text:
\subsection*{Introduction}

What morphologies will a thin object adopt when subjected to tight spatial confinement? This fundamental question of morphogenesis arises on a large range of length scales, from DNA strands packed in bacteriophage capsids and globules \cite{STSGAB01,KTBG01,O04} to the folding of pop-up tents \cite{MCPRJ12}. Packing problems have played a major role in the understanding of spatial self-organization in living organisms and technological applications alike. Thin sheets of foil or paper, for instance, develop complex ridge networks when folded and crumpled \cite{LGLMW95,BAP97,BK05,VG06,TAT08,TAT09}.

Significant progress has recently been made in the understanding of dense packings of elastic and elasto-plastic wires, in absence of thermal fluctuations, inside of rigid three-dimensional confinement \cite{GBA08,SNWHH11,NSWH12,VWSH13}. A particular restriction shared by all these studies is the perfect rigidity of the cavities---a constraint rarely met in nature or biomedical applications. Detachable platinum coils for example, which have revolutionized the surgical treatment of saccular cerebral aneurysms \cite{GVSM91}, are many orders of magnitude stiffer than the arterial walls they are fed into \cite{SAKR89}. Microtubules confined in lipid bilayer membranes \cite{EKFL96,KFML97} and erythrocytes \cite{NJSC83,CSS98} as well as actin/filamin networks in vesicles \cite{HTIH99,LS02} are able to deform their weak confinements significantly. In turn, such cavities force the contained filaments to buckle and reorder if their persistence length grows large enough. Recent experiments on coiled elastic nanowires and nanotubes encapsulated in swelling polymer shells and emulsion droplets have demonstrated how mechanical work can be stored and deployed through deformable spatial confinement \cite{XWLYCWWLXC10,CWXSYZZZC11,CYWXLCC13}.

Knowing the mechanisms that govern morphogenesis in constrained spaces is key to understanding the ordering in dense packing problems. Here, we present computer simulations and table-top experiments with everyday materials carried out to explore the morphological phase space of filament packings in a regime that is conceptually very different from previous systematic studies. A regime where the growing filament can strongly deform the cavity, allowing for a surprisingly enriching mutual feedback between the two structures. A decisive set of two geometric and two material parameters are identified that control this complex interaction, giving rise to no less than four distinct morphologies vastly differing in their packing evolution and energetics. Our findings provide the foundation for a new research field in which packing processes and growth are governed by the complex interplay of thin deformable bodies made of different materials. The reported observations exemplify the dramatic influence of friction and confinement rigidity on packing processes in both natural and technological applications.

\subsection*{Model and parametrization}

The most intelligible and pure way of gaining quantitative insight into morphogenesis in flexible confinements is by continuum-mechanical simulations with linearly elastic materials. Many of the aforementioned applications are best matched by a circular ring filament growing inside of a closed spherical thin sheet. Figure \ref{fig:sketch} shows a cutout of our computational model (see also \hyperref[sec:suppl1]{Supplementary Note 1}). Both filament and sheet are characterized by three homogeneous isotropic material parameters, labelled with subscripts f and s, respectively: the Young's modulus $E$, Poisson's ratio $\nu$, and mass density $\rho$. In accordance with a suggestion for condensed DNA \cite{O04}, Coulomb's law is assumed for dry stick-slip friction between any two contacting surfaces (filament-filament, filament-shell, shell-shell) with an isotropic static friction coefficient, $\mu_\mathrm{s}$, and a slightly lower dynamic friction coefficient, $\mu_\mathrm{d}$. To simplify the parameter space, we use the same coefficients for all three contact types and fix $\mu_\mathrm{d}=0.9\mu_\mathrm{s}$, which is adequate for a broad class of materials \cite{FLS64}.

\begin{figure}[H]
\includegraphics[width=\columnwidth]{figure1}
	\caption{\textbf{Schematic of the interaction model.} Both the circular filament and the confining spherical sheet are characterized by a Young's modulus $E$, Poisson's ratio $\nu$ and mass density $\rho$. We assume stick-slip Coulomb friction between any contacting surfaces. The morphogenesis is governed by only four dimensionless numbers: $\sigma$, $\gamma$, $\varepsilon$, $\mu$.}
	\label{fig:sketch}
\end{figure}

\begin{figure*}[ht]
	\centering
	\includegraphics[width=\textwidth]{figure2}
	\caption{\textbf{Packing evolution depending on friction and confinement rigidity.} A confined growing ring buckles to a saddle shape (buckling mode $m=2$, middle). Beyond the point of first contact $l=l^{*}$, four distinct morphologies can emerge. The folding at low friction and weak confinement is repeated during growth: Filament bundles refold self-similary, each time tripling the number of bundle strands ($n=3^k$).}
	\label{fig:phases}
\end{figure*}

The initial condition at time $t=0$ consists of a ring filament with length $L$ and cross-sectional radius $r$, surrounded by a close-fitting spherical shell with thickness $h$, whose middle surface has radius $R$. As the filament grows, it bears against the confining wall until the critical buckling load $4E_{\mathrm f}I_{\mathrm f}/R_{\mathrm{b}}^2$ (where $I_{\mathrm f}=\pi r^4/4$ is the second moment of area) is exceeded and it buckles out of plane with harmonic mode $m$. Excited modes $m>2$ are unstable in the quasi-static frictionless limit \cite{GV12}, but our simulations show that they can be observed when inertia is not negligible  (i.e., large mass densities, fast growth or viscous overdamping) and in the presence of significant friction. The ground state buckling mode $m=2$, which is most relevant in practice, develops a saddle shape as depicted in the middle of Fig.~\ref{fig:phases} until two filament segment pairs touch. This first contact occurs at $l := L(t)/L(0) = l^{*}\approx 2.127$ for rigid spherical cavities in the theoretical thin filament limit $r\to 0$ \cite{GV12}. The bending energy $U_{\mathrm b}$ of the filament before $l=l^{*}$ can be approximated analytically by
\begin{equation}
\frac{U_{\mathrm b}R_{\mathrm f}}{E_{\mathrm f}I_{\mathrm f}}=\frac{1}{2}\int_0^{2\pi l}\mathrm ds\,\left[\kappa(s)^2+1\right],
\label{eq:ebend_theo1}
\end{equation}
where $\kappa$ is the geodesic curvature of the rim of a unit \textit{excess cone} (e-cone) \cite{MBG08}, and $R_{\mathrm f}:=L(0)/2\pi=R-h/2-r$ is the effective filament radius. Growth beyond $l^{*}$ in finite systems with real self-avoiding materials, however, has never been explored to date. Our simulations and experiments dispel this limitation, showing that four distinct morphologies emerge by bifurcation as the filament grows longer (Fig.~\ref{fig:phases}). We denominate them \textit{spiral}, \textit{classical}, \textit{folded} and \textit{warped}, motivated by their characteristics as detailed in the following.

A key result from the computer simulations is that this morphogenesis is controlled by four independent dimensionless non-negative quantities,
\begin{equation}
\sigma=R/r,\quad \gamma=(R/h)^2, \quad \varepsilon=E_{\mathrm f}/E_{\mathrm s},\quad \mu=\mu_{\mathrm s},
\end{equation}
if inertial effects are negligible. Up to an irrelevant prefactor, $\gamma$ is the F\"oppl--von K\'arm\'an number, a geometrical measure for a thin sheet's tendency to bend rather than stretch. $\varepsilon$ is the relative filament rigidity, which conversely may also be thought of as the confinement flexibility.  $\varepsilon$ and $\gamma$ generalize the previously studied rigid cavities, which are attained in the limits $\varepsilon\to 0$ and $\gamma\to 0$. Together with $\gamma$, expressing the nominal system size by the non-dimensional ratio $\sigma$ renders the problem scale-invariant, which attests to the wide applicability of our results from microscopic to macroscopic scales.

\subsection*{Morphological phases and phase transitions}

The packing in frictionless rigid spheres can serve as a toy model for less idealized systems. When $l>l^{*}$, a spiral (depicted in Fig.~\ref{fig:phases}, top left) develops analogous to unconfined e-cones \cite{SWBMH10}. In the spirit of refs~\cite{BABCCET06,SWH08}, we call this the \textit{spiral phase}. Simple geometrical arguments (see \hyperref[sec:suppl2]{Supplementary Note 2}) allow for an analytical approximation of the predominating elastic contribution, the bending energy $U_{\mathrm{b}}$ of the confined filament:
\begin{equation}
\frac{U_{\mathrm b}R_{\mathrm f}}{E_{\mathrm f}I_{\mathrm f}}\approx\pi\frac{R_{\mathrm f}}{r}\log\left[1+\frac{2}{\cot(\theta/2)-1}\right]+\frac{4\pi}{\pi/2-\theta},
\label{eq:ebend_theo2}
\end{equation}
where the coil inclination $\theta$ is implicitly determined by $l\approx\sin(\theta)R_{\mathrm f}/r+\pi/2-\theta$. In Fig.~\ref{fig:energy}a we show that equations (\ref{eq:ebend_theo1}) and (\ref{eq:ebend_theo2}) are in excellent agreement with our numerical measurements. The measured energy weakly oscillates because the coil is slightly bent by the S-curves. These oscillations increase for larger $\sigma$. As the surface gets fully covered with a single layer of filament ($l$ approaching $R_{\mathrm f}/r$), the growing filament eventually buckles inward to release a large amount of elastic energy, and the packing process continues in a less ordered fashion much like some DNA molecules in phage capsids \cite{KTBG01,ATVSH02}.

\begin{figure*}
\includegraphics[width=\textwidth]{figure3}
	\caption{\textbf{Comparison of dynamics and energetics.} {\bf a}, Filament bending energy in the spiral (blue) and classical (green) morphology at $\sigma=20$. The inset shows the inclination $\theta(l)$ of the spiral coil. {\bf b}, Folded morphology at $\sigma=20$, $\gamma=20^2$, $\varepsilon=10^4$, $\mu=0$. The predominant elastic energy contribution alternates between the filament bending energy $U_{\mathrm{b}}$ and the membrane energy $U_{\mathrm m}$ (stretching term of equation (\ref{eq:shell})). A cascade of four self-similar folds can be recognized by the repeated power law regions.}
	\label{fig:energy}
\end{figure*}

