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Ohio Civil War » Civil War A-Z » 0-9 » 9th Regiment Ohio Volunteer Infantry (Three Years Service)
9th Regiment Ohio Volunteer Infantry (Three Years Service)
In the American Civil War, Ohio provided the federal government with 260 regiments of men, including infantry, artillery, and cavalry units. Ohioans also served in several other regiments from other states, most notably from Kentucky, West Virginia, and Massachusetts, as well as in federal units.
In the American Civil War, Ohio provided the federal government with 260 regiments of men, including infantry, artillery, and cavalry units. Ohioans also served in several other regiments from other states, most notably from Kentucky, West Virginia, and Massachusetts, as well as in federal units. Almost 330,000 Ohio men, including 5,092 African Americans, served in the Union military during the conflict.
Infantry regiments formed in Ohio became known as regiments of Ohio Volunteer Infantry. They served for varying lengths of time, averaging one hundred days to three years. On June 1, 1861, the 9th Regiment Ohio Volunteer Infantry organized at Camp Dennison, just north of Cincinnati, Ohio. The 9th Regiment had previously organized for three months service, but officials requested that the regiment's members reenlist for three years service. The 9th Regiment was the first Ohio regiment to enlist for three years service.
On June 16, 1861, the 9th departed Camp Dennison for western Virginia, arriving at Webster, in modern-day West Virginia, on June 20. The regiment then advanced with the rest of General George McClellan's force against Confederates in western Virginia. The 9th advanced to Middle Fork Bridge via Philippi and Buckhannon. At Middle Fork Bridge, Union forces drove Confederate pickets from the community. The Northerners advanced to Rich Mountain, where the Battle of Rich Mountain occurred. The Union soldiers drove the Confederates from the battlefield, with the 9th having one man killed and two wounded. The Northerners pursued the Confederates into Tygart's Valley and traveled through Beverly and Huttonsville to Cheat Mountain. Officials soon ordered the 9th to return to Beverly and quickly dispatched the regiment to New Creek, Maryland, where it arrived on July 27. At New Creek, the 9th performed garrison duty and had detachments at New Creek, Cumberland, Maryland, and at a railroad bridge over the Potomac River three miles from New Creek. At this time, officials also brigaded the 9th with the 4th Regiment Ohio Volunteer Infantry, the 8th Regiment Ohio Volunteer Infantry, and a battery from the Fourth United States Artillery.
On August 22, authorities ordered five companies from the 9th to return to Huttonsville, Virginia (modern-day West Virginia). From Huttonsville and nearby Elkwater, these companies advanced with other Union forces to Frenchtown, Virginia and then to Bulltown, Virginia (both in modern-day West Virginia). At Bulltown, the five companies from the 9th reunited with the remaining companies left at New Creek. Officials had ordered these other companies to leave New Creek for Bulltown on August 27. These companies traveled through Clarksburg and Weston, Virginia (both in modern-day West Virginia), arriving at New Creek on September 2, 1861. The 9th then advanced to Sutton, Virginia (modern-day West Virginia), where the regiment was brigaded with the 28th Regiment Ohio Volunteer Infantry, the 47th Regiment Ohio Volunteer Infantry, and a company of Chicago, Illinois dragoons.
On September 7, 1861, the Union forces at Sutton advanced to Summerville, Virginia (modern-day West Virginia), arriving and engaging a detachment of Confederate cavalry on September 10. The Northerners drove the Confederates from the battlefield and pursued them to Carnifex Ferry, where the Battle of Carnifex Ferry erupted. The Union soldiers forced the Southerners to retreat, with the 9th having two men killed and eight wounded. The Northerners pursued the Confederates as far as Big Sewell Mountain before retiring to near Gauley Bridge, Virginia (modern-day West Virginia). The 9th encamped along the New River at Camp Anderson. During the remainder of September and October 1861, the regiment participated in several skirmishes with Confederate forces, with the 9th having several men killed and wounded.
On November 24, 1861, the 9th Regiment left Camp Anderson for Louisville, Kentucky, where it arrived on December 2, and went into camp at Jeffersonville, Indiana for a few days, before re-crossing the Ohio River into Kentucky, establishing camp at Lebanon. At this time, the regiment was brigaded with the 18th Regiment United States Infantry, the 35th Regiment Ohio Volunteer Infantry, and the 2nd Regiment Minnesota Volunteer Infantry.
During the Battle of Mill Springs (January 19, 1862), the 9th was engaged and played a major role in driving the Confederates from the battlefield. Following the Battle of Mill Springs, the 9th's brigade moved to Louisville, Kentucky before sailing to Nashville, Tennessee, where the entire brigade joined the Army of the Ohio on March 2. The brigade advanced with the Army of the Ohio to Pittsburg Landing, the site of the Battle of Shiloh (April 6 and 7, 1862), but the regiment did not arrive until late on the second day of the battle and did not engage the enemy.
Following Shiloh, the 9th participated in the siege of Corinth, Mississippi, and upon the capture of this city, the regiment advanced to Tuscumbia, Alabamaon June 22, 1862. The 9th remained here nearly five weeks, before marching to Decherd, Tennessee on July 27. Soon after arriving in Tennessee, the 9th and the rest of the Army of the Ohio engaged in the pursuit of Braxton Bragg's Confederate force as the Southerners advanced into Kentucky. Traveling via Nashville, the Army of the Ohio reached Louisville, Kentucky on September 27. On October 3, the Army of the Ohio left Louisville in pursuit of Bragg's army. On October 8, the Northerners engaged Bragg's Confederates at the Battle of Perryville, Kentucky. The 9th did not engage the Confederates until late in the evening of the battle. The battle prompted Bragg to withdraw, and the 9th engaged in the Union's pursuit of the Southerners as far as Crab Orchard, Kentucky.
Officials then ordered the regiment to Bowling Green, Kentucky and then to South Tunnel to repair the tunnel and track to reestablish railroad traffic between Louisville and Nashville. After completing this assignment from November 8 to 26, the 9th traveled to Pilot Knob, Kentucky to guard the fords along the Cumberland River. On December 26, the regiment advanced to Gallatin, Tennessee, where the 9th and its brigade joined the Army of the Cumberland. The regiment did not participate in the Battle of Stones River (December 31, 1862 to January 2, 1863), continuing to guard fords on the Cumberland River. Following the battle, the 9th conducted reconnoitering missions along the Cumberland, until officials ordered the regiment to Nashville on January 14, 1863. From Nashville, the 9th continued to conduct scouts, until it advanced to Triune, Alabama on March 6. At this new location, officials engaged the 9th's members in constructing fortifications as well as sending the regiment out on scouting and foraging missions.
On June 24, 1863, the 9th embarked upon the Tullahoma Campaign, engaging Confederate forces at Hoover's Gap, Fairfield, and Tullahoma. The Union soldiers pursued the retreating Southerners through Tennessee and into northern Georgia in the Chattanooga Campaign. At the Battle of Chickamauga, Georgia (September 19 and 20, 1863), the regiment initially guarded ammunition trains, but officials soon ordered the 9th to the front, where the men recaptured Union artillery pieces seized by the Southerners earlier in the battle. The regiment also assisted its brigade in repelling an attack by General James Longstreet. On the morning of the second day, the 9th's brigade assaulted John C. Breckinridge's division. After a fierce engagement, the Southerners forced the Union regiments to return to their original position, but the Northerners' efforts prevented the Confederates from flanking the Union left. At 2:30 PM, the 9th moved to a new position under the command of General George Thomas to the rear and right of its original line. The Northerners successfully defended this line against numerous Confederate assaults. Thomas's command evacuated the position during the night of September 20, retreating to Chattanooga, Tennessee. At the Battle of Chickamauga, the 9th had approximately five hundred men actively engaged and had eleven officers and 237 enlisted men killed, wounded, missing, or captured.
At Chattanooga, the 9th took a position in front of Missionary Ridge. On November 25, 1863, the regiment participated in the Battle of Missionary Ridge, successfully ending the Confederate siege of Chattanooga. The 9th was among the first regiments to reach the crest of the ridge and, with the 1st Regiment Indiana Infantry repelled three Confederate counterattacks on Tunnel Hill. Following the Battle of Missionary Ridge, the 9th entered winter encampment at Chattanooga.
On December 30, 1863, the 9th escorted an artillery battery and supply train to Calhoun, Georgia, returning to Chattanooga on January 8, 1864. In February 1864, the 9th advanced to Ringgold, Georgia, participating in the Battle of Crow's Valley on February 25. The regiment stayed at Ringgold during March and April, before embarking upon William T. Sherman's Atlanta Campaign beginning on May 5, 1864. The 9th engaged the enemy at the Battle of Resaca on May 15. During this campaign, the 9th's term of service expired, and officials ordered the regiment to return to Camp Dennison in Ohio on May 27. The regiment's men mustered out of service at Camp Dennison on June 7, 1864.
During the 9th Regiment Ohio Volunteer Infantry's term of service, ninety-one men, including six officers, died on the battlefield. An additional sixty-two men, including two officers, succumbed to disease or accidents.
Battle of Chickamauga
Battle of Missionary Ridge
Camp Anderson
Chattanooga Campaign
Atlanta Campaign
Braxton Bragg
Battle of Perryville
Battle of Mill Springs
Battle of Stones River
Ohio Volunteer Infantry
James Longstreet
Battle of Shiloh
Siege of Corinth
Tullahoma Campaign
Battle of Carnifex Ferry
Battle of Cheat Mountain
Battle of Middle Fork Bridge
Army of the Ohio 1861?1862
4th Regiment Ohio Volunteer Infantry
47th Regiment Ohio Volunteer Infantry
Army of the Cumberland
Categories 0-9, Entries, OCWC CW Military Units Tags Civil War (1861), Civil War (1862), Civil War (1863), Civil War (1864), Eastern Theater, Military Units, Ohio Soldiers in the Civil War, Western Theater
One Hundred Thirtieth Regiment Ohio Volunteer Infantry


