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El Jardín de plantas de París (apócope de «Real jardín de las plantas medicinales», términos en francés designados como Jardin des plantes para la apócope usada actualmente y Jardin royal des plantes médicinales para el nombre de origen), con una extensión de 23,5 hectáreas, es un jardín botánico abierto al público. Se encuentra en París, en el 5ème arrondissement (V Distrito) de París, entre la Gran Mezquita, el Campus Universitario de Jussieu y el río Sena.

El jardín botánico, con todos los edificios que contiene, es desde 1635 la sede de una de las principales instituciones francesas de investigación científica. De 1635 a 1793 fue llamado oficialmente Jardin royal des plantes médicinales («Real Jardín de las Plantas Medicinales») pero con el tiempo se le acabó por llamar por la forma abreviada Jardin des plantes («Jardín de plantas»). En 1793 la Revolución francesa cambió el nombre del Jardín Real por el de Muséum national d'histoire naturelle (Museo Nacional de Historia Natural).

Este jardín, con todo lo que contiene (parterres, invernaderos, edificios de exposición al público, laboratorios, casa de fieras, etc.), está inscrito como «Monument Historique (France)» MH (1992).

El jardín botánico y su anexo el Arboreto de Chèvreloup están inscritos en la asociación de ámbito francófono Jardines botánicos de Francia y de los países francófonos (Jardins botaniques de France et des pays francophones).

El jardín botánico y su anexo el Arboreto de Chèvreloup asimismo tienen código de identificación como miembro del "Botanic Gardens Conservation Internacional" (BGCI), así como las siglas de su herbario es P.

Localización
Jardin des plantes de Paris, Muséum national d'histoire naturelle, Département des Jardins botaniques et Zoologiques, Case postale 45, 57 rue Cuvier, Paris F-75005 France-Francia.

Planos y vistas satelitales.

El Arboreto de Chevreloup:
Arboretum de Chèvreloup Parc du château de Versailles 30, route de Versailles, Rocquencourt, Yvelines, Île-de-France, France-Francia.

Planos y vistas satelitales.

Atractivos del jardín

Una gran vista panorámica (500 m de largo por 3 ha) se extiende desde la plaza Valhubert, cerca de la orilla del Sena, con la Gran Galería de la Evolución visible al fondo. Sus parterres a la francesa están bordeados por hileras de plátanos de Indias. A partir del mes de abril, los parterres están en flor y las colecciones de flores vivas cambian regularmente, totalizando unas mil variedades de plantas cultivadas.

La perspectiva se divide en dos explanadas: la explanada Milne-Edwards, con el nombre del director del Museo de 1890 a 1900, que se encuentra frente a la Gran Galería de la Evolución, y la explanada de Lamarck, por el lado del Sena.

La explanada Milne-Edward sobre la zooteca situada en el subsuelo, que reúne unos cientos de miles de animales disecados, insectos, serpientes, reptiles y mamíferos. Frente a la Galería, en la cabecera de esta explanada, se encuentra una estatua en bronce de Buffon, obra de Jean Carlus (1908).

Edificios, invernaderos, jardines y parterres

El Jardín de las Plantas está subdividido en varios espacios a los que también se da eventualmente el nombre de jardines. De una manera general, la superficie del Jardín de las Plantas se reparte entre dos grandes áreas, la mitad sur o «jardín a la francesa» (de ordenación geométrica) y la mitad norte o «jardín a la inglesa» (de ordenación asimétrica, en imitación de la naturaleza).

El jardín a la francesa, al que se accede por el lado del Río Sena por la verja de la plaza Valhubert (la entrada principal del Jardín) y por un acceso situado en la calle Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, contiene los siguientes edificios y jardines:

