Response: Abuse of anabolic androgenic steroids has become highly prevalent among young men involved in recreational strength training. A recent meta-analysis estimated that approximately 18% of young men involved recreational strength training abuse anabolic steroids.
Well-known adverse effects following abuse of anabolic steroids include hypogonadism (For those who have interest, we have recently published a paper concerning this issue, it can be read and downloaded at: http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0161208).
Yet, we have a poor understanding on the adverse effects these compounds might have on the metabolism and insulin sensitivity.
Response: The study is using data from the Mamma study which screened pregnant women during 2003-2005. During this period, we gathered results from the oral glucose tolerance tests that the women underwent at the 28th week of pregnancy. We used data on the 2hour blood glucose levels from these tests and the frequency of women who were diagnosed with gestational diabetes and grouped them into months and seasons. We gathered also data on the mean monthly temperatures from the Swedish Meteorological and Hydrological Institute.
We observed that the 2hour glucose levels and the frequency of women diagnosed with gestational diabetes were statistically significantly higher during the summer months.
Response: We know that genes and environmental factors influence our Body mass index. We know less about if and how they interact.
We wanted to answer the question of whether or not aspects of the environment and our lifestyles accentuate any genetic predisposition to obesity. The question is important as it may highlight aspects of the environment that cause some people to be particularly susceptible to gaining weight. Previous, separate, studies have suggested that specific aspects of the environment are to blame. These included sugary drinks, fried food and TV watching.
Can Vitamin D Reduce Insulin Resistance in Muscles of Type 2 Diabetics?
Response: The idea for this study comes from the debate on the role of vitamin D supplementation in the prevention or progression of type 2 diabetes (T2DM). Epidemiological data point at a strong association between vitamin D deficiency and T2DM prevalence, however a causal relationship is still lacking.
Here we wanted to explore the effect of vitamin D administration on insulin-sensitivity, particularly focusing on skeletal muscle, which is a crucial tissue in the maintenance of glucose homeostasis and which was suggested to be a tissue target of vitamin D.
Using a murine model of insulin-resistance induced by a High Fat-High Sugar Diet (HFHS), we demonstrated that a vitamin D supplementation (7 μg•kg-1, i.p. three times/week) was able to revert the deleterious effects evoked by the diet, including the increase in body weight and in the HOMA-IR (a parameter of insulin resistance) and the glucose tolerance impairment. Consistently, at the muscle level, vitamin D increased the insulin sensitivity by reducing tissue inflammation and fat accumulation (myosteatosis).
These effects are due, at least in part, to the inhibition exerted by vitamin D on carboxymethyl-lysine (CML) production, one of the main Advanced Glucose End-products (AGEs), and on its receptor RAGE.
Collectively, our data indicate the ability of vitamin D to reduce the development of muscle insulin resistance, the primary defect in T2DM patients.
benefits that different blood sugar control targets might achieve.
of progressively lowering blood sugar levels.
risk reductions of complications at each HbA1c level.


Attention. Veterans and Dependents. Do you need credit (volunteer) hours for your major? If so, the Educational Participation in Community (EPIC) office will be presenting an Information Session on how to get connected and/or placed with local organizations to earn and receive those credit hours.


Simple Yet Textured, Our Mason Collection Offers Hand-Woven Jute And Wool Rugs. These Natural Rugs Bring A Refined Neutral Element Into Any Space For Adults Or Kids. Backed With Cotton, These Rugs Are Made In India And Have A Very Low Pile Height Of 1/4". Mason 391 Grey 5' X 7'. Hand-Woven Of 50% Wool / 50% Jute With Cotton Backing. Made In India. Vacuum Regularly & Spot Clean Stains. Professional Cleaning Recommended Periodically.


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The WWI BattleField Experience
The WWII D-Day Landings Experience
Why Mercat Tours
Home / Testimonials
WW1 Experience
I have had a fantastic time! I have learned so much more about World War 2. Your presentation of information was fantastic. Des, you have so much enthusiasm for the subject and it has rubbed off on the children and myself. I would love to come back again!
Ms Smith, King's Road Primary, D-Day Landings Experience
Des: your enthusiasm is infectious and I know so much more than when I came. Can't wait for the next one!
Ms Millar, King's Road Primary, D-Day Landings Experience
The whole experience was great!! It was great seeing all of the beaches especially the beach that my Great Uncle fought on. The whole trip was FANTASTIC but very moving
Ross, Auchterarder Community School, D-Day Landings Experience
'Thank you' seems inadequate from me after all that's happened over the last few days. I've never been on a more thought-provoking and emotional trip. I've had pre-conceptions shattered, seen the true costs of war, and realised how lucky I am in so many ways. This has been unforgettable and will be with me for ever.
Mr Farquhar, Auchterarder Community School, D-Day Landings Experience
I still can't believe I was standing where the D-Day Landings took place!
Josh, Birkdale High, D-Day Landings Experience
We had a wonderful trip. thank you Des for the high levels of professionalism, inspiration and your ability to make the experience real to my pupils. I especially commend the use of different media to make maximum impact on the pupils.
Ms Mackay, North Queensferry Primary, D-Day Landings Experience
Des' knowledge and enthusiasm were inspiring.
Ms Bell, King's Road Primary, D-Day Landings Experience
A first rate trip, Kat: thank you. I will remember all the little things - the students singing the songs of WW1 - readings by their peers - the service at the Menin Gate - a tour guide who could hold the students' attention.
Ms Richardson, Stirling High, D-Day Landings Experience
LET US KNOW ABOUT YOUR EXPERIENCE WITH MERCAT INTERNATIONAL TOURS
"A very interesting and moving experience leaving us all with much to think about and remember."
The variety of the visits and the personal stories made it even more memorable. the supporting materials of appropriate videos, songs and information booklets made us realise that much thought and preparation and enthusiasm had gone into the planning and execution of our Battlefields experience. Thank you very much.
Mrs Shiela Allan, The WWI Battlefield Experience,
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Our award-winning guides will bring the epic scale of the World Wars alive for a very personal and memorable experience.
We're also very proud to say our once-small family business is the highest awarded, largest walking tour company, with the most extensive selection of tours in Scotland.
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redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


At Woodlands Meed we aim to support the safety and wellbeing of all our learners at all times.
We take our safeguarding duties seriously, and all our staff receive safeguarding training, annual updates, and are committed to ensuring our students are safe and thriving.
We have a safeguarding team of 10 staff who work on supporting student welfare and on helping families in times of difficulty. Our Designated Safeguarding Lead (DSL) is Chris Carter. Our Deputy DSL is Nola Bennett. Chris works mainly at the school site, and Nola mainly at College.
We work closely with all our families to make sure that our pupils can have the best outcomes possible. We believe in having open and honest dialogue with parents and carers to keep our young people safe, happy and healthy, and a good partnership between school and home is the best way to do this.
If you ever have any concerns about the safety or wellbeing of child, please do not hesitate to contact a member of the team.


Pop songs. They're polished. They're colorful. Love them or hate them, you CAN'T GET 'EM OUT OF YOUR HEAD! To record the ultimate pop kit, we went straight to the top: United Recording. This studio, formerly known as Ocean Way, has been the first choice for an insane number of chart toppers including: Beck, The Beach Boys, John Mayer, Madonna, No Doubt, Weezer, U2, and the king of pop himself, Michael Jackson. Now you can have that iconic Studio A sound in your music!
Sometimes perfect isn't what the song needs. Sometimes a song is actually better when it has more relaxed (some might even say "lazy") drumming. Here's a secret: Sometimes a song doesn't benefit from technical perfection and actually sounds better with more "relaxed" timing. That's why we created Sloppy Grooves. This MIDI Pak includes over 200 Pop/Rock grooves recorded by a very relaxed drummer. It might not be perfect for every song, but it will be just right for some.
From early 60s Motown to thunderous heavy rock of the 70s, this MIDIpak gives you tons of inspiring grooves in different tempos and feels. About the Retro Songs MIDI Pak Bring back the good times with this MIDIpak full of great beats and grooves inspired by the 60s and 70s! This MIDIpak contains 35 complete songs (over 200 sections) all played by a real drummer. It is compatible with any Addictive Drums 2 ADpak, but really well suited for Black Oyster, Blue Oyster, and Retroplex.
Quit your day job, sell your business suits and buy that guitar. Then, start a riot in your garage. This MIDIpak has you covered on the drums! About the Punk Rock MIDI Pak Punk rock is all about speed and power, and this MIDIpak has plenty of both. It includes over 200 hard hitting performances in different tempos and feels: 25 individual beats, 10 complete songs and over 30 versatile fills all performed by an expert live drummer.
you want to get classic sounding beats in your track without the hassle and legal risk of sampling old records, this MIDIpak is perfect for you. About the HipHop MIDI Pak With the Hip Hop MIDI Pak for Addictive Drums you will be producing fresh hip hop beats in no time using classic, time-tested beats and patterns. The Pak comes with 20 different beats, each with a large number of variations. Over 200 files in all covering many different tempos and feels.
Light the candles, slip into something more comfortable and start composing some heartbreaking classics. About the Ballad Grooves MIDI Pak Included are over 200 MIDI files divided between 24 different Ballad Grooves as well as fills in different tempos and feels, all recorded live by a drummer.
Metal drumming requires power, stamina and precision. This pak delivers all of those things at extreme levels. Over 300 inspiring beats from the diabolical mind of metal drummer Daniel Erlandsson (Arch Enemy, In Flames, Eucharist). Contains shorter grooves, longer sections and plenty of variations, making it easy to arrange your next metal masterpiece. Works with any Addictive Drums kit, but particularly well suited for the Metal Kit.


Foam rolling is great, but are you doing it right?
On a daily basis, I hear that clients stop foam rolling either because of the pain or that they have never really been taught how to do it properly.
Foam rolling can be incredibly beneficial when it comes to postural chains/imbalances and lengthening muscles. Many athletes depend on foam rolling to maintain tension levels to help avoid pain and injury. But even if you're not an athlete, foam rolling is incredibly useful as home care! Many clients present with anterior pelvic tilts or shoulders that come forward(shoulder pronation). Along with massage techniques that are used to lengthen muscles, foam rolling can help gain that needed length quicker, which will help get you into a better balance faster.
For example, if your pelvis tilts forward, your knees most likely turn in a bit and you have a high chance of having flattened feet.
When your Quads are tight(or any muscle for that matter), they pull on their attachment points, and like any other pulley system, if you pull on one point, it'll effect the other attachment point - then down the chain it goes, effecting everything else that connects to that as well. Since your quads attach to the front of your pelvic bone(Ilium), they pull your Ilium forward when they're tight, which effects the distal attachment(just below your knee at the Tibial Tuberosity), which causes a rotation of your Tibia and directly effects your feet, causing the arch of your foot to flatten out. This can also cause a lot of low back pain as well as many other issues.
Check out this quick and informative video to teach you the basics on foam rolling. Hopefully this will give you different ideas on how to use your foam roller properly and with a bit less discomfort.