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Islam by country
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Muslim population percentage of the world.
A miniature style painting depicting the Mosques around the world.
The term Muslim world (or Islamic world) has several meanings. In a cultural sense it refers to the worldwide community of Muslims, adherents of Islam. This community numbers about 1.3-1.5 billion people, roughly one-fifth of the world population. This community is spread across many different nations and ethnic groups connected only by religion. In a historical or geopolitical sense the term usually refers collectively to Muslim majority countries or countries in which Islam dominates politically.
The worldwide Muslim community is also known collectively as the ummah. Islam emphasizes unity and defense of fellow Muslims, although many divisions of Islam (see the Sunni-Shia relations) exist. In the past both Pan-Islamism and nationalist currents have influenced the status of the Muslim world.
2 Classical Islamic culture
2.1 Arts
2.1.1 Aniconism, Iconoclasm, and Arabesque
2.1.2 Ceramics
2.1.3 Architecture
2.2 Literature
2.4 Sciences
3 Modern Muslim world
3.1 Economy and trade
3.2 Geographic spread
3.3 Demographics
3.4 Important organizations
4 Religion and state
5 Islam in law and ethics
6 Islam in modern politics and conflicts
6.1 Conflicts with Israel
6.2 Nuclear capabilities
6.3 Recent history
6.3.1 Political currents
7 Major Muslim denominations
8 Muslim majority countries
8.1 Islamic states
8.2 Islam as state religion
8.3 Secular states
8.3.2 Asia
Main article: Muslim history
Further information: Timeline of Islamic history, Spread of Islam, Muslim conquests, Caliphate, and Islamic Golden Age
Classical Islamic culture
Further information: Islamic Golden Age
Main article: Islamic art
The term "Islamic art and architecture" denotes the works of art and architecture produced from the 7th century onwards by people who lived within the territory that was inhabited by culturally Islamic populations.[1][2]
Aniconism, Iconoclasm, and Arabesque
Main articles: Aniconism in Islam, Iconoclasm, and Arabesque
No Islamic visual images or depictions of God are meant to exist because such artistic depictions may lead to idolatry. Moreover, Muslims believe that God is incorporeal, making any two- or three- dimensional depictions impossible. Instead, Muslims describe God by the names and attributes that he revealed to his creation. All but one sura of the Qur'an begins with the phrase "In the name of God, the Beneficent, the Merciful". Images of Mohammed are likewise prohibited. Such aniconism and iconoclasm[3] can also be found in Jewish and some Christian theology.
Islamic art frequently adopts the use of geometrical floral or vegetal designs in a repetition known as arabesque. Such designs are highly nonrepresentational, as Islam forbids representational depictions as found in pre-Islamic pagan religions. Despite this, there is a presence of depictional art in some Muslim societies, although this is not widespread. Another reason why Islamic art is usually abstract is to symbolize the transcendence, indivisible and infinite nature of God, an objective achieved by arabesque.[4] Arabic calligraphy is an omnipresent decoration in Islamic art, and is usually expressed in the form of Qur'anic verses. Two of the main scripts involved are the symbolic kufic and naskh scripts, which can be found adorning the walls and domes of mosques, the sides of minbars, and so on.[4]
Distinguishing motifs of Islamic architecture have always been ordered repetition, radiating structures, and rhythmic, metric patterns. In this respect, fractal geometry has been a key utility, especially for mosques and palaces. Other significant features employed as motifs include columns, piers and arches, organized and interwoven with alternating sequences of niches and colonnettes.[5] The role of domes in Islamic architecture has been considerable. Its usage spans centuries, first appearing in 691 with the construction of the Dome of the Rock mosque, and recurring even up until the 17th century with the Taj Mahal. And as late as the 19th century, Islamic domes had been incorporated into Western architecture.[6][7]
Further information: Alchemy (Islam)
From between the eighth and eighteenth centuries, the use of glazed ceramics was prevalent in Islamic art, usually assuming the form of elaborate pottery.[8] Tin-opacified glazing was one of the earliest new technologies developed by the Islamic potters. The first Islamic opaque glazes can be found as blue-painted ware in Basra, dating to around the 8th century. Another significant contribution was the development of stonepaste ceramics, originating from 9th century Iraq.[9] Other centers for innovative ceramic pottery in the Islamic world included Fustat (from 975 to 1075), Damascus (from 1100 to around 1600) and Tabriz (from 1470 to 1550).[10]
Main article: Islamic architecture
Perhaps the most important expression of Islamic art is architecture, particularly that of the mosque.[11] Through it the effect of varying cultures within Islamic civilization can be illustrated. The North African and Spanish Islamic architecture, for example, has Roman-Byzantine elements, as seen in the Alhambra palace at Granada, or in the Great Mosque of Cordoba. Persian-style mosques are characterized by their tapered brick pillars, large arcades, and arches supported each by several pillars. In South Asia, elements of Hindu architecture were employed, but were later superseded by Persian designs. The most numerous and largest of mosques exist in Turkey, which obtained influence from Byzantine, Persian and Syrian designs, although Turkish architects managed to implement their own style of cupola domes.[11]
Main articles: Islamic literature, Arabic literature, Arabic epic literature, Persian literature, and Turkish literature
Further information: Islamic poetry, Arabic poetry, Persian poetry, and Turkish poetry
"Ali Baba" by Maxfield Parrish.
The most well known fiction from the Islamic world was The Book of One Thousand and One Nights (Arabian Nights), which was a compilation of many earlier folk tales. The epic took form in the 10th century and reached its final form by the 14th century; the number and type of tales have varied from one manuscript to another.[12] All Arabian fantasy tales were often called "Arabian Nights" when translated into English, regardless of whether they appeared in The Book of One Thousand and One Nights.[12] This epic has been influential in the West since it was translated in the 18th century, first by Antoine Galland.[13] Many imitations were written, especially in France.[14] Various characters from this epic have themselves become cultural icons in Western culture, such as Aladdin, Sinbad and Ali Baba.
A famous example of Arabic poetry and Persian poetry on romance (love) is Layla and Majnun, dating back to the Umayyad era in the 7th century. It is a tragic story of undying love much like the later Romeo and Juliet, which was itself said to have been inspired by a Latin version of Layli and Majnun to an extent.[15] Ferdowsi's Shahnameh, the national epic of Iran, is a mythical and heroic retelling of Persian history. Amir Arsalan was also a popular mythical Persian story, which has influenced some modern works of fantasy fiction, such as The Heroic Legend of Arslan.
Ibn Tufail (Abubacer) and Ibn al-Nafis were pioneers of the philosophical novel. Ibn Tufail wrote the first fictional Arabic novel Hayy ibn Yaqdhan (Philosophus Autodidactus) as a response to al-Ghazali's The Incoherence of the Philosophers, and then Ibn al-Nafis also wrote a fictional novel Theologus Autodidactus as a response to Ibn Tufail's Philosophus Autodidactus. Both of these narratives had protagonists (Hayy in Philosophus Autodidactus and Kamil in Theologus Autodidactus) who were autodidactic feral children living in seclusion on a desert island, both being the earliest examples of a desert island story. However, while Hayy lives alone with animals on the desert island for the rest of the story in Philosophus Autodidactus, the story of Kamil extends beyond the desert island setting in Theologus Autodidactus, developing into the earliest known coming of age plot and eventually becoming the first example of a science fiction novel.[16][17]
Theologus Autodidactus, written by the Arabian polymath Ibn al-Nafis (1213–1288), is the first example of a science fiction novel. It deals with various science fiction elements such as spontaneous generation, futurology, the end of the world and doomsday, resurrection, and the afterlife. Rather than giving supernatural or mythological explanations for these events, Ibn al-Nafis attempted to explain these plot elements using the scientific knowledge of biology, astronomy, cosmology and geology known in his time. His main purpose behind this science fiction work was to explain Islamic religious teachings in terms of science and philosophy through the use of fiction.[18]
A Latin translation of Ibn Tufail's work, Philosophus Autodidactus, first appeared in 1671, prepared by Edward Pococke the Younger, followed by an English translation by Simon Ockley in 1708, as well as German and Dutch translations. These translations later inspired Daniel Defoe to write Robinson Crusoe, regarded as the first novel in English.[19][20][21][22] Philosophus Autodidactus also inspired Robert Boyle to write his own philosophical novel set on an island, The Aspiring Naturalist.[23] The story also anticipated Rousseau's Emile: or, On Education in some ways, and is also similar to Mowgli's story in Rudyard Kipling's The Jungle Book as well as Tarzan's story, in that a baby is abandoned but taken care of and fed by a mother wolf.[24]
Dante Alighieri's Divine Comedy, considered the greatest epic of Italian literature, derived many features of and episodes about the hereafter directly or indirectly from Arabic works on Islamic eschatology: the Hadith and the Kitab al-Miraj (translated into Latin in 1264 or shortly before[25] as Liber Scale Machometi, "The Book of Muhammad's Ladder") concerning Muhammad's ascension to Heaven, and the spiritual writings of Ibn Arabi. The Moors also had a noticeable influence on the works of George Peele and William Shakespeare. Some of their works featured Moorish characters, such as Peele's The Battle of Alcazar and Shakespeare's The Merchant of Venice, Titus Andronicus and Othello, which featured a Moorish Othello as its title character. These works are said to have been inspired by several Moorish delegations from Morocco to Elizabethan England at the beginning of the 17th century.[26]
Main articles: Islamic philosophy, Early Islamic philosophy, and Modern Islamic philosophy
Further information: Logic in Islamic philosophy, Kalam, Avicennism, Averroism, Illuminationist philosophy, and Transcendent Theosophy
One of the common definitions for "Islamic philosophy" is "the style of philosophy produced within the framework of Islamic culture."[27] Islamic philosophy, in this definition is neither necessarily concerned with religious issues, nor is exclusively produced by Muslims.[27] The Persian scholar Ibn Sina (Avicenna) (980-1037) had more than 450 books attributed to him. His writings were concerned with many subjects, most notably philosophy and medicine. His medical textbook The Canon of Medicine was used as the standard text in European universities for centuries. His works on Aristotle was a key step in the transmission of learning from ancient Greeks to the Islamic world and the West. He often corrected the philosopher, encouraging a lively debate in the spirit of ijtihad. He also wrote The Book of Healing, an influential scientific and philosophical encyclopedia. His thinking and that of his follower Ibn Rushd (Averroes) was incorporated into Christian philosophy during the Middle Ages, notably by Thomas Aquinas.