 Las cuatro galerías destinadas a las exposiciones permanentes: la Galería de Mineralogía y Geología, la Gran Galería de la Evolución, la Galería de Paleontología y Anatomía Comparada y la Galería de Botánica.
 La antigua casa de la intendencia (llamada la «casa de Buffon», o también «casa de Lamarck», debido a que estos célebres naturalistas vivieron en ella). Actualmente este edificio alberga diferentes oficinas, entre ellas una de las oficinas de las Ediciones del Museo de Historia Natural (Éditions du Muséum).
 Los cinco invernaderos del jardín: el invernadero de las junglas tropicales húmedas, el invernadero de los desiertos y medios áridos, el invernadero de las plantas de Nueva Caledonia, el invernadero de la historia de las plantas, y los invernaderos curvos (todos son visitables excepto los invernaderos curvos, que están destinados a los jardineros y al personal botánico del Museo de Historia Natural).
 La biblioteca central del Museo Nacional de Historia Natural de Francia. Está construida completamente adosada a dos de los cuatro muros periféricos de la Gran Galería de la Evolución. Se accede a la biblioteca desde el interior del Jardín de las Plantas pero también desde otras dos entradas: desde el interior de la Gran Galería de la Evolución y desde una entrada en el exterior del jardín, la entrada de acceso situada en la calle Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire.
 En el interior, en la proximidad inmediata del acceso a la biblioteca central, se encuentra el acceso a la zooteca del Museo Nacional de Historia Natural de Francia. La zooteca es un búnker subterráneo que fue cavado y construido cuando en los años 1970 y 1980 se efectuaban las obras de refección de la antigua Galería de Zoología (Gran Galería de la Evolución). Desde que fue inaugurada en 1986, la zooteca oficia de almacén principalmente para todas las colecciones zoológicas relacionadas con los especímenes naturalizados.
 El jardín a la francesa propiamente dicho, también llamado la «perspectiva del Jardín de las Plantas». Efectivamente, cuando se entra por la verja de la plaza Valhubert, se ve en perspectiva toda esta parte del Jardín, con la estatua de Lamarck justo delante y al fondo la estatua de Buffon y la fachada de la Gran Galería de la Evolución. Esta extensa porción del Jardín está cubierta de numerosos parterres cuadrangulares y expone al público numerosas especies de plantas y árboles.
 El jardín de las peonías (jardin des pivoines). Entrando por la verja de la plaza Valhubert, a mano derecha se accede al parterre Brongniart (carré Brongniart) también llamado «jardín de rocas y peonías» (jardin de roches et de pivoines) o «jardín de las peonías» (jardin des pivoines). Es un parterre en el que se exponen rocas que muestran la diversidad geológica del planeta, diversidad ilustrada por muestras de rocas de todo tipo (sedimentarias, magmáticas, volcánicas y metamórficas). Estas muestras de rocas están expuestas entre diferentes variedades plantadas de peonías del Japón.
 El jardín ecológico (jardin écologique) es un gran parterre dejado expresamente en estado baldío para la observación de comportamientos naturales: arraigamiento espontáneo de las especies vegetales salvajes de la región parisina y avistamientos o instalación sedentaria de especies animales salvajes.
 El jardín de simples (jardin des simples), contiguo al jardín ecológico, es un pequeño parterre que hace parte del jardín ecológico y que recibe su nombre en honor a la época en que el Jardín de las Plantas todavía se llamaba Real jardín de las plantas medicinales, pues «las simples» (tanto en español como en francés: les simples) es otro nombre con el que se conocen las plantas medicinales.
 La escuela de botánica (école de botanique).
 El jardín alpino (jardin alpin).
 La rosaleda (roseraie).
 El jardín de los iris y de las plantas vivaces (jardin des iris et des plantes vivaces), también conocido como el «parterre de los iris» (carré des iris).

Al jardín a la inglesa se accede desde dos pequeños senderos situados a lo largo de un sendero mayor, el sendero Cuvier (allée Cuvier) pero también se accede a él desde el exterior del jardín por la verja de la esquina formada por el encuentro de la calle Cuvier y la calle Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, además del acceso al jardín desde el número 57 de la calle Cuvier. El jardín a la inglesa contiene los siguientes edificios y jardines:

