a significant role in spreading awareness of, and access to, national networking and was a major milestone on the path to the development of the global Internet.

Internet2
Internet2 is a not-for-profit United States computer networking consortium led by members from the research and education communities, industry, and government. The Internet2 community, in partnership with Qwest, built the first Internet2 Network, called Abilene, in 1998 and was a prime investor in the National LambdaRail (NLR) project. In 2006, Internet2 announced a partnership with Level 3 Communications to launch a brand new nationwide network, boosting its capacity from 10 Gbit/s to 100 Gbit/s. In October, 2007, Internet2 officially retired Abilene and now refers to its new, higher capacity network as the Internet2 Network.

NSFNET

The National Science Foundation Network (NSFNET) was a program of coordinated, evolving projects sponsored by the National Science Foundation (NSF) beginning in 1985 to promote advanced research and education networking in the United States. NSFNET was also the name given to several nationwide backbone networks operating at speeds of 56 kbit/s, 1.5 Mbit/s (T1), and 45 Mbit/s (T3) that were constructed to support NSF's networking initiatives from 1985-1995. Initially created to link researchers to the nation's NSF-funded supercomputing centers, through further public funding and private industry partnerships it developed into a major part of the Internet backbone.

NSFNET regional networks
In addition to the five NSF supercomputer centers, NSFNET provided connectivity to eleven regional networks and through these networks to many smaller regional and campus networks in the United States. The NSFNET regional networks were:
BARRNet, the Bay Area Regional Research Network in Palo Alto, California;
CERFNET, California Education and Research Federation Network in San Diego, California, serving California and Nevada;
CICNet, the Committee on Institutional Cooperation Network via the Merit Network in Ann Arbor, Michigan and later as part of the T3 upgrade via Argonne National Laboratory outside of Chicago, serving the Big Ten Universities and the University of Chicago in Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Minnesota, Ohio, and Wisconsin;
Merit/MichNet in Ann Arbor, Michigan serving Michigan, formed in 1966, still in operation as of 2016;
MIDnet in Lincoln, Nebraska serving Arkansas, Iowa, Kansas, Missouri, Nebraska, Oklahoma, and South Dakota;
NEARNET, the New England Academic and Research Network in Cambridge, Massachusetts, added as part of the upgrade to T3, serving Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Vermont, established in late 1988, operated by BBN under contract to MIT, BBN assumed responsibility for NEARNET on 1 July 1993;
NorthWestNet in Seattle, Washington, serving Alaska, Idaho, Montana, North Dakota, Oregon, and Washington, founded in 1987;
NYSERNet, New York State Education and Research Network in Ithaca, New York;
JVNCNet, the John von Neumann National Supercomputer Center Network in Princeton, New Jersey, serving Delaware and New Jersey;
SESQUINET, the Sesquicentennial Network in Houston, Texas, founded during the 150th anniversary of the State of Texas;
SURAnet, the Southeastern Universities Research Association network in College Park, Maryland and later as part of the T3 upgrade in Atlanta, Georgia serving Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maryland, Mississippi, North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee, Virginia, and West Virginia, sold to BBN in 1994; and
Westnet in Salt Lake City, Utah and Boulder, Colorado, serving Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, Utah, and Wyoming.

National LambdaRail
The National LambdaRail was launched in September 2003. It is a 12,000-mile high-speed national computer network owned and operated by the U.S. research and education community that runs over fiber-optic lines. It was the first transcontinental 10 Gigabit Ethernet network. It operates with high aggregate capacity of up to 1.6 Tbit/s and a high 40 Gbit/s bitrate, with plans for 100 Gbit/s. The upgrade never took place and NLR ceased operations in March 2014.

TransPAC, TransPAC2, and TransPAC3
TransPAC2 and TransPAC3, continuations of the TransPAC project, a high-speed international Internet service connecting research and education networks in the Asia-Pacific region to those in the US. TransPAC is part of the NSF's International Research Network Connections (IRNC) program.

Very high-speed Backbone Network Service (vBNS)
The Very high-speed Backbone Network Service (vBNS) came on line in April 1995 as part of a National Science Foundation (NSF) sponsored project to provide high-speed interconnection between NSF-sponsored supercomputing centers and select access points in the United States. The network was engineered and operated by MCI Telecommunications under a cooperative agreement with the NSF. By 1998, the vBNS had grown to connect more than 100 universities and research and engineering institutions via 12 national points of presence with DS-3 (45 Mbit/s), OC-3c (155 Mbit/s), and OC-12c (622 Mbit/s) links on an all OC-12c backbone, a substantial engineering feat for that time. The vBNS installed one of the first ever production OC-48c (2.5 Gbit/s) IP links in February 1999 and went on to upgrade the entire backbone to OC-48c.

In June 1999 MCI WorldCom introduced vBNS+ which allowed attachments to the vBNS network by organizations that were not approved by or receiving support from NSF. After the expiration of the NSF agreement, the vBNS largely transitioned to providing service to the government. Most universities and research centers migrated to the Internet2 educational backbone. In January 2006, when MCI and Verizon merged, vBNS+ became a service of Verizon Business.

See also
Multi-bearer network
Optical burst switching
Packet radio
Public switched data network
Transmission delay
Virtual private network

References

Bibliography
Paul Baran et al., On Distributed Communications, Volumes I-XI  (RAND Corporation Research Documents, August, 1964)
Paul Baran, On Distributed Communications: I Introduction to Distributed Communications Network (RAND Memorandum RM-3420-PR. August 1964)
Paul Baran, On Distributed Communications Networks, (IEEE Transactions on Communications Systems, Vol. CS-12 No. 1, pp. 1–9, March 1964)
D. W. Davies, K. A. Bartlett, R. A. Scantlebury, and P. T. Wilkinson, A digital communications network for computers giving rapid response at remote terminals (ACM Symposium on Operating Systems Principles. October 1967)
R. A. Scantlebury, P. T. Wilkinson, and K. A. Bartlett, The design of a message switching Centre for a digital communication network (IFIP 1968)
Lawrence Roberts, The Evolution of Packet Switching (Proceedings of the IEEE, November, 1978)