One of the most influential Muslim philosophers in the West was Averroes (Ibn Rushd), founder of the Averroism school of philosophy, whose works and commentaries had an impact on the rise of secular thought in Western Europe.[28] He also developed the concept of "existence precedes essence".[29] Avicenna also founded his own Avicennism school of philosophy, which was influential in both Islamic and Christian lands. He was also a critic of Aristotelian logic and founder of Avicennian logic, and he developed the concepts of empiricism and tabula rasa, and distinguished between essence and existence.
Another infuential philosopher who had a significant influence on modern philosophy was Ibn Tufail. His philosophical novel, Hayy ibn Yaqdhan, translated into Latin as Philosophus Autodidactus in 1671, developed the themes of empiricism, tabula rasa, nature versus nurture,[30] condition of possibility, materialism,[31] and Molyneux's Problem.[32] European scholars and writers influenced by this novel include John Locke,[33] Gottfried Leibniz,[22] Melchisédech Thévenot, John Wallis, Christiaan Huygens,[34] George Keith, Robert Barclay, the Quakers,[35] and Samuel Hartlib.[23]
Islamic philosophers continued making advances in philosophy through to the 17th century, when Mulla Sadra founded his school of Transcendent Theosophy and developed the concept of existentialism.[36]
Other influential Muslim philosophers include al-Jahiz, a pioneer in evolutionary thought; Ibn al-Haytham (Alhacen), a pioneer of phenomenology and the philosophy of science and a critic of Aristotelian natural philosophy and Aristotle's concept of place (topos); Biruni, a critic of Aristotelian natural philosophy; Ibn Tufail and Ibn al-Nafis, pioneers of the philosophical novel; Shahab al-Din Suhrawardi, founder of Illuminationist philosophy; Fakhr al-Din al-Razi, a critic of Aristotelian logic and a pioneer of inductive logic; and Ibn Khaldun, a pioneer in the philosophy of history[37] and social philosophy.
Main articles: Islamic science and Timeline of science and technology in the Islamic world
See also: Alchemy and chemistry in Islam, Islamic astronomy, Islamic medicine, Islamic physics, Islamic psychology, and Islamic sociology
Muslim scientists made significant advances in the sciences. They placed far greater emphasis on experiment than had the Greeks. This led to an early scientific method being developed in the Muslim world, where significant progress in methodology was made, beginning with the experiments of Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) on optics from circa 1000, in his Book of Optics.[38] The most important development of the scientific method was the use of experiments to distinguish between competing scientific theories set within a generally empirical orientation, which began among Muslim scientists. Ibn al-Haytham is also regarded as the father of optics, especially for his empirical proof of the intromission theory of light. Some have also described Ibn al-Haytham as the "first scientist" for his development of the modern scientific method.[39][40][41]
The mathematician Al-Khwarizmi, from whose name the word algorithm derives, is considered to be the father of algebra (which is named after his book, kitab al-jabr).[42] Recent studies show that it is very likely that the Medieval Muslim artists were aware of advanced decagonal quasicrystal geometry (discovered half a millennium later in 1970s and 1980s in West) and used it in intricate decorative tilework in the architecture.[43] Muslim mathematicians also made several refinements to the Arabic numerals (which originally came from India), such as the introduction of decimal point notation.
Muslim physicians contributed significantly to the field of medicine, including the subjects of anatomy and physiology: such as in the 15th century Persian work by Mansur ibn Muhammad ibn al-Faqih Ilyas entitled Tashrih al-badan (Anatomy of the body) which contained comprehensive diagrams of the body's structural, nervous and circulatory systems; or in the work of the Egyptian physician Ibn al-Nafis, who proposed the theory of pulmonary circulation. Avicenna's The Canon of Medicine remained an authoritative medical textbook in Europe until the 18th century. Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi (also known as Abulcasis) contributed to the discipline of medical surgery with his Kitab al-Tasrif ("Book of Concessions"), a medical encyclopedia which was later translated to Latin and used in European and Muslim medical schools for centuries. Other medical advancements came in the fields of pharmacology and pharmacy.[44]
In astronomy, al-Battani improved the precision of the measurement of the precession of the earth's axis. The corrections made to the geocentric model by al-Battani, Averroes, Nasir al-Din al-Tusi, Mo'ayyeduddin Urdi and Ibn al-Shatir were later incorporated into the Copernican heliocentric model. Heliocentric theories were also discussed by several other Muslim astronomers such as Abu-Rayhan Biruni, Al-Sijzi, Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi, and 'Umar al-Katibi al-Qazwini. The astrolabe, though originally developed by the Greeks, was perfected by Islamic astronomers and engineers, and was subsequently brought to Europe.
Muslim chemists and alchemists played an important role in the foundation of modern chemistry. Scholars such as Will Durant and Alexander von Humboldt regard Muslim chemists to be the founders of chemistry. In particular, Geber is regarded as the "father of chemistry". The works of Arab chemists influenced Roger Bacon (who introduced the empirical method to Europe, strongly influenced by his reading of Arabic writers), and later Isaac Newton. A number of chemical processes (particularly in alchemy) and distillation techniques (such as the production of alcohol) were developed in the Muslim world and then spread to Europe.
Some of the most famous scientists from the Islamic world include Geber (polymath, father of chemistry), al-Farabi (polymath), Abu al-Qasim (father of modern surgery),[45] Ibn al-Haytham (universal genius, father of optics, founder of psychophysics and experimental psychology,[46] pioneer of scientific method, "first scientist"), Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī (universal genius, father of Indology[47] and geodesy, "first anthropologist"),[48] Avicenna (universal genius, father of momentum[49] and modern medicine),[50] Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī (polymath), and Ibn Khaldun (father of demography,[51] cultural history,[52] historiography,[53] the philosophy of history, sociology,[37] and the social sciences),[54] among many others.
Main articles: Inventions in the Muslim world, Muslim Agricultural Revolution, and Timeline of science and technology in the Islamic world
File:Al-jazari pump.png
The reciprocating suction piston pump with valve and crankshaft-connecting rod mechanism was invented by Al-Jazari in 1206.
In technology, the Muslim world adopted papermaking from China and further advanced the technology with their invention of papermills many centuries before paper was known in the West.[55] The knowledge of gunpowder was also transmitted from China via Islamic countries, where the formulas for pure potassium nitrate and an explosive gunpowder effect were first developed.[56][57]
Advances were made in irrigation and farming, using new technology such as the windmill. Crops such as almonds and citrus fruit were brought to Europe through al-Andalus, and sugar cultivation was gradually adopted by the Europeans. Arab merchants dominated trade in the Indian Ocean until the arrival of the Portuguese in the 16th century. Hormuz was an important center for this trade. There was also a dense network of trade routes in the Mediterranean, along which Muslim countries traded with each other and with European powers such as Venice, Genoa and Catalonia. The Silk Road crossing Central Asia passed through Muslim states between China and Europe.
Muslim engineers in the Islamic world made a number of innovative industrial uses of hydropower, and early industrial uses of tidal power, wind power, steam power,[58] fossil fuels such as petroleum, and early large factory complexes (tiraz in Arabic).[59] The industrial uses of watermills in the Islamic world date back to the 7th century, while horizontal-wheeled and vertical-wheeled water mills were both in widespread use since at least the 9th century. A variety of industrial mills were being employed in the Islamic world, including early fulling mills, gristmills, hullers, paper mills, sawmills, shipmills, stamp mills, steel mills, sugar mills, tide mills and windmills. By the 11th century, every province throughout the Islamic world had these industrial mills in operation, from al-Andalus and North Africa to the Middle East and Central Asia.[55] Muslim engineers also invented crankshafts and water turbines, employed gears in mills and water-raising machines, and pioneered the use of dams as a source of water power, used to provide additional power to watermills and water-raising machines.[60] Such advances made it possible for many industrial tasks that were previously driven by manual labour in ancient times to be mechanized and driven by machinery instead in the medieval Islamic world. The transfer of these technologies to medieval Europe had an influence on the Industrial Revolution.[61]
A number of industries were generated due to the Muslim Agricultural Revolution, including early industries for agribusiness, astronomical instruments, ceramics, chemicals, distillation technologies, clocks, glass, mechanical hydropowered and wind powered machinery, matting, mosaics, pulp and paper, perfumery, petroleum, pharmaceuticals, rope-making, shipping, shipbuilding, silk, sugar, textiles, water, weapons, and the mining of minerals such as sulfur, ammonia, lead and iron. Early large factory complexes (tiraz) were built for many of these industries, and knowledge of these industries were later transmitted to medieval Europe, especially during the Latin translations of the 12th century, as well as before and after. For example, the first glass factories in Europe were founded in the 11th century by Egyptian craftsmen in Greece.[62] The agricultural and handicraft industries also experienced high levels of growth during this period.[63]
Modern Muslim world
In circa 1800, the gross domestic product of the Muslim world was estimated at about 12 per cent of the world total. By the end of the 19th century, this share had plunged to about 5 per cent of the world total. This share had since then stagnated throughout the 20th century due to half-hearted economic reforms.
As of 2006, the Arab World accounts for two-fifth of the gross domestic product and three-fifth of the trade of the wider Muslim World. It should be noted that oil industry and related services account for almost two-fifth of the gross domestic product of the Muslim world.
Geographic spread
Template:Life in OIC
See also: Muslim majority countries
Many Muslims not only live in, but also have an official status in the following regions:
Southwest Asia: Arab nations such as Saudi Arabia, Iraq, Oman,United Arab Emirates, Kuwait and non-Arab nations such as Iran.
Africa: North African countries such as Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Egypt; Northeast African countries like Somalia, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Djibouti and Sudan; and West African countries like Mali, Senegal and Nigeria.
Southern Europe: Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Kosovo and Turkey.
Eastern Europe: Azerbaijan, parts of Russia (North Caucasus and Idel-Ural) and Ukraine (especially in the Crimea)
Central Asia: Afghanistan, formerly Soviet states like Uzbekistan
South Asia: Pakistan, Bangladesh, and the Maldives
East Asia: parts of China (Xinjiang, Ningxia and Qinghai)
Southeast Asia: Indonesia, Brunei and Malaysia