All kitties love crinkle cat toys! Have you ever noticed how cats love to crawl into paper bags and boxes full of paper? At times when I couldn't find one of our cats, I would always check any bags that had been left on the floor and would often find them in there, rustling around and having fun!
Crinkly, rustling sounds seem to really excite kitties because it reminds them of moving leaves out in the wild and signs that mice and other critters might be moving around in the bushes!
Great cat products such as these crinkle toys can help to reproduce this excitement for your kitty in your own home.
So why not keep your cat amused while you are out by providing them with fun cat products that crinkle and tease all at the same time. Sounds fun to be a cat doesn't it?
Every cat should have at least some crinkle cat toys!
Have seen a cat grab something and then hold it while they bunny kick it? I have and I know they seem to really love it. Thats why this toy is great for those cats who just love to bunny kick.
This long sausage shaped sack is filled with catnip to entice your cat to play with them and also crinkle as they are grabbed and kicked.
My cats love to chase balls but they often get bored with them after awhile. That's why these crinkle balls are better. Once batted or grabbed they crinkle which seems to stimulate my cats into wanting to play with them more.
A simple toy that is essential for any cats toy box.
I have watched many cats and kitten have hours of fun with these crinkle tunnels. they can run through, chase things, ambush from and even hide in this tunnel, all while it is crinkling with their movements.
the tunnel also has a opening in the center which means the cat can access or exit at three points, something they seem to find really exciting.
I have played with a neighbors cat with one of these and it really is great fun, for both me and the cat.
Another simple toy but perfect for those cats who like to bite and chew. They have a stringy feel to them which makes them squirmy to handle and crinkles when caught.
This ring toy will engage your cat and is something a little different from other toys. A great addition to any cats toy box.


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The War of the Bavarian Succession (; 3 July 1778 – 13 May 1779) was a dispute between the Austrian Habsburg monarchy and an alliance of Saxony and Prussia over succession to the Electorate of Bavaria after the extinction of the Bavarian branch of the House of Wittelsbach. The Habsburgs sought to acquire Bavaria, and the alliance opposed them, favoring another branch of the Wittelsbachs. Both sides mobilized large armies, but the only fighting in the war was a few minor skirmishes. However, thousands of soldiers died from disease and starvation, earning the conflict the name Kartoffelkrieg (Potato War) in Prussia and Saxony; in Habsburg Austria, it was sometimes called the Zwetschgenrummel (Plum Fuss).

On 30 December 1777, Maximilian Joseph, the last of the junior line of Wittelsbach, died of smallpox, leaving no children. Charles Theodore, a scion of a senior branch of the House of Wittelsbach, held the closest claim of kinship, but he also had no legitimate children to succeed him. His cousin, Charles II August, therefore had a legitimate legal claim as Charles Theodore's heir presumptive. Across Bavaria's southern border, Holy Roman Emperor Joseph II coveted the Bavarian territory and had married Maximilian Joseph's sister Maria Josepha in 1765 to strengthen any claim he could extend. His agreement with the heir, Charles Theodore, to partition the territory neglected any claims of the heir presumptive, Charles August.

Acquiring territory in the German-speaking states was an essential part of Joseph's policy to expand his family's influence in Central Europe. For King Frederick II of Prussia, Joseph's claim threatened the Prussian ascendancy in German politics, but he questioned whether he should preserve the status quo through war, diplomacy, or trade. Empress Maria Theresa, who co-ruled with Joseph, considered any conflict over the Bavarian electorate not worth bloodshed, and neither she nor Frederick saw any point in pursuing hostilities. Joseph would not drop his claim despite his mother's contrary insistence. Frederick August III, Elector of Saxony, wanted to preserve the territorial integrity of the Duchy for his brother-in-law, Charles August, and had no interest in seeing the Habsburgs acquire additional territory on his southern and western borders.  Despite his dislike of Prussia, which had been Saxony's enemy in two previous wars, Charles August sought the support of Frederick, who was happy to challenge the Habsburgs. France became involved to maintain the balance of power. Finally, Empress Catherine II of Russia's threat to intervene on the side of Prussia with fifty thousand Russian troops forced Joseph to reconsider his position. With Catherine's assistance, he and Frederick negotiated a solution to the problem of the Bavarian succession with the Treaty of Teschen, signed on 13 May 1779.

For some historians, the War of the Bavarian Succession was the last of the old-style cabinet wars of the Ancien Régime era, in which troops maneuvered while diplomats traveled between capitals to resolve their monarchs' complaints. The subsequent French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars differed in scope, strategy, organization, and tactics.

Background

In 1713, Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI established a line of succession that gave precedence to his own daughters over the daughters of his deceased older brother, Emperor Joseph I. To protect the Habsburg inheritance, he coerced, cajoled, and persuaded the crowned heads of Europe to accept the Pragmatic Sanction. In this agreement, they acknowledged any of his legitimate daughters as the rightful queen of Bohemia, Hungary and Croatia, and archduchess of Austria—a break from the tradition of agnatic primogeniture.

Holy Roman emperors had been elected from the House of Habsburg for most of the previous three centuries. Charles VI arranged a marriage of his eldest daughter, Maria Theresa, to Francis III of Lorraine. Francis relinquished the Duchy of Lorraine near France in exchange for the Grand Duchy of Tuscany near Austria to make himself a more appealing candidate for eventual election as emperor. On paper, many heads of state and, most importantly, the rulers of the German states of the Holy Roman Empire, accepted the Pragmatic Sanction and the idea of Francis as the next emperor. Two key exceptions, the  Duchy of Bavaria and the Duchy of Saxony, held important electoral votes and could impede or even block Francis's election. When Charles died in 1740, Maria Theresa had to fight for her family's entitlements in Bohemia, Hungary and Croatia, and her husband faced competition in his election as the Holy Roman emperor.

Charles, Prince Elector and Duke of Bavaria, claimed the German territories of the Habsburg dynasty as a son-in-law of Joseph I, and furthermore presented himself as Charles VI's legitimate imperial successor. If women were going to inherit, he claimed, then his family should have precedence: his wife, Maria Amalia, was the daughter of Joseph I. Both Charles VI and his predecessor Joseph I had died without sons. Charles of Bavaria suggested that the legitimate succession pass to Joseph's female children, rather than to the daughters of the younger brother, Charles VI. For different reasons, Prussia, France, Spain, and the Polish-Saxon monarchy supported Charles of Bavaria's claim to the Habsburg territory and the Imperial title and reneged on the Pragmatic Sanction.

Charles of Bavaria needed military assistance to take the imperial title by force, which he secured the treaty of Nymphenburg (July 1741). During the subsequent War of the Austrian Succession, he successfully captured Prague, where he was crowned King of Bohemia. He invaded Upper Austria, planning to capture Vienna, but diplomatic exigencies complicated his plans. His French allies redirected their troops into Bohemia, where Frederick the Great, himself newly King of Prussia, had taken advantage of the chaos in Austria and Bavaria to annex Silesia.

Charles's military options disappeared with the French. Adopting a new plan, he subverted the imperial election. He sold the County of Glatz to Prussia for a reduced price in exchange for Frederick's electoral vote. Charles's brother, Klemens August of Bavaria, archbishop and prince-elector of the Electorate of Cologne, voted for him in the imperial election and personally crowned him on 12 February 1742 in the traditional ceremony in Frankfurt am Main. The next day, Charles's Bavarian capital of Munich capitulated to the Austrians to avoid being plundered by Maria Theresa's troops. In the following weeks, her army overran most of Charles's territories, occupied Bavaria, and barred him from his ancestral lands and from Bohemia.

Charles VII spent most of his three-year reign as emperor residing in Frankfurt while Maria Theresa battled Prussia for her patrimony in Bohemia and Hungary. Frederick could not secure Bohemia for Charles, but he did manage to push the Austrians out of Bavaria. For the last three months of his short reign, the gout-ridden Charles lived in Munich, where he died in January 1745. His son, Maximilian III Joseph (known as Max Joseph) inherited his father's electoral dignities but not his imperial ambition. With the Peace of Füssen (22 April 1745), Max Joseph promised to vote for Francis of Lorraine, Maria Theresa's husband, in the pending imperial election. He also acknowledged the Pragmatic Sanction. In return, he obtained the restitution of his family's electoral position and territories. For his subjects, his negotiations ended five years of warfare and brought a generation of peace and relative prosperity that began with his father's death in 1745 and ended with his own in 1777.

Contenders

As the Duke of Bavaria, Max Joseph was the prince of one of the largest states in the German-speaking portion of the Holy Roman Empire. As a prince-elector, he stood in the highest rank of the Empire, with broad legal, economic, and judicial rights. As an elector, he was one of the men who selected the Holy Roman Emperor from a group of candidates. He was the son of one Holy Roman Emperor (Charles VII), and the grandson of another (Joseph I). When he died of smallpox on 30 December 1777, he left no children to succeed him and several ambitious men prepared to carve his patrimony into pieces.