A crucial requirement for a growing filament to coil is tangential sliding, giving rise to the high degree of order in the spiral morphology by continuous rearrangements. Many practical materials however resist sliding by frictional forces and even DNA does so \cite{KCDSD05,G12,OSLKK13}. Friction induces locality by limiting rearrangments to the local neighbourhood, inhibiting relaxations to lower global energy conformations, thus trapping growing filaments in a disordered state (Fig.~\ref{fig:phases}, bottom left). Figure \ref{fig:energy}a clearly shows that the bending energy is bounded from below by the spiral phase. A similar situation is encountered in flat wire packings \cite{SWH08}, from where we adopt the term \textit{classical phase}. To quantify the spontaneous breaking of spiral symmetry with increasing $\mu$, we propose the following order parameter. Let $[p_1, p_3, p_3]^{\mathrm T}(s)$ denote the position of the centreline of the filament after transformation onto its own principal axes, in order of descending principal moments of inertia. Then, the sign of $\tau(s)=\partial_s^2p_2\partial_sp_1-\partial_s^2p_1\partial_sp_2$ indicates its turning direction as seen along the axis of minimal moment of inertia. Consequently, the circular convolution
\begin{equation}
c(q)=\frac{1}{L}\int_0^L\mathrm ds\;\mathrm{sgn}\big[(s-L/2)\,\tau(s+q)\big]\in[0,1]
\end{equation}
is a natural measure for the degree of order of the filament when cut in half at $s=q$ and $s=q+L/2$. Here, we implicitly extend $\tau(s)=\tau(s+L)$ periodically. If the two halves equally contain right- and left-turning segments, we have $c(q)=0$. Conversely, only if one half turns only left and the other half only right, we have $c(q)=1$. Thus, if we account for the periodic nature of the ring filament by maximizing over all bisection points $q$, the turning disorder $D:=1-\max\{c(q)|q\in[0,L]\}$ can serve as an order parameter to discriminate the spiral from the classical phase. It is evident from Fig.~\ref{fig:order_parameters}a that the transition occurs near $\mu\approx 0.5$, with a slight dependence on $\sigma$. In stiff confinement, friction must thus be fairly strong to introduce local order, which contributes to explaining why viral DNA is often condensed into layered spools \cite{EH77,CCRMBS97,OGEB01,JCJWKC06}.

The surface-covering spiral and classical morphologies bear resemblance to liquid crystals (LCs), an analogy that has already been drawn in the context of DNA packing in viral capsids \cite{KAB06}. Let's define a loop by an area surrounded by a filament segment with only one inner point of contact \cite{SWH08}. The spiral phase has only four such loops (two at each pole), while the classical phase is characterized by a broader spatial distribution of loops. At very high surface packing ($l\to R_{\mathrm f}/r$), classical loops are compressed to point singularities with strength $1/2$ delimiting line disclinations known from nematic LCs \cite{C92}. The spiral phase is in turn reminiscent of spherical smectic LCs with two closely bound disclinations ending at two 1/2-singularities at each pole \cite{JCLXAXBL09}. The total disclination strength of a spherical LC is always two, which is a direct consequence of the Gauss--Bonnet theorem. Indeed, this identity holds for growing ring filaments for all $\sigma,\mu$ in the spiral and classical phases. The number of topologically nontrivial loops is always four, but the classical phase can exhibit an arbitrary additional number of topologically trivial loops. However, we stress that the existence of topologically trivial loops is sufficient, but not necessary for $D>0$, and is thus not an order parameter.

The spiral and classical morphologies are highly metastable as the filament inevitably buckles away from the rigid wall. A qualitative stability condition was derived in ref.~\cite{KAB06} and translates to $l\ll \sigma^2$ in our terms, suggesting that dense single-layered surface packings are found only in sufficiently large cavities. This explains why they are not common in biophysical environments and vesicles. Instead, such systems gain ultimate stability from weak or flexible confinement. In the computer simulations, we increased $\gamma$ and $\varepsilon$ to discover a completely altered morphogenesis beyond a certain transition. As the confining sheet is weakened or thinned, suddenly, the filament folds on itself as illustrated in the top right of Fig.~\ref{fig:phases} instead of coiling. Bundles of $n$ subthreads are formed similar to actin/filamin rings and microtubules in vesicles \cite{HTIH99,LS02,PCKANG09} or folded poles in pop-up tents \cite{MCPRJ12}. We hence refer to this as the \textit{folded phase}. The folding process is repeated as the filament continues to grow. The winding number $n$ obeys $n=\prod_k(2m_k-1)$, where $m_k\in\{2,3,4,...\}$ is the buckling mode and $k=0,1,2,...$ is the number of folds in the cascade (see also \hyperref[sec:suppl3]{Supplementary Note 3}). The ground state ($m_k\equiv 2$) energy is plotted in Fig.~\ref{fig:energy}b, revealing a series of self-similar folds that define the folded phase. Prior to buckling, the circular filament bundle with bulk radius $R_{\mathrm{b}}$ expands to release bending energy according to $U_{\mathrm{b}}R_{\mathrm f}/E_{\mathrm f}I_{\mathrm f}\approx n\pi R_{\mathrm f}/R_{\mathrm{b}}\sim l^{-1}$, stretching the circumjacent sheet until a critical radius $R_{\mathrm{b}}=R_{\mathrm{c}}$ is reached where the bundle buckles. The long-term trend is $U_{\mathrm{b}}R_{\mathrm f}/E_{\mathrm f}I_{\mathrm f}\sim l^{\alpha}$ with $\alpha\in(0,1)$, indicating that the critical radius increases as $R_{\mathrm{c}}/R_{\mathrm f}\sim l^{(1-\alpha)/2}$. For the set of parameters in Fig.~\ref{fig:energy}b, $\alpha=0.80\pm0.02$. This striking refolding of bundled rings provides a purely mechanical explanation for the spontaneous bundling of weakly confined filaments such as actin networks \cite{HTIH99,LS02} and marginal microtubule bands in developing erythrocytes \cite{NJSC83,CSS98} as a result of membrane or shell enclosure instead of cross-linkage. Only sufficiently deformable containers conform to pushing filaments, allowing them to pass one another to fold into energetically more favourable bundle configurations. This might also provide a paradigm to explain layered slime thread bundling in hagfish gland thread cells \cite{WHMLDBBHVTF14}, where the cell membrane deforms under high packing pressure. Our findings suggest that such thread bundle packings may be obtained only in systems where frictional forces are rather small. Other biological systems in which filament bundling provides a mechanism of mechanical stabilization in membrane confinement include filopodial protrusion \cite{SBCVKVB03,MR05}.

\begin{figure}[H]
\includegraphics[width=\columnwidth]{figure4}
	\caption{\textbf{Order parameters for the transition between the phases.} {\bf a}, Half of the spiral filament turns right and half of it left, which is not the case in the classical phase ($\varepsilon=0$, $l=10$). {\bf b}, The dissimilarity between the filament and its own mirror image is strictly positive in the chiral spiral phase, but vanishes in the achiral folded phase ($\gamma=10^4$, $\mu=0$, $l=5$). {\bf c}, The amount of torsion quantifies the transition from the folded to the warped phase ($\gamma=\varepsilon=10^4$, $l=5$). {\bf d}, The fraction of the sheet surface in contact with itself vanishes when the warped phase transitions to the classical phase ($\gamma=10^4$, $\mu=1.4$, data maximized over $l\in[1,10]$). Error bars represent standard errors from 6-10 independent realizations.}
	\label{fig:order_parameters}
\end{figure}

Remarkably, the gain in mechanical stability in flexible cavities goes hand in hand with the loss of chirality. A convenient order parameter describing the transition from the spiral to the folded phase is the chirality measure $1-S$, where $S$ is the degree of similarity of the filament with its own mirror image as defined in ref.~\cite{MR91}, maximized over all possible mirror planes. In Fig.~\ref{fig:order_parameters}b, a pronounced discontinuity in $1-S$ is in evidence, suggesting that the phase transition is of first order. Chirality of confined rods is know to play a key role in morphogenesis of \textit{Escherichia coli} cells for instance, where the bacterial rod grows into a helical spiral, guided by proteins \cite{WFHS12}. Our results provide evidence that, conversely, filament chirality can emerge as a purely mechanical consequence of non-flexible confinement.

If growing filaments are inclined to form highly ordered bundles inside of deformable membrane cavities (without friction), the question naturally arises whether purely mechanical material properties can also give rise to disordered packing morphogenesis with strongly warped or tangled filaments. Developing vertebrate intestines, where the gut tube grows into the body cavity at a different rate than the adhering mesenteric sheet, are in fact one example \cite{SKSFLMT11}. Here, we are able to put this particular result in a broader, more general framework by controlling friction. As $\mu$ is increased, the thin flexible sheet grabs hold of the pushing filament, tightly wrapping around it. Just like in the classical phase, friction (or adhesion) enforces locality: The filament can no longer just freely fold up inside, and further growth causes it to locally twist in frustration, leading to a \textit{warped} morphology (depicted in Fig.~\ref{fig:phases}, bottom right). For $\gamma,\mu\to\infty$, this behaviour is reminiscent of the Euler--Plateau problem \cite{GM12} but significantly more complex due to the crucial role of twist and volumetric exclusion. The transition from the folded to the warped phase is accompanied by the breaking of torsional symmetry. As order parameter the non-dimensional torsional energy $\langle\vartheta_3^2\rangle L^2=2LU_{\mathrm t}/G_{\mathrm f}J_{\mathrm f}$ (see \hyperref[sec:suppl1]{Supplementary Note 1}) may be used, since it vanishes in the folded phase for $\sigma\to\infty$ and takes a significant, finite value in the warped phase. As can be recognized from Fig.~\ref{fig:order_parameters}c, the exact value of the corresponding critical friction coefficient, while depending on the system size $\sigma$, is generally very low, implying that the warped phase is relevant even in systems with moderate friction. Within the warped phase, the stored torsional energy quickly levels off. Our measurements thus provide a tight lower bound for the amount of twist in various vetrebrate guts \cite{SKSFLMT11}.

The direct transition from the classical to the warped morphology is less obvious. A large portion of the phase space is occupied by \textit{mixed} states in which the confinement is not stiff enough to keep the filament from buckling into the sphere, but at the same time not flexible enough to wrap around it and force it to twist. Such configurations are prevalent, e.g., in brain aneurysms occluded by detachable coils (see e.g.~ref.~\cite{RS07}). It is nonetheless possible to define a sharp phase boundary (PB) by considering as an order parameter the area fraction of the sheet that is in contact with itself, $\Omega_{\mathrm c}/\Omega$, because it is non-zero only in the warped phase (Fig. \ref{fig:order_parameters}d).