The countries of Southwest Asia, and many in Northern and Northeastern Africa are considered part of the Greater Middle East.
In Chechnya, Dagestan, Kabardino-Balkaria, Karachay-Cherkessia, Ingushetia, Tatarstan, Bashkiria in Russia, Muslims are in the majority.
The Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir has a Muslim majority population, particularly concentrated in the Kashmir valley.
Some definitions would also include the sizable Muslim minorities in:
several countries of Europe (Of which the Muslim population in Cyprus, Russia, Montenegro, Bulgaria, France, The Netherlands and Denmark make up at least 5% of the total population of that country, and with more than one million Muslims living in Russia, France, Germany, United Kingdom, Netherlands,[64] and Italy)
several regions of Russia, other than ethnic republics above (Adyghea, North Ossetia etc.)
some parts of India
Singapore, Myanmar, Pattani (Thailand), and Mindanao (Philippines)
Guyana, Suriname, Trinidad and Tobago.
Democratic Republic of Congo, Burundi, Malawi, South Africa, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Uganda, Ethiopia
Crimea in Ukraine
This article is part of on
Day of Resurrection
Texts & Laws
History & Leaders
Ahl al-Bayt
Rashidun
Imamate
Spread of Islam
Ibadi
Quranism
Glossary of Islamic Terms in Arabic
Main article: Demographics of Islam
One fifth of the world population share Islam as an ethical tradition. Muslims are the majority in 57 countries. They speak about 60 languages and come from diverse ethnic backgrounds. There are over 1.5 billion Muslims in total. See Islam by country and Demographics of Islam for more information.
Important organizations
The Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC) is an inter-governmental organization grouping fifty-seven States. These States decided to pool their resources together, combine their efforts and speak with one voice to safeguard the interest and ensure the progress and well-being of their peoples and those of other Muslims in the world over.
The Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries includes many nations that are also in the Arab League.
A politically motivated oil embargo in 1974 (to support Egypt and Syria in the 1973 Yom Kippur War against Israel after the US re-equipped Israel with armaments) had drastic economic and political consequences in the United States and Europe. Recently Danish products faced a boycott by Muslim world after the 2005 Prophet Muhammad cartoons controversy, although that move was not supported by the Muslim governments, it demonstrates the power of the Muslim World acting in concert, and the key role of religion and ethnicity in the politics of oil regions, with which the Muslim world intersects.
Religion and state
Islamic law does not distinguish between "matters of church" and "matters of state"; the ulema function as both jurists and theologians. In practice, Islamic rulers frequently bypassed the Sharia courts with a parallel system of so-called "Grievance courts" over which they had sole control. As the Muslim world came into contact with Western secular ideals, Muslim societies responded in different ways. Turkey has been governed as a secular state ever since the reforms of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk. In contrast, the 1979 Iranian Revolution replaced a mostly secular regime with an Islamic republic led by the Ayatollah Ruholla Khomeini.[65]
Many Muslim countries still have a strong belief in the religion of Islam, many have used Sharia law in the state where the law runs from the interpretations from the Quran and the Hadith in the society of politics, law, schools and others. Most countries in the Muslim world according to their constitution declare Islam as the state religion or Sharia law, but a very few who are Secular states compared with the western world.
Islam in law and ethics
Further information: Islamic ethics, Sharia, Fiqh, and Islamic economic jurisprudence
In some nations, Muslim ethnic groups enjoy considerable autonomy.
In some places, Muslims implement a form of Islamic law, called shariah in Arabic. The Islamic law exists in many variations, but the main forms are the five (four Sunni and one Shia) schools of jurisprudence (fiqh):
Hanafi school in Pakistan, Bangladesh, India, Turkey, Egypt and West Africa
Maliki in North Africa and West Africa
Shafi'i in Malaysia, Qatar, Indonesia, and Northeastern Africa
Hanbali in Arabia, Qatar
Jaferi in Iran, Iraq , Yemen and India - where the majority is Shia
All five are centuries old and many Muslim feel a new fiqh must be created for modern society. Islam has a method for doing this, al-urf and ijtihad are the words to describe this method, but they have not been used in a long time by Sunni Muslims, and few people are trusted enough to use them to make new laws. The Shi'i Jaferi school of fiqh never ended the tradition of ijtihad.
Muslim women often dress extremely modestly, mostly by choice. Thus, in some countries an interpretation of the Islamic law requires women to cover either just legs, shoulders and head or the whole body apart from the face. In strictest forms, the face as well must be covered leaving just a mesh to see through. These rules for dressing are one of the things the cause tension between the Western World and the Muslim, concerning particularly Muslim living in western countries, since many in the Western World consider these restrictions both sexist and oppressive. Most Muslims oppose this charge, and instead declare that the media-fuelled world of the West is itself sexist and oppressive in that women are forced to reveal irrational amounts of flesh to be considered attractive.
Islamic economics bans interest or Riba (Usury) but in most Muslim countries Western banking is allowed.
Islam in modern politics and conflicts
Many people in Islamic countries also see Islam manifested politically as Islamism. Political Islam is powerful in all Muslim-majority countries. Islamic parties in Turkey, Pakistan and Algeria have taken power at the provincial level. Many in these movements call themselves Islamists, which also sometimes describes more militant Islamic groups. The relationships between these groups (in democratic countries there is usually at least one Islamic party) and their views of democracy are complex.
Some of these groups are accused of practicing terrorism.
Conflicts with Israel
See also: Projects working for peace among Israelis and Arabs, Peace process in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, and Foreign relations of Israel#Arab states
Israel is subject to varying levels of hostility in the Muslim world due to the establishment of Israel on the land of Palestine which is sacred for Muslims and due to prolonged Arab-Israeli conflict and the Israeli-Palestinian conflict.
Turkey was the first Muslim-majority state to recognize Israel, just one year after its founding, and they have the long shared close military and economic ties. Prior to the Iranian Revolution, Iran and Israel maintained a strong political friendship, however the current Iranian government is strongly anti-Israeli and has repeatedly called for Israel's destruction. Once at war, both Egypt and Jordan have established diplomatic relations and signed peace treaties with Israel, and attempts to resolve the conflict with Palestinians have produced a number of interim agreements. Nine non-Arab Muslim states maintain diplomatic ties with Israel, and since 1994, the Gulf states have lessened their enforcement of the Arab boycott, with Saudi Arabia even declaring its end in 2005, though it has yet to cancel its sanctions. States like Morocco that have large Jewish populations have generally been less hostile relations with Israel.
Nuclear capabilities
Pakistan is the only declared nuclear nation in the Muslim World. The nuclear program of Pakistan was carried out in response to India's nuclear test in 1971. Pakistan conducted its nuclear tests in May 1998 to India's nuclear tests of May 1998.
See also: Gulf War
See also: Nuclear program of Iran
1979 was a critical year in the Muslim world's relationship with the rest of the world. In that year, Egypt made peace with Israel, the government of Iran was overthrown in the Iranian Revolution, and the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan began.
Some of the events pivotal in the Muslim world's relationship with the outside world in the post-Soviet era were:
The Iran–Iraq War
The 1991 Persian Gulf War
The Bosnian War
The Kosovo War
The 1982-2000 South Lebanon conflict
The 2001 invasion of Afghanistan
The 2003 invasion of Iraq
The Syrian occupation of Lebanon
The 2005 Prophet Muhammad cartoons controversy
The Second Sudanese Civil War
The 2006 Israel-Lebanon conflict
The 2006 controversy over remarks quoted by Pope Benedict XVI
The 2007 Lebanon conflict
The ongoing Darfur conflict
The ongoing standoff with Iran over its Nuclear program
The ongoing Second Chechen War
The ongoing Waziristan War
The ongoing Islamic Insurgency in the Philippines
The ongoing war in Somalia
The 2008 Kosovo declaration of independence
The U.S.-led War on Terrorism has been criticized as a War on Islam by Hizb ut-Tahrir and other Islamist organizations.
Political currents
In Pakistan, a prominent U.S. ally, Muttahida Majlis-e-Amal - an Islamic political party - won local elections in two out of four of the country's provinces and became in mid-2003 the third largest party in the national parliament, their strongest showing up to that point. They had support from urban areas for the first time. See also: Politics of Pakistan
In Kuwait elections in July 2003 returned Islamic traditionalists and supporters of the royal family, while liberals suffered a severe defeat. See also: Elections in Kuwait
In Indonesia, the growth of various groups allied to those considered responsible for the Bali Bombing most of which have previously been invisible, has been marked.[citation needed]
In Iran in 1979, a popular revolution saw the exile of the Shah and the rule going to Ayatollah Khomeini, a cleric from the Shia school of thought. The country has what it claims is a theocratic democracy, and has kept the "revolution" as part of the state's survival and growth.
In 2008, Kosovo declared independence from Serbia.
Major Muslim denominations
Main article: Divisions of Islam
The two main denominations of Islam are the Sunni and Shia sects. The difference between them is primarily in terms of how the life of the ummah ("faithful") should be governed, and the role of the imam. These two main differences stem from the understanding of which hadith are to interpret the Quran. The Shia minority believes that the Family of the Prophet's traditions are exclusively to be followed, whereas the Sunni majority believes in traditions from the Companions of the Prophet and other common people to be followed.
The overwhelming majority of Muslims in the world, approximately 85%, are Sunni.
Shias and others (Ibadiyyas, Ahmadis, Druze) make up the rest, about 15% of overall Muslim population. Among the countries with Shi'a majority of Muslim population are Iran (90%), Iraq (65%), Azerbaijan (75%), Bahrain (60%), and Lebanon (35%).
The Kharijite Muslims, who are less known, have their own stronghold in the country of Oman holding about 75% of the population. The rest of the population being 10% Sunni and the rest Shi'a.
Muslim majority countries
Main article: Muslim majority countries
Countries in the Muslim world sorted by state religion:
Islamic states
Afghanistan[66]
Bahrain[67]
Iran[68]
Mauritania[69]
Oman[70]
Pakistan[71]
Yemen[72]
Saudi Arabia[73]
Islam as state religion
Algeria[74]
Bangladesh[75]
Egypt[76]
Iraq[77]
Kuwait[78]
Libya[79]
Malaysia[80]
Maldives[81]
Morocco[82]
Qatar[83]
Tunisia[84]
United Arab Emirates[85]
Secular states
Burkina Faso[86]
Gambia[87]
Guinea[88]
Mali[89]
Senegal[90]
Chad[88]
Djibouti[91]
Somalia[92]
Kyrgystan[93]
