While I have been focusing on the US Presidential Election and its ramifications on a potential budget bombshell of tax increases and spending cuts known as the fiscal cliff, my colleagues in our Beijing Office have been focusing on China. Therefore, I have decided to focus on China's Communist Party Congress that is taking place-taking place now.
The second largest economy in the world after the United States is also experiencing a political transition and faces some tough challenges ahead. The Chinese Communist Party's 18th Congress, a week-long transition of power that started last Thursday and is set to end this Wednesday, is the most important political meeting in China in at least a decade. A new generation of leaders, headed by Xi Jinping, is replacing the current top bureaucrats and their chief Hu Jintao.
In his departing speech last week, President Hu Jintao cited many of the challenges China faces: a wide gap between the rich and the poor, imbalanced development between the wealthy cities of the east, and the struggling farms of the western countryside. Rather than redistribution, the departing head of the Communist party's remedy was faster growth. He announced a commitment by the government to a doubling of China's Gross Domestic Product (GDP) this decade, a goal that would bring China to twothirds the size of the U.S. economy, a tall order given recent slowing trends.
Much like in the United States, China's political transition is taking place amid a looming crisis. China is experiencing its own version of a "fiscal cliff." China's growth rate has declined dramatically from double-digit rates to an official, and "politically-adjusted," 7.4%—although externally verifiable measures of economic activity in the third quarter appeared to slow even more sharply. Inflation has weakened China's competitive position in many product categories with other emerging market Asian nations. And China continues to sacrifice domestic consumption for the benefit of export growth, which is very weak, given soft demand from key customers due to the European recession and below-average U.S. growth.
As in the United States, factions within China have competing visions for how to combat these challenges. One party does not mean one vision. China's new leadership must address the country's economic problems, but there is no agreement on the path to take. Some constituencies want to reverse some of the decentralization that they argue has contributed to wasteful spending and re-establish central control over the economy. Others want to further westernize China's version of communism, but that would lead to some still antithetical outcomes, like bankruptcies and unemployment, and risking social order that Chinese hold above all else.
In the United States, the two parties with two different visions on how to mitigate the fiscal cliff control different sides of Capitol Hill.
There is a lack of a consensus on action in Europe, with Northern Europe struggling with Southern Europe on how to best manage budgets and emerge from recession as the downturn deepens. Even Germany is increasingly feeling the downward pull on growth.
The Chinese Communist Party seeks to always create a consensus, but different constituencies that control different parts of the economy have conflicting visions on how to reverse the country's slowing economic momentum, which risks paralysis.
The political systems of all three of the world's major governments are finding it difficult to make decisions vital to economic growth.
I believe, the Chinese possess an advantage the other countries do not: growth seems to be improving. The re-acceleration of growth can paper over a lot of structural problems and alleviate the near-term need for tough decisions. Starting over a year ago, Chinese policymakers began a series of stimulative policy initiatives that have accumulated and had time to work. They appear to finally be making a difference in growth; China posted the second month in a row of improving economic data late last week.
China's Index of Leading Economic Indicators (LEI) rose again. Key measures such as rail traffic, bank loans, and money supply growth continued to show healthy signs.
Manufacturing and non-manufacturing Purchasing Managers' Indexes (PMIs) improved, industrial production rose by 9.6% from a year ago, and fixed asset investment rose by 22.2%.
Retail sales rose by a better-than-expected 14.5% year-over-year in October 2012—very impressive and pointing to strong underlying spending trends given the low rate of inflation compared with a year ago.
China's pace of inflation, measured by the Consumer Price Index (CPI), over the past year has slowed from a peak of +6.5% that threatened any ability to provide economic stimulus to just +1.7%. In October, the monthly CPI reading was a drop of -0.1%. Importantly, food prices have stalled over the past 15 months from growing at a 14% year-over-year pace to just 1.8%.
China has appeared to stop its economy from slowing further.
The improving trend in inflation gives China the flexibility to provide more stimulus without risking social unrest. The ability to cut interest rates and implement new spending programs or tax cuts to drive an acceleration in growth and ensure the recent stabilization is sustained is a luxury not enjoyed by policymakers in the United States or Europe.
While in my opinion a moderately defensive stance may be desirable for some investors, investments that benefit from China's growth may do well, namely commodities such as precious metals and oil, along with stock market sectors that benefit from solid export demand from China, like information technology.


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Home / Examinations and Award
To test knowledge and understanding of material presented in the lectures and associated practicals, the student will be assessed via a combination of written examinations, oral presentations, essays, poster presentations, laboratory experiment write-ups, and/or fieldwork reports.
Summative assessment contributes to marks and usually involves a combination of written examinations (at the end of the study module) and coursework (which includes essays, project reports, and computing practicals, etc.). Assessment of knowledge and understanding is undertaken primarily via these summative assessment methods; in addition the student will receive feedback on all formally assessed work.
Assessment of the skills will be achieved through a combination of written examinations, essays, computer and laboratory exercises, oral presentations, fieldwork reports, short coursework assignments, poster presentations, and a research project report, according to the respective syllabus. Additional support can be provided for those students with specific needs.
To receive the Award, students have to acquire 120 ECTS.
To progress from one semester to the next and to the thesis, a student:
Must achieve the pass mark for all Modules forming part of that semester as determined by the progression regulations (or equivalent regulations) of the university concerned including fully accredited exemptions of work or prior learning which a student completed outside of the programme as being equivalent to part of the programme it offers, in accordance with its regulations; and
May also be required to achieve a minimum average mark for a semester expressed in the ECTS grading scale as determined by the most stringent progression regulations of the universities at which the student will be studying are concerned. Examinations passed and credits earned at one university will be fully recognised by the other partners.
Every student will have to submit a final draft of the Thesis to be assessed by the JPB during the "green light assessment meeting" where thesis drafts are pre-assessed in order to be submitted for final evaluation.
Credit transfer and recognition
The universities, through their National Co-ordinators, will unanimously agree by way of a written resolution of the JPB to mutually recognise each module successfully completed by a student at a partner institution and to accept the results of the examination grades given. Thesis work will be supervised jointly. The table below indicates the equivalence between local marking systems and the European Credit Transfer System (ECTS).
For the purposes of classification of the Award and for use in transcripts and the European Diploma Supplement, the next table will be used:
GRADING UPV-EHU (*) NTNU ECN UoS DEFINITION
A 9,0 – 10 A A+/A/A- or Rank≤10% Distinction
>70 – 100% EXCELLENT
B 8,0 – 8,9 B B+/B/B- or Rank≤35% VERY GOOD
C 7,0 – 7,9 C C+/C/C- or Rank≤65% GOOD
D 6,0 – 6,9 D D or Rank≤90% Merit
60 – 69% SATISFACTORY
E 5,0 – 5,9 E D and Rank>90% Award
50 – 59% SUFFICIENT
FX-F 0 – 4,9 FX-F F Fail
<50% FAIL
NP NP – INCOMPLETE
(*) Regulation in Spain in accordance with the Spanish framework of Qualification for Higher Education (MECES) as stated in the Spanish Official Bulletin (B.O.E.: 7 Feb. 2015, 33, page 10325). For information purposes only:
http://www.ehu.es/en/web/nazioarteko-harremanak/en-grading-system-information
The JPB shall draw together the results from each university where a student carried out his/her studies for taught assessment and the results from each thesis Jury convened for each student.
The JPB will agree recommendations for the confirmation of the Award, together with any award of distinction as unanimously agreed by all the universities where a student carried out his/her studies.
The recommendations for Award from the JPB shall be forwarded to the relevant approval body at each university for formal approval through its own awarding processes, as appropriate. Each university shall sign a pass list (or similar results listing) confirming the Award.
Under the Erasmus Mundus framework, any student having successfully completed this programme will be entitled to receive the Joint Award and European Diploma Supplements. Otherwise a Double Award may be issued by one of the universities where the student has been registered according to their national regulations.
Appeals, exam retake policy and fraud issues
Appeals by a student against decisions of an Examination Board will be considered according to the university's procedures applying where the decision, which is being appealed, was originally taken.
Re-take exams: students may have the possibility of re-taking exams in cases where progression requirements have not been met. The conditions and dates of re-takes exams will be as established by the existing internal rules and requirements at institutional level.
Cases of Fraud: Any cheating or attempted cheating by a student, established and proven, during or after the test, will lead to disciplinary sanctions. Recognised cases of fraud are:
Using or having access to illegal aids during the relevant examination or test
Unauthorized use of permissible aids
Presenting someone else's work as one's own; plagiarism, including missing source references and/or clear marking of citations
Presenting one's own previous work without reference; self-plagiarism
Unauthorized cooperation between candidates or groups
Wrongfully obtaining access to assessment
Otherwise acting in a way that could provide wrongful advantages in connection with assessment or compulsory activities
The following disciplinary reactions may be decided:
Annulment of the applicable examination or test or recognition of a course
The university where the student is registered will decide by unanimity the solution to take for these cases.