\subsection*{Morphological phase diagram}

\begin{figure*}[ht]
	\includegraphics[width=\textwidth]{figure5}
	\caption{\textbf{Morphological phase diagram.} For $\sigma=30$, individual coloured symbols denote numerical simulations producing the different phases and black symbols are mixed (see text). The lines represent least-squares-fitted phase boundaries. The fits for $\sigma=20,40$ were obtained with equivalent parameter resolution (individual realizations not shown). {\bf b},{\bf c}, Polyurethane wires ($r=1$ mm) tangentially fed from opposite directions into rigid polystyrene spheres ($R=24$ mm, $h=1$ mm). {\bf a},{\bf d}, Polycaprolactam wires ($r=0.75$ mm) in natural rubber balloons ($R=27$ mm, $h=0.25$ mm). {\bf e}-{\bf i}, Simulation snapshots at $\sigma=30$, $l=4$. Very thin confinements exhibit tension wrinkles \cite{CRM02} ({\bf e}). {\bf f} shows an exemplary mixed configuration close to the phase boundary. Very flexible confinements are stretched similar to lipid vesicles \cite{KFML97} ({\bf g}). Warped filaments typically first crumple the sheet ({\bf h}, $l=2$) before strongly twisting ({\bf i}, $l=4$). The scale bars are 1 cm.}
	\label{fig:phase_diagram}
\end{figure*}

For the design and optimization of new materials and structures, e.g.~in nanorobotics or endovascular coiling, reliably predicting the packing behaviour is essential. We used our computer simulations to acquire a quantitative image of the morphological phase space, allowing us to accurately predict morphogenesis depending on the geometry and material parameters. In the low friction regime (upper half of Fig.~\ref{fig:phase_diagram}), the spiral and folded phases are separated by a smooth PB which is well approximated by quadratic curves in $\log(\varepsilon)$-$\log(\gamma)$ space. Evidently, if the confining sheet is thin enough, filaments don't need to be substantially more rigid to fold instead of coiling. Bigger systems (larger $\sigma$) favour the spiral morphology as the PB is shifted toward weak confinements (large $\gamma$, $\varepsilon$). Very close to the PB, mixed configurations such as the one shown in Fig.~\ref{fig:phase_diagram}f occur when the filament folds at only one of the two contact points, which is a dynamic effect.

A cut through the phase space at fixed $\sigma$ and $\gamma$ unveils its full complexity (lower half of Fig.~\ref{fig:phase_diagram}). All phase boundaries are $\sigma$-dependent, and the spiral and classical morphologies prevail toward large $\sigma$ as predicted by the stability condition. Perhaps most intriguingly, we find straight single-parameter lines along which all morphologies are traversed, including the mixed region (uncoloured area). An example is the line along the $\varepsilon$-axis, at $\sigma=40$, $\gamma=10^4$, $\mu=0.5$. This shows how delicate the choice of parameters is for targeting a specific morphology---possibly too delicate for nature to rely on this selection in some parameter regions. Another striking feature is reentrancy of the warped phase in small systems with strong friction (Fig.~\ref{fig:phase_diagram} at $\sigma=20$, $\gamma=10^4$, $\varepsilon\approx 10^2-10^3$, $\mu\approx 1.2$), where the folded phase extends far into the large-$\mu$ region. Anyway, in its low-$\mu$ end near the boundary to the folded phase, the warped morphology is just a temporary interstate. The filament first warps (including the characteristic twist and sheet-sheet contact), but upon further growth, some sliding allows it to rearrange and fold nevertheless, defining a region in phase space where the warped and folded phases coexist, which is illustrated by a colour gradient in the phase diagram.

\subsection*{Discussion}

Natural shell tissue is often softer than other thin bodies it gets in contact with. We have emphasized the importance of taking this flexibility into account in the study of morphogenesis in spatially confined systems. Depending on the involved size ratios and friction, the confinement need not be substantially less rigid to allow for a very rich nonlinear mutual interaction, giving way to completely changed morphogenesis. We have identified four morphological phases in the linear growth of confined thin filaments, building a bridge between thepacking of confined DNA, the growth of guts, the bundling of actin networks in cell-sized liposomes, and even liquid crystals. Our results from computer simulations are fully consistent with experiments we conducted on off-the-shelf materials at the human length scale (Fig.~\ref{fig:phase_diagram}a-d).

The presented morphological phase diagram is independent of how growth is realized in detail. In the simulations we grew the filament uniformly everywhere, whereas the tangential injection of an invariant wire in the experiments corresponds to concentrated growth at the point of insertion. These two extremes are exactly equivalent in the low friction phases owing to global rearrangements, and they similarly produce the high-friction morphologies with the exception that reorganization is somewhat condensed to a neighbourhood about the growth/injection zone. Even the converse problem, an invariant filament getting gradually compressed by a shrinking shell, yields the same morphologies as simulations revealed. The only difference is that $\sigma$ (and possibly $\gamma$) decrease over time and the phase diagram must be interpreted accordingly. All presented analytical and scaling arguments hold also for this case without modification (where $R_{\mathrm f}$ is no longer constant, and $l:=L/2\pi R_{\mathrm f}$).

Our findings establish a paradigm for understanding morphogenesis of thin filaments in a multitude of biological mechanisms. Most importantly, we showed how nature may employ flexible envelopment and low frictional forces as a mechanical trick to realize spontaneous bundling and alignment of confined threads, as it is observed in giant vesicles \cite{HTIH99,LS02}, erythrocytes \cite{NJSC83,CSS98}, hagfish cells \cite{WHMLDBBHVTF14} etc., without need for filament interlinking. On the technological side, the morphologies we discovered in flexible confinement should find direct impact in nanorobotics and nanomotors, for which the reported folding of elastic rings provides a new method to stably store and deploy mechanical work in tightly confined spaces. Unlike open nanowires, which coil into quasi-two-dimensional spirals \cite{XWLYCWWLXC10}, ring-like filaments fold in three dimensions and possess no sharp ends that could pierce their environment. Such systems need to be designed with as little friction as possible in order to avoid the energetically and spatially less optimal warped phase.

\footnotesize

\subsection*{Computer simulations}

We minimized the total elastic energy numerically with the finite element method. The filament was modelled by locking-free beam elements with an exact shear representation \cite{RWL97} embedded into a co-rotational formulation \cite{C90} for geometric nonlinearity, while the shell was represented by Loop subdivision surface elements \cite{COS00} that provide the $C^1$-continuity required for boundedness of the curvature integral in equation (\ref{eq:shell}). These descriptions have been published in full detail elsewhere \cite{VWSH13,VSJWH13}. Up to 4000 elements were used to discretize the filament, whereas the shell consisted of 20480 triangles. We let the filament grow uniformly in length according to $l:=L(t)/L(0)=\exp(\lambda t)$. The growth rate $\lambda$ was set sufficiently small for inertial effects to have a negligible effect on the outcome. Volumetric exclusion was imposed by repulsive normal forces upon overlap according to the Kelvin--Voigt model where the elastic part was determined using Hertzian contact theory. A dry slip-stick friction model \cite{M05} was applied for the tangential Coulomb forces. Inertial terms with mass densities $\rho_{\mathrm f}$ and $\rho_{\mathrm s}$ to account for dynamics as well as small subcritical viscous damping for equilibration were added. Newton's equations of motion were integrated in time with the predictor-corrector constant-average acceleration method and adaptive time-stepping. A tiny random perturbative deflection was imposed on the ring filament to allow it to break the system's initial symmetry by Euler buckling and to allow for independent repetitions of the simulations. Our aim was to simulate realistic yet generic materials, and thus we chose $2r=1$ mm, $E_{\mathrm f}$ = 1 GPa, $\rho_{\mathrm f} = \rho_{\mathrm s}$ = 1 g cm$^{-3}$, $\nu_{\mathrm f}=\nu_{\mathrm s}=1/3$, but note that our results are reported in dimensionless units and are hence valid on any scale.

\subsection*{Experiments}

In the experiments shown in Fig.~\ref{fig:phase_diagram}, we tangentially attached straight steel pipes to rigid polystyrene spheres and manually fed polyurethane wires from both sides at equal speed through the pipes into the spheres. Starting from an initially preset loop, the wire then developed into the spiral or classical morphology depending on friction, which we controlled with a silicone lubricant. For the morphologies in weak confinement, we used stiffer polycaprolactam wires and customary stretchable balloons made of natural rubber into which the wires were tangentially pushed by hand.

\subsection*{Acknowledgements}

Financial support from ETH Zurich by ETHIIRA Grant No.~ETH-03 10-3 as well as from the European Research Council (ERC) Advanced Grant No.~319968-FlowCCS is gratefully acknowledged. We thank N.~Stoop for valuable discussions.

\end{multicols}

\normalsize

\subsection*{Supplementary Note 1: Theoretical framework}
\label{sec:suppl1}

In a Kirchhoff kinematic Cosserat description, a thin filament of length $L$ can be represented by its parametric centreline, $\Gamma: s\in [0,L]\mapsto\vec{p}(s)\in\mathbb{E}^3$, and an orthonormal director frame $\vec{d}_i, i=1,2,3$, specifying the cross-sectional orientation along $\Gamma$, with $\vec{d}_3=\partial_s\vec{p}/|\partial_s\vec{p}|$ \cite{CC09}. The Darboux vector $\vec{k}$ is uniquely defined by $\partial_s\vec{d}_i=\vec{k}\times\vec{d}_i$. The elastic strain energy $U_{\mathrm f}$ of the filament, whose isotropic homogeneous elastic material is characterized by Young's modulus $E_{\mathrm f}$ and Poisson's ratio $\nu_{\mathrm f}$, can be compactly expressed by
\begin{equation}
U_{\mathrm f} = \frac{1}{2} \int_\Gamma\mathrm ds\,\left[E_{\mathrm f}I_{\mathrm f}\left(\vartheta_1^2+\vartheta_2^2\right) + G_{\mathrm f}J_{\mathrm f}\vartheta_3^2 + E_{\mathrm f}A_{\mathrm f}\eta^2\right],
\label{eq:filament}
\end{equation}
where $\vartheta_i=k_i-\overline{k}_i$, $k_i=\vec{k}\cdot\vec{d}_i$, $\eta=u-\overline{u}$, $u=\partial_s\vec{p}\cdot\vec{d}_3$. Barred symbols refer to an undeformed stress-free reference configuration, with respect to which the deformed configuration (bare symbols) is described. For a circular cross section with radius $r$, the cross section area is $A_{\mathrm f}=\pi r^2$, the area moment of inertia $I_{\mathrm f}=\pi r^4/4$ and the polar moment of inertia $J_{\mathrm f}=\pi r^4/2$. In linear elasticity, the shear modulus reads $G_{\mathrm f}=E_{\mathrm f}/2(1+\nu_{\mathrm f})$. The respective terms in equation (\ref{eq:filament}) account for bending in two directions ($U_{\mathrm b}$), torsion ($U_{\mathrm t}$), and axial tension or compression.