Tajikstan[94]
Turkmenistan[95]
Azerbaijan[96]
Kazakhstan[97][98]
Arab world, Arab nationalism, Pan-Arabism
Christendom, Caesaropapism, Church militant and church triumphant, Ecumene, Res publica christiana
Divisions of the world in Islam
Islam and other religions
Islamic republic
Liberal movements within Islam
Muslim history
Organization of the Islamic Conference
Pan-Islamism, Ummah, caliphate
Sunni-Shia relations
Secular Muslim
↑ Ettinghausen (2003), p.3
↑ "Islamic Art and Architecture", The Columbia Encyclopedia (2000)
↑ "Muslim Iconoclasm". Encyclopedia of the Orient. Retrieved on 2007-02-23.
↑ 4.0 4.1 Madden (1975), pp.423-430
↑ Tonna (1990), pp.182-197
↑ Grabar, O. (2006) p.87
↑ Ettinghausen (2003), p.87
↑ Mason (1995) p.1
↑ 11.0 11.1 "Islam", The New Encyclopedia Britannica (2005)
↑ 12.0 12.1 John Grant and John Clute, The Encyclopedia of Fantasy, "Arabian fantasy", p 51 ISBN 0-312-19869-8
↑ L. Sprague de Camp, Literary Swordsmen and Sorcerers: The Makers of Heroic Fantasy, p 10 ISBN 0-87054-076-9
↑ John Grant and John Clute, The Encyclopedia of Fantasy, "Arabian fantasy", p 52 ISBN 0-312-19869-8
↑ NIZAMI: LAYLA AND MAJNUN - English Version by Paul Smith
↑ Dr. Abu Shadi Al-Roubi (1982), "Ibn Al-Nafis as a philosopher", Symposium on Ibn al-Nafis, Second International Conference on Islamic Medicine: Islamic Medical Organization, Kuwait (cf. Ibn al-Nafis As a Philosopher, Encyclopedia of Islamic World).
↑ Nahyan A. G. Fancy (2006), "Pulmonary Transit and Bodily Resurrection: The Interaction of Medicine, Philosophy and Religion in the Works of Ibn al-Nafīs (d. 1288)", p. 95-101, Electronic Theses and Dissertation s, University of Notre Dame.[1]
↑ Dr. Abu Shadi Al-Roubi (1982), "Ibn Al-Nafis as a philosopher", Symposium on Ibn al Nafis, Second International Conference on Islamic Medicine: Islamic Medical Organization, Kuwait (cf. Ibnul-Nafees As a Philosopher, Encyclopedia of Islamic World).
↑ Nawal Muhammad Hassan (1980), Hayy bin Yaqzan and Robinson Crusoe: A study of an early Arabic impact on English literature, Al-Rashid House for Publication.
↑ Cyril Glasse (2001), New Encyclopedia of Islam, p. 202, Rowman Altamira, ISBN 0759101906.
↑ Amber Haque (2004), "Psychology from Islamic Perspective: Contributions of Early Muslim Scholars and Challenges to Contemporary Muslim Psychologists", Journal of Religion and Health 43 (4): 357-377 [369].
↑ 22.0 22.1 Martin Wainwright, Desert island scripts, The Guardian, 22 March 2003.
↑ 23.0 23.1 G. J. Toomer (1996), Eastern Wisedome and Learning: The Study of Arabic in Seventeenth-Century England, p. 222, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0198202911.
↑ Latinized Names of Muslim Scholars, FSTC.
↑ I. Heullant-Donat and M.-A. Polo de Beaulieu, "Histoire d'une traduction," in Le Livre de l'échelle de Mahomet, Latin edition and French translation by Gisèle Besson and Michèle Brossard-Dandré, Collection Lettres Gothiques, Le Livre de Poche, 1991, p. 22 with note 37.
↑ Professor Nabil Matar (April 2004), Shakespeare and the Elizabethan Stage Moor, Sam Wanamaker Fellowship Lecture, Shakespeare's Globe Theatre (cf. Mayor of London (2006), Muslims in London, pp. 14-15, Greater London Authority)
↑ 27.0 27.1 "Islamic Philosophy", Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy (1998)
↑ Majid Fakhry (2001). Averroes: His Life, Works and Influence. Oneworld Publications. ISBN 1851682694.
↑ Irwin, Jones (Autumn 2002), "Averroes' Reason: A Medieval Tale of Christianity and Islam", The Philosopher LXXXX (2)
↑ G. A. Russell (1994), The 'Arabick' Interest of the Natural Philosophers in Seventeenth-Century England, pp. 224-262, Brill Publishers, ISBN 9004094598.
↑ Dominique Urvoy, "The Rationality of Everyday Life: The Andalusian Tradition? (Aropos of Hayy's First Experiences)", in Lawrence I. Conrad (1996), The World of Ibn Tufayl: Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Ḥayy Ibn Yaqẓān, pp. 38-46, Brill Publishers, ISBN 9004093001.
↑ Muhammad ibn Abd al-Malik Ibn Tufayl and Léon Gauthier (1981), Risalat Hayy ibn Yaqzan, p. 5, Editions de la Méditerranée.[2]
↑ G. A. Russell (1994), The 'Arabick' Interest of the Natural Philosophers in Seventeenth-Century England, p. 227, Brill Publishers, ISBN 9004094598.
↑ Kamal, Muhammad (2006), Mulla Sadra's Transcendent Philosophy, Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., pp. 9 & 39, ISBN 0754652718, OCLC 238761259 61169850 224496901 238761259 61169850
↑ 37.0 37.1 Dr. S. W. Akhtar (1997). "The Islamic Concept of Knowledge", Al-Tawhid: A Quarterly Journal of Islamic Thought & Culture 12 (3).
↑ David Agar (2001). Arabic Studies in Physics and Astronomy During 800 - 1400 AD. University of Jyväskylä.
↑ Bradley Steffens (2006), Ibn al-Haytham: First Scientist, Morgan Reynolds Publishing, ISBN 1599350246.
↑ Gorini, Rosanna (October 2003). "Al-Haytham the man of experience. First steps in the science of vision" (pdf). Journal of the International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine 2 (4): 53–55. Retrieved on 2008-09-25. "According to the majority of the historians al-Haytham was the pioneer of the modern scientific method. With his book he changed the meaning of the term optics and established experiments as the norm of proof in the field. His investigations are based not on abstract theories, but on experimental evidences and his experiments were systematic and repeatable."
↑ Robert Briffault (1928), The Making of Humanity, p. 190-202, G. Allen & Unwin Ltd:
" "What we call science arose as a result of new methods of experiment, observation, and measurement, which were introduced into Europe by the Arabs. [...] Science is the most momentous contribution of Arab civilization to the modern world, but its fruits were slow in ripening. [...] The debt of our science to that of the Arabs does not consist in startling discoveries or revolutionary theories; science owes a great deal more to Arab culture, it owes its existence....The ancient world was, as we saw, pre-scientific. [...] The Greeks systematized, generalized and theorized, but the patient ways of investigations, the accumulation of positive knowledge, the minute methods of science, detailed and prolonged observation and experimental inquiry were altogether alien to the Greek temperament." "
↑ Ron Eglash(1999), p.61
↑ Peter J. Lu, Harvard's Office of News and Public Affairs
↑ Turner, H. (1997) pp. 136—138
↑ A. Martin-Araguz, C. Bustamante-Martinez, Ajo V. Fernandez-Armayor, J. M. Moreno-Martinez (2002). "Neuroscience in al-Andalus and its influence on medieval scholastic medicine", Revista de neurología 34 (9), p. 877-892.
↑ Omar Khaleefa (Summer 1999). "Who Is the Founder of Psychophysics and Experimental Psychology?", American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 16 (2).
↑ Zafarul-Islam Khan, At The Threshhold Of A New Millennium – II, The Milli Gazette.
↑ Akbar S. Ahmed (1984). "Al-Beruni: The First Anthropologist", RAIN 60, p. 9-10.
↑ Seyyed Hossein Nasr, "Islamic Conception Of Intellectual Life", in Philip P. Wiener (ed.), Dictionary of the History of Ideas, Vol. 2, p. 65, Charles Scribner's Sons, New York, 1973-1974.
↑ Cas Lek Cesk (1980). "The father of medicine, Avicenna, in our science and culture: Abu Ali ibn Sina (980-1037)", Becka J. 119 (1), p. 17-23.
↑ H. Mowlana (2001). "Information in the Arab World", Cooperation South Journal 1.
↑ Mohamad Abdalla (Summer 2007). "Ibn Khaldun on the Fate of Islamic Science after the 11th Century", Islam & Science 5 (1), p. 61-70.
↑ Salahuddin Ahmed (1999). A Dictionary of Muslim Names. C. Hurst & Co. Publishers. ISBN 1850653569.
↑ Akbar Ahmed (2002). "Ibn Khaldun's Understanding of Civilizations and the Dilemmas of Islam and the West Today", Middle East Journal 56 (1), p. 25.
↑ 55.0 55.1 Adam Robert Lucas (2005), "Industrial Milling in the Ancient and Medieval Worlds: A Survey of the Evidence for an Industrial Revolution in Medieval Europe", Technology and Culture 46 (1), p. 1-30 [10].
↑ Ahmad Y Hassan, Potassium Nitrate in Arabic and Latin Sources, History of Science and Technology in Islam.
↑ Ahmad Y Hassan, Gunpowder Composition for Rockets and Cannon in Arabic Military Treatises In Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries, History of Science and Technology in Islam.
↑ Ahmad Y Hassan (1976). Taqi al-Din and Arabic Mechanical Engineering, p. 34-35. Institute for the History of Arabic Science, University of Aleppo.
↑ Maya Shatzmiller, p. 36.
↑ Ahmad Y Hassan, Transfer Of Islamic Technology To The West, Part II: Transmission Of Islamic Engineering
↑ Adam Robert Lucas (2005), "Industrial Milling in the Ancient and Medieval Worlds: A Survey of the Evidence for an Industrial Revolution in Medieval Europe", Technology and Culture 46 (1), p. 1-30.
↑ Ahmad Y Hassan, Transfer Of Islamic Technology To The West, Part 1: Avenues Of Technology Transfer
↑ Subhi Y. Labib (1969), "Capitalism in Medieval Islam", The Journal of Economic History 29 (1), p. 79-96.
↑ Centraal Bureau van de Statistiek (CBS) - Netherlands/ Muslimpopulation
↑ See:
Esposito (2004), p.84
Lapidus (2002), pp.502–507,845
Lewis (2003), p.100
↑ [3] Article 1 Islamic republic, Article 2 Religions
↑ [4] Article 1 Sovereignty, Constitutional Monarchy
↑ [5] Article 2 The Islamic republic
↑ [6] Article 1 State Integrity, Equal Protection (1)
↑ [7] Article 2 Religion
↑ [8] Article 1 (1) Introductory
↑ [9] Article (1), (2), (3) The foundations of the state
↑ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saudi_Arabia
↑ [10] Article 2 Chapter I Algeria
↑ [11] Article 2A The state religion
↑ [12] Article 2 The state
↑ [13] Article 2, 1st Basic principles
↑ [14] Article 2 The state and the system government
↑ [15] Article 2 State religion, language
↑ [16] Article 3 (1)
↑ [17] State religion (7.) State, sovereignty and citizens
↑ [18] Article 6 Basic principles
↑ [19] Article 1
↑ [20] Article 1 [State] General Provisions
↑ [21] http://www.worldstatesmen.org/uae_const.doc Democratic regime in an Islamic and Arab society
↑ [22] Article 31
↑ 88.0 88.1 [24] Article 1
↑ CIAWorld Factbook- Djibouti
↑ [27] Article 1.6/2.6
↑ [30] Section 1: Foundations of the constitutional order, Article 1
↑ [31] Article 7/Article 18
↑ Characteristics of the Republic: Article 2, Provisions Relating to Political Parties: Article 68, Oath taking: Article 81, Oath: Article 103, Department of Religious Affairs: 136, Preservation of Reform Laws: 174
Ankerl, Guy [2000] (2000). Global communication without universal civilization, INU societal research Vol.1: Coexisting contemporary civilizations : Arabo-Muslim, Bharati, Chinese, and Western. Geneva: INU Press. ISBN 2-88155-004-5. OCLC 223231547 237431578 47105537 50042854.
Tausch, Arno (2007), (2007, with Christian Bischof, Tomaz Kastrun and Karl Mueller), ''Against Islamophobia: Muslim Communities, Social Exclusion and the Lisbon Process in Europe'' Hauppauge, N.Y.: Nova Science Publishers
Tausch, Arno (2007, with Christian Bischof, and Karl Mueller), "Muslim Calvinism", internal security and the Lisbon process in Europe .Amsterdam : Rozenberg Publishers
Tausch, Arno (2007), Against Islamophobia. Quantitative analyses of global terrorism, world political cycles and center periphery structures Hauppauge, N.Y.: Nova Science Publishers
Tausch, Arno (2005, Editor, with Peter Herrmann) ''Dar al Islam. The Mediterranean, the World System and the Wider Europe. 2 v. Hauppauge, New York: Nova Science Publishers. Abridged paperback ed., 2006, as "The West, Europe and the Muslim World" (Vol. 1) and "Towards a Wider Europe" (Vol. 2)
Dinar Standard - Covers Muslim World Economics
The Islamic World to 1600 an online tutorial at the University of Calgary, Canada.
MSNBC report citing Wesley Clark that the US planned to invade Iraq, then Syria, Lebanon, Libya, Iran, Somalia, and Sudan - also his own views on Egypt, Pakistan and Saudi Arabia
Al-Jazeera report
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redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