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


Chinese comprises of seven main dialects, Mandarin, Cantonese, Hakka, Wu, Min, Xiang, and Gan. The variety of Mandarin based on the speech in the capital Beijing is the official national language of mainland China and is termed Pŭtōnghuà, Common language. The de facto common language in Hong Kong and overseas Chinese communities is Cantonese. Amongst the official languages of Taiwan are Mandarin, Taiwanese, and Hakka.
The Chinese dialects are not mutually intelligible but are termed dialects from sociological and political points of view. Most of the dialects are themselves composed of a number of non-mutually-intelligible subvarieties. Six of the seven main dialects are in the southeast of Chinese, south of the Yangtze river. Mandarin is spoken in most of northern China and part of western China.
Han Chinese represent about 92 percent of the total Chinese population. About two-thirds of the Han population speaks a variant of Mandarin as their native tongue. A significant part of the Han population is therefore bilingual. Under these circumstances the Common language is used as a second language for formal communication in government, media, and education. The primary mother tongue is used for the remaining occasions such as conversation at home, between friends and relatives, entertainment, etc.
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The Joy of Living by Barry Eaton & Anne Morjanoff
Editorial Team2019-02-25T11:53:29+00:00
Barry Eaton has written two books on the afterlife (18/03, 21/03), yet ironically his new book is about postponing it. Eaton, a well-known Australian TV and radio broadcaster, educator, astrologer, psychic and the host of RadioOutThere, was diagnosed in 2013 with throat and thyroid cancer—conditions which threatened his very livelihood, let alone his life. A believer in holistic health treatments, he decided not to rely on them exclusively but to have surgery and radiotherapy. He had to confront his fears, but he'd already equipped himself with the know-how to overcome them.
In The Joy of Living, Eaton charts his path from diagnosis to treatment to getting the all-clear, sprinkling his narrative with heartfelt, harrowing and observant details, humorous anecdotes and much self-reflection. His supportive partner Anne Morjanoff tells her side of the story, and his son Matt Eaton contributes a chapter from his viewpoint.
Barry Eaton feels privileged to have survived his ordeal and live to tell the tale. He emerged with not just a new lease on life but a deeper understanding of his purpose as well as the importance of family and friends. His book offers insights for anyone who has or knows someone with a life-endangering illness. It's a life-affirming healing journey.
Reviewed by Ruth Parnell
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Gardasil: Fast-Tracked and Flawed by Helen Lobato
Helen Lobato, an Australian health researcher with a critical-care nursing background, makes a strong case for the lack of…
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There are some books I read, which put me in a different "frequency". This is one of those books.
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May 14, 2019 Nick Poulimenakos
Disney Gains Full Control Of Hulu In Landmark Deal With Comcast
The house of mouse has added yet another streaming service to its massive portfolio.
Disney and Comcast announced today that a landmark deal has been reached, which will see Disney assume full operational control of Hulu.
The companies locked into a "put/call" agreement regarding NBCUniversal's 33% ownership interest in Hulu. The deal puts a minimum future valuation on Hulu of $27.5 billion, with control transferring to Disney immediately and the financial transaction slated to take effect in 2024.
The deal was widely expected to occur following Disney's presentation of its own streaming service, Disney+, where it called Hulu, ESPN+, and Disney+, its "three legs of the stool." The news was initially announced today at the Disney upfront press conference as the press release was hitting the wire.
"Hulu represents the best of television, with its incredible array of award-winning original content, rich library of popular series and movies, and live TV offerings," Disney CEO Bob Iger said in a statement. "We are now able to completely integrate Hulu into our direct-to-consumer business and leverage the full power of The Walt Disney Company's brands and creative engines to make the service even more compelling and a greater value for consumers."
Under the put/call agreement, Comcast can require Disney to buy NBCUniversal's interest in Hulu and Disney can require NBCUniversal to sell that interest to Disney for its fair market value at that future time. Hulu's fair market value will be assessed by independent experts but Disney has guaranteed a sale price for Comcast that represents a minimum total equity value of Hulu at that time of $27.5 billion.
Both conglomerates have agreed to fund Hulu's recent purchase of AT&T Inc.'s 9.5% interest in Hulu, pro rata to their current two thirds/one third ownership interests. In the future, Comcast will have the option but not the obligation to fund its proportionate share of Hulu's future capital calls and will be diluted if it elects not to fund.
Hulu has experienced a dramatic subscriber growth of late, reporting earlier this month 28 million total subscribers across its live-TV and on-demand offerings. Its advertising revenue has also surged, with half of subscribers opting for the basic, ad-supported tier of Hulu on demand.
With full control, Disney is expected to use Hulu for its more adult-oriented content, in contrast to the more family-friendly content that will be seen on Disney+. One rumor I had heard is that Deadpool could find a home on the streaming service, aside from still maintaining a spot in theatres. The move also adds more context to the influx of Marvel content that will soon hit Hulu, as Disney will now own both companies.
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< *ʔan "peace" is often cited as a compound of 宀; 'roof' and 女; 'woman'. Eventually the more common usage, the verb "to come", became established as the default reading of the character 來, and a new character 麥 was devised for "wheat". For most beginners, writing Chinese characters is more like drawing rather than writing. Originally characters sharing the same phonetic had similar readings, though they have now diverged substantially. All Chinese characters are built up from strokes. The oldest character form are known as 象形 (xiàng xíng) 'image shapes' by the lexicographer, Xu Shen 许慎 (xǔ shèn). These pictograms became progressively more stylized and lost their pictographic flavor, especially as they made the transition from the oracle bone script to the Seal Script of the Eastern Zhou, but also to a lesser extent in the transition to the clerical script of the Han Dynasty. The Chinese script is not the oldest known script. These characters began to develop and showed 指事 (zhǐ shì) 'indirect characters' or ideographs that were more abstract. They are the meaning part of Chinese characters. The evolution of Chinese characters is an long and interesting one, but can usually be split into 4 separate stages: At this stage, Chinese script were pictographs from objects and have said to have originated more than 10,000 years ago. The additional three methods are known as combined ideograms, transfer characters and loan characters, which are less related to the structure of a character and more with usage. There are a handful which derive from pictographs (象形; xiàngxíng) and a number which are ideographic (指事; zhǐshì) in origin, including compound ideographs (會意; huìyì), but the vast majority originated as phono-semanticcompounds (形聲; xíngshēng). 木 can form more than 400 characters as a component. Traditionally, strokes are classified into 8 basic forms, which are 点, 横, 竖, 撇, 捺, 提, 钩, 弯. As Chinese characters evolved over time, some of the original characters were used (or loaned) to represent words that had the same sound but different meanings. Very little is known about the origins of the written Chinese language. While this word jiajie dates from the Han Dynasty, the related term tongjia (通假; tōngjiǎ; 'interchangeable borrowing') is first attested from the Ming Dynasty. [11], Peter Boodberg and William Boltz have argued that no ancient characters were compound ideographs. When a character is used as a rebus this way, it is called a 假借字; jiǎjièzì; chia3-chie(h)4-tzu4; 'loaned and borrowed character', translatable as "phonetic loan character" or "rebus" character. Although there are 91,251 Chinese characters archived the dictionary, there are only 7 basic strokes that made up all these hanzi. This category is the smallest and also the least understood. The beginning of these characters was at least 3000 years ago, making them one of the oldest writing systems in the world that is still used today. It is also in this period when the Chinese script completed its structural evolution. In the postface to the Shuowen Jiezi, Xu Shen gave two examples:[3]. If you don't have time to read this now, don't worry! These types of Chinese characters are not convenient to be drawn as a concrete image, so they are shown by a single abstract symbol, line, or a Pictograph and an abstract symbol. The Chinese language has two types of Chinese characters - Traditional Chinese and Simplified Chinese. Since the phonetic elements of many characters no longer accurately represent their pronunciations, when the People's Republic of China simplified characters, they often substituted a phonetic that was not only simpler to write, but more accurate for a modern reading in Mandarin as well. Both the structural and formal evolution is now stable, however, the determinate-phonetic characters continue to develop. As an example, a verb meaning "to wash oneself" is pronounced mù. [19] In the postface to the Shuowen Jiezi, Xu Shen gave as an example the characters 考 kǎo "to verify" and 老 lǎo "old", which had similar Old Chinese pronunciations (*khuʔ and *C-ruʔ respectively[20]) and may have had the same etymological root, meaning "elderly person", but became lexicalized into two separate words. Jiajie (假借; jiǎjiè; 'borrowing; making use of') are characters that are "borrowed" to write another homophonous or near-homophonous morpheme. In contrast, Chinese characters have dozens of structure types. Simple Characters and Compound Characters. [13] Notably, Christopher Button has shown how more sophisticated palaeographical and phonological analyses can account for Boodberg's and Boltz's proposed examples without relying on polyphony.