 La Casa de fieras del Jardín de plantas (ménagerie du Jardin des plantes), que contiene a su vez parterres, edificios y laboratorios, obviamente además de los recintos y jaulas destinados a albergar a los animales. La Casa de Fieras es el segundo zoo más antiguo del mundo todavía en actividad: fue fundado en 1794 mientras que el zoo de Viena fue fundado en 1752.
 Los «laberintos», que son dos elevaciones del terreno a las que se accede por una rampa situada entre los dos invernaderos del arquitecto Charles Rohault de Fleury. El «pequeño laberinto» (petit labyrinthe) está cerrado al público y consiste en un pequeño terreno baldío destinado a la observación de aves e insectos sociales. El «gran laberinto» (grand labyrinthe) está constituido por la colina Coypeau y es el punto culminante del Jardín de las Plantas. La colina está coronada por la glorieta de Buffon, un pequeño belvedere enteramente construido en metal en 1788 por las forjas de Buffon en Borgoña. Este pequeño belvedere es la más antigua estructura artquitectónica de Francia en haber sido enteramente construida en metal y se puede acceder a él desde la base de la colina, recorriendo un pequeño sendero que rodea la colina en espiral serpenteando desde abajo hasta arriba. El gran laberinto contiene también plantas y árboles de gran valor histórico, entre estos últimos uno de los más antiguos cedros del Líbano, plantado en el Jardín de las Plantas por el botánico francés Bernard de Jussieu en 1734.
 La fuente de los leones (fontaine aux lions). Es una reserva de agua situada al pie de la colina del gran laberinto. Hoy en día está en desuso pero todavía pueden admirarse sobre ella los dos leones de bronce que decoran la fuente desde 1863, obra del escultor Henri Jacquemont.
 El pabellón de los nuevos conversos (pavillon des nouveaux convertis). Desde la Revolución francesa son oficinas del Museo de Historia Natural pero si este edificio recibe tal nombre es porque en los siglos XVII y XVIII había sido la sede de un grupo caritativo cristiano que obraba en pro de la religión católica.
 El palacete de Magny (hôtel de Magny), una de las sedes administrativas del Museo Nacional de Historia Natural de Francia. Acabado de construir en 1700, este palacete privado (en francés hôtel particulier), se encontraba en las inmediaciones del Real Jardín de las Plantas Medicinales. Buffon lo adquirió en 1787 junto con sus jardines y añadió todo el lote al perímetro del Jardín de las Plantas. Desde 1793, con la creación del Museo Nacional de Historia Natural, los profesores del Museo eligieron el salón de honor del palacete de Magny como sala destinada a recibir sus asambleas. En la actualidad el palacete de Magny contiene los salones de honor en los que se recibe a personajes importantes, además de que es a la parte trasera de este edificio a donde se dirigen todos los correos postales que más tarde son redistribuidos a los diferentes servicios, laboratorios y departamentos del Museo.
 El anfiteatro Verniquet (amphithéâtre Verniquet), también conocido como el «Gran Anfiteatro» (grand Amphithéâtre). Cuando Buffon hizo comprar el lote de jardines del palacete de Magny, enseguida ordenó al arquitecto Edme Verniquet la construcción de un gran anfiteatro docente en el espacio anteriormente ocupado por los jardines del palacete. Se empezó a construir el anfiteatro en ese mismo año, en 1787, pero Buffon, que había fallecido desde 1788, nunca pudo asistir a la inauguración del Gran Anfiteatro del Jardín de plantas. Se inauguró finalmente en enero de 1795 y, desde entonces, el Museo Nacional de Historia Natural lo ha utilizado y lo sigue utilizando para su principal función, la docencia de la enseñanza superior, la ponencia de conferencias, y la celebración de coloquios y eventos. Desde el siglo XXI también pueden llevarse a cabo en este anfiteatro proyecciones de películas y documentales.
 El edificio de la ballena (bâtiment de la baleine). Este edificio era, originariamente en el siglo XVIII, uno de los edificios administrativos de la compañía de los coches de caballos de París (el equivalente actual de los taxis). En 1795 la Revolución suprimió ese organismo y confiscó el edificio, añadiéndolo al Jardín de las Plantas, del que era contiguo longitudinalmente por el lado de la actual calle Cuvier. En 1802, Georges Cuvier ocupó por primera vez el puesto de profesor de la cátedra de anatomía de los animales. Lo primero que hizo fue rebautizar la cátedra como «cátedra de anatomía comparada» (disciplina de la que él mismo era el fundador) e instalar en el antiguo edificio administrativo de los coches de caballos de París un nuevo espacio para las colecciones osteológicas, las primeras Galerías de Anatomía Comparada, que Cuvier hizo abrir al público por primera vez en 1806. Las colecciones migraron más tarde en 1898 a la actual Galería de Paleontología y Anatomía Comparada y en el siglo XX se destruyó parte del edificio para, desde el acceso de la calle Cuvier, instalar nuevos laboratorios. Sin embargo, de las dos alas que constituían el edificio de la ballena queda todavía un ala, en la que hoy en día el Museo de Historia Natural ha instalado un anfiteatro docente, el anfiteatro Rouelle, además de que en el cuerpo principal del edificio el Museo ha autorizado la implantación de un restaurante. El edificio de la ballena se llama así debido a un esqueleto de ballena que estuvo expuesto a la entrada del edificio entre mediados del siglo XIX y mediados del siglo XX.
 La casa de Cuvier (maison de Cuvier). Se llama así a este pequeño edificio porque uno de sus residentes fue el célebre naturalista Georges Cuvier (1769-1832). La casa de Cuvier es directamente adyacente al edificio de la ballena. A finales del siglo XIX, el edificio contenía el laboratorio en el que Henri Becquerel descubrió la radiactividad en 1896. En la actualidad la planta baja alberga la secretaría de la Sociedad de Amigos del Museo Nacional de Historia Natural y del Jardín de plantas (Société des Amis du Muséum national d'histoire naturelle et du Jardin des plantes).