Further reading

Hafner, Katie Where Wizards Stay Up Late (Simon and Schuster, 1996) pp 52–67
Norberg, Arthur; O'Neill, Judy E. Transforming Computer Technology: Information Processing for the Pentagon, 1962-1982 (Johns Hopkins University, 1996)

External links

Oral history interview with Paul Baran. Charles Babbage Institute University of Minnesota, Minneapolis. Baran describes his working environment at RAND, as well as his initial interest in survivable communications, and the evolution, writing and distribution of his eleven-volume work, "On Distributed Communications". Baran discusses his interaction with the group at ARPA who were responsible for the later development of the ARPANET.
NPL Data Communications Network NPL video, 1970s
Packet Switching History and Design, site reviewed by Baran, Roberts, and Kleinrock
Paul Baran and the Origins of the Internet
20+ articles on packet switching in the 1970s
"An Introduction to Packet Switched Networks", Phrack, 05/3/88

Computer networking
History of the Internet
Network protocols

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


text:
Opacuincola eduardstraussi is a critically endangered species of fresh water snail native to New Zealand.

Habitat
This snail has been found in only one location in a stream in Twinforks Cave, Paturau in the Tasman District of New Zealand. The population trend of this snail is unknown at present but it is regarded as potentially threatened by land clearance, water pollution and damage by cattle.

Conservation Status
In 2013 the Department of Conservation classified Opacuincola eduardstraussi as Nationally Critical under the New Zealand Threat Classification System. The species was judged as meeting the criteria for Nationally Critical threat status as a result of it occupying a total area of less than 1 hectare. It is found only in one location and is also classified as Data Poor under the threat classification system.

References

External links

Gastropods described in 2008
Endangered biota of New Zealand
Gastropods of New Zealand
Tateidae
Endemic molluscs of New Zealand
Endemic fauna of New Zealand


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This Brainpop movie is free. No account is needed.
Following the movie, take the quiz. Encourage students to use the Mind Map feature to map out their thinking. They do not need to be signed in--a pdf of the map can be printed. It will only save if you have an account, however.
Encourage students to try different combinations and virtual representation of materials.
Of those things that are conductive, what characteristics do they share?
Which materials surprised you as being conductive?
In teams of up to five, students can also explore the interactive website which includes information, a game and a quiz.
This app is $2.99, but can save money if you don't have access to actual wires, bulbs and batteries. Kids can still experiment with building circuits of all kinds.
Ask your teacher for the printed cards.
Open the app, and point the camera towards the cards. How can you change and move the cards to create a circuit?


Virtualization software vendor unveils slew of offerings to target cloud computing on three levels--infrastructure, app and end-user computing--with aim to change workers' IT consumption patterns, reveals exec.
VMware is targeting three levels of the cloud computing ecosystem--infrastructure, app and end-user computing--to change the way workers make use of IT and their data centers, or IT-as-a-service, according to a company executive.
Bogomil Balkansky, vice president of product marketing for VMware's virtualization and cloud platforms, said the virtualization software vendor has seen the cloud computing industry mature, backed by the fact that "there [were] more virtual machines than physical servers in 2009".
So, to capitalize on the maturing market, the company wants to push "IT-as-a-service" to optimize IT services provided and consumed among its enterprise customers, he noted at a press briefing Tuesday. This way, companies get to enjoy cost savings, agility and faster business responses in a rapidly changing market landscape, he added.
Elaborating on the IT-as-a-service strategy, the VMware executive pointed out that this would impact three layers of the cloud compute ecosystem, which are the infrastructure, application development and end-user computing layers.
At the infrastructure level, the company has introduced its vCloud Director, which, according to Balkansky, will allow companies to bridge their private cloud networks to public cloud services offered by companies such as Amazon Web Services and Salesforce.com.
The vCloud Director will let enterprise users create a hybrid cloud environment in which resources and data can flow from private cloud environments to the public cloud without hassle, he added.
He also said that IT managers can make use of better resource pooling capabilities to create "virtual data centers". These centers aim to spur self-provisioning among business users, as workers can now define the amount of compute resources they need for individual projects, he noted.
"Through these virtual data centers, enterprises can now set up chargeback [mechanisms] for individual business groups based on the amount of resources they utilize," Balkansky said.
VMware is also embarking on offering security technologies to its customers "for the first time" through its vShield line of products, the executive said.
"vShield is leveraging the introspection layer in the hypervisor to deliver better-than-physical security" for its virtual data centers. This will allow the data centers to be moved about across physical servers without worrying about compliance or security issues, Balkansky pointed out.
Furthermore, customers can make use of the vShield Manager management pane to have a comprehensive view of their security portfolio deployed across vCloud Datacenters, he added.
Improving the mobility of information within virtual environments aside, VMware will also look to certify businesses that submit their data centers for inspection, the executive noted.
He said that this is aimed at enterprise customers as well as service providers such as Singapore-based telco Singapore Telecommunications (SingTel), and that the virtualization vendor will help these organizations develop "capability, competence and coverage" using its vSphere cloud operating system (OS).
Balkansky said the company will "openly share" the design, architecture and technical intellectual property used to implement vCloud Datacenter-certified infrastructure. There will also be competency training and professional services to help organizations know how to maintain their systems and to better market their services once the cloud system goes operational, he added.
For instance, he said that SingTel has enlisted the help of VMware for its cloud services, and one of the main benefits the telco will reap is that it will "gain access to an enterprise customer market that knows and trusts the vCloud Datacenter service model, and port its applications between cloud [environments] without [modifications]".
As for application development, Balkansky said the company's ThinApp 4.6 is designed to enable apps to run on various OSes without having to modify or redevelop apps according to different platforms.
With the ThinApp software, developers and IT managers will be able to simplify their app environment by "encapsulating applications into a single package" that can be deployed, managed and updated independently from the OS, he said. This will help reduce the cost and complexity of app delivery for customers, the executive noted.
VMware is also looking to improve the end-user computing experience by providing offline access to virtualized desktops, he said.
With the company's View 4.5 software, mobile workers can now work on-the-go without being connected as all changes made offline will be captured by backend servers linked to the virtualized desktops. Once employees login to their desktops, the changes will be reflected accordingly, explained Balkansky.
He noted that this synchronization is "not trivial to do" and the company has been in "experimental mode" since last year before introducing this new version of the product.
When quizzed on sales expectations, the vice president did not reply directly. Instead, he pointed out that the company's customer base in Asia-Pacific grew 55 percent to more than 15,000 during the 12 months to June 2010.
"At this rate, we will double the size of our customer base every two years," said Balkansky. "We expect this growth to be led by the strong adoption of cloud infrastructure in Asia-Pacific across both [the] private enterprise clouds and public clouds run by service providers."