Heir
The Sulzbach branch of the Wittelsbach family inherited the Duchy of Bavaria. In this line, the 55-year-old Charles IV Theodore, the Duke of Berg-Jülich, held the first claim. Unfortunately for Charles Theodore, he was already the Elector Palatine. By the terms of the 1648 Peace of Westphalia, he had to cede the Palatine electorate to his own heir before he could claim the Bavarian electorate. He was not eager to do so, even though Bavaria was larger and more important. He preferred living in the Palatinate, with its salubrious climate and compatible social scene. He patronized the arts, and had developed in Mannheim, his capital city, an array of theaters and museums at tremendous cost to his subjects. He hosted Voltaire at one of his many palaces. During the visit, he had enticed Voltaire's secretary, the Florentine noble Cosimo Alessandro Collini (1727–1806), into his own employment, considered a coup in some of the Enlightenment circles. Thomas Carlyle referred to Charles Theodore as a "poor idle creature, of purely egoistical, ornamental, dilettante nature; sunk in theatricals, [and] bastard children". The French foreign minister Vergennes, who knew him, described Charles Theodore's foibles more forcefully:
Although by nature intelligent, he [Charles Theodore] has never succeeded in ruling by himself; he has always been governed by his ministers or by his father-confessor or (for a time) by the electress [his wife]. This conduct has increased his natural weakness and apathy to such a degree that for a long time he has had no opinions save those inspired in him by his entourage. The void which this indolence has left in his soul is filled with the amusements of the hunt and of music and by secret liaisons, for which His Electoral Majesty has at all times had a particular penchant.
The Electress had provided him with a son, who had immediately died, but Charles Theodore's "particular penchant" for secret liaisons, most of whom were French actresses that he had raised to the status of countess, had produced several natural children. By the time of Max Joseph's death, he had legitimated seven of the males of his various alliances, and was considering the legitimation of two more. With this host of male offspring, although Charles Theodore certainly wished to acquire more territory, he needed it to be territory that he could bequeath through his testament, rather than territory encumbered by a legal entailment that could only pass to a legitimate child.

Deal-maker

Joseph, Archduke of Austria, King of the Romans, and co-ruler with his mother, Empress Maria Theresa, coveted Bavaria. He felt the War of the Austrian Succession had shown that the House of Habsburg-Lorraine needed a wider sphere of influence in the German-speaking parts of the Holy Roman Empire. Without this, the family could not count on the election of their chosen male candidate as emperor, nor could the family count on an uncontested succession to the Habsburg territories of Bohemia, Hungary and Croatia. For most of Joseph's adult life, he sought to strengthen his family's influence in German-speaking lands. For him, this meant the acquisition of German lands (generally better-developed economically), not lands in the eastern region of the Habsburg empire, even such strategic territories as Bukovina.

Joseph married Max Joseph's sister, Maria Josepha, in 1765, hoping he could claim the Bavarian electorate for his offspring. After two years of unhappy marriage, Maria Josepha died without issue. When Max Joseph died ten years later, Joseph could only present a weak legal claim to Lower Bavaria through a dubious and ancient grant made by the Emperor Sigismund to the House of Habsburg in 1425. Knowing its poor legal grounds, Joseph negotiated a secret agreement with Charles Theodore shortly after Max Joseph's death. In this agreement (3 January 1778), Charles Theodore ceded Lower Bavaria to Austria in exchange for uncontested succession to the remainder of the duchy. Charles Theodore also hoped to acquire from Joseph some unencumbered parts of the Austrian Netherlands and parts of Further Austria that he could bequeath to his bastards, but this was not written into the agreement and Joseph was not a particularly generous man. Furthermore, the agreement entirely ignored the interests of Charles Theodore's own heir presumptive, Charles II August, of the House of Palatinate-Zweibrücken-Birkenfeld. Charles August was the presumptive heir of Charles Theodore's domains and titles. He had a clear and direct interest in the disposition of the Bavarian duchy, especially in its territorial integrity.

Heir presumptive

Unbeknownst to either Charles Theodore or Joseph, a widow (historians are uncertain which widow) opened secret negotiations with Prussia to secure the eventual succession of Charles II August (Charles August). Some historians maintain the active negotiator was Max Joseph's widow, Maria Anna Sophia of Saxony. Others assert it was Max Joseph's sister, Maria Antonia of Bavaria, who was also Charles August's mother-in-law and the mother of the reigning Elector of Saxony. Ernest Henderson even maintained she was the "only manly one among the many Wittelsbach parties" involved in the issue.

Charles August was no great admirer of Joseph's. As a younger man, he had sought the hand of Joseph's sister, Archduchess Maria Amalia. She had been quite content to take him, but Joseph and their mother insisted she marry instead the better-connected Duke of Parma. After this disappointment, Charles II August married Maria Amalia of Saxony in 1774; she was the daughter of the Elector Christian (d. 1765) and his wife Maria Antonia, Max Joseph's sister. In 1769, the reigning Saxon elector, Frederick Augustus III, had married Charles August's sister. Charles August, sometimes called duc de Deux-Ponts (a French translation of Zweibrücken, or two bridges), was a French client and could theoretically draw on French support for his claim. However, he had especially good relations with the Saxon Electors: both his mother- and brother-in-law wanted to ensure that Maria Amalia's husband received his rightful inheritance.

Diplomacy

Interested parties
Count Karl-Wilhelm Finck von Finckenstein, Frederick the Great's prime minister, believed that any Austrian acquisition in Bavaria would shift the balance of power in the Holy Roman Empire, diminishing Prussia's influence. Prussia's recent gains had been hard-won: thirty years earlier, Frederick had engaged in protracted wars in Silesia and Bohemia, resulting in Prussia's annexation of most of Silesia, and now, with the economy and society modernizing under his direction, Prussia was emerging as a world power. In the Silesian Wars and the Seven Years' War, Frederick had earned a new, if grudging, respect for his kingdom's military and diplomatic prowess from the European powers of France, Russia, Britain and Austria. To protect Prussia's status and territory, Finck and Frederick constructed an alliance with the Electorate of Saxony, ostensibly to defend the rights of Charles II August, Duke of Zweibrücken.

Although equally interested in maintaining its influence among the German states, France had a double problem. As a supporter of the rebellious British colonies in North America, she wished to avoid a continental engagement; she could do more damage to the British in North America than in Europe. The Diplomatic Revolution in 1756 had gone against two hundred years of French foreign policy of opposition to the House of Habsburg, arguably bringing France massive territorial gains in repeated wars with Habsburg Austria and Spain. A reversal of this policy in 1756 tied French foreign policy in Europe to Vienna which, although it could give France additional influence and leverage, could also cripple the country's diplomatic maneuvers with the other power players: Britain, Russia, and Prussia. Despite this restructuring, there existed in the French Court at Versailles, and in France generally, a strong anti-Austrian sentiment. The personal union (the diplomatic term for marriage) of Louis, then the Dauphin, and the Austrian Archduchess Marie Antoinette, was considered both a political and matrimonial mésalliance in the eyes of many Frenchmen. It flew in the face of 200 years of French foreign policy, in which the central axiom "had been hostility to the House of Habsburg." The French foreign minister, the Comte de Vergennes, maintained deep-seated hostility to the Austrians that antedated the alliance of 1756. He had not approved of the shift in France's traditional bonds and considered the Austrians untrustworthy. Consequently, he managed to extricate France from immediate military obligations to Austria by 1778.

Tensions rise
On 3 January 1778, a few days after Max Joseph's death, the ducal equerry proclaimed the succession of Charles Theodore. Dragoons rode through the streets of Munich, some banging drums and some blowing trumpets, and others shouting, "Long Live our Elector Charles Theodore." According to the 3 January agreement between Joseph and Charles Theodore, fifteen thousand Austrian troops occupied Mindelheim, ultimately more territory than had been granted to Joseph. Charles Theodore, who had dreamed of rebuilding the Burgundian empire, realized that Joseph was not seriously planning to exchange Bavaria, or even a portion of it, for the entirety of the Austrian Netherlands. At best, he might acquire a few portions of it, perhaps Hainaut or Guelders, Luxembourg, Limburg, or various dispersed possessions in Anterior Austria, most of which lay in southwestern Germany, but Joseph would never release any sizable portion of territory, and certainly not any territory of strategic military or commercial value.

While Charles Theodore's dream of a Burgundian renaissance receded, Joseph continued on his course to annex part of Bavaria. The widow—Max Joseph's widow or the mother-in-law or both—petitioned Prussia on behalf of Charles II August. Frederick's envoys to the heir presumptive convinced this slighted prince to lodge protests with the Imperial Diet in Regensburg. Joseph's troops remained in portions of Bavaria, even establishing an Austrian administration at Straubing, precipitating a diplomatic crisis. Austrian occupation of Bavaria was unacceptable to Charles August's champion, Frederick. Prussian troops mobilized near Prussia's border with Bohemia, reminiscent of the invasion in 1740 that so endangered Maria Theresa's succession to the Habsburg hereditary lands. Meanwhile, the French wriggled out of their diplomatic obligations to Austria, telling Joseph that there would be no military support from Paris for a war against Prussia. Britain, Prussia's strongest ally, was already mired in a war in North America, but Prussia's military had recovered from the Seven Years' War and Frederick did not require any help. Prussia's other ally, Saxony, aligned by two marriages with Charles August, was strategically prepared for war against Austria and ready to contribute twenty thousand troops. Watching from St. Petersburg, Catherine II was willing to mop up the spoils of war for the Russian Empire but did not want to get involved in another costly European conflict.

For four months, negotiators shuttled between Vienna and Berlin, Dresden and Regensburg, and Zweibrücken, Munich and Mannheim. By early spring 1778, Austria and Prussia faced each other with armies several times the size of their forces during the Seven Years' War, and their confrontation had the potential to explode into another European-wide war.

Action
When it became clear that other monarchs would not acquiesce in a de facto partition of Bavaria, Joseph and his foreign minister, Anton von Kaunitz, scoured the Habsburg realm for troops and concentrated six hundred guns and a 180,000–190,000-man Austrian army in Bohemia, Moravia, and Austrian Silesia. This amounted to most of Austria's two-hundred thousand effectives, leaving much of the Habsburg border regions with the Ottoman Empire under-guarded. On 6 April 1778 Frederick of Prussia established his army of eighty thousand men on the Prussian border with Bohemia, near Neisse, Schweidnitz, and the County of Glatz, which Frederick had acquired from the Wittelsbach contender in 1741 in exchange for his electoral support of Charles VII. At Glatz, Frederick completed his preparations for invasion: he gathered supplies, arranged a line-of-march, brought up his artillery and drilled his soldiers. His younger brother, Prince Henry, formed a second army of seventy-five to a hundred thousand men to the north and west, in Saxony. In April, Frederick and Joseph officially joined their armies in the field, and diplomatic negotiations ended.

In early July 1778, the Prussian general Johann Jakob von Wunsch (1717–1788) crossed into Bohemia near the fortified town of Náchod with several hundred men. The local garrison, commanded by Friedrich Joseph, Freiherr (Baron) von Nauendorf, then a Rittmeister (captain of cavalry), included only fifty hussars. Despite the poor numerical odds, Nauendorf sallied out to engage Wunsch's men. When his small force reached Wunsch's, he greeted the Prussians as friends; by the time the Prussians were close enough to realize the allegiance of the hussars, Nauendorf and his small band had acquired the upper hand. Wunsch withdrew; the next day, Nauendorf was promoted to major. In a letter to her son, the Empress Maria Theresa wrote: "They say you were so pleased with Nauendorf, a rookie from Carlstadt or Hungary, who killed seven men, that you gave him twelve ducats."