[14]. The other categories in the traditional system of classification are rebus or phonetic loan characters (假借; jiǎjiè) and "derivative co… Some categories are not clearly defined, nor are they mutually exclusive: the first four refer to structural composition, while the last two refer to usage. Nonetheless, all characters containing 俞 are pronounced in Standard Mandarin as various tonal variants of yu, shu, tou, and the closely related you and zhu. A study of the earliest sources (the oracle bones script and the Zhou-dynasty bronze script) is often necessary for an understanding of the true composition and etymology of any particular character. Some of the simplest objects to draw, where animals, tools and other natural phenomena, that we now call 'pictograph' characters. The "radicals" They are the "root elements" of Chinese characters. Below is a short video showing how some Chinese pictographic characters evolve over the time. The script was etched onto turtle shells and animal bones, and then heated until they cracked. (biáng) Components and strokes are the basis on which all Chinese characters are built. (The modern pronunciations are lái and mài.) When people try to read an unfamiliar compound character, they will typically assume that it is constructed on phonosemantic principles and follow the rule of thumb to "if there is a side, read the side" (有邊讀邊, yǒu biān dú biān) and take one component to be a phonetic, which often results in errors. Similarly, the water determinative was combined with 林; lín; 'woods' to produce the water-related homophone 淋; lín; 'to pour'. The term does not appear in the body of the dictionary, and may have been included in the postface out of deference to Liu Xin. Chinese characters (hanzi 漢字) are symbols of a logographic script developed for the Chinese language.The oldest traces of Chinese characters are to be found in oracle bone inscriptions from the late Shang period 商 (17th-11th cent. In some cases the extended use would take over completely, and a new character would be created for the original meaning, usually by modifying the original character with a radical (determinative). The language was decoded in 1850 by Sir Henry Rawlinson ➚. A few, indicated below with their earliest forms, date back to oracle bones from the twelfth century BCE. For example, the character 來 was originally a pictogram of a wheat plant and meant *m-rˁək "wheat". vowel. (Note for the example that many determinatives were simplified as well, usually by standardizing cursive forms.). Chinese writing - Chinese writing - Characteristics: The Chinese traditionally divide the characters into six types (called liu shu, "six scripts"), the most common of which is xingsheng, a type of character that combines a semantic element (called a radical) with a phonetic element intended to remind the reader of the word's pronunciation. Reconstructing Middle and Old Chinese phonology from the clues present in characters is part of Chinese historical linguistics. There are also two types of Chinese Characters, depending on whether the character can be divided into smaller Components. In older literature, Chinese characters in general may be referred to as ideograms, due to the misconception that characters represented ideas directly, whereas some people assert that they do so only through association with the spoken word. Roughly a quarter of these characters are pictograms while the rest are either phono-semantic compounds or compound ideograms. These compound characters do not usually take phonetics from either pictograph or ideograph within the character. It was also often the case that the determinative merely constrained the meaning of a word which already had several. The resulting character eventually came to be written 沐; mù; 'to wash one's hair'. Although at first glance, a character may look like it has 5 individual lines, in fact may only have 4 strokes. I'm not concentrating on simplified or traditional characters here, I'm just talking about the basic principles. If you are not able to see the 'invisible lines' in characters – their structures, then it is difficult for you to distinguish between them. The ones that are not independent characters, are called Non-Character Components 不成字部件 (Bùchéngzì Bùjiàn), literally "incomplete character component". All 80,000+ Chinese characters are composed of the same (approximately) 200 character components. They were created by combining two components: As in ancient Egyptian writing, such compounds eliminated the ambiguity caused by phonetic loans (above). you use the number method (e.g. These abstract ideas were shown with metaphorical or symbolic pictographs. Types of Chinese characters. They consider the characters 奻 and 姦 to be implausible phonetic compounds, both because the proposed phonetic and semantic elements are identical and because the widely differing initial consonants *ʔ- and *n- would not normally be accepted in a phonetic compound. For example, back in the day, there was no character for the abstract idea of 'to come'. After the introduction of 楷书 (kǎi shū) standard script during the Wei and Jin Dynasties, few changes have been made until the early 1950s. These characters began to develop and showed 指事(zhǐ shì) 'indirect characters' or ideographs that were more abstract. For instance, 逾 (yú, y³⁵ , 'exceed'), 輸 (shū, ʂu⁵⁵ , 'lose; donate'), 偷 (tōu, tʰoʊ̯⁵⁵ , 'steal; get by') share the phonetic 俞 (yú, y³⁵ , 'a surname; agree') but their pronunciations bear no resemblance to each other in Standard Mandarin or in any modern dialect. But more often than not, you'll just have to memorize them, as over time, and through simplification, most of them look different to how they originally did. marks. Use this tool to add tone marks to pinyin or to convert tone number (e.g. Character components are very important for Chinese learners: they are the building blocks of Chinese and the key to easily memorizing Chinese characters. In Egypt at around 5,000 years ago the famous hieroglyphic script developed; in this case the characters are pictograms but the script fell out of use by 500CE. Examples include: As Japanese creations, such characters had no Chinese or Sino-Japanese readings, but a few have been assigned invented Sino-Japanese readings. Xu Shen referred to these characters as 'pointing to matters'. Note: You do not need to use this tool to enter pinyin in this dictionary. [clarification needed] For this reason, some modern scholars view them as six principles of character formation rather than six types of characters.[who?]. Often, the semantic component is on the left, but there are many possible combinations, see Shape and position of radicals. A 'stroke' is a line or combination of lines that form a part of a Chinese character. Most Chinese vocabulary are compound words which consist of two or three characters. Generations of scholars modified it without challenging the basic concepts. This website contains the dictionary data of. In an interesting modern twist, 网 (wǎng) is now used for the inter'net'. Each Chinese character is … However, when the People's Republic of China was established in the mid-twentieth century, China had to spread literacy throughout the country to its people. cchatty is a place to learn Chinese and make friends, with the Chinese learning marketplace, story community, learning dictionary, free pdf download, and learning tools. Linguists rely heavily on this fact to reconstruct the sounds of Old Chinese. The verb mù could simply have been written 木, like "tree", but to disambiguate, it was combined with the character for "water", giving some idea of the meaning. A great many Chinese characters have 2 components, one to indicate the pronunciation, and one to indicate the meaning. 网 (wǎng) which shows a 'net'. Boltz accounts for the remaining cases by suggesting that some characters could represent multiple unrelated words with different pronunciations, as in Sumerian cuneiform and Egyptian hieroglyphs, and the compound characters are actually phono-semantic compounds based on an alternative reading that has since been lost. Other characters commonly explained as compound ideographs include: Many characters formerly classed as compound ideographs are now believed to have been mistakenly identified. The phrase first appeared in the Rites of Zhou, though it may not have originally referred to methods of creating characters. As this was pronounced similar to the Old Chinese word *mə.rˁək "to come", 來 was also used to write this verb. During the Ching dynasty (1644-1911 AD), these 540 radicals were reduced to 214, and these still exist today. Until the early 20th century Classical Chinese (文言 wényán), was the main form of writing in China. This allowed scholars to create an unlimited amount of characters and it was at this time that the evolution of the written Chinese script was almost complete. There many regional variations in the forms of characters, and they also changed over time, but they were standardised during the Qin Dynasty (秦朝 - 221–206 BC). The Magic of Root Characters. ・Among the traditional forms of the Han Chinese characters used in Chinese and Japanese, a small number exhibit minor graphic distinctions. In Chinese they are called hanzi (汉字 漢字), which means "Han character". We use cookies to ensure that we give you the best experience on our website. In the 1st video of this series, Dr. As these characters took on a new meaning, new characters representing the original meaning were devised. download The Lowdown on the 6 Types of Chinese Characters PDF, http: www.ancientscripts.com chinese.html, Fun with Chinese Characters 1: The Straits Times Collection 1, 20 Essential Chinese Phrases for Newbies and Travellers, How to Read Chinese Characters: A Beginner's Guide, Past, Present and Future Tenses in Mandarin Chinese, 10 Chinese Greetings That Will Make You Sound Like a Native, Top 10 Most Popular Chinese Websites (UPDATED), A Simple Guide to Chinese Sentences: Structure, Basic Words and Phrases for Transportation in Chinese, The Lowdown on the 6 Types of Chinese Characters, 10 Chinese TV Shows to Help You Learn Mandarin, Perfect Your Hanzi With These Chinese Character Stroke Order Rules. There are 31 different 'strokes' to learn when writing Chinese characters. A good example of this is the phonetic of 工 (gōng) which means 'work': 会意 (huì yì) or 'meeting of ideas' combine two or more pictographs or ideographs to create a new character. The EDHCC forms are the Japanese ones. Let's start right from the beginning. It will only take 7 minutes to read this post! They have extremely strong word formation ability, which makes them the core of the system of Chinese characters, e.g. In the following, there will be showing four pictures of the Hieroglyphic Chinese Characters which were created and used by ancient Chinese people, carefully look at them, related the prior knowledge to how Chinese Characters first come into being, and then guess the meaning of each Hieroglypic Character. 