In a total Lagrangian description of a Kirchhoff\textendash{}Love thin sheet with small thickness $h$, whose isotropic homogeneous elastic material is characterized by Young's modulus $E_{\mathrm s}$ and Poisson's ratio $\nu_{\mathrm s}$, and which obeys the geometrically nonlinear St.~Venant-Kirchhoff law, the total elastic energy reads \cite{K66}
\begin{equation}
U_{\mathrm s} = \frac{1}{2} \int_{\overline{\Omega}}\mathrm d\overline{\Omega}\,\left[ \alpha_{\alpha\beta}C^{\alpha\beta\gamma\delta}\alpha_{\gamma\delta} + \frac{h^2}{12} \beta_{\alpha\beta}C^{\alpha\beta\gamma\delta}\beta_{\gamma\delta} \right],
\label{eq:shell}
\end{equation}
where $C^{\alpha\beta\gamma\delta}$ are the components of the elastic tensor in curvilinear coordinates integrated over the constant sheet thickness $h$, given by
\begin{equation}
C^{\alpha\beta\gamma\delta} = K\left(\nu_{\mathrm s}\overline{a}^{\alpha\beta}\overline{a}^{\gamma\delta}+\frac{1-\nu_{\mathrm s}}{2}\left[\overline{a}^{\alpha\gamma}\overline{a}^{\beta\delta}+\overline{a}^{\alpha\delta}\overline{a}^{\beta\gamma}\right]\right).
\end{equation}
$K = E_{\mathrm s}h/(1-\nu_{\mathrm s}^2)$ is the stretching modulus. $\overline{\Omega}$ denotes the sheet's parametric middle surface in a stress-free reference state, again denoted by barred quantities. Einstein summation over the Greek indices $\alpha,\beta,\gamma,\delta=1,2$ is implied, with subscripts and superscripts denoting covariant and contravariant components, respectively. The residual membrane strains $\alpha_{\alpha \beta} = (a_{\alpha\beta} - \overline{a}_{\alpha\beta})/2$ are the covariant components of the difference between the first fundamental forms of the middle surface in deformed ($a$) and reference ($\overline{a}$) configuration, and the residual bending strains $\beta_{\alpha\beta} = \overline{b}_{\alpha\beta} - b_{\alpha\beta}$ derive analogously from the second fundamental forms $b$ and $\overline{b}$, respectively.

\subsection*{Supplementary Note 2: Analytical approximation for the spiral morphology}
\label{sec:suppl2}

Frictionless rigid spherical confinements give rise to chiral surface-covering filament packings consisting of a dense coil and two spiral S-curves located at the poles (Fig.~\ref{fig:spiral}). This high degree of order grants access to an approximate closed-form solution of the predominant elastic contribution, the bending energy of the confined filament, beyond the point of first contact ($l>l^{*}$). Even for moderate system sizes $\sigma$, we can assume inextensibility of the filament and neglect the pitch of the helical coil. Its length $L^{\mathrm{coil}}$ can thus be estimated by summing up rings over an equatorial band on the surface of a sphere with radius $R_{\mathrm f}$. The angular width of the band is $2\theta$, where $\theta$ is the inclination of the coil as depicted in the figure, yielding
\begin{equation}
L^{\mathrm{coil}} \approx \frac{1}{2r}\int_{-\theta}^\theta\mathrm d\theta'\int_0^{2\pi}\mathrm d\varphi\,R_{\mathrm f}^2\cos(\theta') = 2\pi\frac{R_{\mathrm f}^2}{r}\sin(\theta).
\end{equation}
Analogously, the bending energy of the coil reads
\begin{equation}
U_{\mathrm{b}}^{\mathrm{coil}} \approx \frac{1}{2r}\int_{-\theta}^\theta\mathrm d\theta'\int_0^{2\pi}\mathrm d\varphi\,\frac{E_{\mathrm f}I_{\mathrm f}R_{\mathrm f}}{2R_{\mathrm f}\cos(\theta')} = \pi\frac{E_{\mathrm f}I_{\mathrm f}}{r}\log\left[1+\frac{2}{\cot(\theta/2)-1}\right].
\end{equation}
A rough estimate for the contribution from the two central spiral patterns is given by four semicircles with a diameter of $d=R_{\mathrm f}(\pi/2-\theta)$. (An alternative estimate can be found in ref.~\cite{BABCCET06}.) Adding these contributions up, one finds the total filament length $L \approx L^{\mathrm{coil}} + 2\pi d$ and its total bending energy
\begin{equation}
U_{\mathrm b} \approx U_{\mathrm{b}}^{\mathrm{coil}} + 4\pi\frac{E_{\mathrm f}I_{\mathrm f}}{d}.
\label{eq:ebend}
\end{equation}
To obtain the bending energy as a function of the normalized filament length $l$, the coil inclination $\theta$ can be eliminated from equation (\ref{eq:ebend}) by numerically solving
\begin{equation}
l = \frac{L}{2\pi R_{\mathrm f}} \approx \frac{R_{\mathrm f}}{r}\sin(\theta)+\pi/2-\theta
\end{equation}
for $\theta$. Finally, the number of windings in the coil is $\theta R_{\mathrm f}/r$.

\begin{figure*}[h]
	\centering
	\includegraphics[height=4cm]{figure6}
	\caption{\textbf{Geometrical approximation of the spiral morphology.} The filament can be divided into three parts: a coil with inclination $\theta$ (left) and two S-shaped curves (right).}
	\label{fig:spiral}
\end{figure*}

\subsection*{Supplementary Note 3: Folding in weak confinements}
\label{sec:suppl3}

The exponential scaling of the winding number $n=(2m-1)^k$ in the folded morphology is a particular feature of the type of weak confinement considered here. By replacing the confining thin sheet by an attractive polar force field with potential $\Phi(r)\sim r^{p}$, $p\geq 1$, where $r$ is the distance from the centre, we found a cascade of folds with winding number $n=2k-1$ for the stable buckling mode $m=2$ (Fig.~\ref{fig:folded_vs_polar_field}) similar to phantom rings confined to the surface of a sphere \cite{GV12}. This dramatic difference in scaling stems from the anisotropic spatial confinement exerted by a flexible sheet: In a polar field, the single strands in the buckling rope have room to separate and disentangle during the transition to a higher winding number, resulting in the low energy modes $n=2k-1$. This is prevented by the interaction with an elastic thin sheet, which wraps around the folded strands, enforcing the exponential law by keeping the bundle together.

\begin{figure*}[ht]
	\centering
	\includegraphics[width=\textwidth]{figure7}
	\caption{\textbf{Folding of a filament loop in weak confinements.} The folding behaviour of growing filament loops strongly depends on the type of confinement. The number of windings $n$ scales exponentially with the number of folds $k$ in thin elastic sheets, and linearly in polar attractive force fields.}
	\label{fig:folded_vs_polar_field}
\end{figure*}

Spatial confinement is not the only way of obtaining the saddle shape shown in Fig.~\ref{fig:folded_vs_polar_field} from a buckled single-stranded ring. The necessary excess curvature can also be imposed by creasing an annulus or by attaching two open ends of a ring at an excess angle \cite{MCPRJ12}. Without the flexible confinement exerted by an enclosing thin sheet, however, the cascade of self-similar folds that we observe in the folded phase has not been reported before. An unconstrained overcurved ring or annulus will just wind $n=2k-1$ times.

\begin{multicols}{2}

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaArXiv


Patricia L. Clark, associate professor of chemistry and biochemistry, has been selected as a member of the Editorial Board of the Biophysical Journal for a three year term beginning July 1, 2009.
The American Chemical Society has named Prashant Kamat, professor of chemistry and biochemistry at the University of Notre Dame, the deputy editor of the forthcoming publication Journal of Physical Chemistry Letters. Addressing the most urgent research results across all areas of physical chemistry, the new journal will publish concise reports exclusively in an online format.
Prof. Anthony M. Trozzolo, who graduated from the Illinois Institute of Technology with a chemistry degree in 1950 and became a pioneer in photochemistry, has won the 2009 Illinois Institute of Technology Professional Achievement Award. He received the honor at the 2009 IIT Alumni Awards Luncheon on May 1. Trozzolo is one of eight recipients this year of the prestigious award chosen by alumni. He is the Charles L. Huisking Professor Emeritus of Chemistry at Notre Dame, where he came as the first Huisking Professor in 1975.
Undergraduate students in Professor of Physics Ani Aprahamian's course, Concepts of Energy and Environment, are spending part of the semester crafting a new energy policy for the United States. Class members are divided into teams that report on specific energy resources plus a 10-person policy committee that checks affected regulations and a 10-person panel that will draft the conclusions.
The Dean of the College of Science, Gregory Crawford, and his College of Science Committee on Sustainability (COSCOS) recently surveyed our buildings and associated infrastructure with an eye towards reducing energy consumption and promoting sustainability.


At the time, Henry was a delegate to the Second Virginia Convention. The convention had been assembled in Richmond, away from the Capitol, where it was thought the British would be less likely to undermine the proceedings. The Convention was trying to decide what to do about the increasingly tense situation between Britain and the American colonies. Some still wanted to find a way to reconcile with Britain. Others were ready to go to arms.
Henry fell in the latter camp. On March 23, he presented his proposal to raise volunteer militias throughout Virginia. He did so in a fiery speech that was unforgettable.
There is no official transcript of the speech. Remember, the audience wouldn't have had iPhones or other smart devices to help them record or document the speech. Instead, the transcript that we have comes from the work of William Wirt, Henry's first biographer. Wirt worked hard to obtain contemporary accounts and wrote that he took the speech "almost entirely . . . verbatim" from a report by Judge St. George Tucker.
Ironically, on the other side of the ocean, one Parliamentary member was then urging the British government to concede and seek peace. Only a day earlier, Edmund Burke had warned the House of Commons that "things were hastening towards an incurable alienation of our colonies." (See yesterday's history post.) Burke's plea was falling on deaf ears. Presumably, Burke would not have been too surprised to hear the tough nature of Henry's speech—nor to hear of its effect on Henry's audience.
And how could Henry's audience not be emboldened, listening to his strong words?! Henry's proposals were approved. George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, Richard Henry Lee, and others were appointed to plan a defense for Virginia. The battle at Lexington and Concord occurred less than a month later.
This entry was posted in American History -- pre-Revolution, American Revolution. Bookmark the permalink.