I have this new passion for film photography, this love for the mood and rawness you can capture.
We sat chatting one night discussing about photography and personal projects we wanted to start. We both wanted to capture what it is to be female and finding something beyond the perfect. So we have embarked on a little project together with no name, to discovering the darkness behind beauty.
Shot with Polaroid 195 on Polaroid 669. Rolleiflex 2.8 on Kodak Portra 160. Seagull Twin Lens Reflex on Fuji Pro 400H.


text:
		<app-cuppa-slidemenu [hidden]="!hamburgerMenu" [class.menu1]="headers[1].viewing" [class.menu2]="headers[2].viewing" [class.menu3]="headers[3].viewing"
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							 [config]="hamburgerConfig" (onItemSelect)="onItemSelect($event)" (open)="open()" (close)="close()"></app-cuppa-slidemenu>

Becca + Gonzo

	<app-links *ngIf="!hamburgerMenu" class="header-links" [showHome]="true"></app-links>

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaGithub


when this is saved, the word opacity gets into cap lock letters and makes an error… i tried to stop that, but it didn't work… please help!
The problem is in that you've put the overlay opacity command after the background title. You write in the overlay in the area, it's location and layer after the the background but any other overlay command - such as opacity changes has to be written seperately into the script.
EXT. DONUT SHOP - DAY with DONUT SHOP at layer 2 <—background and overlay's are placed.
&overlay DONUT SHOP TWO opacity 0.5 in 0 <— opacity of the overlay is changed to see-through instantly.


Tom Barley has had a phenomenal racing season, which culminated in being crowned champions in the GT4 Championship in the Britcar Endurance Championship for 2018.
Speaking to Kent Sports News about his 2018 race season in which he teamed up with Simon Rudd for the second time and continued their successful partnership.
He said: "Simon and I have had a phenomenal 2018 season, taking 14 podiums from 14 races and becoming GT4 champions! It's a great thing we've got going, and we've pushed each other all year.
The season came to an end for Tom and Simon at their home circuit of Brands Hatch, in the Britcar into the Night race, which saw them take the chequered flag in first place.
At the start of the season Tom set a target for the season ahead, and when the curtain came down on the season he had achieved what he wanted to achieve – winning the GT4 championship.
With the season now at an end, Tom is already turning his attention to 2019 and the options for both himself and Simon Rudd.
Finally we asked Tom if there was a race from 2018 that stood out as one of his highlights, and there was one that did stand out for him.
This entry was posted	on Tuesday, November 27th, 2018 at 9:00 am	and is filed under Featured, Motor Racing. You can follow any responses to this entry through the RSS 2.0 feed. Both comments and pings are currently closed.


Features and articles on antiques, homes, holidays, food, gardening, fashion, and consumer advice.
Offers viewers information on range of house and garden topics, including cooking, entertaining, gardening, decorating, health, relationships, beauty and fashion.
MTV show offers viewers a once-in-a-lifetime chance to renovate a room into the same style as a favorite celebrity.
South Florida's home and crafting television show. Hosts Janie Casoria and Scott Whiddon tour unique homes and properties and interview celebrity guests.
Guide to entertaining with elegance and ease. Host Nik Manojlovich inspires viewers to celebrate life's special occasions.


text:
using System.Collections.Generic;
using System.Linq;
using System.Threading.Tasks;
using FluentAssertions;
using IdentityServer.UnitTests.Validation.Setup;
using IdentityServer4.Extensions;
using IdentityServer4.Models;
using IdentityServer4.Stores;
using Xunit;

namespace IdentityServer.UnitTests.Validation
{
    public class ResourceValidation
    {
        private const string Category = "Resource Validation";

        private List<IdentityResource> _identityResources = new List<IdentityResource>
        {
            new IdentityResource
            {
                Name = "openid",
                Required = true
            },
            new IdentityResource
            {
                Name = "email"
            }
        };

        private List<ApiResource> _apiResources = new List<ApiResource>
        {
            new ApiResource
            {
                Name = "api",
                Scopes = { "resource1", "resource2" }
            },
            new ApiResource
            {
                Name = "disabled_api",
                Enabled = false,
                Scopes = { "disabled" }
            }
        };

        private List<ApiScope> _scopes = new List<ApiScope> {
            new ApiScope
            {
                Name = "resource1",
                Required = true
            },
            new ApiScope
            {
                Name = "resource2"
            }
        };

        private Client _restrictedClient = new Client
        {
            ClientId = "restricted",

            AllowedScopes = new List<string>
                {
                    "openid",
                    "resource1",
                    "disabled"
                }
        };

        private IResourceStore _store;

        public ResourceValidation()
        {
            _store = new InMemoryResourcesStore(_identityResources, _apiResources, _scopes);
        }

        [Fact]
        [Trait("Category", Category)]
        public void Parse_Scopes_with_Empty_Scope_List()
        {
            var scopes = string.Empty.ParseScopesString();

            scopes.Should().BeNull();
        }

        [Fact]
        [Trait("Category", Category)]
        public void Parse_Scopes_with_Sorting()
        {
            var scopes = "scope3 scope2 scope1".ParseScopesString();

            scopes.Count.Should().Be(3);

            scopes[0].Should().Be("scope1");
            scopes[1].Should().Be("scope2");
            scopes[2].Should().Be("scope3");
        }

        [Fact]
        [Trait("Category", Category)]
        public void Parse_Scopes_with_Extra_Spaces()
        {
            var scopes = "   scope3     scope2     scope1   ".ParseScopesString();

            scopes.Count.Should().Be(3);

            scopes[0].Should().Be("scope1");
            scopes[1].Should().Be("scope2");
            scopes[2].Should().Be("scope3");
        }

        [Fact]
        [Trait("Category", Category)]
        public void Parse_Scopes_with_Duplicate_Scope()
        {
            var scopes = "scope2 scope1 scope2".ParseScopesString();

            scopes.Count.Should().Be(2);

            scopes[0].Should().Be("scope1");
            scopes[1].Should().Be("scope2");
        }

        [Fact]
        [Trait("Category", Category)]
        public async Task Only_Offline_Access_Requested()
        {
            var scopes = "offline_access".ParseScopesString();

            var validator = Factory.CreateResourceValidator(_store);
            var result = await validator.ValidateRequestedResourcesAsync(new IdentityServer4.Validation.ResourceValidationRequest
            {
                Client = _restrictedClient,
                Scopes = scopes
            });

            result.Succeeded.Should().BeFalse();
            result.InvalidScopes.Should().Contain("offline_access");
        }

        [Fact]
        [Trait("Category", Category)]
        public async Task All_Scopes_Valid()
        {
            var scopes = "openid resource1".ParseScopesString();

            var validator = Factory.CreateResourceValidator(_store);
            var result = await validator.ValidateRequestedResourcesAsync(new IdentityServer4.Validation.ResourceValidationRequest
            {
                Client = _restrictedClient,
                Scopes = scopes
            });

            result.Succeeded.Should().BeTrue();
            result.InvalidScopes.Should().BeEmpty();
        }

        [Fact]
        [Trait("Category", Category)]
        public async Task Invalid_Scope()
        {
            {
                var scopes = "openid email resource1 unknown".ParseScopesString();

                var validator = Factory.CreateResourceValidator(_store);
                var result = await validator.ValidateRequestedResourcesAsync(new IdentityServer4.Validation.ResourceValidationRequest
                {
                    Client = _restrictedClient,
                    Scopes = scopes
                });

                result.Succeeded.Should().BeFalse();
                result.InvalidScopes.Should().Contain("unknown");
                result.InvalidScopes.Should().Contain("email");
            }
            {
                var scopes = "openid resource1 resource2".ParseScopesString();

                var validator = Factory.CreateResourceValidator(_store);
                var result = await validator.ValidateRequestedResourcesAsync(new IdentityServer4.Validation.ResourceValidationRequest
                {
                    Client = _restrictedClient,
                    Scopes = scopes
                });

                result.Succeeded.Should().BeFalse();
                result.InvalidScopes.Should().Contain("resource2");
            }
            {
                var scopes = "openid email resource1".ParseScopesString();

                var validator = Factory.CreateResourceValidator(_store);
                var result = await validator.ValidateRequestedResourcesAsync(new IdentityServer4.Validation.ResourceValidationRequest
                {
                    Client = _restrictedClient,
                    Scopes = scopes
                });

                result.Succeeded.Should().BeFalse();
                result.InvalidScopes.Should().Contain("email");
            }
        }

        [Fact]
        [Trait("Category", Category)]
        public async Task Disabled_Scope()
        {
            var scopes = "openid resource1 disabled".ParseScopesString();

            var validator = Factory.CreateResourceValidator(_store);
            var result = await validator.ValidateRequestedResourcesAsync(new IdentityServer4.Validation.ResourceValidationRequest
            {
                Client = _restrictedClient,
                Scopes = scopes
            });

            result.Succeeded.Should().BeFalse();
            result.InvalidScopes.Should().Contain("disabled");
        }