Invasion
A few days after Wunsch's encounter with Nauendorf, Frederick entered Bohemia. His eighty thousand troops occupied Náchod but advanced no further. The Habsburg army stood on the heights of the Elbe river, nominally under Joseph but with Count Franz Moritz von Lacy in practical command. Lacy had served under Marshal Daun during the Seven Years' War and knew his military business. He established the Austrian army on the most defensible position available: centered at Jaroměř, a triple line of redoubts extended  southwest along the river to Königgrätz. The Austrians also augmented this defensive line with their six hundred artillery pieces.

While the main Habsburg army faced Frederick at the Elbe, a smaller army under the command of Baron Ernst Gideon von Laudon guarded the passes from Saxony and Lusatia into Bohemia. Laudon was another battle-hardened and cagey commander with extensive field experience, but even he could not cover the long frontier completely. Shortly after Frederick crossed into Bohemia, Prince Henry, a brilliant strategist in his own right, maneuvered around Laudon's troops and entered Bohemia at Hainspach. To avoid being flanked, Laudon withdrew across the Iser River, but by mid-August, the main Austrian army was in danger of being outflanked by Henry on its left wing. At its center and right, it faced a well-disciplined army commanded by Frederick, arguably the best tactical general of the age and feared for his victories against France and Austria in the previous war.

While his main army remained entrenched on the heights above the Elbe, Joseph encouraged raids against the Prussian troops. On 7 August 1778, with two squadrons of his regiment, the intrepid "rookie", now Major Nauendorf, led a raid against a Prussian convoy at Bieberdorf in the County of Glatz. The surprised convoy surrendered and Nauendorf captured its officers, 110 men, 476 horses, 240 wagons of flour, and thirteen transport wagons. This kind of action characterized the entire war. There were no major battles; the war consisted of a series of raids and counter-raids during which the opposing sides lived off the countryside and tried to deny each other access to supplies and fodder. Soldiers later said they spent more time foraging for food than they did fighting.

The armies remained in their encampments for the campaign season while men and horses ate all the provisions and forage for miles around. Prince Henry wrote to his brother, suggesting they complete their operations by 22 August, at which time he estimated he would have exhausted local supplies of food for his men and fodder for his horses. Frederick agreed. He laid plans to cross the Elbe and approach the Austrian force from the rear, but the more he examined the conditions of Joseph's entrenchments, the more he realized that the campaign was already lost. Even if he and Henry executed simultaneous attacks on the Königgrätz heights, such a plan exposed Henry to a flanking attack from Laudon. A coordinated frontal and rear assault was also unlikely to succeed. Even if it did, the Prussian losses would be unacceptable and would demolish his army's capacity to resist other invaders. From Frederick's perspective, the Russians and the Swedes were always ready to take advantage of any perceived Prussian weakness, and the French also could not be trusted to keep their distance. For Frederick, it was a risk not worth taking. Despite this realization, the four armies—two Austrian, two Prussian—remained in place until September, eating as much of the country's resources as they could.

From their advantageous height by Königgrätz, the Austrians frequently bombarded the Prussian army encamped below them. On the same day that Frederick's doctors bled him, an Austrian cannonade grew so strong that Frederick rode out to observe the damage. During the ride, his vein opened. A company medic bound his wound, an incident later depicted by the painter Bernhard Rode. In his admiring history of Frederick the Great, the British historian Thomas Carlyle (1795–1881) relayed the story of Frederick and a Croatian marksman. As Frederick was reconnoitering, Carlyle maintained, the King encountered the Croat taking aim at him. Reportedly, he wagged his finger at the man, as if to say, "Do not do that." The Croat thought better of shooting the King, and disappeared into the woods; some reports maintain he actually knelt before the king and kissed his hand.

Nauendorf continued his raids, the soldiers foraged for food and dug up the local potato crop, and Joseph and Frederick glared at one another by Königgrätz. Maria Theresa had sent Kaunitz on a secret mission to Berlin to offer a truce. In a second trip, she offered a settlement, and finally wrote to the Empress Catherine in Russia to ask for assistance. When Joseph discovered his mother's maneuvering behind his back, he furiously offered to resign. His mother enlisted the assistance she needed. Catherine offered to mediate the dispute; if her assistance was unacceptable, she was willing to send fifty thousand troops to augment the Prussian force, even though she disliked Frederick and her alliance with him was strictly defensive. Frederick withdrew portions of his force in mid-September. In October, Joseph withdrew most of his army to the Bohemian border and Frederick withdrew his remaining troops into Prussia. Two small forces of hussars and dragoons remained in Bohemia to provide a winter cordon; these forces allowed Joseph and Frederick to keep an eye on each other's troops while their diplomats negotiated at Teschen.

Winter actions
Appointed as the commander of the Austrian winter cordon, Dagobert Sigmund von Wurmser ordered a small assault-column under the command of Colonel Wilhelm Klebeck to attack the village of Dittersbach. Klebeck led a column of Croats into the village. During the action, four hundred Prussians were killed, another four hundred made prisoner, and eight colors were captured. Following his successes against the Prussians in 1778, Joseph awarded Wurmser the Knight's Cross of the Military Order of Maria Theresa on 21 October 1778.

In another raid, on 1 January 1779, Colonel Franz Levenehr led 3,200 men (four battalions, six squadrons, and 16 artillery) into Zuckmantel, a village in Silesia on the Prussian border,  south of Ziegenhals.  There he ran against a 10,000-man Prussian force commanded by General von Wunsch; the Austrians decisively defeated the Prussians, with a loss of 20 men (wounded) against the Prussian losses of 800. Two weeks later, Wurmser advanced into the County of Glatz in five columns, two of which, commanded by Major General Franz Joseph, Count Kinsky, surrounded Habelschwerdt on 17–18 January. While one column secured the approach, the other, under the leadership of Colonel Pallavicini, stormed the village and captured the Prince of Hessen-Philippsthal, 37 officers, plus 700 to 1,000 men, three cannon and seven colors; in this action, the Prussians lost 400 men dead or wounded. Wurmser himself led the third column in an assault on the so-called Swedish blockhouse at Oberschwedeldorf. It and the village of Habelschwerdt were set on fire by howitzers. Major General Terzy (1730–1800), who was covering with the remaining two columns, threw back the enemy support and took three hundred Prussian prisoners. Meanwhile, Wurmser maintained his position at the nearby villages of Rückerts and Reinerz. His forward patrols reached the outskirts of Glatz and patrolled much of the Silesian border with Prussia near Schweidnitz. Halberschwerdt and Oberschedeldorf were both destroyed.

On 3 March 1779, Nauendorf again raided Berbersdorf with a large force of infantry and hussars and captured the entire Prussian garrison. Joseph awarded him the Knight's Cross of the Military Order of Maria Theresa (19 May 1779).

Impact

In the Treaty of Teschen (May 1779), Maria Theresa returned Lower Bavaria to Charles Theodore, but kept the so-called Innviertel, a  strip of land in the drainage basin of the Inn River. She and Joseph were surprised to find that the small territory had 120,000 inhabitants. Saxony received a financial reward of six million gulden from the principal combatants for its role in the intervention.

The War of the Bavarian Succession was the last war for both Frederick and Maria Theresa, whose reigns began and ended with wars against one another. Although they deployed armies three to four times the size of the armies of the Seven Years' War, neither monarch used the entirety of the military force each had at his or her disposal, making this war-without-battles remarkable. Despite the restraint of the monarchs, some early nineteenth-century casualty estimates suggest that tens of thousands died of starvation and hunger-related disease. Carlyle's more moderate estimate lies at about ten thousand Prussian and probably another ten thousand Austrian dead. Michael Hochedlinger assesses combined casualties at approximately thirty thousand; Robert Kann gives no estimate of casualties but suggests the primary causes of death were cholera and dysentery. Gaston Bodart, whose 1915 work is still considered the authority on Austrian military losses, is specific: five Austrian generals (he does not name them), over twelve thousand soldiers, and 74 officers died of disease. In minor actions and skirmishes, nine officers and 265 men were killed and four officers and 123 men were wounded, but not fatally. Sixty-two officers and 2,802 men were taken prisoner, and 137 men were missing. Over three thousand Imperial soldiers deserted. Finally, twenty-six officers and 372 men were discharged with disabilities. Bodart also gives Prussian losses: one general killed (he does not say which), 87 officers and 3,364 men killed, wounded or captured. Overall, he assumes losses of ten percent of the fighting force. Little has been discovered of civilian casualties, although certainly the civilians also suffered from starvation and disease. There were other damages: for example, Habelschwerdt and one of its hamlets were destroyed by fire.

Despite its short duration, the war itself cost Prussia 33 million florins. For the Austrians, the cost was higher: 65 million florins, for a state with an annual revenue of 50 million florins. Joseph himself described war as "a horrible thing ... the ruin of many innocent people."

Change in warfare
This was the last European war of the old style, in which armies maneuvered sedately at a distance while diplomats hustled between capitals to resolve the monarchs' differences. Given the length of time—six months—the cost in life and treasure was high. In light of the scale of warfare experienced in Europe less than a generation later in the French Revolutionary Wars and Napoleonic Wars, though, this six-month engagement seems mild. Yet while historians often dismissed it as the last of the archaic mode of Ancien Régime warfare, elements of the war foreshadowed conflicts to come: the sheer sizes of the armies deployed reflected emerging abilities and willingness to conscript, train, equip and field larger armies than had been done in previous generations.

The war also reflected a new height in military spending, especially by the Habsburgs. After the Seven Years' War, the size of the Habsburg military shrank, from 201,311 men in arms in 1761 to 163,613 in 1775. In preparing for a second summer's campaign, Joseph's army grew from 195,108 effectives in the summer of 1778 to 308,555 men in arms in Spring 1779. Habsburg military strength never dropped below two hundred thousand effectives between 1779 and 1792, when Austria entered the War of the First Coalition. Several times it surged above three hundred thousand men in arms, responding to needs on the Ottoman border or the revolt in the Austrian Netherlands. The military also underwent a massive organizational overhaul.