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Download gummy bear game for PC Windows 10,8,7
Madison Genthry November 1, 2021 5 min read
A new trend has hit the internet and it is showing no signs of slowing down. The latest gaming craze to take over our time, attention, and even wallets is "gummy bear" games. These short-form interactive videos are gaining thousands of fans daily on Facebook Messenger as well as other social media platforms like YouTube.
The "im a gummy bear" is a game that allows users to play as a gummy bear. The game is available for PC Windows 10,8,7.
Looking for a method to get the game with gummy bears on your PC running Windows 10/8/7? Then you've come to the right spot. Continue reading to learn how to download and install one of the top Adventure software gummy bear game for PC in this post.
The majority of the applications accessible on the Google Play Store or the Apple App Store are designed specifically for mobile devices. But did you know that even if the official version for the PC platform isn't available, you may still use any of your favorite Android or iOS applications on your laptop? Yes, there are a few easy strategies you can use to install Android applications on a Windows laptop and utilize them the same way you would on an Android phone.
In this post, we'll show you how to download the gummy bear game for PC in a step-by-step manner. So, before we get started, let's have a look at the technical requirements of the gummy bear game.
Technical Specifications for the gummy bear game on the PC
Name gummy bear game
Category Adventure
Installations 10,000+
Designed by TIDev
Package of Apps gummy.bear.game
The gummy bear game is the most popular app in the Adventure category on Google Playstore. It has a lot of positive feedback and ratings. Gummy bear game for Windows now has over 10,000+ program installs and an average user aggregate rating of 4.3 stars.
The Google Play Store presently does not include the gummy bear game. If you haven't already done so, go to one of the third-party APK download sites and download the gummy bear game. It's well worth the download on your smartphone.
Download gummy bear game for PC Windows 10/8/7 Laptop:
These days, the majority of applications are created just for mobile devices. PUBG, Subway Surfers, Snapseed, Beauty Plus, and other games and applications are exclusively accessible on Android and iOS. However, Android emulators enable us to run all of these applications on a PC.
So, even if the official gummy bear game for PC isn't accessible, you can still play it using emulators. In this post, we'll show you how to utilize two popular Android emulators to play the gummy bear game on your computer.
Download gummy bear game for PC Windows 10/8/7 – Method 1:
Bluestacks is a popular Android emulator that allows you to run Android apps on your Windows PC. The Bluestacks application is also available for Mac OS. In this technique, we will download and install the gummy bear game for PC Windows 10/8/7 Laptop using Bluestacks. Let's get started with our step-by-step installation instructions.
Step 1: If you haven't already, download the Bluestacks program from the link below – Bluestacks for PC may be downloaded here.
Step 2: The installation method is straightforward and uncomplicated. Open the Bluestacks emulator when it has been successfully installed.
Step 3: The Bluestacks software may take a while to load at first. You should be able to view the Bluestacks Home screen after it has been launched.
Step 4: Bluestacks comes with Google Play Store pre-installed. Locate Playstore on the home screen and double-click it to access it.
Step 5: Now go to the Software Store and look for the app you want to install on your computer. In our scenario, we'll look for a gummy bear game to install on our computer.
Step 6: The gummy bear game will be immediately installed on Bluestacks when you click the Install button. The program may be found in Bluestacks' list of installed applications.
You may now use the gummy bear game app on your laptop by just double-clicking on the app icon in Bluestacks. You may use the app in the same manner as you would on an Android or iOS phone.
Because the program isn't accessible on Google Play, you'll need to get the gummy bear game APK file from a third-party APK site and then use Bluestacks' Install APK file option at the bottom of the screen. You do not need to download the game from the Google Playstore. However, it is suggested that you use the regular procedure to install any Android apps.
Bluestacks' newest version comes with a slew of impressive features. The Samsung Galaxy J7 smartphone is practically 6X quicker than Bluestacks4. The best approach to install the gummy bear game on PC is to use Bluestacks. Bluestacks requires a PC with a minimum setup. If you don't, you can have trouble loading high-end games like PUBG.
MEmu play is yet another famous Android emulator that has recently gained a lot of attention. It's very adaptable, quick, and specifically intended for gaming. Now we'll show how to use MemuPlay to download the gummy bear game for Windows 10, 8, or 7 laptops.
Step 1: Get MemuPlay and install it on your computer. Memu Play Website has a download link for you. Download the program from the official website.
Step 2: Once the emulator is installed, launch it and look for the Google Playstore app icon on the Memuplay home screen. To open, just double-tap on it.
Step 3: Go to the Google Play Store and look for the gummy bear game app. Locate the TIDev developer's official app and click the Install button.
Step 4: The gummy bear game will appear on the MEmu Play home screen after successful installation.
MemuPlay is a straightforward and straightforward application. When compared to Bluestacks, it is really light. You can play high-end games like PUBG, Mini Militia, Temple Run, and others since it is built for gaming.
Gummy Bear PC Game – Final Thoughts:
With its simple but efficient UI, the gummy bear game has gained immense appeal. We've compiled a list of two of the most effective ways to get the gummy bear game installed on your PC or laptop. Both of the aforementioned emulators are widely used to run Apps on a computer. To acquire the gummy bear game for Windows 10 PC, you may use any of these ways.
This brings us to the end of our gummy bear game download for PC post. Please let us know if you have any questions or have any problems when installing Emulators or the Gummy Bear Game for Windows in the comments section. We'll be happy to assist you!
gummy bear show
gummy bear song lyrics
white gummy bear flavor
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redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