Plastic surgery is one of the most ancient forms of surgery, and its roots can be traced back to the time of Sushruta, the father of surgery (600 BC),1 who is credited with performing the first ever reported plastic surgical procedures. The name, however, defies a clear understanding and an appropriate definition that could cover the entire scope of activities performed at the present moment. An extensive search of the plastic surgery literature was performed to find out the best available definition, but a comprehensive definition could not be found. This led the authors to explore the modern and ancient literature, including the thousand-year-old sacrosanct Indian epics, Gita, and Vedas in their quest to redefine plastic surgery. This review of the age-old fundamental secrets of life made it possible for us to extract the coveted relevant information to redefine plastic surgery, which is being presented in this article.
The term "plastique" was first used by a French anatomist and surgeon, Desault in 1798.2 The word "Plastic" is derived from the Greek word "Plastikos," which means the ability to mold tissues. The procedures were being performed on body parts from the head to the toes. However, the term "Plastic" was first incorporated by von Graefe3 in his monograph "Rhinoplastik" published in 1818. The term "Plastic Surgery" was used by Zeis4 of Germany as part of the title of his classical work Handbuch der plastischen Chirurgie published in 1838, and the term thereafter became popularized.
Davis,5 in his book Plastic Surgery—Its Principles and Practice, defined the scope of plastic surgery from "top of the head to the sole of the foot." Gillies,6 in his book Plastic Surgery of the Face, laid down 16 principles of plastic surgery to be followed. He defined reconstructive surgery as an attempt to restore the individual to normal and aesthetic surgery as an attempt to surpass the normal.
Esser,7 a Dutch surgeon, pointed out that "plastic" was a poor term that did not define the specialty and that the term "Structive" derived from the Latin word "structo" (I build) was more appropriate, and it was adopted to be used for the European Journal in December 1936.
McGregor,8 in his book on the fundamental technique of plastic surgery, has very clearly expressed his view about the use of eponyms because they lack precise meaning and are liable to cause confusion as they have different meaning in different countries.
Mathes (2006)15 again professed that plastic surgery is a problem-solving specialty where the plastic surgeons treat skin and its contents with no anatomical boundaries.
Thorne (2012),16 in Grabb and Smith's Plastic Surgery, defines "Plastic Surgery as a unique specialty that defies definition, has no organ system of its own, is based on principles rather than specific procedures and because of the cosmetic surgery is the darling of media–No complete definition exists." This definition is a very broad generalization. It is an equally mystifying statement about the activities being done by the plastic surgeons best understood by themselves but not by their colleagues in allied specialties. Neligan (2013)17 defines plastic surgery as the last real general surgery and the plastic surgeon as the last real general surgeon.
Thus, a review of literature revealed that a complete and comprehensive definition was lacking. The plastic surgeons have a moral obligation for documenting a suitable definition.
The earlier definition by Davies8 that plastic surgery extends from top of the head to the toes is a very correct statement because we deal most of the time with external organs spread all over from the top of head to the foot. The biggest lacuna in our understanding was that the organs being treated by us could not be classified as a distinct group, and this semantic dilemma remained unsolved.The ancient Indian texts written some 5050 years ago contain the essentials and values of all aspects of life and even the medical science that stand true even to this date. The sacred text "Bhagvat Gita" is a quintessence of the Vedas enunciated by the Almighty at the beginning of the creation of the Universe.18 The authors came across relevant verses in the Gita, which are based on pure scientific knowledge of anatomy and physiology that existed at that time.
The 5 organs of perception, called sense organs, known as Gyanendriya,21 are eyes, ears, nose, tongue, and skin. The 5 organs of actions, known as Karmendriya, are mouth (larynx), hands, feet, organs of reproduction, and organs of defecation. The plastic surgeons are directly involved in performing surgery on these organs. The impact of these 2 verses on our mind was thrilling, and a eureka like feeling was there. These verses gave us the coveted information, which we have been postulating and we consider it as a gift to us for the new definition.
The verses provided us with the information regarding the use of the nomenclature for the group headings of the 19 organs in males and 22 organs in females whom we have been treating. These organs of perception and organs of action are distributed all over from the top of the head to the soles of the feet. All of these are external organs on which plastic surgical activities are performed. Thus, we have been able to find that an organ system exists.
The plastic surgeons need to adopt this terminology in the new definition, so that whenever somebody is asked to define plastic surgery, the answer should be universally the same and there should be no ambiguity as it exists today. The definition should be able to cover and assign all the chapters in our books to one organ or the other. In other words, the entire scope of plastic surgery should be covered by the new definition.
The latest textbook of plastic surgery17 has 6 volumes and 199 chapters. The draft of the new definition devised by the authors was able to cover 191 chapters, which could be assigned to 1 organ or the other except chapters on innovation, implantation, transplantation, and replantation. Therefore, it was decided to include these exceptions in the new definition.
A new definition for plastic surgery based on the organ system has been devised. A review of literature of existing definitions was done, and the need for a new definition was felt keeping in view the vast scope of the specialty.
The authors gratefully acknowledge the help of Dr. Mrs. Padam K. Agarwal and Dr. Mrs. Preeti Sinha in providing technical inputs and insights into ancient literature search and reviewing this manuscript.


text:
%function to perform balancing
function [iBalance, pWaste]=CellBalance(method, capacity, v, iStack, soc)
	persistent balanceState;
	switch upper(method)
		case 'RESET',
			balanceState=zeros(length(v));
		case 'SOCPASSIVE'
			if max(size(balanceState))==0;
				balanceState=[];
			end
			%the state of charge method looks at
			%the state of charge and if any of the cells are more than
			%bancePointBegin percent away from the average, balancing begins
			%if they are less than balancePointEnd percent away from the average
			%balancing ends.  This provides some hysteresis.
			balancePointBegin=0.001;
			balancePointEnd=0.0005;

			iBalance=zeros(size(soc));

			cellsToBalance=SOCFindCells(balanceState, balancePointBegin, balancePointEnd, soc);
			balanceState=cellsToBalance;

			%discharge current is negative
			iBalance(cellsToBalance)=-0.1*mean(capacity);
			pWaste=-iBalance.*v;
		case 'SOCACTIVE'
			%similar logic to SOC passive except insead up just discharging, take the negative discharge
			%current and add it to the rest of the cells. Of course since this current is at a higher voltage
			%the cell voltage, to maintain constant power, the current must be (including efficiency losses),
			%                     V_cellDischarge
			%I_charge=I_discharge* ---------------*efficiency
			%                     V_cellsCharge
			balancePointBegin=0.01;
			balancePointEnd=0.005;
			efficiency=0.85;

			iBalance=zeros(size(soc));

			cellsToBalance=SOCFindCells(balanceState, balancePointBegin, balancePointEnd, soc);
			balanceState=cellsToBalance;

			%discharge current
			iBalance(cellsToBalance)=-0.1*mean(capacity);

			%get the waste power before we add the cycled current back in
			pWaste=-iBalance.*v*(1-efficiency);

			%now the cycled back current
			iBalance+=ones(size(soc))*sum(iBalance.*v)/sum(v)*efficiency;
		case 'BIACTIVE'
			eff=0.85;
			N=max(size(soc));
			Q_p=zeros(1, length(N));
			[Q, indices]=sort(capacity);
			for k=1:N
				Q_p(k)=(eff*sum(Q(k+1:N))+sum(Q(1:k)))/...
				(eff*N-eff*k+k);
			end
			Q_p=min(Q_p);

			Q_n = capacity;

			iBalance=iStack.*((Q_n./Q_p-1)- ...
					   eff/(N*eff-N)*(sum(Q_n./Q_p)-N));

%			iBalance(find(iBalance > 0))=0;

			%to calculate waste, we start from the calculated balance current.  Since efficiency is
			%       P_out
			% eff = -----
			%       P_in
			%Then, Pwaste = P_in - P_out = cellV*abs(iBalance) - eff*cellV*abs(iBalance) = cellV*abs(iBalance)*(1-eff)
			pWaste=v.*iBalance*(eff-1);

			%next, we need to find the current that the balancer adds to each cell
			%since P_out = eff*P_in, by superposition,
			%P_stack = I_stack*sum(cellV) = eff * sum(iBalance)/(sum(cellV)/cellV_i) * sum(cellV),
			%so, I_stack = eff*sum(iBalance)/(sum(cellV)/cellV_i)
			iBalance += eff*sum(-iBalance)./N;

		case 'UNIACTIVE'
			E=0.85;
			N=max(size(soc));
			Q_p=zeros(1, N);
			[Q, indices]=sort(capacity);
			for k=1:N
				Q_p(k)=(E*sum(Q(k+1:N))+sum(Q(1:k)))/...
				(E*N-E*k+k);
			end
			Q_p=min(Q_p);

			Q_n = capacity;
			iBin=1;
			iBinPrev=0;

			maxErr=0.0001;
			while abs(iBin-iBinPrev) > maxErr
			        iBinPrev = iBin;
			        maxIBin=max(iBin(find(iBin>0)));
			        if isempty(maxIBin)
			                maxIBin=0;
			        end

			        iBin=(iStack-maxIBin*(1-E)).*((Q_n./Q_p-1)- ...
			                 E/(N*E-N)*(sum(Q_n./Q_p)-N));
			end

			iBalance = iBin;
			iBalance -= max(iBin);

			%to calculate waste, we start from the calculated balance current.  Since efficiency is
			%       P_out
			% eff = -----
			%       P_in
			%Then, Pwaste = P_in - P_out = cellV*abs(iBalance) - eff*cellV*abs(iBalance) = cellV*abs(iBalance)*(1-eff)
			pWaste=v.*iBalance*(E-1);

			%next, we need to find the current that the balancer adds to each cell
			%since P_out = eff*P_in, by superposition,
			%P_stack = I_stack*sum(cellV) = eff * sum(iBalance)/(sum(cellV)/cellV_i) * sum(cellV),
			%so, I_stack = eff*sum(iBalance)/(sum(cellV)/cellV_i)
			iBalance += E*sum(-iBalance)./N;

		case 'UNIACTIVEFLAWED'
			E=0.85;
			N=max(size(soc));
			Q_p=zeros(1, N);
			[Q, indices]=sort(capacity);
			for k=1:N
				Q_p(k)=(E*sum(Q(k+1:N))+sum(Q(1:k)))/...
				(E*N-E*k+k);
			end
			Q_p=min(Q_p);