        [Fact]
        [Trait("Category", Category)]
        public async Task All_Scopes_Allowed_For_Restricted_Client()
        {
            var scopes = "openid resource1".ParseScopesString();

            var validator = Factory.CreateResourceValidator(_store);
            var result = await validator.ValidateRequestedResourcesAsync(new IdentityServer4.Validation.ResourceValidationRequest
            {
                Client = _restrictedClient,
                Scopes = scopes
            });

            result.Succeeded.Should().BeTrue();
            result.InvalidScopes.Should().BeEmpty();
        }

        [Fact]
        [Trait("Category", Category)]
        public async Task Restricted_Scopes()
        {
            var scopes = "openid email resource1 resource2".ParseScopesString();

            var validator = Factory.CreateResourceValidator(_store);
            var result = await validator.ValidateRequestedResourcesAsync(new IdentityServer4.Validation.ResourceValidationRequest
            {
                Client = _restrictedClient,
                Scopes = scopes
            });

            result.Succeeded.Should().BeFalse();
            result.InvalidScopes.Should().Contain("email");
            result.InvalidScopes.Should().Contain("resource2");
        }

        [Fact]
        [Trait("Category", Category)]
        public async Task Contains_Resource_and_Identity_Scopes()
        {
            var scopes = "openid resource1".ParseScopesString();

            var validator = Factory.CreateResourceValidator(_store);
            var result = await validator.ValidateRequestedResourcesAsync(new IdentityServer4.Validation.ResourceValidationRequest
            {
                Client = _restrictedClient,
                Scopes = scopes
            });

            result.Succeeded.Should().BeTrue();
            result.Resources.IdentityResources.SelectMany(x => x.Name).Should().Contain("openid");
            result.Resources.ApiScopes.Select(x => x.Name).Should().Contain("resource1");
        }

        [Fact]
        [Trait("Category", Category)]
        public async Task Contains_Resource_Scopes_Only()
        {
            var scopes = "resource1".ParseScopesString();

            var validator = Factory.CreateResourceValidator(_store);
            var result = await validator.ValidateRequestedResourcesAsync(new IdentityServer4.Validation.ResourceValidationRequest
            {
                Client = _restrictedClient,
                Scopes = scopes
            });

            result.Succeeded.Should().BeTrue();
            result.Resources.IdentityResources.Should().BeEmpty();
            result.Resources.ApiScopes.Select(x => x.Name).Should().Contain("resource1");
        }

        [Fact]
        [Trait("Category", Category)]
        public async Task Contains_Identity_Scopes_Only()
        {
            var scopes = "openid".ParseScopesString();

            var validator = Factory.CreateResourceValidator(_store);
            var result = await validator.ValidateRequestedResourcesAsync(new IdentityServer4.Validation.ResourceValidationRequest
            {
                Client = _restrictedClient,
                Scopes = scopes
            });

            result.Succeeded.Should().BeTrue();
            result.Resources.IdentityResources.SelectMany(x => x.Name).Should().Contain("openid");
            result.Resources.ApiResources.Should().BeEmpty();
        }

        [Fact]
        [Trait("Category", Category)]
        public async Task Scope_matches_multipls_apis_should_succeed()
        {
            _apiResources.Clear();
            _apiResources.Add(new ApiResource { Name = "api1", Scopes = { "resource" } });
            _apiResources.Add(new ApiResource { Name = "api2", Scopes = { "resource" } });
            _scopes.Clear();
            _scopes.Add(new ApiScope("resource"));

            var validator = Factory.CreateResourceValidator(_store);
            var result = await validator.ValidateRequestedResourcesAsync(new IdentityServer4.Validation.ResourceValidationRequest
            {
                Client = new Client { AllowedScopes = { "resource" } },
                Scopes = new[] { "resource" }
            });

            result.Succeeded.Should().BeTrue();
            result.Resources.ApiResources.Count.Should().Be(2);
            result.Resources.ApiResources.Select(x => x.Name).Should().BeEquivalentTo(new[] { "api1", "api2" });
            result.RawScopeValues.Count().Should().Be(1);
            result.RawScopeValues.Should().BeEquivalentTo(new[] { "resource" });
        }
    }
}


Get lost in another dimension with a 60-minute virtual reality experience. Rent your own headset to play games and more.
Get lost in another dimension during a virtual reality experience. Rent your own headset to play games and more.
Cables should go overhead so you don't get tangled in them. Multi-player experience was painful. Too much time to get it setup and get everyone into the same game. Even once everyone was in, it wasn't private and there was lots of non-family-friendly cross talk from the other players. More games to choose from would be nice too.
Was hoping to see players networked into same game. The paintball game happened to be down during our time slot. That was really the only disappointing thing. I found the staff to be patient and kind. Clean facilities.
Once we got in and got started, it was really fun! The only problem that I found was in finding where it actually was. I think that if there was a sign outside of Northside Market, it would be much easier for customers to find New Territory. The staff were very polite and treated us well. There was some minor problems in the tech when we first came in, but they made sure that we got our full half hour anyway.


Washington - The US is expected to designate Iran's elite Revolutionary Guards Corps a foreign terrorist organisation, three US officials told Reuters, marking the first time Washington has formally labelled another country's military a terrorist group.
The Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC) is Iran's elite military force whose primary function is not to defend Iran against foreign aggression but to protect the regime from internal and external threats.
A 125,000-man force, the IRGC was established at the end of Iran's 1979 revolution as an elite armed militia whose role was sustain and protect the shaky clerical government that took over after the fall of the Shah's regime. The new rulers saw many of the generals of the traditional Iranian military – known as the Atresh – as still being loyal to the exiled Shah.
The Quds Force is the foreign operations unit of the IRGC, and is led by Brigadier General Qassem Sulaimani, who has emerged as one of the most powerful figures inside Iran. It was established during the Iran–Iraq War (1980-1988). To this day, its biggest undertaking is helping establish Hezbollah as a formidable fighting force in Lebanon, following the 1982 invasion by the Israeli regime. The force has been Iran's primary military actor in neighbouring states, particularly Syria, where it helped prop up the regime of Bashar Al Assad, and Iraq, where it supports a coalition of powerful Shiite militias collectively known as Hashd Al Shaabi. It also backs Al Houthis in Yemen.
In 2007, the US Treasury designated the Quds Force as a terror organisation.
The 'Basij Resistance Force' is a volunteer paramilitary organisation operating under the aegis of the IRGC. It is an auxiliary force that is entrusted with helping sustain internal security, law enforcement, and special religious or political events and morals policing. The Basij, numbering 90,000, have branches in virtually every city and town in Iran.
The Khatam Al Anbiya is an extraordinarily powerful conglomerate that has often been seen as the economic arm of the IRGC. Some have even referred to it as an armed business enterprise. It is a giant holding company with control of at least 800 firms both in Iran and abroad, and it is the recipient of billions of dollars worth of government contracts, often without a tender system.
However, some experts caution against seeing the Khatam Al Anbiya exclusively as the financial wing of the IRGC.


Apple has released the latest version of macOS to the public. The prominent new feature Mojave introduces is a new graphical theme, that Apple has dubbed Dark Mode. It's a gorgeous, rough, yet elegant way to present the operating system you're familiar with. Apps that customize their interface to take full advantage of Dark Mode look right at home and feel great to use.
I'm very proud to say that Denied supports Dark Mode from day one.
While updating the color palette I took the opportunity to re-evaluate all the buttons, switches and other interface elements. Denied was released in 2014 and with this release it's more than ready for 2018 and beyond. You'll notice that it looks stunning in a lighter theme and on previous versions of macOS as well.
This has been a much requested feature and I'm happy to say that it's finally here. iTunes and Apple Music allow us to mark specific songs as disliked. It's a quick and easy way to let iTunes know that you don't want to hear a specific track. You'll be surprised to learn that this doesn't actually prevent iTunes from playing these songs, though.
With the latest update of Denied this can been corrected. If enabled, Denied will will automatically skip over songs being played on iTunes or Apple Music if they're disliked.
A similar feature exists in Spotify, but the property isn't accessible to third-party applications (like Denied). I'm regularly checking if this changes.
I've switched to a new way of checking songs for explicit content. This updated method should be more reliable with more people using Denied every day. I tested it thoroughly and didn't notice any downsides.
If you do pick up on a negative (or positive!) change in how Denied handles explicit tracks, send me a message.
I'm pretty stoked about this update and I think you'll be too. Get version 1.5 in the App Store and consider leaving a five star review while you're there. Reviews are immensely helpful in getting more people to notice Denied, plus it'll make my day.


text:
Q: Transparent alert dialog activity will not act like dialog when placing admob ad at bottom? I am working on small project and i stuck on banner ads implementation. When i place admob ad below to bottom then alert functionality will loose it working means when we click on screen in any corner then this layout will working like dialog but when i add another layout inside this i implement banner adview below then this functionality is not working and i forcefully click the back button to exit the app. I will give small clip for the same in below so that you can understand batter to resolve my issue.
This is my theme.xml

<style name="Transparent" parent="Theme.AppCompat.Light.Dialog">
        <item name="windowNoTitle">true</item>
        <item name="android:windowBackground">@android:color/transparent</item>
        <item name="android:colorBackgroundCacheHint">@null</item>
        <item name="android:windowIsTranslucent">true</item>
        <item name="android:windowAnimationStyle">@android:style/Animation</item>
        <item name="windowActionBar">false</item>

    </style>

This is my layout xml:-

<RelativeLayout xmlns:android="http://schemas.android.com/apk/res/android"
    xmlns:tools="http://schemas.android.com/tools"
    android:layout_width="match_parent"
    android:layout_height="match_parent"
    android:background="#00212121"
    tools:context=".MainActivity">

    <LinearLayout

    //some code here

    </LinearLayout>

    <LinearLayout
        android:layout_width="match_parent"
        android:layout_height="wrap_content"
        android:layout_alignParentBottom="true"
        >
        <com.google.android.gms.ads.AdView
            xmlns:ads="http://schemas.android.com/apk/res-auto"
            android:id="@+id/adView"
            android:layout_width="match_parent"
            android:layout_height="wrap_content"
            ads:adSize="BANNER"
            ads:adUnitId="ca-app-pub-3940256099942544/6300978111">
        </com.google.android.gms.ads.AdView>

    </LinearLayout>

</RelativeLayout>

This is my manifest:

 <activity android:name=".Custom_Settings"
            android:theme="@style/Theme.AppCompat.DayNight.DarkActionBar" />
        <activity
            android:name=".MainActivity"
            android:theme="@style/Transparent">
            <intent-filter>
                <action android:name="android.intent.action.MAIN" />

                <category android:name="android.intent.category.LAUNCHER" />
            </intent-filter>
        </activity>

This is my java :-

 mAdView = findViewById(R.id.adView);
       AdRequest adRequest = new AdRequest.Builder().build();
       mAdView.loadAd(adRequest);

Now if you all not understand this above question then see this two snap this will give you an idea how to resolve this problem.