It's important to first address your budget, as it will determine your decisions for many other components of the remodeling process. Kitchen cabinets are often one of the biggest investments a homeowner puts towards his or her home. How much money do you have to devote to the project you are currently undertaking? Once you have a realistic figure in mind, cut it in half. Why? Unfortunately with many remodel projects unforeseen costs come up along the way. It's a very good idea to plan ahead for this by not maxing out your budget in your initial purchase. If your initial plans keep you under budget, you will have more leeway when and if unexpected costs arise. The worst case scenario in a kitchen remodel is to have half of your cabinets installed and realize that, for one reason or another, you must discontinue the installation.
Stock cabinets, the most affordable option, are cabinets that you would buy as-is from a home improvement store. Stock cabinets are manufactured in certain widths and with certain materials and therefore are not customized for your kitchen.
Semi-custom cabinets are ordered directly with a cabinet supplier and, based on the measurements in your home, are built specifically for you. As they are made to order, semi-custom cabinets come with more material and size options than stock cabinets and also often have additional options such as drawers and odd sizes. However, semi-custom cabinets are not completely custom made and you will need to stay within a set number of options.
Custom made cabinets are the ultimate in kitchen cabinetry as they are made by a custom cabinetry manufacturer and are made exactly to your specifications in size, material, and overall look. If you have a specific vision in mind for your cabinets, custom cabinetry may be the best option for you. However, keep in mind that custom cabinetry is the most expensive option.
Regardless of which cabinet construction type you go with, it's important to have an idea of what kind of material you would like to use for your cabinetry. Cabinets typically come in laminate, metal, or wood. Wood, a popular choice, comes in a variety of colors and finishes making it highly customizable. However, it should be noted that wood warps over time. Metal cabinets, which are typically made out of stainless steel, give a very modern and sleek look to a kitchen. However, they do require upkeep and care, as they show scratches and fingerprints rather readily. Laminate kitchen cabinets are the most affordable option and can also be purchased in a wide variety of colors. However, laminate cabinets do chip from time to time and the damage is often difficult to repair without a full replacement.


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text:
Departments > Parks & Recreation > Parks > Poage Park > Poage Park
Poage Park
500 Hood Street
Park Description
Poage Park was opened in the year 1909 and is located on the South side of La Crosse. This park is filled with activity from ice skating in the winter to a large open field and is also located less then a block away from the South Side Neighborhood Center. Poage Park has a newly built playground, shelter, and splash pad.
Open Air Patio
George C. Poage Park, originally named Hood Park, was opened in 1909 by Michael Brewing Company and is located on the south side of La Crosse at 500 Hood Street. The purchase was for $3,900 for the Adams Street Playground. As with Powell Park, it was bought one year after the Board of Park Commissioners was created and was working on establishing a comprehensive park system. Poage Park was designed to have an open field area for games and skating, with a shelter to be constructed as a warming house. In 1910, the skating shelter house was constructed for $567.12. Many years down the road, 1969, a fence was installed around the park.
In June 2013 the name of the park was officially changed from Hood Park to George C. Poage Park.
George C. Poage was the first African American athlete to medal in an Olympic games. Poage came to La Crosse in 1884 at the age of 4 and was an 1899 graduate of La Crosse High School, the second highest in his class. He went on and became a track star at the University of Wisconsin in Madison. Shortly after college graduation Poage won a pair of bronze medals in the 200 and 400 meter low hurdles at the 1904 Olympic Games.
The Poage project replaced the existing buildings and playground equipment. Sculpture by Elmer Peterson has been commissioned, and shows four separate renditions of Poage as he clears a hurdle.
Poage Park Grand Opening Ceremony was held Saturday, August 20th, 2016.


text:
Microsoft to buy 'Call of Duty' maker for USD 68.7 billion in gaming push
Why the cops are miffed with social media players
Sleuths in South allege lukewarm response to enquiries for evidence against individuals
Naveen Menezes
Anandi Chandrashekhar
ETtech
Police probing cybercrime in at least three south Indian states have raised concerns over what they allege is a slow response by leading internet and social networking companies such as Google, Facebook and GoDaddy to enquiries seeking evidence against individuals who misuse their platforms.
In Bengaluru, the cybercrime police, which has seen cases of crime using social media accounts triple in the past two years, is contemplating including Facebook as an 'accused' in cases where there is a delayed response from it.
"We reach out to Facebook to either delete the fake account or to pull down derogatory profiles or posts. The website, however, does not respond to us immediately," Ravi Kumar, deputy commissioner of police (crime), who is in-charge of the cybercrime police station told ET. "If Facebook continues to remain non-cooperative, we will book them too. The department will issue two notices. If we do not get any response, we will make them (an) accused in the case and file a chargesheet. Let them give their version...in court," Kumar added.
The latest cases in the city included uploading pirated copies of Pailwaan, a popular Kannada movie, and fake Facebook profiles of actor and MP Sumalatha Ambareesh.
Read Also: Google wins landmark case limiting 'right to be forgotten' to Europe
In the nine months to September, Bengaluru police registered 212 cases that involve people using social media accounts. It was 70 in 2017 and 133 in 2018, according to police data. Facebook did not respond to ET's queries, saying the matter is pending before the court.
"We had also reached out to Google on a couple of occasions when we received complaints from people about their Gmail accounts being hacked. We expect Google to act immediately as requested by complainants. But that does not happen," Kumar said.
Google did not respond to emails seeking comment. A senior police officer in the cybercrime unit of Tamil Nadu police said social media companies do not count the damage to reputations caused by fake profiles, rumours or uploading videos of individuals in intimate acts without their consent.
"They take up to 15 days to respond with either a 'rejected' or 'resolved' message. If rejected, we do not get the IP (address of the accused). In this case, they delete the said content sometimes, but don't give the details of the originator (of the criminal act). In the case of resolved, they give the IP," said official.
The official maintained that Facebook was quick to remove content involving child pornography. However, content such as revenge porn or explicit content which could cause reputational damage, does not get immediate attention.
"The urgency is often not understood. In case of defamatory comments, by the time the firm responds, there is little reputation left to salvage," said the official. In Hyderabad, KCS Raghu Vir, additional DCP, cyber crimes, said that while his department was satisfied with responses by Facebook, getting information from Google and web hosting company GoDaddy, has posed challenges.
"Our issue is with Gmail and GoDaddy. Hacking, sending ransomware links, malicious mails, financial fraud mails are cases where we need help from Gmail. They do help, but it takes a lot of time, but with GoDaddy we don't get many responses," Vir said.
In response, a GoDaddy spokesperson said it has "a long history of working with the security community to help prevent and take down phishing sites and websites related to any other fraudulent activity. Such websites are a clear violation of our terms of service agreement and we take action accordingly."
"We take all complaints, requests about content on websites very seriously, and have a team dedicated to investigating each complaint we receive," the spokesperson said, without specifying details.
Legal experts say delays by social media and internet companies could be construed as violation of Section 79 and 79A of the IT Act, and concurrent rules.
"The police are correct in seeking to make such entities co-accused in such circumstances," said Salman Waris, managing partner at Delhi-based specialist technology law firm TechLegis Advocates & Solicitors.
bengaluru police
US examining Alibaba's cloud unit for national security risks: Report
Booming NFT art market plagued by 'mind-blowing' fraud
From NFTs to grandpa, new French label embraces it all
82point5 bags creative mandate for Sunstone Eduversity
Chimp&z wins digital marketing mandate for MuscleXP and Man Arden