			Q_n = capacity;

			iBalance=iStack.*((Q_n./Q_p-1)- ...
					   E/(N*E-N)*(sum(Q_n./Q_p)-N));

			iBalance -= max(iBalance);

			%to calculate waste, we start from the calculated balance current.  Since efficiency is
			%       P_out
			% eff = -----
			%       P_in
			%Then, Pwaste = P_in - P_out = cellV*abs(iBalance) - eff*cellV*abs(iBalance) = cellV*abs(iBalance)*(1-eff)
			pWaste=v.*iBalance*(E-1);

			%next, we need to find the current that the balancer adds to each cell
			%since P_out = eff*P_in, by superposition,
			%P_stack = I_stack*sum(cellV) = eff * sum(iBalance)/(sum(cellV)/cellV_i) * sum(cellV),
			%so, I_stack = eff*sum(iBalance)/(sum(cellV)/cellV_i)
			iBalance += E*sum(-iBalance)./N;

		case {'NULL' 'NONE'}
			iBalance=zeros(size(v));
			pWaste=iBalance;
		otherwise
			error('Unknown method');

	end
end

function list=SOCFindCells(lastList, startPercent, stopPercent, soc)
	avgSOC=mean(soc);

	cellsToBalance=find(soc > avgSOC+startPercent);
	%add in the ones we were balancing before
	list=unique([lastList cellsToBalance]);

	cellsToStopBalancing=find(soc < avgSOC+stopPercent);
	list=setxor(list, cellsToStopBalancing);
end

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaGithub


I need a little help. I purchased a pattern from an online pattern store and I received the package and found out that one pattern was missing the instructions. The pattern is called STYLE #1014. I don't think I will be able to sew it without the instructions. Does anyone have any suggestions as to what I can do?
Have you contacted the company? If it is a legitimate company, I don't see why they wouldn't send you the missing instructions at their expense. Good luck!
Was the pattern purchased new or used? Can you contact the store where you purchased it assuming it is new and see if you can get a replacement?
I did contact the online store where I purchased the pattern, but unfortunately they said that they no longer have any in stock and will not be restocking. But they did give me a coupon for my next order. I was still searching and finally I contacted the company (Simplicity) and I was informed that they no longer make those patterns (STYLE). Now I guess I'll just have to pray my way through it and of course I know that I can come to this very helpful site!!!
what was the style like? could you not find a similar pattern somewhere and use the instructions to that? maybe if you have a look through a friend's patterns for something along the same lines?
I was thinking along the same lines, trying to find a similar pattern and go by its instructions. The store where I purchased the pattern from gave me a $5 discount on my next purchase, so I am able to find something else. This particular pattern has a cardigan, two types of tops (one with a spaghetti strap), a skirt, and pants. Its STYLE #1014.
I have another question, why does it suggest knit fabrics only?
There are many patterns that are made for knits only. They have much less ease than ones prepared for wovens.
Did you ever find the pattern instructions for Style #1014? While I don't have this one, I checked my personal index and have several Style & New Look patterns. MANY of these are actually the same pattern with little variation. I'm wondering whether you can email me a pic of the pattern envelope front & back, and I can check all my Style & New Look's for comparables. If finding what appears to be the most similar, I'll post again and can get instructions to you.
If I have nothing comparable, I could still probably give you a general construction order to follow, if you'd like.
Another option is to use a Stretch and Sew pattern or a S&S knits book, and you can probably construct the dress relatively easily.
As to the "knits only" rule, as Sewserious noted, the ease is considerably different. In some style, such as tight evening dresses made of slinky or bathing suits of lycra, the ease is negative up to 3" or the garment would not have the same fit. There are some excellent articles on "ease" in the GetCreative.com site in the tech area. While ease charts vary for fit and wear, all are relatively within the same limits.
If you have experience with pattern re-drafting and really like the style, AND would like to re-work it for a woven fabric, you could perhaps duplicate a mock-up in a woven, tho you may never get the same "look" as on the pattern envelope. Anytime a pattern manufacturer recommends a fabric type, the first option is always the best fit; if not on the list, the general rule is don't attempt it. Tho we ALL like to experiment and often successfully!!
The Style and New Look's are, however, relatively simple to follow and I suspect you can figure out the construction order; if not, again, please simply send a scan of the pattern envelope front and back and I'll see how it looks; include a cc of the instruction sheet noting the number/ shape of pattern pieces if available as this would be helpful.
Take life as it comes; there's always someone in a worse situation!
Thank You so much! I will be e-mailing you on tomorrow Sept. 15 with a scanned copy of the pattern front and back.
They carry old and discontinued patterns at a discount price.
Sad to say that monsterpatterns.com is where I actually got the pattern from. However I love to get my patterns from there and will continue to. It is a great site! They are giving me a discount on my next purchase because of this situation.
I bought some patterns from Monster Patterns probably a year or so ago, and one of mine didn't have the instruction sheet. The style was one that I was afraid I might not be able to follow without seeing how it was done, so I called. They mailed me an additional pattern (they still had some in stock) and gave me a coupon for a free pattern also. They were most helpful when I called and apologized several times.
It's a good think I did, because the collar/neckline was one I had never seen before (that's why I ordered the pattern) and it was done differently than I would have thought!!
I see you are from Oak Hill. I grew up in Gauley Bridge and have family that lives in Oak Hill. Was just at Summersville for a family reunion at the end of July. I always love going home!
I haven't heard back from you on the books/ patterns, and wanted to see if you're still interested.
Also, the style pattern: if you haven't scanned, can you tell me what # it is, the copyright [on back of envelope] & the garment [dress, et al...]? Style and New Look patterns are generally knit garments, very similar to one another, fairly easy, and the 2 are somewhat interchangable.
Let me know on the "Style" & the books/ patterns.


When we traveled to Norway and Sweden last year, we had our first experiences with Airbnb. They were all great! I know that's not always the case, but we were fortunate to stay in some lovely spaces that fit our needs and budget.
One Airbnb in Norway was a mountain cabin with a sod roof. The cabin slept 12, which was perfect for my family, my brother & family, and my parents as we took our trip of a lifetime together.
In this part of Norway, farmers let their sheep loose into the mountain during the spring & summer, and round them up in the fall. Whenever we were at the cabin, our background noise was sheep grazing and strolling past our cabin. At night, we fell asleep to the sound of cowbells (in this case, would they be called "sheepbells"?).
We created so many memories at that cabin.
When we go on extended trips, we like to make sure we have access to a kitchen. Our Scandinavia trip was 20 days long and we only ate in restaurants twice. On our 12-Day Disney World vacation, we ate at restaurants 3 times. On a 13-day trip to Colorado we never ate in a restaurant.
On our Disney trip, we were able to pack enough food for our family of five to spend 12+ hours at the parks without buying restaurant food. I explain how in this post.
Cooking our own food allows us to spend more of our vacation budget on experiences – admission fees, add-on excursions, etc – and less of our budget on food. We typically end up spending the same amount of money on food while on vacation as we would if we were at home.
When we cook on vacation, we like using ingredients where we don't have to buy a large container, knowing we won't possibly use it all up while we're on vacation. I'm not a fan of checking out of our hotel with food left behind in the fridge!
That's why I've found 9 fast, easy dinners while traveling that use up ALL of the ingredient, so there are no ingredients left behind when you head home. Each of these meals take less than 30 minutes to make – because who wants to spend all of their vacation in the kitchen? Not me!
I love starting our vacation with a kitchen full of food and leaving at the end with an empty fridge and cupboards, knowing nothing went to waste — including our money!
We pack at least one meal & snacks in our suitcase.
We like to head to the grocery store when we first get to our destination, but that can't always happen. I like to pack at least one meal & some snacks in our suitcase, just in case.
I also pack a bunch of my own baggies in snack, sandwich, quart, and gallon size. We need them every day on vacation, but not enough to justify buying entire boxes of baggies at our destination.
Have a shopping list and (try to) stick with it.
Take a brief inventory of the kitchen before you shop.
Is there a crock pot? Storage containers? Colander? Muffin tins? Double checking what you have (and what you don't have) may adjust your meal plan. I typically assume there's not a crock pot, but I've been proven wrong before. If there are no storage containers, I may buy some extra gallon-sized Ziploc bags for leftovers.
Behold the wonder of rotisserie chicken.
If I've planned dinners with chicken, I like to buy rotisserie chicken. It is so much easier & faster to shred a rotisserie chicken than to prepare my own. It already comes seasoned and I don't have to buy any seasoning. It saves a lot of time, and they are yummy!
We typically don't buy oil, but sometimes have a little butter or use sour cream to brown the tortillas.
What are your go-to meals while on vacation? Let us know in the comments!