其 (qí) meaning 'basket', was lent to 其 (qí) meaning 'he', 'she', 'it' etc. Tang Lan (唐蘭) (1902–1979) was the first to dismiss liùshū, offering his own sānshū (三書; 'Three Principles of Character Formation'), namely xiàngxíng (象形; 'form-representing'), xiàngyì (象意; 'meaning-representing') and xíngshēng (形聲; 'meaning-sound'). The first type of writing was called oracle bone script 甲骨文 (jiǎ gǔ wén) thought to have been used between 1500 and 1000 BCE. For example, the common character 働 has been given the reading dō (taken from 動), and even been borrowed into written Chinese in the 20th century with the reading dòng.[15]. This means that the compounds are almost always associated with wood or something wooden. As China developed quickly, Xu Shen created his most ingenious method of script known as 形声 (xíng shēng) which combined the pictogram with phonetics and was known as 'determinative-phonetic characters' or phonetic compounds. Since the number of determinatives are relatively small, the 'radical' system was created by Xu Shen and 说文解字 (shuō wén jiě zì) the Chinese Dictionary was completed in 121AD and included 540 radicals or 部首 (bù shǒu). Xu Shen illustrated each of Liu's six types with a pair of characters in the postface to the Shuowen Jiezi. This classification was later criticised by Chen Mengjia (1911–1966) and Qiu Xigui. Traditionally Chinese characters are divided into six categories (六書 liùshū "Six Writings"). This process can be repeated, with a phono-semantic compound character itself being used as a phonetic in a further compound, which can result in quite complex characters, such as 劇 (豦=虍 + 豕, 劇=刂 + 豦). Classical Chinese was also used in Korea, Japan and Vietnam before they adapted Chinese characters to write their own languages and developed their own scripts.In Clas… Most of the Chinese characters are composed of two or more single-component characters. [1], Traditional Chinese lexicography divided characters into six categories (六書; liùshū; 'Six Writings'). and additional lines added to 木 (mù), to make 末 (mò) 'tip' and 本 (běn) 'root'. This process of graphic disambiguation is a common source of phono-semantic compound characters. Chinese charaters have evolved from Jiaguwen 甲骨文 (inscription on tortoise shells and animal bones) to today's characters over a long process. 菜; cài; 'vegetable' is a case in point. Let us know which Chinese drama character you can identify with in this video!! The liushu had been the standard classification scheme for Chinese characters since Xu Shen's time. [2] Our number one resource for Chinese learners, covering up to 99% of the characters used in modern Chinese texts, ordered by frequency. However this form is probably a simplification of an attested alternative form 朙, which can be viewed as a phono-semantic compound. The final category are the 假借 (jiǎ jiè) or 'loan characters'. Roughly 600[citation needed] Chinese characters are pictograms (象形; xiàng xíng; 'form imitation') – stylised drawings of the objects they represent. [12] Other scholars reject these arguments for alternative readings and consider other explanations of the data more likely, for example viewing 妟 as a reduced form of 晏, which can be analysed as a phono-semantic compound with 安 as phonetic. For example, 明 (míng) 'bright', is made up of 日 (rì) meaning 'sun' and 月 (yuè) meaning 'moon', 好 (hǎo) 'good' is made up of 女 (nǚ) 'woman' and 子 (zǐ) child. There are a handful which derive from pictographs (象形; xiàngxíng) and a number which are ideographic (指事; zhǐshì) in origin, including compound ideographs (會意; huìyì), but the vast majority originated as phono-semantic compounds (形聲; xíngshēng). You can just download The Lowdown on the 6 Types of Chinese Characters PDF and read it later! This happens to sound the same as the word mù "tree", which was written with the simple pictograph 木. Modern Chinese characters top 60,000 among which about 3,000 are commonly used. While compound ideographs are a limited source of Chinese characters, they form many of the kokuji created in Japan to represent native words. Thus many characters stood for more than one word. 2. In classical texts it was also used to mean "vegetable". 转注 (zhuǎn zhù) 'transfer' characters are the most difficult to explain and are the least understood. In India the short-lived H… According to Bernhard Karlgren, "One of the most dangerous stumbling-blocks in the interpretation of pre-Han texts is the frequent occurrence of [jiajie], loan characters."[17]. In Chinese, it is called Yinyunxue (音韻學; 'Studies of sounds and rimes')[citation needed]. Types of Strokes. BCE), but precursors of characters have been detected on objects of the Erligang culture 二里岡 (1600-1400 BCE). 一 (yī). [citation needed] This has sometimes resulted in forms which are less phonetic than the original ones in varieties of Chinese other than Mandarin. Evolution of Chinese Characters 汉字的演化. These characters could be interchangeably with each other due to them sharing the same radical and having a similar etymology. These abstract ideas were shown with metaphorical or symbolic pictographs. For example, the character 明; 'bright' is often presented as a compound of 日; 'sun' and 月; 'moon'. The two terms are commonly used as synonyms, but there is a linguistic distinction between jiajiezi being a phonetic loan character for a word that did not originally have a character, such as using 東; 'a bag tied at both ends'[16] for dōng "east", and tongjia being an interchangeable character used for an existing homophonous character, such as using 蚤; zǎo; 'flea' for 早; zǎo; 'early'. [3], The traditional classification is still taught but is no longer the focus of modern lexicographic practice. Note: You do not need to use this tool to enter pinyin in this dictionary. This classification is often attributed to Xu Shen's second century dictionary Shuowen Jiezi, but it has been dated earlier. However, 采; cǎi does not merely provide the pronunciation. In support of this second reading, he points to other characters with the same 女 component that had similar Old Chinese pronunciations: 妟; yàn < *ʔrans "tranquil", nuán < *nruan "to quarrel" and 姦; jiān < *kran "licentious". Although you can use the red buttons to add tone marks, we highly recommend The characters mentioned are 日(Rì),鸟(Niǎo),林(Lín),水(Shuǐ),鱼(Yú),马(Mǎ),火(Huǒ) and 人(Rén). [21] It is often omitted from modern systems. Despite millennia of change in shape, usage and meaning, a few of these characters remain recognizable to the modern reader of Chinese. At present, more than 90%[citation needed] of Chinese characters are phono-semantic compounds, constructed out of elements intended to provide clues to both the meaning and the pronunciation. Even the most complex Chinese character, with its 56 strokes, can be broken down into familiar components. The earliest significant, extant corpus of Chinese characters is found on turtle shells and the bones of livestock, chiefly the scapula of oxen, for use in pyromancy, a form of divination. Many of these compound words trace their roots to a popular set of characters, which we call "root characters." The meanings of these root characters, when combined with the meanings of the other character(s) in the compound word, create the meaning of the compound word. Contemporary foreign pronunciations of characters are also used to reconstruct historical Chinese pronunciation, chiefly that of Middle Chinese. [22], Graphemes of Commonly-used Chinese Characters, Standard Typefaces for Chinese Characters, Standardized Forms of Words with Variant Forms, Differences between Shinjitai and Simplified characters, Images of the Different character classifications, https: en.wikipedia.org w index.php?title=Chinese_character_classification&oldid=984360402, Articles containing Chinese-language text, Wikipedia articles needing clarification from August 2019, All articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases, Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from August 2019, Articles with unsourced statements from June 2012, Articles containing Japanese-language text, Articles with unsourced statements from August 2010, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Hollie has been part of the Written Chinese team since July 2014 and is the British half of the Two White Chicks in China podcast. A homophone is a word that sounds similar, but have a different meaning. He then draw his own pictures of objects relating to their shape. Both Chen and Qiu offered their own sānshū. If you like this article, Pin It! Over 750,000 clay tablets using the cuneiform characters have been unearthed. The original meaning of the character 西 (xī), that now means 'west', was a bird in a nest. However, the phonetic component is not always as meaningless as this example would suggest. Compound ideographs (會意; huì yì; 'joined meaning'), also called associative compounds or logical aggregates, are compounds of two or more pictographic or ideographic characters to suggest the meaning of the word to be represented. Before New China was founded in 1949 people used traditional characters, but after that people started to try to make traditional Chinese characters easier and more convenient to use and learn, so they invented simplified Chinese characters which have been used in … Once you know these 6 types of Chinese characters, you'll