A: Use this Concept said by AgentP and this works for me:-
give id to your realtive layout say:-

<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8"?>
<RelativeLayout xmlns:android="http://schemas.android.com/apk/res/android"
    xmlns:tools="http://schemas.android.com/tools"
    android:layout_width="match_parent"
    android:layout_height="match_parent"
    android:background="#00212121"
    android:id="@+id/parent_layout"
    tools:context=".MainActivity">

    //some code here

</RelativeLayout>

Now declare and initialize this parent view in oncreate:-

    RelativeLayout parent_layout;
@Override
    protected void onCreate(Bundle bundle) {
        super.onCreate(bundle);
        setContentView(R.layout.activity_main);
         (RelativeLayout)findViewById(R.id.parent_layout);
        //some code here
        }
        parent_layout.setOnClickListener(new View.OnClickListener() {
        @Override
        public void onClick(View v) {
            finish();
        }
    });
                plusbtn.setOnClickListener(new View.OnClickListener() {
            @Override
            public void onClick(View v) {
                Intent intent = new Intent(MainActivity.this, Custom_Settings.class);
                startActivity(intent);
                finish();
            }
        });

Thanks a lot!

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaStackExchange


text:
Trading Skills & Essentials
Trading Lifestyle
Trading Skills & Essentials Trading Basic Education
Decimalization
Reviewed by Will Kenton
What is Decimalization
Decimalization is a system where security prices are quoted using a decimal format rather than fractions. For example, this is a decimal trading quote: $34.25. Using fractions, the same quote would appear as $34 1/4. The U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) ordered all stock markets within the U.S. to convert to decimalization by April 9, 2001. All price quotes since have appeared in the decimal trading format. Before 2001, markets in the United States utilized fractions in price quotes. The switch was made to decimalization to conform to standard international practices and to make it easier for investors to interpret and react to changing price quotes.
BREAKING DOWN Decimalization
Decimalization has led to tighter spreads because of the corresponding smaller price increments and movements. For example, prior to decimalization, one-sixteenth (1/16) of one dollar was the smallest price movement that could be represented in a price quote (this is approximately six cents, or $0.0625). With decimalization, the minimum price movement is now one cent, or $0.01, providing a greater number of price levels, and allowing for tighter spreads between the bid and the ask levels for trading instruments.
History of Decimalization for U.S.-Based Securities
On January 28, 2000, the Securities and Exchange Commission ("Commission") ordered the American Stock Exchange LLC ("AMEX"), the Boston Stock Exchange, Inc. ("BSE"), the Chicago Board Options Exchange, Inc. ("CBOE"), the Chicago Stock Exchange, Inc. ("CHX"), the Cincinnati Stock Exchange, Inc. ("CSE"), the National Association of Securities Dealers, Inc. ("NASD"), the New York Stock Exchange ("NYSE"), the Pacific Exchange, Inc. ("PCX"), and the Philadelphia Stock Exchange, Inc. ("PHLX") to discuss, develop, and submit to the SEC a plan to implement decimal pricing in the equities and options markets beginning no later than July 3, 2000.
The change started in mid-1997, when the SEC urged the exchanges to begin pricing in decimals. The Securities Industry Association and the equities and options markets formed a Decimalization Steering Committee in July 1998 to develop a decimalization implementation plan and coordinate a smooth transition.
The exchanges recommended a phased-in implementation, consisting of four phases, for the conversion to decimal pricing that reduces the risk to the investing public, issuers, exchanges, clearing and depository organizations, and member firms. The phased-in implementation was thought to be the most effective way to ensure that markets would continue to operate in an efficient, orderly, and fair manner during the conversion process. This implementation period (the "Phase-In Period") began on August 28, 2000 and ended with full implementation of decimal pricing for all equities and options by April 9, 2001.
Decimal Trading Definition and History
Decimal trading is a system in which the price of a security is quoted in a decimal format, as opposed to the older format that used fractions.
How Big Is a Tick Size?
Tick size is the minimum price amount a security can move in an exchange. It's expressed in decimal points, which in U.S. markets is $0.01 for stocks.
A teenie, in trading, is a measure of value representing one sixteenth of one point.
Pacific Exchange (PCX) Implemented the First Electronic Trading System
Pacific Exchange (PCX) was one of only four U.S. exchanges to trade equity options and the first to develop and implement an electronic trading system.
NYSE Arca is an electronic securities exchange in the U.S. on which exchange-traded products and equities trade.
CBOE Volatility Index (VIX) Definition
The CBOE Volatility Index, or VIX, is an index created by the Chicago Board Options Exchange (CBOE), which shows the market's expectation of 3-day volatility.
What are all of the securities markets in the U.S.A?
Why did the New York Stock Exchange report prices in fractions before it switched to decimal reporting?
Technical Analysis Basic Education
How to Calculate the Bid-Ask Spread
Options Trading Strategy & Education
Give Yourself More Options With Weekly and Quarterly Options
Introduction To Single Stock Futures


text:
A Character's Journey From Sympathy to Strangeness, Then Back Again: An Interview With Novelist Chris Leslie-Hynan
By Rich Ferguson
A&C Interviews
Chris Leslie-Hynan is a very busy man these days. With the success of his first novel, Ride Around Shining, he has been touring on and off for well over the last year. I caught up with him somewhere around Las Vegas to discuss his novel and also some of the biases and expectations he had to confront when writing about race, class, and envy.
RICH FERGUSON: I recently finished your novel Ride Around Shining (Harper Perennial) and thoroughly enjoyed it. Before I continue with any questions, I was hoping you could summarize the plot of the novel for our TNB audience.
CHRIS LESLIE-HYNAN: Sure. Ride Around Shining is about a white fan's fascination with the life of his black employer, a professional basketball player. It's narrated from the point-of-view of its antagonist, so as Jess (the fan) uses his leverage as a chauffeur to worm his way further into the lives of Calyph (the NBA player) and his wife Antonia, the book seeks to explore white fascination with black athletic culture from inside the mind of a man who is both more sympathetic than a traditional antagonist and a whole lot more creepy than he first seems.
RF: How much of the novel was semi-autobiographical?
CLH: Jess's origins and mine are largely the same — someone raised in the rural Midwest whose first notions of black culture came through watching sports. Much of the fun of the book was shaping a narrator who first seems like a traditional semi-autobiographical stand-in for the writer, then reveals himself to be a voyeuristic misanthrope and a symbol of white strangeness, before at last (arguably) returning to a place where he is sympathetic once more.
RF: What feelings, biases, or expectations did you have to adopt or release in writing a novel about race, class, and envy?
CLH: Lordy. Well, I think it was important to get free from the notion that I could critique the ways that white people are weird around black people objectively. I'm white, so in spite of the fact that so much of the book's accidental research was watching other white people behave strangely, there was no tackling the subject from without. I had to fuse that with as much examination of my own self as possible or it would have felt false. A white guy can't critique white culture without a mirror.
RF: I know that you live in Portland, but beyond that do you feel that Portland plays a deeper, more significant role when creating a novel about race, social class, and the nouveau riche?
CLH: Well, we're the whitest city of our size in America. And until the Timbers were founded and became popular in the last five or six years, we've basically been a one-team town, and that team has traditionally been largely black. I first moved to Portland in 2003, during the end of the Jail Blazers era, when the whole city was heaping abuse on Rasheed Wallace for not being who they wanted him to be. Was there a racial component to that? I thought so.
RF: In writing a novel such as yours, did you feel any sense of moral or ethical responsibility in what you were trying to convey?
CLH: Just to not be a coward. To critique from within and not just without. There's a point in the book where Jess is able to acknowledge a legacy of racism. As a person born in Wisconsin to families from Illinois and Massachusetts it's very tempting to be like "I'm not from the south, so that's not me! I'm innocent, that's not my legacy." But it's not that simple.
RF: There were a few scenes in the book that left me feeling, "Wow, that was uncomfortable. That must've been difficult to write." What would one of those scenes have been for you?
CLH: The final scene with Jess and Shida was certainly the most difficult. A white player misunderstands a situation at a party and tries to have sex with a black woman who's also an employee of a black player. She rebuffs him, violently, and Jess comes into the aftermath with the idea of comforting her. She shows surprising empathy for him, but in spite of his fascination with black male athletes he's essentially never been close to a black woman before so he freaks out and leaves. It was a brutal scene to write because it's the one scene where Jess is truly unforgivable, and knows it.
RF: Most of the book is rather serious, but there were a few humorous moments along the way. What are your thoughts on humor in writing, and how did you figure out when and how to use it in your book?
CLH: I'm glad you noticed that. This interview is making the book seem like a work of complete high moral seriousness, which it's not. This is my first book and I'm not usually reaching for some Crime and Punishment level of heft so I think I owe it to the reader to give them humor where I can find it. For all that a writer wants to move people, on an average day there's nothing better in the world than making the right person (in my case usually a woman, but not always) laugh.
Chris Leslie-Hynan is originally from Wisconsin and attended Carleton College and the Iowa Writers' Workshop. He lives in Portland, Oregon. Ride Around Shining is his first novel.
TAGS: Chris Leslie-Hynan, harperperennial, Portland, Portland Trailblazers, Rich Ferguson, Ride Around Shining
RICH FERGUSON has performed nationally, and has shared the stage with Patti Smith, Wanda Coleman, Exene Cervenka, T.C. Boyle, Jerry Stahl, Bob Holman, Loudon Wainwright, Ozomatli, and many other esteemed poets and musicians. He has performed on The Tonight Show, at the Redcat Theater in Disney Hall, the New York City International Fringe Festival, the Bowery Poetry Club, South by Southwest, the Santa Cruz Poetry Festival, Stephen Elliott's Rumpus, and with UK-based poetry collective One Taste. He is also a featured performer in the film, What About Me? (the sequel to the double Grammy-nominated film 1 Giant Leap), featuring Michael Stipe, Michael Franti, k.d. lang, Krishna Das, and others. He has been published in the LA TIMES, Opium Magazine, has been widely anthologized, spotlighted on PBS (Egg: The Art Show), and was a winner in Opium Magazine's Literary Death Match, LA. His spoken word/music videos have been featured at poetry film festivals throughout the world. Ferguson is a Pushcart-nominated poet, and a poetry editor at The Nervous Breakdown. His poetry collection 8th & Agony has been published by L.A.'s Punk Hostage Press.