In the vernacular, the Austrians called the war Zwetschgenrummel ("Plum Fuss"), and for the Prussians and Saxons, it was Kartoffelkrieg ("Potato War"). In the historiography of European warfare, historians almost always describe the War of the Bavarian Succession "in dismissive or derisive terms [as] the apotheosis (or perhaps caricature) of old regime warfare," despite its grand name. Some historians have maintained that the focus on the consumption of the produce of the land gave the war its popular name. Others suggest that the two armies lobbed potatoes instead of cannonballs or mortars. A third theory maintains that the war acquired its popular name because it took place during the potato harvest.

Resurgence of the problem

The underlying problem was not solved: Joseph's foreign policy dictated the expansion of Habsburg influence over German-speaking territories, and only this, he believed, would counter Prussia's growing strength in Imperial affairs. In 1785, Joseph again sought to make a territorial deal with Charles Theodore, again offering to trade portions of Bavarian territory for portions of the Austrian Netherlands. This time it would be a straight trade: territory for territory, not a partition. Although the Austrian Netherlands was a wealthy territory, it was a thorn in Joseph's side, opposing his administrative and bureaucratic reforms and devouring military and administrative resources he desperately needed elsewhere in his realm. Despite its problems, Joseph could not afford to give up the Netherlands entirely, so his efforts to negotiate a partial territorial exchange guaranteed him some of the financial benefits of both his Netherlands possessions and the Bavarian territories.

Even if Joseph had to give up the Austrian Netherlands, it meant "the barter of an indefensible strategic position and ... an economic liability for a great territorial and political gain, adjacent to the monarchy." Again, Charles II August, Duke of Zweibrücken, resented the possible loss of his Bavarian expectancy, and again, Frederick of Prussia offered aid. This time, no war developed, not even a "Potato War". Instead, Frederick founded the Fürstenbund, or the Union of Princes, comprising the influential princes of the northern German states, and these individuals jointly pressured Joseph to relinquish his ambitious plans.  Rather than increasing Austria's influence in German affairs, Joseph's actions increased Prussian influence, making Prussia seem like a protector state against greedy Habsburg imperialism (an ironic contrast to the earlier stage of the Austro-Prussian rivalry, in which Frederick seized German-speaking lands with military force and without formal declaration of war, causing most of the German states to join Austria). In 1799, the duchy passed to Maximilian IV Joseph, brother of Charles August, whose only child had died in 1784.

Long-term effect: the intensification of German dualism

Joseph understood the problems facing his multi-ethnic patrimony and the ambivalent position the Austrians held in the Holy Roman Empire. Although the Habsburgs and their successor house of Habsburg-Lorraine had, with two exceptions, held the position of Emperor since the early 15th century, the basis of 18th-century Habsburg power lay not in the Holy Roman Empire itself, but in Habsburg territories in Eastern Europe (where the family had vast domains), the Italian peninsula, and the Lowlands. For Joseph or his successors to wield influence in the German-speaking states, they needed to acquire additional German-speaking territories. Acquisition of Central European territories with German-speaking subjects would strengthen the Austrian position in the Holy Roman Empire. As far as Joseph was concerned, only this could shift the center of the Habsburg empire into German-speaking Central Europe. This agenda made dispensable both the Austrian Netherlands—Habsburg territories which lay furthest west—and Galicia, furthest east. It also made the recovery of German-speaking Silesia and acquisition of new territories in Bavaria essential.

By the late 1770s, Joseph also faced important diplomatic obstacles in consolidating Habsburg influence in Central Europe. When the British had been Austria's allies, Austria could count on British support in its wars, but Britain was now allied with Prussia. In the Diplomatic Revolution, the French replaced the British as Austria's ally, but they were fickle, as Joseph discovered when Vergennes extricated Versailles from its obligations. Russia, which also had been an important Austrian ally for most of the Seven Years' War, sought opportunities for expansion at the expense of its weak neighbors. In 1778, that meant Poland and the Ottomans, but Joseph fully understood the danger of appearing weak in Russia's eyes: Habsburg lands could be carved off easily by the cagey Catherine's diplomatic knife. Still, Frederick of Prussia was the most definite enemy, as he had been throughout the reigns of Theresa and Franz before him, when the Prussian state's emergence as a player on the European stage had occurred at Habsburg expense, first with the loss of Silesia, and later in the 1750s and 1760s. Joseph sought to unify the different portions of his realm, not the German states as a whole, and to establish Habsburg hegemony in German-speaking central Europe beginning with the partition of Bavaria.

The broad geographic outlines of European states changed rapidly in the last fifty years of the century, with partitions of Poland and territorial exchanges through conquest and diplomacy. Rulers sought to centralize their control over their domains and create well-defined borders within which their writ was law. For Joseph, the acquisition of Bavaria, or at least parts of it, would link Habsburg territories in Bohemia with those in the Tyrol and partially compensate Austria for its loss of Silesia. The Bavarian succession crisis provided Joseph with a viable opportunity to consolidate his influence in the Central European states, to bolster his financially strapped government with much-needed revenue, and to strengthen his army with German-speaking conscripts. Supremacy in the German states was worth a war, but for Frederick, the preservation of Charles August's inheritance was not. He had had sufficient war in the first years of his reign, and in its last twenty years, he sought to preserve the status quo, not to enter into risky adventures that might upset it. If he had to withdraw from engagement with Joseph's army, such a sacrifice was a temporary measure. Warfare was only one means of diplomacy, and he could employ others in this contest with Austria. The Austro-Prussian dualism that dominated the next century's unification movement rumbled ominously in the War of the Bavarian Succession.

See also
 American Revolutionary War

References

Notes

Citations

Bibliography
 Atkinson, Christopher Thomas. A history of Germany, 1715–1815. New York: Barnes and Noble, 1969 [1908].
  Autorenkollektiv. Sachsen (Geschichte des Kurfürstentums bis 1792). Meyers Konversationslexikon. Leipzig und Wien: Verlag des Bibliographischen Instituts, Vierte Auflage, 1885–1892, Band 14, S. 136.
 Bernard, Paul. Joseph II and Bavaria: Two Eighteenth Century Attempts at German Unification. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1965.
 Benians, E. A. et al. The Cambridge History of Modern Europe. Volume 6, Cambridge: University Press, 1901–12.
 Berenger, Jean. A History of the Habsburg Empire 1700–1918. C. Simpson, Trans. New York: Longman, 1997, .
 Blanning, Timothy. The French Revolutionary Wars. New York: Oxford University Press, 1996. .
 Blanning, T. C. W. The Pursuit of Glory: Europe 1648–1815. New York: Viking, 2007. .
 Bodart, Gaston. Losses of life in modern wars, Austria-Hungary and France. Vernon Lyman Kellogg, trans. Oxford: Clarendon Press; London & New York: H. Milford, 1916.
  Bodart, Gaston. Militär-historisches kreigs-lexikon, (1618–1905). Vienna, Stern, 1908.
 Carlyle, Thomas. History of Friedrich II of Prussia called Frederick the great: in eight volumes. Vol. VIII in The works of Thomas Carlyle in thirty volumes. London: Chapman and Hall, 1896–1899.
 Church, William Conant. "Our Doctors in the Rebellion." The Galaxy, volume 4. New York: W.C. & F.P. Church, Sheldon & Company, 1866–68; 1868–78.
 Clark, Christopher M..  Iron Kingdom: the rise and downfall of Prussia, 1600–1947. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard Univ. Press, 2006. .
  Criste, Oscar. Dagobert Sigmund von Wurmser. Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie. Herausgegeben von der Historischen Kommission bei der Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Band 44 (1898), S. 338–340, Digitale Volltext-Ausgabe in Wikisource. (Version vom 24. März 2010, 13:18 Uhr UTC).
 Dill, Marshal. Germany: a Modern history. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1970.
  Ebert, Jens-Florian. "Nauendorf, Friedrich August Graf." Die Österreichischen Generäle 1792–1815. Napoleononline (de): Portal zu Epoch. Jens Florian Ebert, editor. Oktober 2003. Accessed 15 October 2009.
 Easton, J. C.. "Charles Theodore of Bavaria and Count Rumford." The Journal of Modern History. Vol. 12, No. 2 (Jun., 1940), pp. 145–160.
 "Maximilian III Joseph".In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 18 December 2009, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
 Fay, Sidney B. "Untitled Review." The American Historical Review. Vol. 20, No. 4 (Jul., 1915), pp. 846–848.
 Gelardi, Julia P. In Triumph's Wake: Royal Mothers, Tragic Daughters, and the Price They Paid. New York: St. Martin's Press, 2008, .
 Gutman, Robert. Mozart: a cultural biography. New York: Harcourt, 2000. .
 Henderson, Ernest Flagg. A Short History of Germany (volume 2). New York: Macmillan, 1917.
 Hochedlinger, Michael. Austria's Wars of Emergence, 1683–1797. London: Longwood, 2003, .
 Holborn, Hajo. A History of Modern Germany, The Reformation. Princeton NJ: Princeton University Press, 1959.
 Ingrao, Charles. "Review of Alois Schmid, Max III Joseph und die europaische Macht." The American Historical Review, Vol. 93, No. 5 (Dec., 1988), p. 1351.
 Kann, Robert A. A History of the Habsburg Empire, 1526–1918. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1974, .
 Karafiol, Emile. Untitled review. The Journal of Modern History. Vol 40, No. 1 March 1967, pp. 139–140.
  Kreutz, Jörg. Cosimo Alessandro Collini (1727–1806). Ein europäischer Aufklärer am kurpfälzischen Hof. Mannheimer Altertumsverein von 1859 – Gesellschaft d. Freunde Mannheims u. d. ehemaligen Kurpfalz; Reiss-Engelhorn-Museen Mannheim; Stadtarchiv – Institut f. Stadtgeschichte Mannheim (Hrsg.). Mannheimer historische Schriften Bd. 3, Verlag Regionalkultur, 2009, .
 Lund, Eric. War for the every day: generals, knowledge and warfare in early modern Europe. Westport, Ct: Greenwood Press, 1999, .
  Maria Theresia und Joseph II. Ihre Correspondenz sammt Briefen Josephs an seinen Bruder Leopold. Wien, C. Gerold's Sohn, 1867–68.
 Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus, Robert Spaethling. Mozart's Letters, Mozart's Life. New York: Norton, 2000, .
 Okey, Robin. The Habsburg Monarchy. New York: St. Martin's Press, 2001, .
 Simms, Brendan. Three Victories and a Defeat: The Rise and Fall of the British Empire. New York: Penguin Books, 2008.
 Smith, Digby. Klebeck. Dagobert von Wurmser. Leonard Kudrna and Digby Smith, compilers. A biographical dictionary of all Austrian Generals in the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, 1792–1815. The Napoleon Series. Robert Burnham, Editor in Chief. April 2008. Accessed 22 March 2010.
 Williams, Henry Smith. The Historians' History of the World: a comprehensive narrative of the rise and development of nations as recorded by the great writers of all ages. London: The Times, 1908.
 Temperley, Harold. Frederick II and Joseph II. An Episode of War and Diplomacy in the Eighteenth Century. London: Duckworth, 1915.
  Wurzbach, Constant. Biographisches Lexikon des Kaiserthums Österreich. Vienna, 1856–91, vol 59.
 Vehse, Eduard and Franz K. F. Demmler. Memoirs of the court and aristocracy of Austria. vol. 2. London, H.S. Nichols, 1896.