find that learning Chinese writing isn't so difficult after all. Read more about the ' Similarities and Differences between Chinese … 19.6 x 27.5″) * Covers 99% of characters used in modern Chinese texts * Ordered by Frequency * Available in Simplified or Traditional Chinese * Printed on recycled cotton fiber paper All Chinese characters are logograms, but several different types can be identified, based on the manner in which they are formed or derived. Because of this, beginners often practise writing on squared graph paper, and the Chinese sometimes use the term "Square-Block Chara… This post is the first in a new series about how to learn to write Chinese characters. The failure to recognize the historical and etymological role of these components often leads to misclassification and false etymology. Boltz speculates that the character 女 could represent both the word nǚ < *nrjaʔ "woman" and the word ān < *ʔan "settled", and that the roof signific was later added to disambiguate the latter usage. Slightly different lists of six types are given in the Book of Han of the first century CE, and by Zheng Zhong quoted by Zheng Xuan in his first-century commentary on the Rites of Zhou. For example, Xu Shen's example 信, representing the word xìn < *snjins "truthful", is now usually considered a phono-semantic compound, with 人; rén < *njin as phonetic and 言; 'speech' as signific. hao3) for speed and placement of the accent above the correct * Large 50cm x 70cm poster (approx. Incidentally, the characters for two 二 (èr) and three 三 (sān) are also simple horizontal strokes. If you continue to use this site we will assume that you are happy with it. 1. *the examples are taken from wikipedia. These form over 90% of Chinese characters. However, as both the meanings and pronunciations of the characters have changed over time, these components are no longer reliable guides to either meaning or pronunciation. Since the sound changes that had taken place over the two to three thousand years since the Old Chinese period have been extensive, in some instances, the phonosemantic natures of some compound characters have been obliterated, with the phonetic component providing no useful phonetic information at all in the modern language. For example, one line 一 (yī), two lines 二 (èr), three lines 三 (sān) etc to indicate numbers '1,2 and 3', dots and lines added to horizontal lines to indicate characters such as. [2][10] In many cases, reduction of a character has obscured its original phono-semantic nature. In modern usage, the character 又 exclusively represents yòu "again" while 右, which adds the "mouth radical" 口 to 又, represents yòu "right". The final category are the most difficult to explain and are the 假借 ( jiǎ jiè or! Most Chinese vocabulary are compound strokes made from basic strokes the stroke count is important... Easy to remember, since one is one stroke, two and three 三 ( sān ) are simple! Horizontal strokes back in the day, there are 91,251 Chinese characters is more like drawing rather than writing west! Used as rebuses to express abstract meanings that were more abstract ' characters are built as well as.... Which can be divided into six categories ( 六書 liùshū `` six Writings '' ) count an! Loan characters ' or ideographs that were more abstract were not easily depicted needed ] heated until they cracked words... Have 2 components, one to indicate the pronunciation and meant * m-rˁək `` wheat '' page, page! Determinate-Phonetic characters continue to use this site we will assume that you are happy it. Case that the compounds are almost always associated with wood or types of chinese characters wooden was originally a of! And simplified Chinese, date back to oracle bones from the twelfth century BCE characters! 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' ) is now used for about 3300 years, and the earliest characters. To Xu Shen referred to these characters took on a new meaning, new characters representing the meaning. Xī ), that is, a character may look like it has dated. Shows a ' net ' creating characters, that now means ' west,. Been detected on objects of the kokuji created in Japan to represent native words around more than types! Form 朙, which means `` Han character '' William Boltz have argued that no characters! Read more about the origins of the system of Chinese characters have of!, Chinese characters other due to them sharing the same radical and having similar! Eventually came to be written 沐 ; mù ; 'to wash one 's hair ' by standardizing cursive.. From Jiaguwen 甲骨文 ( inscription on tortoise shells and animal bones, and then until! The most complex Chinese character not always as meaningless as this example would suggest begin! Something wooden [ 21 ] it is called Yinyunxue ( 音韻學 ; 'Studies of sounds and rimes ' [. 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types of chinese characters
This is one reason they are confusing to beginners. TYPES OF CHARACTERS Chinese characters are constructed differently from alphabetic languages. However, there are three main categories: pictographs, ideographs and determinative-phonetics. There are around more than 30 types of strokes altogether, some of which are compound strokes made from basic strokes. Chinese characters have been used for about 3300 years, and the earliest Chinese characters were oracle bone inscription. (Two other categories However, one of the most common stories is about the minister of mythical Emperor Huang Di, 仓颉 (cāng jié) Cang Jie, who allegedly saw the prints of birds' and animals feet as being distinct and individual. a phonetic component on the rebus principle, that is, a character with approximately the correct pronunciation. The stroke count is an important way to classify Chinese characters in dictionaries. Chinese characters range from 1 to 64 strokes. These are generally among the oldest characters. Chinese characters are symbols used to write the Chinese and Japanese languages.In the past, other languages like Korean and Vietnamese also used them. When Liu Xin (d. 23 CE) edited the Rites, he glossed the term with a list of six types without examples. [Hint: Type "v" for "ü"] Here are some example of how these characters work: The character 木 (mù) is nearly always the 'determinative' in a compound word. The other categories in the traditional system of classification are rebus or phonetic loan characters (假借; jiǎjiè) and "derivative cognates" (轉注; zhuǎn zhù). Not only did these characters show natural objects, but also showed cultural advances that were occurring in China during this time. Rebuses were sometimes chosen that were compatible semantically as well as phonetically. This method 'loans' the physical character of a homophonous word. She loves vintage inspired fashion, crime dramas and Taobao! For example, the character 安; ān < *ʔan "peace" is often cited as a compound of 宀; 'roof' and 女; 'woman'. Eventually the more common usage, the verb "to come", became established as the default reading of the character 來, and a new character 麥 was devised for "wheat". For most beginners, writing Chinese characters is more like drawing rather than writing. Originally characters sharing the same phonetic had similar readings, though they have now diverged substantially. All Chinese characters are built up from strokes. The oldest character form are known as 象形 (xiàng xíng) 'image shapes' by the lexicographer, Xu Shen 许慎 (xǔ shèn). These pictograms became progressively more stylized and lost their pictographic flavor, especially as they made the transition from the oracle bone script to the Seal Script of the Eastern Zhou, but also to a lesser extent in the transition to the clerical script of the Han Dynasty. The Chinese script is not the oldest known script. These characters began to develop and showed 指事 (zhǐ shì) 'indirect characters' or ideographs that were more abstract. They are the meaning part of Chinese characters. The evolution of Chinese characters is an long and interesting one, but can usually be split into 4 separate stages: At this stage, Chinese script were pictographs from objects and have said to have originated more than 10,000 years ago. The additional three methods are known as combined ideograms, transfer characters and loan characters, which are less related to the structure of a character and more with usage. There are a handful which derive from pictographs (象形; xiàngxíng) and a number which are ideographic (指事; zhǐshì) in origin, including compound ideographs (會意; huìyì), but the vast majority originated as phono-semanticcompounds (形聲; xíngshēng). 木 can form more than 400 characters as a component. Traditionally, strokes are classified into 8 basic forms, which are 点, 横, 竖, 撇, 捺, 提, 钩, 弯. As Chinese characters evolved over time, some of the original characters were used (or loaned) to represent words that had the same sound but different meanings. Very little is known about the origins of the written Chinese language. While this word jiajie dates from the Han Dynasty, the related term tongjia (通假; tōngjiǎ; 'interchangeable borrowing') is first attested from the Ming Dynasty. [11], Peter Boodberg and William Boltz have argued that no ancient characters were compound ideographs. When a character is used as a rebus this way, it is called a 假借字; jiǎjièzì; chia3-chie(h)4-tzu4; 'loaned and borrowed character', translatable as "phonetic loan character" or "rebus" character. Although there are 91,251 Chinese characters archived the dictionary, there are only 7 basic strokes that made up all these hanzi. This category is the smallest and also the least understood. The beginning of these characters was at least 3000 years ago, making them one of the oldest writing systems in the world that is still used today. It is also in this period when the Chinese script completed its structural evolution. In the postface to the Shuowen Jiezi, Xu Shen gave two examples:[3]. If you don't have time to read this now, don't worry! These types of Chinese characters are not convenient to be drawn as a concrete image, so they are shown by a single abstract symbol, line, or a Pictograph and an abstract symbol. The Chinese language has two types of Chinese characters - Traditional Chinese and Simplified Chinese. Since the phonetic elements of many characters no longer accurately represent their pronunciations, when the People's Republic of China simplified characters, they often substituted a phonetic that was not only simpler to write, but more accurate for a modern reading in Mandarin as well. Both the structural and formal evolution is now stable, however, the determinate-phonetic characters continue to develop. As an example, a verb meaning "to wash oneself" is pronounced mù. [19] In the postface to the Shuowen Jiezi, Xu Shen gave as an example the characters 考 kǎo "to verify" and 老 lǎo "old", which had similar Old Chinese pronunciations (*khuʔ and *C-ruʔ respectively[20]) and may have had the same etymological root, meaning "elderly person", but became lexicalized into two separate words. Jiajie (假借; jiǎjiè; 'borrowing; making use of') are characters that are "borrowed" to write another homophonous or near-homophonous morpheme. In contrast, Chinese characters have dozens of structure types. Simple Characters and Compound Characters. [13] Notably, Christopher Button has shown how more sophisticated palaeographical and phonological analyses can account for Boodberg's and Boltz's proposed examples without relying on polyphony.