text:
Blues rockers from San Francisco who can be considered to be a Jefferson Airplane spin-off.
The story goes that the band initially wanted to conquer the world using the name Hot Shit. The record company supposedly talked them out of that.
But then why Hot Tuna? The speculation is that with this name the record company got their way: hot tuna would be slang for the mind-expanding trip caused by heroin.
Those who consult the various slang dictionaries however don't get much further than that hot tuna is a very unfriendly name for the genitals of young, not entirely fresh girls: 'Damn girl, close ya legs; yo tuna stank!'
Yet this could be a hook, because singer/guitarist Jorma Kaukonen once seems to have stated that the band name is a reference to Keep On Truckin' (Mama), a song by Hot Tuna containing the following lines:
'What's that smell like fish pretty baby
I really would like to know
That ain't pudding baby ain't no pie
It's the stuff that I got you by'.
In this explanation the question 'What's that smell?' has an obvious answer according to Kaukonen: hot tuna.
See also: Lemon Jelly, Jefferson Airplane
Active: 1969-1977; 1983; 1986-present, USA
Site: http://hottuna.com/
1960s Blues H Rock USA


Glasgow Rangers are excited to launch their first International camp in partnership with Euro soccer Training. The camp will provide a professional academy style Experience for kids in the Bay Area and also let them know how they compare to kids in Scotland.
Monday to Friday 9am to 12pm.


Unless you have a hundred acres for four or five goats, consider rotational grazing. It will make your pasture last longer and reduce the incidence of internal parasites in the goats. Rather than fencing in several acres for the goats and letting them spend the whole grazing season on that space, subdivide the pasture into smaller paddocks. The goats stay on one section of pasture for a number of days before being moved to clean pasture with fresh grass, leaving behind their poop, which contains parasite eggs that will hatch and die without a host.
There are a couple of ways you can utilize rotational grazing, and the method you use will depend on the number of goats you have. Four livestock panels can be used to create a 16-foot by 16-foot pen that can be moved every day or two, depending upon how fast the goats eat the grass. This works well for goat keepers who have an acre or two and only a couple of goats. For those with a larger herd and at least five acres, the grazing area is enclosed with a permanent perimeter fence, and temporary electric fencing is used to subdivide the large fenced pasture into smaller paddocks, through which the herd is rotated.
Opinions vary widely on how often the goats need to be rotated to clean pasture, but it depends on weather as well as whether your main objective is pasture utilization or parasite control. For best parasite control, animals should graze an area only once per year, whereas a rotation of every thirty days works if you are only concerned about the best use of the pasture.
The height of the grass also plays a role in deciding when to rotate. Someone once said that goats should never eat below their knees. Technically, they are browsers, not grazers, and they prefer to eat shrubs and young trees rather than grass. Because goats have gone through history not eating off the ground, their parasite resistance is not usually as strong as that of cows and sheep, who do eat off the ground. Goats really should not be eating grass down to the dirt. A commonly encountered recommendation is to move goats to new pasture when the grass is about 6 inches tall. Larvae do not have legs, but they can float up on a blade of grass when it is wet. However, without a true means of movement, parasites don't move very far up on the grass, which is why parasite problems are generally low when goats are consuming grass that is taller. It is a balancing act, though, because when grass gets too tall, it is not as tasty.
Rotational grazing allows you to graze other livestock on a piece of land. Because cows and horses prefer grass and goats prefer bushes and small trees and each species has different parasites, cows or horses can graze the paddock just vacated by the goats. Although sheep and goats have the same parasites, sheep prefer weeds, so they can graze a pasture at the same time as goats. This means you will be able to graze more animals on a piece of land than if you only had one species.
This is an excerpt from Raising Goats Naturally: A Complete Guide to Milk, Meat, and More by Deborah Niemann.
Want more details on exactly HOW to do rotational grazing? Check out this post!
I am not sure what kind of shrubs you have there but how do you keep your goats from stripping the bark (and killing the shrubs)?
First of all, you should never put goats in an area that has been landscaped with anything that you care about. However, the whole point of rotational grazing is to move the goats often enough that it's actually beneficial for the pasture. If you are rotating them frequently enough, they shouldn't have enough time to actually kill shrubs. Young trees are very easy to kill because they have a single trunk, so if the goats strip the bark all the way around the young tree will die — and several of them could do that in less than half an hour. But shrubs so not have a single trunk. They have many branches that carry nutrients from the roots out to the leaves, so you'd have to leave goats in an area for a long time for them to be able to do a lot of damage to shrubs. They do eat floribunda roses to the ground, but I've never heard of anyone that cared about those. But again, that takes time.
My goats are expert at girdling trees, especially fruit trees. They will also go after aspen bark and conifer bark. On occasion they will get out of their pen, find and strip bark from my apple trees with alarming speed . I have put wire mesh around the trunks and lower branches, completely covered smaller trees etc to protect them from the occasional jail break. Similarly they strip bark from choke cherry (which I know is toxic in large quantities) so that is a double whammy…dead trees that we have to clear and goats that are eating things they aren't supposed to. These are big, 200+ lb goats. Anyway, we have cleared some areas of the choke cherry and will probably do more of that (since that is what dominates on our 3 acres). We have some meadow as well and try to keep the goats in the meadows as we rotate them. It is just a shame because there is a lot of good grass under and around the chokecherries. From experience I know I can't let the goats have more than a few minutes exposure to the chokecherry. Although they seem to be able to tolerate eating the leaves (also toxic in large quantities) they can't resist stripping bark and in a single day will girdle several trees. I do have some wild rose on the property and they love that but of course it is in and amongst the cherry. Ah well, clearly we need to move somewhere with better shrubbery!