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Home Air Analysis of 2 Group RAF Part 2: ISTAR/Comms
Sentinel R1 in flight.
Analysis of 2 Group RAF Part 2: ISTAR/Comms
Daz Vallis
In this the second part of my look at 2 Group RAF, I will be looking at the Communications Fleet and Intelligence, Surveillance, Target Acquisition and Reconnaissance, (ISTAR).
Between them Communications and ISTAR fleets cover a wide variety of vital roles many of which are shrouded in a cloak of secrecy. These range from moving commanders around a theatre of operations allowing them to be speak to their subordinate unit commanders face to face which reduces the likelihood of confusion caused by other forms of communication. To prowling the skies capturing enemy communications for the Intelligence Specialists to interpret thus giving the British Armed Forces a major advantage over most of our potential enemies be they Rogue States, Terrorists, Pirates or Drug Smugglers.
Based at RAF Northolt on the northern outskirts of London, the Communications Fleet consists of two elements, 32(TR) Squadron and RAF Northolt Station Flight. The name Communications Fleet is a slightly confusing for outsiders in that it doesn't operate aircraft solely tasked with sending signals as the name would imply. The fleet provides a bridge between the capabilities of the Air Transport Fleet and the ISTAR Fleet by operating aircraft in the light transport and intelligence gathering roles. RAF Northolt itself is unique in that it is the sole surviving Battle of Britain RAF Flying Station still in use today as an RAF Airfield. RAF Northolt was instrumental in the success of the London Olympics in 2012 when it directly conducted live operations for the first time since the Second World War by becoming the temporary home of 4 RAF Eurofighter Typhoon fighter jets and several Royal Navy Sea King ASaC.7 Airborne Early Warning helicopters.
32 The Royal Squadron, (32(TR) Sqn), is the largest of the flying squadrons stationed at RAF Northolt and consists of a mixed fleet of 6 BAE HS 125 CC3 and 2 BAE 146 CC2 small transport jets, alongside 1 (possibly able to expand to 2) Augusta Westland AW109 helicopters all of which are used in the VIP transport and Command Support Air Transport, (CSAT), roles. As the name suggests one of the squadrons main roles is transportation of the British Royal Family and following the merger of 32 Sqn with the Queen's Flight in 1995, the squadrons aircraft have been seen flying the flag for the UK around the world resplendent in their high visibility white colour scheme with red and black stripes running the length of the fuselage. In addition to providing aircraft for the Royal family the squadron's aircraft are also used for transporting Government Ministers and Senior Officers of all 3 services both throughout the UK and Europe, and in operational theatres. The squadron maintains several aircraft in the Middle East/Afghanistan in support of Operation Herrick allowing unit commanders to be transported safely and quickly between locations.
32(TR) Sqn has recently seen its numbers swell with the entry in to service of 2 BAE 146C Mk3 aircraft. These aircraft were bought second hand from TNT Airlines in Belgium following an Urgent Operational Requirement, (UOR). The UOR was implemented due to a shortage of tactical transport aircraft to support RAF operations in Afghanistan. Unlike their VIP counter parts the Mk3's are painted in tactical low visibility grey, and are configured not for luxury but for the transportation of troops and freight. These aircraft have a capacity to carry up to 96 troops, although it will more usually be 54 due to the weight of their equipment and being operated in "Hot and High" conditions in Afghanistan, 10.6 tonnes of freight or a combination of both, the BAE 146C Mk3 is a very capable aircraft with a fantastic ability to move troops and freight from unprepared and short landing strips and it is considered highly likely that more may be purchased. In common with the Squadrons other aircraft the BAE 146C Mk3 is equipped with the latest anti-missile countermeasures giving them 360 degree protection from airborne and ground launched systems.
RAF Northolt Station Flight was formed in August 1991 and is a small unit with only 2 aircraft (Registration numbers ZF563 and ZH537), 8 pilots, 1 navigator and 11 engineers. The flight operates the Britten-Norman Islander BN2T CC Mk2 in the photographic mapping and light communications roles, however, the aircraft can also be configured for transportation with the capability of carrying up to 9 passengers or freight and crew training. The Islander has a service ceiling of 25,000ft but due to being unpressurised normally doesn't exceed 10,000ft. Due to the RAF only operating 2 of these aircraft most of the pilots come from the Army Air Corps which also operates the Islander/Defender aircraft. The secretive nature of the flight has led to much speculation as to its real role, however, during my 2 ½ years stationed at RAF Northolt I was never able to find any information about it that contradicts the official role given by the RAF.
The RAF ISTAR fleet is based at RAF Waddington in Lincolnshire. One of the best explanations I've seen of what ISTAR is came courtesy of the RAF Facebook page which described it as;
"ISTAR improves a military commander's awareness of what is happening on the ground or in the air, allowing him to formulate sound plans in an operational environment. It is a powerful tool, indispensable when conducting modern day operations."
Perhaps the most famous aircraft in the ISTAR fleet is the Boeing E3D Sentry AEW1. The RAF operates 6 E3D's all of which are flown by 8 Sqn, in the Airborne Warning and Control System, (AWACS), role which gives the aircraft the nickname that it is more commonly known by. Based on the Boeing 707-320B airliner the E3D has a flight crew of 4, plus 3 technicians and 11 mission specialists comprising of a tactical director (mission crew commander), a fighter allocator, 3 weapons controllers, a surveillance controller, 2 surveillance operators, a data-link manager, a communications operator and an electronic-support-measures operator. Providing the British element of the NATO Airborne Early Warning and Control Force, the E3D's roles include air and sea surveillance, airborne command and control and it can also operate as a communications platform using a variety of digital data links which enable it to pass reconnaissance and targeting data to ground based and maritime units.
With a mission endurance of 11 hours which can be extended by air to air refuelling either by hose and drogue equipped tankers or by boom equipped aircraft such as the USAF KC135 or the Royal Netherlands Air Force KDC10 (the E3D is the only RAF aircraft with this capability) the only limiting factor on the E3D is crew fatigue. The Sentry is equipped with a Northrop Grumman AN/APY-2 high-performance, multimode lookdown radar, housed in a black and white rotating radome located above the aircraft fuselage. A single E-3D flying at 30,000ft and 400kts can scan an area of over 300 nautical miles, (nmls), it can detect low flying targets or maritime surface contacts within 215nmls and can detect medium level airborne targets in excess of 280nmls. The AN/APY-2 radar provides lookdown surveillance to the horizon and an electronic vertical scan of the radar beam provides beyond the horizon operation for long range surveillance of medium and high altitude aircraft. This gives the E3D the capability to determine the location, altitude, course and speed of large numbers of airborne targets all at the same time, allowing the on-board mission specialists to allocate the correct platforms to counter these threats. A true force multiplier the E3D is rightly proud of its description as King of the skies and it provides a vital link in the UK Air Defence Network.
The second aircraft in the ISTAR fleet is the R1 Sentinel 5 of which are operated by 5 Army Co-operation, (AC), Squadron. Following the success of USAF ISTAR aircraft such as the Northrop Grumman E8 JSTARS (Joint Surveillance Target Attack Radar system) and U2 which used Synthetic Aperture Radar, (SAR), to track ground targets during the 1990 Gulf War the UK MOD set out a requirement for the RAF to gain such a capability. This capability was provided by the Airborne Stand Off Radar (ASTOR) Sentinel system which consisted of an airborne element supported by land based support elements. The Sentinel R1 is based on converted Bombardier Global Express executive business jets and has a crew of 2 Pilots (RAF), 1 Mission Commander (RAF) and 2 Image Analysts (either RAF or Army Intelligence Corps). The Sentinel is powered by a pair of BMW/Rolls Royce 710 engines, and equipped with a mission suite consisting of a Dual Mode Radar (DMR), similar to the U2 ASARS radar, and collects SAR imagery and Ground Moving Target Indicator, (GMTI), data. The ground support element of the Sentinel system comprises of 2 Operational Level Ground Stations (capable of being transported by air) and 6 mobile Tactical Ground Stations. These ground stations are connected to the aircraft via data links and can provide commanders with near real time intelligence enabling rapid deployment of forces based on accurate knowledge of an enemy's dispositions and locations which is a commander's dream.
5(AC) Sqn is the largest flying squadron in the RAF with over 150 RAF and 100 Army personnel. Both RAF and Intelligence Corps personnel make up the aircraft mission crew whilst the ground element is made up of RAF and Intelligence Corps analysts supported by elements of the Royal Signals and REME/RAF technicians. Speculation exists as to the future of the Sentinel following the completion of Britain's involvement in Afghanistan. However, its contribution to operations over Libya have led to may senior commanders seeing Sentinel as providing a capability that we simply can't do without.
The latest aircraft to enter the RAF (albeit with some of the oldest air frames) at a cost of around £650 million, are the 3 Boeing RC135 Airseekers operated by 54 Sqn. Airseeker is the British name for the RC-135V/W RJ Rivet Joint Signals Intelligence, (SIGINT), aircraft and in purchasing these aircraft the RAF has gained a capability match with the USAF RC135 fleet meaning that not only is it easy to share data, crews, and the aircraft themselves but that the RAF can also benefit from any Upgrades designed for the USAF. Having lost its SIGINT capability with the retirement of the Nimrod R1 the RAF was forced to look elsewhere to fill this vital capability and chose the Rivet Joint system. Unfortunately there were no new/spare RC135 air frames available and so the RAF had to fund the conversion of 3 1960's era (hence the oldest airframe comment), former USAF KC135 Stratotankers, which were themselves conversions of the ubiquitous Boeing 707. This also provides for a common spares supply with the E3D Sentry. Whilst old the air frames used had some of the lowest numbers of flying hours of the KC135 fleet and the aircraft were upgraded to modern standards which included the highly capable mission suite. The conversion was completed at the L-3 Communications facility in Greenville, Texas, with the first aircraft arriving at RAF Waddington in November 2013. The sole Airseeker (ZZ664) currently at RAF Waddington made its first post-delivery flight on 23 May 2014 and is undergoing acceptance in to service trials. The aircraft is expected to be fully operational soon (by late 2014), partly due to the RAF policy of sending crews and technicians to train with their USAF RC135 counterparts. The exact details of the Rivet Joint system are highly classified however it is a battle proven system that will enhance the RAF's capabilities.
The final manned aircraft in the ISTAR fleet is the Beechcraft Shadow R1, 6 of which are operated by 14 Sqn (until 2011 these aircraft had been part of 5(AC) Sqn). Little is known about the Shadow and in a manner very fitting of its name its capabilities are highly classified and remain top secret. What is known is that although the Shadow was purchased in line with a UOR for service on Operation Herrick it has proven so successful that the RAF has declared it as a necessary element of the ISTAR fleet.
You may have noticed that I listed the Shadow as the final of the manned aircraft in the ISTAR fleet and this is because the final aircraft we will be looking at is an Unmanned Combat Aircraft, (UCAV), or to use its RAF designation a Remotely Piloted Air System, (RPAS). RPAS are growing in importance in all of the world's Air Forces and the RAF is no different in that.
Operated by 39 Sqn at Creech AFB, Nevada, USA and 13 Sqn at RAF Waddington the RAF operates 10 (although it is believed that not all 10 have yet been delivered), Predator MQ9 Reaper Medium Altitude Long Endurance, (MALE), RPAS. Reaper is operated by a "Crew" of 2, consisting of a pilot and a sensor operator and they are aided by a non-aircrew Mission Coordinator. Each Reaper is launched by an in theatre crew located at the same airbase as the actual aircraft (for example Camp Bastion or Kandahar, Afghanistan) before being handed over to a mission crew located at either Creech AFB or RAF Waddington who operate the aircraft via a secure satellite communication. Control is once again passed to the in theatre crew for landing.
Each Reaper system comprises of 4x Reaper RPAS', 2x Ground Control Stations, along with communication equipment, satellite links and spares all of which are transportable by RAF transport aircraft. Reaper is equipped with a large robust sensor suite to enable it to perform its primary role of Armed Reconnaissance and its secondary role of Close Air Support, (CAS). Targeting Imagery is provided by an infrared, (IR), sensor, a colour/monochrome daylight electro-optical TV sensor and an image intensified TV sensor. Imagery from these imaging sensors may be displayed as either a single video feed or can be combined with the IR sensor video. Reaper is further equipped with a laser rangefinder/designator which provides the capability to precisely designate targets for laser guided weapons. Reaper also has SAR and GMTI to provide an all-weather capability. The built in GPS can provide accurate geographical location data to ground commanders, other GPS capable aircraft and precision munitions. The final sensor fitted to the Reaper is a nose mounted colour camera used to assist in landing/take-off.
A British Reaper being readied.
Reaper is not just a mere drone nor is it just a reconnaissance platform, and for operations in Afghanistan it is armed with 2 GBU-12 500lb Laser Guided Bombs and 4 AGM-114 Hellfire missiles (depending on mission requirement). The Reaper is not an autonomous system meaning that it does not have the capability to employ weapons unless it is instructed to do so by the human flight crew who are operating under the same strict Rules of Engagement, (ROE), as manned British aircraft. The fact that all of the Reaper's weapons are precision guided assist with reducing the risk of collateral damage and a full assessment of all risk is conducted prior to any weapon being released. On current operations Reapers are flown in co-ordination with a Forward Air Controller, (FAC), on scene or a or Joint Terminal Attack Controller, (JTAC) at a Land Forces HQ and it is these controllers who would normally authorise an attack although the pilot may choose to attack a target of opportunity if it meets the requirements of the ROE.
The third and final part of my look at 2Gp will focus on the Search and Rescue, (SAR), force and the Force Protection trades of the RAF Police and RAF Regiment.
Daz Vallis is a veteran of the Royal Air Force and still works in the aviation industry.
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Jeneral28
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redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