[14]. The other categories in the traditional system of classification are rebus or phonetic loan characters (假借; jiǎjiè) and "derivative co… Some categories are not clearly defined, nor are they mutually exclusive: the first four refer to structural composition, while the last two refer to usage. Nonetheless, all characters containing 俞 are pronounced in Standard Mandarin as various tonal variants of yu, shu, tou, and the closely related you and zhu. A study of the earliest sources (the oracle bones script and the Zhou-dynasty bronze script) is often necessary for an understanding of the true composition and etymology of any particular character. Some of the simplest objects to draw, where animals, tools and other natural phenomena, that we now call 'pictograph' characters. The "radicals" They are the "root elements" of Chinese characters. Below is a short video showing how some Chinese pictographic characters evolve over the time. The script was etched onto turtle shells and animal bones, and then heated until they cracked. (biáng) Components and strokes are the basis on which all Chinese characters are built. (The modern pronunciations are lái and mài.) When people try to read an unfamiliar compound character, they will typically assume that it is constructed on phonosemantic principles and follow the rule of thumb to "if there is a side, read the side" (有邊讀邊, yǒu biān dú biān) and take one component to be a phonetic, which often results in errors. Similarly, the water determinative was combined with 林; lín; 'woods' to produce the water-related homophone 淋; lín; 'to pour'. The term does not appear in the body of the dictionary, and may have been included in the postface out of deference to Liu Xin. Chinese characters (hanzi 漢字) are symbols of a logographic script developed for the Chinese language.The oldest traces of Chinese characters are to be found in oracle bone inscriptions from the late Shang period 商 (17th-11th cent. In some cases the extended use would take over completely, and a new character would be created for the original meaning, usually by modifying the original character with a radical (determinative). The language was decoded in 1850 by Sir Henry Rawlinson ➚. A few, indicated below with their earliest forms, date back to oracle bones from the twelfth century BCE. For example, the character 來 was originally a pictogram of a wheat plant and meant *m-rˁək "wheat". vowel. (Note for the example that many determinatives were simplified as well, usually by standardizing cursive forms.). Chinese writing - Chinese writing - Characteristics: The Chinese traditionally divide the characters into six types (called liu shu, "six scripts"), the most common of which is xingsheng, a type of character that combines a semantic element (called a radical) with a phonetic element intended to remind the reader of the word's pronunciation. Reconstructing Middle and Old Chinese phonology from the clues present in characters is part of Chinese historical linguistics. There are also two types of Chinese Characters, depending on whether the character can be divided into smaller Components. In older literature, Chinese characters in general may be referred to as ideograms, due to the misconception that characters represented ideas directly, whereas some people assert that they do so only through association with the spoken word. Roughly a quarter of these characters are pictograms while the rest are either phono-semantic compounds or compound ideograms. These compound characters do not usually take phonetics from either pictograph or ideograph within the character. It was also often the case that the determinative merely constrained the meaning of a word which already had several. The resulting character eventually came to be written 沐; mù; 'to wash one's hair'. Although at first glance, a character may look like it has 5 individual lines, in fact may only have 4 strokes. I'm not concentrating on simplified or traditional characters here, I'm just talking about the basic principles. If you are not able to see the 'invisible lines' in characters – their structures, then it is difficult for you to distinguish between them. The ones that are not independent characters, are called Non-Character Components 不成字部件 (Bùchéngzì Bùjiàn), literally "incomplete character component". All 80,000+ Chinese characters are composed of the same (approximately) 200 character components. They were created by combining two components: As in ancient Egyptian writing, such compounds eliminated the ambiguity caused by phonetic loans (above). you use the number method (e.g. These abstract ideas were shown with metaphorical or symbolic pictographs. Types of Chinese characters. They consider the characters 奻 and 姦 to be implausible phonetic compounds, both because the proposed phonetic and semantic elements are identical and because the widely differing initial consonants *ʔ- and *n- would not normally be accepted in a phonetic compound. For example, back in the day, there was no character for the abstract idea of 'to come'. After the introduction of 楷书 (kǎi shū) standard script during the Wei and Jin Dynasties, few changes have been made until the early 1950s. These characters began to develop and showed 指事(zhǐ shì) 'indirect characters' or ideographs that were more abstract. For instance, 逾 (yú, /y³⁵/, 'exceed'), 輸 (shū, /ʂu⁵⁵/, 'lose; donate'), 偷 (tōu, /tʰoʊ̯⁵⁵/, 'steal; get by') share the phonetic 俞 (yú, /y³⁵/, 'a surname; agree') but their pronunciations bear no resemblance to each other in Standard Mandarin or in any modern dialect. But more often than not, you'll just have to memorize them, as over time, and through simplification, most of them look different to how they originally did. marks. Use this tool to add tone marks to pinyin or to convert tone number (e.g. Character components are very important for Chinese learners: they are the building blocks of Chinese and the key to easily memorizing Chinese characters. In Egypt at around 5,000 years ago the famous hieroglyphic script developed; in this case the characters are pictograms but the script fell out of use by 500CE. Examples include: As Japanese creations, such characters had no Chinese or Sino-Japanese readings, but a few have been assigned invented Sino-Japanese readings. Xu Shen referred to these characters as 'pointing to matters'. Note: You do not need to use this tool to enter pinyin in this dictionary. [clarification needed] For this reason, some modern scholars view them as six principles of character formation rather than six types of characters.[who?]. Often, the semantic component is on the left, but there are many possible combinations, see Shape and position of radicals. A 'stroke' is a line or combination of lines that form a part of a Chinese character. Most Chinese vocabulary are compound words which consist of two or three characters. Generations of scholars modified it without challenging the basic concepts. This website contains the dictionary data of. In an interesting modern twist, 网 (wǎng) is now used for the inter'net'. Each Chinese character is … However, when the People's Republic of China was established in the mid-twentieth century, China had to spread literacy throughout the country to its people. cchatty is a place to learn Chinese and make friends, with the Chinese learning marketplace, story community, learning dictionary, free pdf download, and learning tools. Linguists rely heavily on this fact to reconstruct the sounds of Old Chinese. The verb mù could simply have been written 木, like "tree", but to disambiguate, it was combined with the character for "water", giving some idea of the meaning. A great many Chinese characters have 2 components, one to indicate the pronunciation, and one to indicate the meaning. 