Ask Karotz what the date is today and Karotz will tell you.
In this section, you can manage your configuration profile. Start by filling out the form, then choose one or several methods of activation. You must have a profile name. The name lets you launch the application using voice recognition. Manual activation allows you to connect a Flatnanoz or Nanoztag to the application. Each time you pass a pre-programmed Flatnanoz or Nanoztag in front of Karotz's nose, it launches that application.


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This search area is located within 80446. 80446 has 4,200 residents in 1,603 households. The median age of this zipcode is 45.3 with a majority of inhabitants married. At least 69.25% of those living in this zipcode currently own their homes. Roughly 0% of population here speak a language other than English at home.
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TFA deal at WTO - A victory for India?
I had blogged earlier about the matter regarding objection of India to sign Trade Facilitation Agreement(TFA) at WTO, as agreed at Bali ministerial. India has now agreed to sign the agreement as I had predicted in that post as one of the likely outcomes. However, when I see what is being signed, I wonder if it was worth to take the fight to this level. There is hardly much change, as far as I understand, from what could have been signed then, and what is being signed now, despite what our media projects as a great victory without any compromise.
India's objection to TFA was linked to following issues:
that Agri negotiations (on public stockholding for food security purposes) are not going at the expected pace and direction. As Agri is part of the package, there is no meaning in signing only one part of the package, i.e. TFA, while the other part, i.e. Agri negotiation, is still in its infancy at the table.
Specific inside the Agri negotiations, India had various issues, from the method of subsidy calculation, the base year taken as reference, the agreed cap on acceptable subsidies, and so on. These issues would take time to resolve and India wanted it to be fast paced.
There was a peace clause in the agreement that lasted till 2017 and India was not happy with this, as in the lack of an agreement by 2017, one was not sure if the peace clause still holds.
TFA being a bargaining chip, there is no point in throwing it away without getting some returns at Agri negotiations.
Indian farmers and poor developing countries would be adversely affected.
At the same time, India had no objection to TFA text as such. Despite what the commerce minister of India claimed about the support it got on the above points by other LDCs or developing nations, there was absolutely no vocal or visible support.
After the visit of US Trade Representative Michael Froman earlier this month, India and US had resolved the differences, though not many details of it were shared with the media.
And on 27th November, the TFA was agreed by all WTO members, with a "peace clause" in perpetuity for developing nations till an agreement on agriculture is finalised. The details on the peace clause is reproduced from WTO site below:
On 27 November, the General Council adopted decisions that would allow the trade facilitation text to go ahead, clarify the public stockholding proposal and allow work on it to continue and allow a programme for completing the Doha Round negotiations to proceed, almost six months later than originally envisaged.
On public stockholding, the "peace clause" was confirmed, but the way it was described was now firmer: members would "not" challenge these programmes legally under the Agriculture Agreement — the original decision said they would "refrain from" doing so. The conditions also remained unchanged: Governments seeking the shelter of the peace clause had to avoid distorting trade (ie, affecting prices and volumes on world markets) or impacting other countries' food security, and to provide information to show they were meeting those conditions.
Members clarified that the "peace clause" would remain in force until a permanent solution was agreed, even if that meant going beyond the 2017 deadline. Although the reference to the 2017 Ministerial Conference remained, members also agreed to strive for a permanent solution by the end of 2015.
And the reading of above text is both heartening and disappointing. Disappointing because:
India, it appears, is ready to sign TFA without any firm assurance on Agri negotiations. A dilution from its earlier stand that without Agri, it won't give away TFA. Bargaining chip, Indian farmers, and concern for poor countries were all silently relegated under for unknown reasons.
Peace clause, though extended perpetually, is still challengeable under the guise of trade distortion or impacting other countries and such, as implied from copied text above.
The heartening part is small. India could get the word "refrain from challenging" converted to "not" challenge when it comes to agri subsidies. So that means, others countries who would earlier "refrain" from challenging India's food security program, would now "not" challenge. Go figure.
My point is simple:
If this is what India wanted, I don't think there would have been any objection during July. We could have had TFA much earlier, and avoided the chest thumping drama that Indian media creates every time India takes a stand at international level, stupid or otherwise, to support the stand.
I am happy that we are signing TFA. Its needed urgently in India.
Food security in India, as I understand, is in bad shape due to mismanagement and inefficiency in public administration and domestic policy making, than any capping clause arising from international agreements.
By Tirumala Venkatesh Kaggundi at November 30, 2014 No comments:
Labels: International trade, Trade agreements, WTO, WTO/RTAs
Gold import control goes
I had blogged about the matter of controlling gold imports into India initially here, and then here when RBI relaxed the controls to include star export houses. Now the RBI has cleared out all such controls through this notification, and gold is free to be imported, after payment of required customs duty which is around 10 percent.
Recap:
1. Alarmed by rising current account deficit and rising gold imports during early and mid 2013, RBI, in consultation with the Govt., used provisions of FEMA to bring out a circular to curb gold imports during August 2013. Some supplementary circulars were later on issued to clarify the matter, effectively making it clear that no one, including banks, could import gold for domestic sale. The language of the circular effectively led to a ban on import of gold.
2. This resulted in significant decrease in import of gold into the country. However, the gold imported for export purposes was out of purview and such gold was still being imported, to be exported later on.
3. There was an artificial price distortion in Indian domestic gold market due to this. Smugglers invented ingenious ways to bring gold into the country. The policy of wait and watch continued till elections got over.
4. RBI brought out a circular, in late May 2014, partially relaxing the gold imports to include star and premier exporters (with more than 2500 crore turnover over last three years) leading to a surge of imports by such big exporters. This partial relaxation lead to windfall chance for such established big exporters, as they alone were allowed to import gold into domestic market while all others were not allowed to do so. This was as good as allowing a quota to these few exporters, while shutting out all others. At the time of issue of this partial relaxation, there were hardly four or five such entities in the country who could qualify to gain from this arrangement.
5. Today, RBI got out of all such controls on gold by issuing the latest notification.
This would not have been a blog post, but for the timing of this announcement.
RBI is getting out of such controls at a time when the gold import has surged significantly. In fact, during the month of October 2014, the gold imports surged by more than 250% over last year, and there were some concerns about this rise in gold import. In fact, a senior in RBI was quoted just last week saying that RBI is thinking of bringing in more controls to curb gold imports. That's why this move is significant.
However, I believe that somewhere, sane forces prevailed over control masters when it came to making this decision. I reason thus:
First, there is no need to feel concerned about y-o-y increase this year as there is base effect in play. Last year this time, we had tight gold controls in place. Any relaxation shows up as a spike naturally.
Second, gold imports are price inelastic in India.
Third, such full and partial controls helps none but smugglers and a closed group of big exporters. The price distortion in market due to such controls leads to additional incentive to such elements.
Fourth, we are in a relatively comfortably position when it comes to current account deficit and rupee stability.
Fifth, it was a policy nightmare to understand and practically implement schemes such as 20:80 that these circulars mandated. It lead to inefficiency, corruption and crony capitalism, and not to mention overtime work for customs and DRI which went after smugglers, with mixed results at success.
In light of above, I laud RBI, and the Govt that it probably consulted.
Labels: gold imports, Trade Policy