Further reading

20th century
  Kotulla, Michael, "Bayerischer Erbfolgekrieg." (1778/79), In: Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichte vom Alten Reich bis Weimar (1495  1934). [Lehrbuch], Springer, Berlin: Heidelberg 2008, .
  Ziechmann, Jürgen, Der Bayerische Erbfolge-Krieg 1778/1779 oder Der Kampf der messerscharfen Federn. Edition Ziechmann, Südmoslesfehn 2007,
  Groening, Monika . Karl Theodors stumme Revolution: Stephan Freiherr von Stengel, 1750–1822, und seine staats- und wirtschaftspolitischen Innovationen in Bayern, 1778–99. Obstadt-Weiher: Verlag regionalkultur, [2001].
  Nersesov, G.A. . Politika Rossii na Teshenskom kongresse: 1778–1779. No publication information.
 Thomas, Marvin Jr. Karl Theodor and the Bavarian Succession, 1777–1778: a thesis in history. Pennsylvania State University, 1980.
  Criste, Oskar. Kriege unter Kaiser Josef II. Nach den Feldakten and anderen authentischen Quellen. Wien: Verlag Seidel, 1904.

19th century
  Reimann, Eduard. Geschichte des bairischen Erbfolgekrieges no publication information. 1869.
  Geschichte des Baierischen Erbfolgestreits [microform] : nebst Darstellung der Lage desselben im Jenner 1779. Frankfurt & Leipzig: [s.n.], 1779.
  Neufchâteau, Nicolas Louis François de (comte). Histoire de l'occupation de la Baviere par les Autrichiens, en 1778 et 1779; contenant les details de la guerre et des negotiations que ce different occasionna, et qui furent terminées, en 1779, par la paix de Teschen. Paris: Imprimerieimperiale, [1805].
  Thamm, A. T. G. Plan des Lagers von der Division Sr. Excel. des Generals der Infanterie von Tauenzien zwischen Wisoka und Praschetz vom 7ten bis 18ten July 1778. no publication information, 1807.

18th century
  Historische Dokumentation zur Eingliederung des Innviertels im Jahre 1779: Sonderausstellung: Innviertler Volkskundehaus u. Galerie d. Stadt Ried im Innkreis, 11. Mai bis 4. Aug. 1979. (Documents relating to the annexation of the Innviertel in 1779.)
  Geschichte des Baierischen Erbfolgestreits nebst Darstellung der Lage desselben im Jenner 1779. Frankfurt: [s.n.], 1779.
  [Seidl, Carl von]. Versuch einer militärischen Geschichte des Bayerischen Erbfolge-Krieges im Jahre 1778, im Gesichtspunkte der Wahrheit betrachtet von einem Königl. Preussischen Officier. no publication information.
  Bourscheid, J. Der erste Feldzug im vierten preussischen Kriege: Im Gesichtspunkte der Strategie beschreiben. Wien: [s.n.], 1779.
  Keith, Robert Murray. Exposition détaillée des droits et de la conduite de S.M. l'imṕératrice reine apostolique rélativement à la succession de la Bavière: pour servir de réponse à l'Exposé des motifs qui ont engagé S.M. le roi de Prusse à s'opposer au démembrement de la Bavière. Vienne: Chez Jean Thom. Nob. de Trattnern, 1778.
 Frederick. Memoirs from the Peace of Hubertsburg, to the Partition of Poland, and of the Bavarian War. London: printed for G. G. J. and J. Robinson, 1789.

1778 in Austria
1779 in Austria
Conflicts in 1778
Conflicts in 1779
History of the potato
Wars of succession involving the states and peoples of Europe
Wars involving the Habsburg monarchy
Wars involving Prussia
1770s in the Holy Roman Empire
18th century in Bavaria

Wars involving Saxony
Wars involving Bavaria
Rebellions against the Habsburg monarchy
Frederick the Great
Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor

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of two parallel straights and two bends whose radii shall be equal.
are the most suitable for this purpose.
from the outer edges of the lines.
should allow for eight lanes.
shall not exceed 1:1000 downwards.
should be towards the inside lane.
Rule gives basic principles, which need to be followed.
starting block shall overlap the start line or extend into another lane.
unfair advantage to the athlete.
arranged to cause the minimum possible damage to the track.
shall permit no movement during the actual start.
blocks shall be linked to an IAAF approved false start apparatus.
blocks provided by them may be used.
runners start the same distance from the finish.
that competitors are steady and in the correct starting position.
In races longer than 400m, the commands shall be "On your marks"
the ground with his hand or hands.
Assistants shall place them on the assembly line again.
with the ground and of the feet with the foot plates of the blocks.
front of it with his hands or his feet when on his marks.
approved starting apparatus, it shall be a false start.
Events, he shall be disqualified.
not a fair one, shall recall the competitors by firing a gun.
competitor, no warnings shall be given.
(a)In the first round the lane order shall be drawn by lot.
placings in lanes 3, 4, 5 and 6.
determine placings in lanes 1, 2, 7 and 8.
necessary modifications should be followed.
1000m, 2000m, 3000m, 5000m and 10,000m.
on the outer half of the track.
the competitors shall run the same distance.
be numbered with the left-hand inside lane numbered 1.
the race to be re-held if he considers it just and reasonable to do so.
that a competitor has run outside his lane, he shall be disqualified.
obstructed then he should likewise not be disqualified.
bend where runners may leave their respective lanes.
start, starting behind an arced line.
to continue in the race.
of 10 seconds commencing when the first runner enters the straight.
1.22m high and not more than 2m away from the track.
Gauges must be certified by an appropriate authority.
1. The finish of a race shall be denoted by a white line 5cm wide.
lines and the finish line shall be painted black in a suitable design.
the finish line as defined above.
simultaneously with the firing of the gun.
- Fully Automatic timing obtained from a Photo Finish system.
are termed "watches" for the purpose of IAAF Rules.
plane of the nearer edge of the finish line.
next longer 1/10th second, i.e. 10.11 shall be read as 10.2.
and provide the result to the Competition Secretary for publication.
be used at all competitions.
which shows the time of every competitor.
similarly record the finish times of the athletes automatically.
adjust time intervals between runners.
system is constant and less than one millisecond.
production and the time system shall be synchronised.
perpendicular plane of the leading edge of the finish line.
placed just beyond the finish line.
immediately after their arrival at the finish line, must be considered.
functioning of the timing device.
supervise the positioning and testing of the equipment.
starting apparatus, by separate equipment and cables.
partially obscured on the official camera).
intervals obtained from the photo finish picture, shall be official.
exists of failure of the timing device.
should be read to the next longer 1/100th of a second.
- 3rd fastest heat winner, etc.
- 3rd fastest 2nd place, etc.
- 3rd fastest time qualifier, etc.
The order of running heats A, B, C shall be drawn.
performances achieved during the earlier round(s).
normally, the best performers reach the final.
in the opinion of the Referee, justify an alteration.
possible, at least three in each heat should qualify.
after the composition of the heats has been decided.
lots shall be drawn to determine who shall be placed in the next round.
distances of the stages and to denote the scratch line.
lines nearest the start line in the running direction.
will be the 10m lines either side of the start/finish line.
the line after the first bend (breakline), will be run entirely in lanes.
made in each lane to denote this extended limit.
from within their take-over zones.
the first lap should be run in lanes.
positions at the beginning of the take-over zone.
as to impede his progress.
either case no other check-mark may be used.
of the body or limbs of the competitors.
stage, he is liable to cause the disqualification of his team.
whether for that or any other event.
has been replaced by a substitute, he may not return to the team.
loss of contact occurs. The advancing leg shall be straightened (i.e.
ground until the vertical upright position.
IAAF Panel of International Race Walking Judges.
they are in danger of failing to comply with paragraph 1 above.
inform the Chief Judge of his action after the competition.
4. (a)Each Judge's proposal for disqualification is called a warning.
this disqualification by the Chief Judge.
of the same nationality have the power to disqualify.
immediately after the competitor has finished.
latter may only be used by the Chief Judge.
numbers which he is wearing and leave the course.
in to the Chief Judge for each competitor.
ensure that the walkers finish in daylight.
Organising Committee shall not be considered as assistance.
by armbands, vests or similar distinctive apparel.
refreshment stations renders himself liable to disqualification.
for the 10km walk should, if possible, be a maximum of 1.5km.
Road courses shall be measured in accordance with Rule 240.3.
course he does not lessen the distance to be covered.
9. Transponder: see Rule 240.10.


A group of students visited the Luton and Dunstable University Hospital to deliver gifts to patients on the children's ward.
The visit was part of the National Citizen Service programme where they had to give something back to the community.
They raised money through cake sales and then bought toys, wrapped them up and delivered them to the hospital.
Student Paris Dunston said: "We wanted to put a smile on their faces, they were so happy and the hospital really appreciated it and we hope to do it again.