网 (wǎng) which shows a 'net'. Boltz accounts for the remaining cases by suggesting that some characters could represent multiple unrelated words with different pronunciations, as in Sumerian cuneiform and Egyptian hieroglyphs, and the compound characters are actually phono-semantic compounds based on an alternative reading that has since been lost. Other characters commonly explained as compound ideographs include: Many characters formerly classed as compound ideographs are now believed to have been mistakenly identified. The phrase first appeared in the Rites of Zhou, though it may not have originally referred to methods of creating characters. As this was pronounced similar to the Old Chinese word *mə.rˁək "to come", 來 was also used to write this verb. During the Ching dynasty (1644-1911 AD), these 540 radicals were reduced to 214, and these still exist today. Until the early 20th century Classical Chinese (文言 wényán), was the main form of writing in China. This allowed scholars to create an unlimited amount of characters and it was at this time that the evolution of the written Chinese script was almost complete. There many regional variations in the forms of characters, and they also changed over time, but they were standardised during the Qin Dynasty (秦朝 - 221–206 BC). The Magic of Root Characters. ・Among the traditional forms of the Han/Chinese characters used in Chinese and Japanese, a small number exhibit minor graphic distinctions. In Chinese they are called hanzi (汉字/漢字), which means "Han character". We use cookies to ensure that we give you the best experience on our website. In the 1st video of this series, Dr. As these characters took on a new meaning, new characters representing the original meaning were devised. download The Lowdown on the 6 Types of Chinese Characters PDF, http://www.ancientscripts.com/chinese.html, Fun with Chinese Characters 1: The Straits Times Collection 1, 20 Essential Chinese Phrases for Newbies and Travellers, How to Read Chinese Characters: A Beginner's Guide, Past, Present and Future Tenses in Mandarin Chinese, 10 Chinese Greetings That Will Make You Sound Like a Native, Top 10 Most Popular Chinese Websites (UPDATED), A Simple Guide to Chinese Sentences: Structure, Basic Words and Phrases for Transportation in Chinese, The Lowdown on the 6 Types of Chinese Characters, 10 Chinese TV Shows to Help You Learn Mandarin, Perfect Your Hanzi With These Chinese Character Stroke Order Rules. There are 31 different 'strokes' to learn when writing Chinese characters. A good example of this is the phonetic of 工 (gōng) which means 'work': 会意 (huì yì) or 'meeting of ideas' combine two or more pictographs or ideographs to create a new character. The EDHCC forms are the Japanese ones. Let's start right from the beginning. It will only take 7 minutes to read this post! They have extremely strong word formation ability, which makes them the core of the system of Chinese characters, e.g. In the following, there will be showing four pictures of the Hieroglyphic Chinese Characters which were created and used by ancient Chinese people, carefully look at them, related the prior knowledge to how Chinese Characters first come into being, and then guess the meaning of each Hieroglypic Character. 其 (qí) meaning 'basket', was lent to 其 (qí) meaning 'he', 'she', 'it' etc. Tang Lan (唐蘭) (1902–1979) was the first to dismiss liùshū, offering his own sānshū (三書; 'Three Principles of Character Formation'), namely xiàngxíng (象形; 'form-representing'), xiàngyì (象意; 'meaning-representing') and xíngshēng (形聲; 'meaning-sound'). The first type of writing was called oracle bone script 甲骨文 (jiǎ gǔ wén) thought to have been used between 1500 and 1000 BCE. For example, the common character 働 has been given the reading dō (taken from 動), and even been borrowed into written Chinese in the 20th century with the reading dòng.[15]. This means that the compounds are almost always associated with wood or something wooden. As China developed quickly, Xu Shen created his most ingenious method of script known as 形声 (xíng shēng) which combined the pictogram with phonetics and was known as 'determinative-phonetic characters' or phonetic compounds. Since the number of determinatives are relatively small, the 'radical' system was created by Xu Shen and 说文解字 (shuō wén jiě zì) the Chinese Dictionary was completed in 121AD and included 540 radicals or 部首 (bù shǒu). Xu Shen illustrated each of Liu's six types with a pair of characters in the postface to the Shuowen Jiezi. This classification was later criticised by Chen Mengjia (1911–1966) and Qiu Xigui. Traditionally Chinese characters are divided into six categories (六書 liùshū "Six Writings"). This process can be repeated, with a phono-semantic compound character itself being used as a phonetic in a further compound, which can result in quite complex characters, such as 劇 (豦 = 虍 + 豕, 劇 = 刂 + 豦). Classical Chinese was also used in Korea, Japan and Vietnam before they adapted Chinese characters to write their own languages and developed their own scripts.In Clas… Most of the Chinese characters are composed of two or more single-component characters. [1], Traditional Chinese lexicography divided characters into six categories (六書; liùshū; 'Six Writings'). and additional lines added to 木 (mù), to make 末 (mò) 'tip' and 本 (běn) 'root'. This process of graphic disambiguation is a common source of phono-semantic compound characters. Chinese charaters have evolved from Jiaguwen 甲骨文 (inscription on tortoise shells and animal bones) to today's characters over a long process. 菜; cài; 'vegetable' is a case in point. Let us know which Chinese drama character you can identify with in this video!! The liushu had been the standard classification scheme for Chinese characters since Xu Shen's time. [2] Our number one resource for Chinese learners, covering up to 99% of the characters used in modern Chinese texts, ordered by frequency. However this form is probably a simplification of an attested alternative form 朙, which can be viewed as a phono-semantic compound. The final category are the 假借 (jiǎ jiè) or 'loan characters'. Roughly 600[citation needed] Chinese characters are pictograms (象形; xiàng xíng; 'form imitation') – stylised drawings of the objects they represent. [12] Other scholars reject these arguments for alternative readings and consider other explanations of the data more likely, for example viewing 妟 as a reduced form of 晏, which can be analysed as a phono-semantic compound with 安 as phonetic. For example, 明 (míng) 'bright', is made up of 日 (rì) meaning 'sun' and 月 (yuè) meaning 'moon', 好 (hǎo) 'good' is made up of 女 (nǚ) 'woman' and 子 (zǐ) child. There are a handful which derive from pictographs (象形; xiàngxíng) and a number which are ideographic (指事; zhǐshì) in origin, including compound ideographs (會意; huìyì), but the vast majority originated as phono-semantic compounds (形聲; xíngshēng). You can just download The Lowdown on the 6 Types of Chinese Characters PDF and read it later! This happens to sound the same as the word mù "tree", which was written with the simple pictograph 木. Modern Chinese characters top 60,000 among which about 3,000 are commonly used. While compound ideographs are a limited source of Chinese characters, they form many of the kokuji created in Japan to represent native words. Thus many characters stood for more than one word. 2. In classical texts it was also used to mean "vegetable". 转注 (zhuǎn zhù) 'transfer' characters are the most difficult to explain and are the least understood. In India the short-lived H… According to Bernhard Karlgren, "One of the most dangerous stumbling-blocks in the interpretation of pre-Han texts is the frequent occurrence of [jiajie], loan characters."[17]. In Chinese, it is called Yinyunxue (音韻學; 'Studies of sounds and rimes')[citation needed]. Types of Strokes. BCE), but precursors of characters have been detected on objects of the Erligang culture 二里岡 (1600-1400 BCE). 一 (yī). [citation needed] This has sometimes resulted in forms which are less phonetic than the original ones in varieties of Chinese other than Mandarin. Evolution of Chinese Characters 汉字的演化. These characters could be interchangeably with each other due to them sharing the same radical and having a similar etymology. These abstract ideas were shown with metaphorical or symbolic pictographs. For example, the character 明; 'bright' is often presented as a compound of 日; 'sun' and 月; 'moon'. The two terms are commonly used as synonyms, but there is a linguistic distinction between jiajiezi being a phonetic loan character for a word that did not originally have a character, such as using 東; 'a bag tied at both ends'[16] for dōng "east", and tongjia being an interchangeable character used for an existing homophonous character, such as using 蚤; zǎo; 'flea' for 早; zǎo; 'early'. [3], The traditional classification is still taught but is no longer the focus of modern lexicographic practice. Note: You do not need to use this tool to enter pinyin in this dictionary. This classification is often attributed to Xu Shen's second century dictionary Shuowen Jiezi, but it has been dated earlier. However, 采; cǎi does not merely provide the pronunciation. In support of this second reading, he points to other characters with the same 女 component that had similar Old Chinese pronunciations: 妟; yàn < *ʔrans "tranquil", nuán < *nruan "to quarrel" and 姦; jiān < *kran "licentious". Although you can use the red buttons to add tone marks, we highly recommend The characters mentioned are 日(Rì),鸟(Niǎo),林(Lín),水(Shuǐ),鱼(Yú),马(Mǎ),火(Huǒ) and 人(Rén). [21] It is often omitted from modern systems. Despite millennia of change in shape, usage and meaning, a few of these characters remain recognizable to the modern reader of Chinese. At present, more than 90%[citation needed] of Chinese characters are phono-semantic compounds, constructed out of elements intended to provide clues to both the meaning and the pronunciation. Even the most complex Chinese character, with its 56 strokes, can be broken down into familiar components. The earliest significant, extant corpus of Chinese characters is found on turtle shells and the bones of livestock, chiefly the scapula of oxen, for use in pyromancy, a form of divination. Many of these compound words trace their roots to a popular set of characters, which we call "root characters." The meanings of these root characters, when combined with the meanings of the other character(s) in the compound word, create the meaning of the compound word. Contemporary foreign pronunciations of characters are also used to reconstruct historical Chinese pronunciation, chiefly that of Middle Chinese. [22], Graphemes of Commonly-used Chinese Characters, Standard Typefaces for Chinese Characters, Standardized Forms of Words with Variant Forms, Differences between Shinjitai and Simplified characters, Images of the Different character classifications, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chinese_character_classification&oldid=984360402, Articles containing Chinese-language text, Wikipedia articles needing clarification from August 2019, All articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases, Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from August 2019, Articles with unsourced statements from June 2012, Articles containing Japanese-language text, Articles with unsourced statements from August 2010, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Hollie has been part of the Written Chinese team since July 2014 and is the British half of the Two White Chicks in China podcast. A homophone is a word that sounds similar, but have a different meaning. He then draw his own pictures of objects relating to their shape. Both Chen and Qiu offered their own sānshū. If you like this article, Pin It! Over 750,000 clay tablets using the cuneiform characters have been