Protection of Nesting activity in Zakynthos Zakynthos island is situated in the Ionian Sea off the west coast of the Greek mainland. The climate is warm with a lot of sunshine. The island covers an area of about 40,600 ha and its coastline is approximately 110 km long. However, only a small part of the beaches is sandy. Surveys carried out since 1982, have proven the Bay of Laganas on Zakynthos to be the most important loggerhead rookery in the Mediterranean. Sea turtles, Caretta caretta, nest mainly on the beaches of Laganas Bay, which is situated at the southern part of the island. For this purpose a National Park was established in 1999. The nesting beaches There are six nesting beaches in the Bay of Laganas. Gerakas, Daphni, Sekania, Kalamaki, East Laganas and a small beach on the islet of Marathonissi, totalling 5,5 km in length. All the beaches are included in the proposed "Natura 2000" network. Every year, from the end of May until the end of August, loggerhead females lay their eggs on these beaches. On average, 1,300 nests are made every year. With the assistance of over 120 volunteers the nests are monitored and protected every season, while extensive public awareness work takes place. Sekania beach is the one that stands out for its natural beauty and the highest nesting density for loggerheads in the Mediterranean. Sekania supports well over 50% of the total number of nests made in the whole Bay. An average of 670 nests is made on Sekania (around 800 metres in length) every year. This is one of the highest nesting densities for loggerheads in the world. Due to its importance, ARCHELON has been urging the Government to expropriate or buy the private land behind the beach, in order to declare it a site of absolute protection. Finally in 1994, WWF Greece, following recommendations by ARCHELON, purchased a large part of the land behind the nesting beach. This was achieved with partial funding from the European Union and the support of the Greek Ministry of Environment. According to existing legislation public access is prohibited. Daphni stands out as the beach with the most problems. All 13 illegal buildings constructed behind the beach of Daphni since 1989, once the second most important nesting beach on Zakynthos, have not been removed. The removal of illegal buildings at Daphni has been an obligation of the Greek Government since 1986, when only two prefabricated buildings existed, following recommendations by the Council of Europe and has yet to be met. Repair works and extensions of buildings take place every year. Two illegal tavernas and two bars continue to operate at Daphni throughout the season, in some cases well into the night (especially on weekends). There is an increase in beach furniture behind the beach every year. Illegal earthworks, opening of roads, planting of exotic species, erosion have destroyed the beach profile. Visitors are allowed between 7 am and 7pm between 1 May to 31 October and the maximum number of people at any one time should not exceed 100. Marathonissi is a coarse-sand beach, curved around the north-east end of the uninhabited islet of Marathonissi, in the western part of Laganas Bay. The beach is backed by low dunes that in places extend landwards as far as 50 m. Behind the beach there is a hilly mass covered by dense Mediterranean vegetation. An old chapel, belonging to the Church of Lithakia, is the only building on the islet. Tourists visit the beach during the day, on organised boat trips and by rented or private boats. Lights and noise from the residential areas of Laganas and Lithakia affect the beach during the night. The owner of the islet has made many efforts to build, but all have been thwarted by court decisions following appeals by NGOs. According to the latest legislation no building activity is allowed on the islet. East Laganas beach stretches eastwards from the last hotel of the developed part of Laganas (Louis Zante Beach Hotel), up to the Rock of Hipsolithos. East Laganas is characterised by fine sand mixed with small-sized pebbles and a landward extensive dune field. At the western part of the beach there is a large hotel, one more is about in the middle of the beach as well as a private villa. Remnants of sand dunes are found behind this beach. Public access is very easy. Kalamaki is a fine sandy beach eastwards of the East Laganas beach, separated from it by the cliffs of Hipsolithos. Behind the beach there are low clay cliffs. A hotel has been constructed above the western part of the beach. The area has an easy access and it is visited by many people during the day and also at night. According to legislation only 150 umbrellas and 300 sunbeds are allowed on the nesting beaches of E. Laganas and Kalamaki. These are to be removed every night. However, illegal umbrellas and sunbeds have been deployed on flattened dunes behind the beach. Despite progress in law enforcement there are still problems to be dealt with. Gerakas is a 15-30 m wide beach, with fine and soft sand. The beach is backed by clay cliffs (15-20 m high) which shield off the lights of the two tavernas and the few houses that have been recently built, further inland. A paved road comes very close to the beach and vehicles are parked there. There is only one access to the beach, by a trail, coming down through the cliffs. Due to its fair access, Gerakas attracts hundreds of visitors every day during the summer season. According to legislation only 60 umbrellas and 120 sunbeds are allowed at one end of Gerakas, but this is not properly enforced. By law, the number of people on the beach at any one time should not exceed 350. Legal Protection of Nesting Beaches on Zakynthos Due to the significance of Zakynthos as a loggerhead nesting ground in the Mediterranean, the Greek government introduced protective legislation as early as 1984. The purpose of this legislation was to control further development and maintain the quality of the nesting beaches so that turtles may visit Zakynthos for many more generations. The 1984 measures assumed a stronger status in 1990, when a Presidential Decree was passed. Under this legislation apart from restrictions on visitation and beach furniture: 1.	Development is restricted behind the nesting beaches under a Building Control Zone. Hence, no tourist development is allowed in the protected areas 2.	No lights are allowed to shine directly on the nesting beaches 3.	No vehicles and horses are allowed on the nesting beaches. In 1988, a ministerial decision established two maritime zones in a large portion of the Bay. No boating or fishing activity is permitted in Zone A. The speed limit in Zone B is 6 miles per hour and no anchoring or mooring is allowed. Fish farms are banned from both zones. In 1994, following a campaign by ARCHELON and the support of other NGOs, a third zone, Zone C, was set up where the speed limit is 6 miles per hour. Consequently, speedboats were banned from the whole Bay of Laganas. In 1994, night flights-from 10pm to 5am-were banned as the landing/take-off air way passes over the Laganas nesting beach. The lights and noise of the aircraft disturbs nesting turtles. Unfortunately, legislation was poorly enforced, allowing illegal umbrellas and sunbeds to occupy vital nesting grounds or illegal buildings (tavernas and holiday homes) to sprout on Daphni. The legislation did succeed though in halting large hotel complexes from been built on certain beaches. Marathonissi islet was not developed thanks to concerted reaction by conservationists, local communities and the local Church. The long-standing struggle of ARCHELON and other NGOs, eventually urged the Greek government to proceed with the establishment of the National Marine Park of Zakynthos (NMPZ) in December 1999. This is the first National Park to protect sea turtle nesting beaches in the Mediterranean. It was the first protected area in Greece with a Management Agency. ARCHELON conservation work ARCHELON has a branch office on Zakynthos to promote, on an annual basis, its objectives for the conservation of marine turtles and their habitat. Every year fieldwork is carried out by ARCHELON during the nesting season. The fieldwork consists of turtle and beach monitoring, active beach management, and raising public awareness. About 150 volunteers participate and apart from the monitoring assist the Park wardens with safeguarding of beaches and informing visitors as well as running information stations in co-operation with the Park and local landowner. Recently ARCHELON collaborates with the Park and private entrepreneurs in running ecotourist activities.


The Mickey Leland Papers & Collection Addendum. (Texas Southern University, 2015), "Travel/Tourism, Terrorism" (2015). The Mickey Leland Papers & Collection Addendum: Education, African Americans Repairs Education, African Amer. Racial Inequities (1986). Series 11: Speeches, Articles, Trips and Meetings 1985 - 1989. Series 11, Box 149, Folder 9173. Paper 265.


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A learner has written in with a good question about pronoun order.
"Jill and I" not "I and Jill" = "She and I" not "I and she"
"You and Jill" not "Jill and you" = "You and her" not "Her and you"
"...my brother and me" not "...me and my brother"
That was a big eye-opener for both me and her.
Me and Georgie -- we made up this morning.
I decided to write the story of me and Hanna.
I thought that putting the personal pronoun last was more polite and more correct. Am I wrong?
It's true that using the personal pronoun last when other pronouns are used in the same clause is considered polite. However, using a different order does not necessarily mean that one is being impolite. In fact, outside of formal contexts, using the first person pronoun before another pronoun is not a mistake and will not cause anyone to take offense.
In informal conversation, there is nothing impolite about the speaker using Me and Gorgie as the subject of a sentence; it merely serves to emphasize her own role in the making up that has happened. However, because it is informal, it might show that the speaker does not use language in a formal or careful way; therefore, this word order might say something about the background or educational level of the speaker.
When writing for a serious purpose (such as a test or a business letter) you should use the pronoun order that you were taught, so that a reader is not distracted by these aspects of tone and correctness.
You've struck upon a very subtle and interesting aspect of English grammar!


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