Hey Hart Beat! It's lunch time so I thought I would share some reading for you if you're looking for that kind of thing right now. Last night on Facebook I came across Reese Witherspoon's acceptance speech for Glamour Women of the Year Award. I've been a long time fan of Reese and this speech made me love her even more. I admire so much her attitude and her advocation for ambitious women. One of the main points that Reese makes is, in this world dominated by men, if you see somewhere where you think you can add benefit, do it! Don't wait for someone else to create the world for you. Anyway, here's the whole speech if you're interested. I hope you find it as inspiring as I did, Hart Beat.
I can't thank Glamour magazine enough and Conde Nast and Cindi for asking me to be here. You just made this night so amazing. These incredible, inspiring women are doing so many things to change how we perceive women, and I hope Amy Schumer and all the other nominees that when you consider making your biopic, you'll give me the rights first, which would be great. Although Amy, I'll have to play your grandmother in the movie (by Hollywood standards), and you'll probably have to play your own mother.
P.S. Another inspiring feminist that I love talks about her secret to great hair. Hint, the answer is feminism.


text:
#1 Clue
on Testing
#13 American Genius
on The Best History TV Shows
People of the PastThink the whole world revolves around you? Read about some Very Important Historical Figures and the fascinating lives they led while changing the world and having no idea that you even exist.
Unlikely Historical Friendships
Ugly Truths Left Out of Biopics
Forgotten People Who Changed Everything
Vilified People Who Turned Out to Be Right
People Who Predicted Their Own Deaths
Figures Hollywood Got So Wrong
Historical Figures Who Were Related
The Case of the Missing Body Parts
Figures Who Were Multiple People
Ain't Sayin' She's a Gold Digger
Unheralded Animal Sidekicks
'Good Guys' Who Did Awful Things
Deaths Caused by Since-Cured Diseases
Mortal Enemies United in Hate
Nearly Forgotten People Whom More People Should Know
Setareh Janda
Updated November 10, 2021 3.8k votes 815 voters 24.7k views
Vote up the nearly-forgotten people who have had the biggest impact on history.
Sure, everyone remembers the names of Abraham Lincoln, Henry VIII, and Marie Antoinette. But there were many historically significant people whose names aren't as well known, even if their stories are worth remembering.
Like forgotten Americans who shaped history or unsung heroes who changed the world, the folks on this list don't get the name recognition their stories deserve. Some of them may have been well known in their time but have since become almost forgotten; others remain beloved figures in their home countries but aren't familiar to people from other parts of the world. But whether subjects of forgotten history or under-circulated stories, all of these people lived compelling lives, did exceptional things, or made wild choices.
So read on and vote up the people from the past whose stories should be remembered.
Photo: Pete Souza / Wikimedia Commons / Public domain
Joe Medicine Crow Became His Tribe's Last War Chief During World War II
When the United States entered World War II, Joe Medicine Crow - an anthropology student and member of the Crow Nation - joined up and shipped out to Europe. In the chaos of war, Medicine Crow performed acts of bravery that eventually earned him status as his tribe's last war chief, a designation based on specific requirements. Among his exploits: stealing a Nazi's gun and safely leading a band of soldiers behind enemy lines.
But Joe Medicine Crow's war bravery was just a small part of his story - he was also a Crow historian and leader. As Nina Sanders shared with Smithsonian, Medicine Crow was an important voice for his community:
Dr. Medicine Crow connected us to our heritage through his stories. He lovingly wove the Apsáalooke narrative into the historical western account. He made us part of history books. He showed us that Indian people and our stories are relevant.
Photo: Jozef Trylinski / Wikimedia Commons / Public domain
King Michael I Of Romania Overthrew A Dictator To Recover His Kingdom From The Nazis
Though Britain's King George V is rightly credited with helping his country pull through World War II, he certainly wasn't the only European royal caught up in the global conflict. Monarchs in Norway and Sweden, for example, are also remembered for their wartime choices.
But Romania's Michael I remains an unsung royal hero during the war. Michael first inherited the Romanian throne in 1927 when he was only five years old. As a young king whose role was supposed to be merely ceremonial, Michael watched with horror as Romania, under the influence of military dictator Ion Antonescu, became a puppet of Nazi Germany. So in 1944, Michael overthrew Antonescu and pledged Romania to the Allied cause, acts that likely reduced the length of the war.
Photo: Unknown / Wikimedia Commons / Public domain
Robert Smalls Stealthily Took Control Of A Confederate Supply Ship And Steered It To Freedom
Robert Smalls, an enslaved 23-year-old in Charleston, SC, labored on the Confederate supply ship Planter during the Civil War.
But in May 1862, he escaped to freedom. When the ship's captain and some officers were off the boat, Smalls and several members of the enslaved crew took over the ship. They sailed it out of Charleston Harbor - picking up Smalls' enslaved family along the way - and right into the Union lines.
Smalls then presented the ship to the US Navy and secured freedom for himself and the 15 other enslaved souls who were with him. Impressed with Smalls' daring, the US Government awarded him part of the value of the ship.
After the war, he had a career in politics.
China's Ching Shih Was A Pirate Queen
Ching Shih's biography has it all - it's the ultimate rags-to-riches story mixed with the thrill and adventure of a swashbuckling tale. Ching Shih was a sex worker on a brothel ship before she met and married Ching Yih, a powerful pirate operating in the South China Sea.
After her husband's passing in 1807, Ching Shih took over his ships and became the leader of some 70,000 or more pirates. She also required the pirates under her command to live by a code of conduct that forbade them from sexually assaulting any female prisoners.
Photo: Achille Devéria / Wikimedia Commons / Public domain
Queen Nzinga Kept Her Subjects Out Of Reach Of Portuguese Slave Traders
Nzinga became Queen of Ndonga - which is now part of modern-day Angola - in 1624, a time when the Portuguese were deeply involved in the Atlantic Slave Trade (the Portuguese would ultimately enslave millions of Africans.) In order to ensure that her own people didn't become enslaved, Queen Nzinga tentatively aligned her kingdom with Portugal.
Portugal soon betrayed her, however. In response, Nzinga fled Ndonga and ruled from Matamba, where she could direct efforts to oust the Portuguese. She also made Matamba a place of safety for all Africans escaping the slave trade.
Like many compelling historical figures, Nzinga's life is a blend of fact and legend. One legend states that, when Portuguese negotiators refused to provide a chair for her, she sat on one of her subordinates so she would be at an equal height with her European counterparts. Among the wilder legends: that she had a group of male paramours who would engage in fatal fights with one another for the honor of accompanying the queen to her bed.
Photo: William Dyce / Wikimedia Commons / Public domain
According To Legend, Jemima Nicholas Held Off French Invaders With A Pitchfork During The French Revolutionary Wars
In 1797, Great Britain and France were still at war in the wake of the French Revolution. In an attempt to take the British city of Bristol, French and Irish troops landed near Fishguard, Wales.
The French invasion didn't exactly go as planned. The troops met with Welsh resistance - at least partly in the form of Jemima Nicholas. According to legend, Nicholas, armed with a pitchfork, managed to intimidate and capture 12 soldiers.
Ultimately, the invasion ended in failure for France. But Jemima Nicholas secured fame as a Welsh folk hero.


text:
Q: Create Dataframe from output of Function The scala code below is using a function to count the number of days between a user's input of a start and end date. It then iterates/reads through the aws s3 files that are within that time range.
def getS3Data(s3Loc: String): DataFrame = {
println(s"Reading Avro from ${s3Loc}")
val cosimDf = spark.read.format("com.databricks.spark.avro")
  .load(s3Loc)
  cosimDf
}

val daysCount = Days.daysBetween(start,end).getDays()
(0 until daysCount).map(start.plusDays(_)).foreach{x => {var myDir ="s3://AWS.Bucket/parsed/" + x.toString("yyyyMMdd") +"/"

val myDf = getS3Data(myDir)
}}

I am having trouble creating a dataframe that is a collection of all of the files that the above function iterated through. I think possibly using .collect or applying the output to a temptable may work, but cannot seem to figure out how.
Any help is welcome.

A: You may create dataframes in the loop
If you know the type of the records stored in avro files, then you just replace foreach with foldLeft and set initial value being empty dataframe of given type
case class YourS3RowCaseClass(...) // replace with your type

val daysCount = Days.daysBetween(start,end).getDays()
val finalDf = (0 until daysCount).map(start.plusDays(_))
  .foldLeft(spark.createDataFrame(Seq.empty[YourS3RowCaseClass])){
    case (df, x) =>
        var myDir ="s3://AWS.Bucket/parsed/" + x.toString("yyyyMMdd") +"/"
        val myDf = getS3Data(myDir)
        df.union(myDf)
  }

If you have to infer the type from the dataframe, it may be a bit trickier then

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaStackExchange


text:
Q: SQLSTATE[HY000] [2002] Resource temporarily unavailable - mysql - innodb and pdo Getting numerous results in my error logs like the one listed below.  All tables in the database are innodb and as far as any interaction with those tables everything is pdo with prepared statements.
As I said, all the errors are almost identical to the one listed below, but happen for a few different pages.  Regardless of the page, the error line ALWAYS points to the point where I start a new statement... for instance $stmt = $db->prepare("........ The statements themselves work perfectly fine with no errors so I am a little bit baffled as to what is causing this.
Multiple errors like this for different pages :

[25-Sep-2014 10:19:09 America/Chicago] Failed to connect to database:
  SQLSTATE[HY000] [2002] Resource temporarily unavailable [25-Sep-2014
  10:19:09 America/Chicago] PHP Fatal error:  Call to a member function
  prepare() on a non-object in /home/test/public_html/add_log.php on
  line 28

Example stmt the error points to - in this case $stmt = $db->prepare(" line specifically.  It always points to the line starting a new prepared statement.
$stmt = $db->prepare("
    SELECT
        accounts.account_id,
        computers.computer_id,
        computers.status,
        users.user_id
    FROM accounts
    LEFT JOIN computers
        ON computers.account_id = accounts.account_id AND computers.computer_uid = :computer_uid
    LEFT JOIN users
        ON users.computer_id = computers.computer_id AND users.username = :username
    WHERE accounts.account_key = :account_key
");

//bindings
$binding = array(
    'account_key' => $_POST['account_key'],
    'computer_uid' => $_POST['computer_uid'],
    'username' => $_POST['username']
);
$stmt->execute($binding);
//result (can only be one or none)
$result = $stmt->fetch(PDO::FETCH_ASSOC);

connect script :
<?php

if(!defined('INCLUDE_CHECK')) die('You are not allowed to execute this file directly');

// db config
$db_host        = 'localhost';
$db_database    = '*******';
$db_user        = '*******';
$db_pass        = '*******';

//db connection
try {
    $db = new PDO("mysql:host=$db_host;dbname=$db_database;charset=utf8", $db_user, $db_pass, array(PDO::ATTR_EMULATE_PREPARES => false, PDO::ATTR_ERRMODE => PDO::ERRMODE_EXCEPTION, PDO::ATTR_PERSISTENT => true));
}
catch(PDOException $e) {
    error_log("Failed to connect to database: ".$e->getMessage());
}

?>

Things that have crossed my mind:

*

*This particular script runs a lot... at times it can be called multiple times in one second.