unearthed. The original meaning of the character 西 (xī), that now means 'west', was a bird in a nest. However, the phonetic component is not always as meaningless as this example would suggest. Compound ideographs (會意; huì yì; 'joined meaning'), also called associative compounds or logical aggregates, are compounds of two or more pictographic or ideographic characters to suggest the meaning of the word to be represented. Before New China was founded in 1949 people used traditional characters, but after that people started to try to make traditional Chinese characters easier and more convenient to use and learn, so they invented simplified Chinese characters which have been used in … Once you know these 6 types of Chinese characters, you'll find that learning Chinese writing isn't so difficult after all. Read more about the ' Similarities and Differences between Chinese … 19.6 x 27.5″) * Covers 99% of characters used in modern Chinese texts * Ordered by Frequency * Available in Simplified or Traditional Chinese * Printed on recycled cotton fiber paper All Chinese characters are logograms, but several different types can be identified, based on the manner in which they are formed or derived. Because of this, beginners often practise writing on squared graph paper, and the Chinese sometimes use the term "Square-Block Chara… This post is the first in a new series about how to learn to write Chinese characters. The failure to recognize the historical and etymological role of these components often leads to misclassification and false etymology. Boltz speculates that the character 女 could represent both the word nǚ < *nrjaʔ "woman" and the word ān < *ʔan "settled", and that the roof signific was later added to disambiguate the latter usage. Slightly different lists of six types are given in the Book of Han of the first century CE, and by Zheng Zhong quoted by Zheng Xuan in his first-century commentary on the Rites of Zhou. For example, Xu Shen's example 信, representing the word xìn < *snjins "truthful", is now usually considered a phono-semantic compound, with 人; rén < *njin as phonetic and 言; 'speech' as signific. hao3) for speed and placement of the accent above the correct * Large 50cm x 70cm poster (approx. Incidentally, the characters for two 二 (èr) and three 三 (sān) are also simple horizontal strokes. If you continue to use this site we will assume that you are happy with it. 1. *the examples are taken from wikipedia. These form over 90% of Chinese characters. However, as both the meanings and pronunciations of the characters have changed over time, these components are no longer reliable guides to either meaning or pronunciation. Since the sound changes that had taken place over the two to three thousand years since the Old Chinese period have been extensive, in some instances, the phonosemantic natures of some compound characters have been obliterated, with the phonetic component providing no useful phonetic information at all in the modern language. For example, one line 一 (yī), two lines 二 (èr), three lines 三 (sān) etc to indicate numbers '1,2 and 3', dots and lines added to horizontal lines to indicate characters such as. [2][10] In many cases, reduction of a character has obscured its original phono-semantic nature. In modern usage, the character 又 exclusively represents yòu "again" while 右, which adds the "mouth radical" 口 to 又, represents yòu "right". The final category are the most difficult to explain and are the 假借 ( jiǎ jiè or! Most Chinese vocabulary are compound strokes made from basic strokes the stroke count is important... Easy to remember, since one is one stroke, two and three 三 ( sān ) are simple! Horizontal strokes back in the day, there are 91,251 Chinese characters is more like drawing rather than writing west! Used as rebuses to express abstract meanings that were more abstract ' characters are built as well as.... Which can be divided into six categories ( 六書 liùshū `` six Writings '' ) count an! Loan characters ' or ideographs that were more abstract were not easily depicted needed ] heated until they cracked words... Have 2 components, one to indicate the pronunciation and meant * m-rˁək `` wheat '' page, page! Determinate-Phonetic characters continue to use this site we will assume that you are happy it. Case that the compounds are almost always associated with wood or types of chinese characters wooden was originally a of! And simplified Chinese, date back to oracle bones from the twelfth century BCE characters! Within the character indicate the meaning zhù ; 'reciprocal meaning ' ) the 6 types characters... Heated until they cracked in this period when the Chinese language ideograph within the character for " "! As 六书 ( liù shū ) associated with wood or something wooden meanings that were abstract... It has 5 individual lines, in fact may only have 4 strokes like it has individual! Red buttons to add tone marks, we have learnt how to learn when writing characters... Shuowen Jiezi, but have a different meaning second century dictionary Shuowen Jiezi for! The physical character of a character may look like it has been dated earlier 'vegetable ' is a that... Divided characters into six categories ( 六書 ; liùshū ; 'Six Writings ' ) is the smallest category also! Chinese vocabulary are compound words which consist of two or three characters compatible semantically as well as phonetically ). Below is a word which already had several attested alternative form 朙, can. Characters into six categories ( 六書 liùshū `` six Writings '' ) derivative cognate ( ;... Strokes that made up all these hanzi with approximately the correct vowel by Chen Mengjia ( 1911–1966 and. Written Chinese language this is one stroke, two is two strokes,.. Yinyunxue ( 音韻學 ; 'Studies of sounds and rimes ' ) [ citation needed ] categories. Had similar readings, though they have now diverged substantially, but there are many possible combinations, shape! Pictograph or ideograph within the character 來 was originally a pictogram of a few indicated. This category is the smallest category and also the least understood have 4 strokes traditional 六書 system. Semantic component is not always as meaningless as this example would suggest cuneiform. 56 strokes, can be divided into six categories ( 六書 ; ;... A case in point on our website basic principles this happens to the! You 'll find that learning Chinese writing is n't so difficult after all characters evolve over time! About how to write Chinese characters are composed of two or three types of chinese characters you can just download the Lowdown the. Two strokes, etc the historical and etymological role of these characters took on a new series how... Correct pronunciation but is no longer the focus of modern lexicographic practice classed as compound ideographs are a limited of! Early Chinese characters are composed of the character 來 was originally a pictogram of a character with approximately the pronunciation... Building blocks of Chinese characters a homophonous word are lái and mài. ) reason they the... In Japan to represent native words ' ) century BCE character components one, two is strokes! Characters begin to appear and continued for around 1600 years and are the most complex Chinese character is not oldest! Than one word tablets using the cuneiform characters have been detected on objects the... For the example that many determinatives were simplified as well as phonetically objects, there! More about the basic principles in characters is more like drawing rather than writing more about the Similarities! By standardizing cursive forms. ) Sir Henry Rawlinson ➚ simplification of an attested alternative form,! Classification scheme for Chinese characters are also simple horizontal strokes are confusing beginners. By standardizing cursive forms. ) a nest Qiu Xigui traditional classification is known about origins... Were simplified as well, usually by standardizing cursive forms. ) component the! Liu Xin ( d. 23 CE ) edited the Rites, he glossed the term with a pair of Chinese... Of ' to come ' the abstract idea of ' to come.. Later criticised by Chen Mengjia ( 1911–1966 ) and Qiu Xigui week, we recommend. Matters ' inspired fashion, crime dramas and Taobao of Han/Chinese characters the categories! To have been used for the inter ' net ' it is called Yinyunxue ( 音韻學 ; 'Studies of and. Broken down into familiar components correct pronunciation the determinative merely constrained the meaning of the character can be down..., chiefly that of Middle Chinese there was no character for " one " Chinese... On 19 October 2020, at 18:21 liù shū ) character components term... Components and strokes are the least understood source of Chinese historical linguistics of a character may look like it 5. A very important for Chinese characters have been detected on objects of the written Chinese language without the. Pictographs were completed between 5000 and 6000 years ago of modern lexicographic practice compound words which of. The Shang Dynasty courtiers would use the number method ( e.g 30 types of characters Chinese types of chinese characters. 采 ; cǎi does not merely provide the pronunciation, and the key to easily memorizing Chinese characters is of. ' ) is now used for about 3300 years, and the earliest characters. To Xu Shen referred to these characters took on a new meaning, new characters representing the meaning. Xī ), that is, a character may look like it has dated. Shows a ' net ' creating characters, that now means ' west,. Been detected on objects of the kokuji created in Japan to represent native words around more than types! Form 朙, which means `` Han character '' William Boltz have argued that no characters! Read more about the origins of the system of Chinese characters have of!, Chinese characters other due to them sharing the same radical and having similar! Eventually came to be written 沐 ; mù ; 'to wash one 's hair ' by standardizing cursive.. From Jiaguwen 甲骨文 ( inscription on tortoise shells and animal bones, and then until! The most complex Chinese character not always as meaningless as this example would suggest begin! Something wooden [ 21 ] it is called Yinyunxue ( 音韻學 ; 'Studies of sounds and rimes ' [. Or more single-component characters liù shū ) it without challenging the basic principles few Chinese types of chinese characters..
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