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Press Release – Archaeology of the Present
Archaeology of the Present presents selected findings by artists Rebecca Bruno, Nova Jiang and Debra Scacco created during AIR, a six-month residency at Los Angeles Cleantech Incubator (LACI). AIR provided access to a state-of-the-art prototyping facility and leading minds working in climate-related issues. Through varying approaches, each artist engaged with a deep study of humans in relation to their surrounding environments, highlighting agricultural regeneration, urban erasure, and city infrastructure.
By introducing artists to an entrepreneurial clean tech hub, LACI's AIR program brings new insights, research models and personal entry points to our most urgent ecological issues: the air we breathe, the water we drink, the systems by which we live. AIR resident artists are encouraged to remain a part of the LACI community, benefiting artists and incubator alike. This inaugural exhibition offers a snapshot of the way we work, together.
Rebecca Bruno explored the link between agricultural systems and the choreographic process used in dance and performance art. Her piece, Life Keeping Recipe for a Relic, combines data collected through a series of public movement workshops with studies on permaculture and the impact that land cultivation has on the regenerative properties of soil. The resulting actions contain both hopeful, and dismal, aspects of climate change.
Nova Jiang focused on the relational cycles of urban blight and redevelopment, specifically as they affect neighborhood accessibility and diversity. Her installation, Bunker, commemorates the Los Angeles neighborhood of Bunker Hill—an enclave of opulent Victorian mansions that fell into disrepair, and was eventually razed to make way for the promise of commercial high rises and cultural institutions. Housed in a wheel-shaped sandbox, Jiang's 3D-printed sand molds modeled after original Bunker Hill mansions allow viewers to rebuild the lost neighborhood. Each time the wheel is spun, the neighborhood is wiped clean.
Debra Scacco initiated the first phase of her longterm project, titled Future Tense. This installation uses Los Angeles as a case study to investigate the relationship between city geographies, historic river courses, existing highway configurations, and a midcentury transit proposal never realized. The work questions our certainty of the history on which we build, the way we currently move, and the potential of an interconnected future.
AIR, the Artist-in-Residence Program at Los Angeles Cl
eantech Incubator (LACI), empowers innovation by uniting the creative and cleantech communities in the shared aim of addressing global environmental problems.
Situated in the heart of Los Angeles' Arts District, AIR enhances LACI's innovation community by introducing research-led artists to a thriving environment: where entrepreneurs, engineers, organizations and policy makers collaborate, promote and support the development of clean technologies.
The benefits of the six-month residency include:
— $13,000 stipend
— Access to leading minds
— Training and access to prototyping equipment
— Community engagement at the interplay of technology, sustainability, and the arts
ABOUT LACI
The Los Angeles Cleantech Incubator (LACI) is a private non-profit organization creating an inclusive green economy by unlocking innovation (working with startups to accelerate the commercialization of clean technologies), transforming markets (through partnerships in transportation, energy and sustainable cities) and enhancing communities (through workforce development, pilots and other programs). Founded as an economic development initiative by the City of Los Angeles and its Department of Water & Power (LADWP), LACI is recognized as one of the most innovative business incubators in the world by UBI. In the past six years, LACI has helped 73 portfolio companies raise $184M in funding, $220M in revenue, create 1,700 jobs, and deliver more than $379M in long term economic value. Learn more at laci.org
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Fj Cruiser Light Bar Install Manual - Jun 04, 2011 · Joined: Apr 4, 2010 Member: #34572 Messages: 1,588 Gender: Male Alabama Vehicle: Mag Grey 4x4 SR5 TRD Offroad Avid Off-road Light bar w/ Line-X, American Aluminum Black LP Toolbox, N Fab black step bars,In-Channel Vent Visors, two 10" Rockford subs, Pioneer Double Din DVD player w/ Metra dash kit, 285/65R18 Nitto Trail Grappler MT/s. 18x9" Black XD Monsters.. Need to lock front axles? Warn Premium Manual hubs can be seen everyday in pages of leading off-road publications. In photo after photo, feature after feature, close inspection reveals a overwhelming prevalence of distinctive brass dials and all metal bodies bearing the Warn name.. Jan 01, 2013 · im having my co worker ask some guys he knows at toyota about the issue ill let you know. but that yellow clip looks the same as a door panel clip i would try and use that as long as the prong is big enough for the hole to fit snug it will work..
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The Theater by the Deaf
In the framework of "Perceptions", Red Oak is preparing a theater performance with deaf children and youth.
"Perceptions" is a project that aims at empowering youth with disabilities through performing arts and raising awareness on their situation in Lebanon.
This project is supported by the Euro-Mediterranean Foundation of Support to Human Rights Defenders (EMHRF) and Dar Al Aytam.
Read more about The Theater by the Deaf
Perceptions, The Theater by the Blind and Deaf
"PERCEPTIONS", THE THEATER BY THE BLIND AT SUNFLOWER THEATER