*On this site I use the same format for all my prepared statements... $stmt = ... $result or $results = ...  I am not closing the cursor, however, from my research it is not needed as the driver is MySQL and it is done so automatically.

*I have set PDO::ATTR_PERSISTENT to true in my connection settings - would this have any bearing on this error?
What is going on here with all these errors?  Anyone?
EDIT - more info :

*

*I have changed localhost to 127.0.0.1 explicitly

*I have turned persistent connections off/false

Since doing the above the error has changed to SQLSTATE[HY000] [2002] Connection timed out.  Is this actually an issue with the person/comp connecting to 'me' or actually an issue with my server/db?
EDIT 2 :
Is it possible that my use of $_SERVER['DOCUMENT_ROOT'] could be causing an issue?  Since this file is 'hit' so often it is also requiring the connect script just as often by the line below.  I require my connection script as follows on each page it is needed :

require $_SERVER['DOCUMENT_ROOT'].'/custom/functions/connect.php';

A: I'm going to point out @MrGomez topic on this subject, which is mostly a concise but yet descriptive on the error you stated. This is not PDO related problem but MySQL specific.
Reasons of getting "Resource temporarily unavailable"

*

*Running out of MySQL available memory

*Running out of MySQL file descriptors under current user

*Running into a livelock or a deadlock

*Running out of resources on an upstream proxy

*Running out of PIDs avaiable to fork

However, your logs should have more things to let you know what's happening. Like determining if a there is any lock on any file.

A: It's not actually pointing to that line.
The error in your log

[25-Sep-2014 10:19:09 America/Chicago] Failed to connect to database: SQLSTATE[HY000] [2002] Resource temporarily unavailable

looks like it is getting written by the catch statement here:
try {
    $db = new PDO("mysql:host=$db_host;dbname=$db_database;charset=utf8", $db_user, $db_pass, array(PDO::ATTR_EMULATE_PREPARES => false, PDO::ATTR_ERRMODE => PDO::ERRMODE_EXCEPTION, PDO::ATTR_PERSISTENT => true));
}
catch(PDOException $e) {
    error_log("Failed to connect to database: ".$e->getMessage()); // ERROR HERE
}

Note: $db is not set in the catch statement.
Your script then goes on executing, until it hits the $db->prepare line.  As $db is null, it outputs another error, this time with the line of the file.
Beyond that - see revo's answer for why you might be getting the "Resource temporarily unavailable" error.

A: Increase your max_connections in my.cnf:
max_connections                 = 1000

Check file descriptors available for mysql:
ulimit -n

If it's value default like 1024, change to 65535 or more
ulimit -n 65535

restart mysqld

A: Just a thought - are you able to store the DB connection in memory so you don't have to keep re-creating new ones? Also in terms of your include DIR magic constant is great (I've only fully realised it today). Hope that helps.

A: Usually means that you need to specify TCP/IP:
"mysql:host=127.0.0.1" or
"mysql:host=localhost;port=3306"

In your case:
$db_host        = 'localhost';
$db_port        = '3306';

maybe something like this:
try {
    $db = new PDO("mysql:host=$db_host;port=$db_port;dbname=$db_database;charset=utf8", $db_user, $db_pass, array(PDO::ATTR_EMULATE_PREPARES => false, PDO::ATTR_ERRMODE => PDO::ERRMODE_EXCEPTION, PDO::ATTR_PERSISTENT => true));
}
catch(PDOException $e) {
    error_log("Failed to connect to database: ".$e->getMessage()); // ERROR HERE
}


ALERT!!!!! Crane Fly Larvae is on the move!!!
Right now, if you have a lawn most likely there is a hidden culprit munching on the roots of your lawn as we speak. The Crane Fly Larva is here, in full force munching on your roots, unseasonably early effecting just about every lawn that I have looked at in Salem and the surrounding areas. This is very alarming, and we have begun to treat all of our clients lawns and all will have been treated by Friday the 10th of February.
It is multifold, the main problem is not everyone takes care of their yard, most folks don't even know that they are there, the lawn dies back, they throw some fertilizer on it in early summer after the crane fly's hatch and just assume that their lawn looks like garbage. Thus the main reason for the problem is lack of quality maintenance from a yard close by, the Crane Fly is no respecter of persons!
I'm not ready to jump on the global warming band wagon yet but the warm temperatures we are having are the main reason that the larva is so active this early. The other reason is the La Nina weather pattern we are in, when temps get above 50 degrees the grass will grow and the larva will chomp on your lawn. Right now they are in the early third trimester of growth, this is a problem because most of the worms that I am seeing are very small yet still capable of eating your roots when the temps warm up.
We first treated some lawns with a liquid product labeled for turf in late January, it did not work very well mainly due to the wet, saturated soils and the fact that the larva are very small and down deep in the more healthy lawns with deep roots. I realized after a few days that this was not working so I then purchased as special granular product that I am hoping works better under these circumstances, again I have never had to treat this problem this early in the year. I will observe all lawns and some will need a second treatment mainly due to the amount of rain we are getting. I will do my best to contact you either my mail or phone to let you know if you will need a second treatment.
The larva looks like a small short grub worm, however most worms I am seeing are small right now and very skinny, about the length of half your pinky finger and skinny. Take a look at your lawn, if you notice dead looking patches, yellowing or small holes in the ground where the birds have been probing for them you definitely have the larva in your lawn. You can take a knife and open up an unhealthy looking area, you should be able to see the worms in the soil. You will also see them come out of the soil after we treat your lawns, they will be on the sidewalks and curbs, this is good and means that the treatment has been effective.
Wow, this really caught me by surprise, in fact when I talked to my supplier they said we were the first company to order product for the treatment of the larva, there is going to be a lot of dead lawns this year, so warn your neighbor and have them give us a call if they need any help.


This week marks the official launch of the Sustainability Research Network (SRN) at the University of Nottingham; a student-led initiative designed to bring together PhD students and early careers researchers with an interest in sustainability.
The network has been developed by five PhD students: Georgina Wood (Geography), Sarah Glozer (ICCSR), Eleanor Hadley Kershaw (ISS), Jennifer White (Architecture and Built Environment) and Orla Shortall (ISS and Biosciences). The mission of the SRN is simple: promote interdisciplinary learning and more collaborative research models across the university's international campuses in order to tackle the big issues of sustainability.
On May 23rd, the 'Envisioning Sustainable Futures' SRN launch event will be held on the University of Nottingham main campus in the UK to welcome over 40 researchers from disciplines including: Politics, Business, Geography, Architecture and Built Environment, Bioscience, Chemistry, Maths, Computer Science, Electrical Engineering, Horizon Digital Economy Research, Biology, Economics, Environmental Engineering / Technology, Biomolecular Sciences, Education, Chemical Engineering and Mechanics. The session will also be filmed to allow researchers from the China and Malaysia campuses to engage with the launch event.
The event is the first of its kind at the University of Nottingham and will provide vital insights into careers in sustainability through presentations from academic, industry and third sector speakers. Attendees will also benefit from engaging in roundtable research discussions, participating in a sustainability scenario game, learning about sustainability teaching and research at the University of Nottingham, and networking with other researchers over a sustainably sourced lunch. The event has been funded by grants from The Integrating Global Society (IGS) and Science, Technology and Society (STS) research priority groups, as well as donations from Geography, Business, ISS, and Architecture and Built Environment.
The SRN will be actively using social media to share outputs of the sessions and information about the network as it develops. Please do join them on Twitter (@SResearchNet) and Facebook (Sustainability Research Network) using the hashtag #SRNFutures.
By Sarah Glozer (@Sarah_CSR), Doctoral Researcher at the ICCSR, Nottingham University Business School.


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We are a startup social media company, called [log ind for at se URL] We are looking for a great designer, to design our front page and profile page. We are creating a brand here, so experience in graphic design is welcomed. with experience in CSS to join our team. Price is negotiate in chat. Seriously people only.


text:
Educating Trump Supporters With "March"
March illustrator Nate Powell hopes Congressman John Lewis' Civil Rights graphic novel can explain the protections now at risk with a Trump presidency. "Finding the underlying humanity that links us is really hard to do today."
By Susan Karlin 2 minute Read
Today's outpouring of despair among Clinton supporters prompted artist Nate Powell to engage a more educational activism—offering to give away free sets of the March trilogy, Congressman John Lewis' best-selling civil rights graphic novel that Powell illustrated.
The trilogy, co-written by Andrew Aydin, chronicles Lewis' experiences in the Civil Rights battle of the early 1960s, which has become more relevant in the wake of the nation's current divisiveness and contentious election. March: Book Three is up for a National Book Award next week.
Nate Powell
"If you have a friend or loved one who chose to vote against the last 60 years of progress, but who comes from a place of apathy, actual ignorance (not to ever be confused with stupidity), or just not realizing what they've done, I'm giving out March trilogies free today for those loved ones of yours," he posted on Facebook. "Let's continue to do what we can."
Folks claimed the 15 book sets within 10 minutes—at a $500 cost to Powell—and more are for sale at Top Shelf Productions. It's a modest nod to the beginnings of creative push-back at the individual and grass-roots levels.
"There's been a feeling of helplessness and confusion to find some way forward," says Powell. "It's about little ways of finding cracks in the structure. It revolves around thinking creatively and not undervaluing small gestures into larger tactical strategic movements.
"There are Trump supporters who voted for the man who are not coming not from a place of explicit embrace or alignment, but from a place of legitimate dissatisfaction," he adds, "But they don't understand what they just signed on for and how this administration's policies are going to work against all of us."
Powell believes such Trump supporters might be more inclined to listen if family members and loved ones deliver these books in the hope of driving home the "long, slow, struggle to ensure 60 years of gradual progress, which is now at risk, and the ways we've fought to ensure a basic level of civil protection for anyone who is an `other' in our society.
"I'm trying hard on this day-after to get this negative energy rooted into something constructive," says Powell. "This is a little thing, but if there are 15 people whose minds might be opened or advanced to realize their choice might have long-lasting consequences…that's why we spent so many years working on the March story, and these are the people who need to read and absorb it.
"Find the underlying humanity that links us is really hard to do today."
Susan Karlin is an award-winning journalist in Los Angeles, covering the nexus of science, technology, and arts, with a fondness for sci-fi and comics. She's a regular contributor to Fast Company, NPR, and IEEE Spectrum, and has written for Newsweek, Forbes, Wired, Scientific American, Discover, NY and London Times, and BBC Radio