In light of the spread of Coronavirus, and in accordance with the instructions of the Lebanese Ministry of Health, Red Oak postponed the performance "Perceptions" scheduled to take place at the Sunflower Theater.
This project is supported by the Euro-Mediterranean Foundation of Support to Human Rights Defenders (EMHRF), in collaboration with the Italian Cultural Institute and the Lebanese School for the Blind and Deaf.
Read more about "PERCEPTIONS", THE THEATER BY THE BLIND AT SUNFLOWER THEATER
Elephant in the Dark
We have the pleasure to cordially invite you to the blindfold walk performance "Elephant in the Dark" on Saturday, September 28 at MACAM in Alita- Byblos.
The performance starts at 7 pm in an open space where you become the performer.
This project is supported by AFAC - The Arab Fund for Arts and Culture in collaboration with MACAM and Red Oak.
This event is open to the public.
Booking is required. Call 03.197 900 or e-mail to redoaklb@gmail.com
Location: MACAM (Modern and Contemporary Art Museum)
Alita|Byblos, at Nahr Ibrahim, exit Qartaba, 7km uphill
About the performance:
What does obscurity teach us about the real, the space, and ourselves? What does it tell us that we could not know otherwise? When we remove the focal point of an image, what is left? What is left to see?
By experimenting and ultimately sculpting, blindfolded, in the dark, I began answering these questions myself. This became the starting point of my artistic journey, total obscurity as a platform of experimentation. Through my interactive art performance "Please Touch", I questioned the role of sight and vision as a contemporary tool, preferring the physical act of touching in artistic creation, and the relation of this tactile experience to memory. Realizing that touching art could trigger intense emotions that allow us to enjoy again this wonderful gift - the sense of touch, I understood that art was not just for the eyes but that depriving the sense of sight reveals this enormity of this glorious gift, our sense of touch.
"Elephant in the Dark" is inspired by a Hindu parable and Jalal al-Din's poem, where darkness takes another dimension, deprivation of sight and the heightened sense of touch becomes the point of origin of thought and doubt. A questioning of our blind certainty.
To submit the dark is to renounce to everything we know and think we know. To all that we think and believe to be right. It is accepting to get lost, to be in a place without direction.
This exploration in darkness allowed me to become aware that in order to be available to the thought, it is necessary to change perspective and to think with the whole body. Thus, the tactile touch of the hand becomes a tactile contact of the foot with the ground.
A barefoot that fondles, that slows down, that hears to its own steps, that seeks its own direction, that gets lost every time it tries to anchor itself in the world… a foot that advances in an open space, in an infinity of possibilities, that rediscovers the meaning of the horizon, that arrives elsewhere, travels to places it never thought existed.
Read more about Elephant in the Dark
Perceptions, The Theater by the Blind and Deaf 2019-2020
"PERCEPTIONS, The Theater by the Blind and Deaf" aims at empowering youth with disabilities through performing arts and raising awareness on their situation in Lebanon.
This project is funded by the Euro-Mediterranean Foundation of Support to Human Rights Defenders (EMHRF).
According to the United Nations, there are an estimate of 10-15% of the Lebanese population with physical, sensory, intellectual or mental disabilities. In 2000, Lebanon adopted the Law 220 to improve the livelihood conditions of people with disabilities (PwD) and guarantee their equal rights as any other citizens, one of the most progressive in the Middle East region, although it excludes disabilities that are not physical. However, discriminations and lack of access to specialized services remained prevalent notably in the medical and education sectors, according to a UNESCO's report on social inclusion of young persons with disabilities in 2013, due notably to poor governance and lack of public plans. Only in July 2018, the new Ministry of Labour decided to oblige the private sector to hire a certain number of employees with disabilities. Nevertheless, the issues and challenges faced by the PwD in Lebanon are largely not known by the general public, and thus behaviours towards this population often rely on charitable or medical approaches to disabilities rather than the social or right's based ones.
In this context, Red Oak wants to focus on the development of children and youth with disabilities in Lebanon and empower them to know and defend their rights through performing arts in partnership with the Lebanese School for the Blind and Deaf (LSBD), Dar al Aytam, and two public schools in Lebanon. The project engages two groups of young blind and deaf students in theater performance. Through these performances, Red Oak gives a voice to young blind and deaf students, build these students' self-esteem, encourage tolerance and communication and raise awareness on their situation and rights in a country where they remain largely invisible.
Read more about Perceptions, The Theater by the Blind and Deaf


In a Queensland first, drones are being used to help save the world's biggest nesting site for green sea turtles.
Read the full story "Drones helping save world's biggest green sea turtle nesting site at Raine Island", published by the ABC on 26 February 2016.
3D view of 1844 built towerDr Robin Beaman from James Cook University contributed to the drone imagery mapping results in this early phase of the Raine Island Green Turtle recovery project.
Related blog post - Biopixel blog "Raine Island"