Las galerías
El Museo Nacional de Historia Natural de Francia llama «galerías» a los edificios o espacios dedicados a las exposiciones permanentes. Dentro del Jardín de las Plantas, los edificios llamados «galerías» son cuatro:

 La Galería de Mineralogía y Geología (galerie de Minéralogie et de Géologie, inaugurada en 1837 y abierta al público en 1840)
 La Gran Galería de la Evolución (grande galerie de l'Évolution, inaugurada en 1889 como la galerie de Zoologie -«Galería de Zoología»- pero restaurada y rebautizada con su nombre actual en 1994)
 La Galería de Paleontología y Anatomía Comparada (inaugurada en 1898)
 La Galería de Botánica (inaugurada en 1935)

La galería de Mineralogía y Geología fue inaugurada en 1837 en presencia del rey Luis Felipe I pero no fue abierta al público hasta 1840. Este edificio fue el primero en Francia en haber sido construido con el propósito de ser un museo. Dividido en tres partes, a este edificio se lo llamó primero nouvelle Galerie (Nueva Galería) o grande Galerie (Gran Galería) porque en realidad estaba concebido para albergar tres galerías además de la biblioteca del Museo Nacional de Historia Natural. Bajo el frontón triangular del acceso oriental se accedía a la antigua Galería de Botánica (transferida en 1935 con la construcción de un edificio completo para tal efecto, la actual galería de Botánica) y a la galería de Geología (desmantelada en los años 1990). En los locales desafectados de la antigua Galería de Botánica, el paleontólogo Jean-Pierre Lehman hizo instalar en 1972 la desaparecida galería de Paleobotánica (cerrada al público en 1998 y completamente desmantelada en 2005). En cuanto a la antigua Galería de Geología, que ocupaba la nave central del edificio, fue desmantelada a finales de los años 1990, pero el Museo Nacional de Historia Natural utiliza de todos modos este espacio para exposiciones temporales. Bajo el frontón triangular del acceso occidental se accedía a la antigua biblioteca y a la Galería de Mineralogía. La biblioteca del Museo migró en 1963 con la apertura e inauguración de la actual biblioteca central del Museo, situada cerca, al otro lado del edificio de la Gran Galería de la Evolución. En cuanto a la antigua Galería de Mineralogía, ha sido restaurada y rediseñada en 2014 y todavía sigue abierta al público.

La gran galería de la Evolución era la antigua galería de Zoología (inaugurada en 1889) pero un obús la dañó gravemente durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial y se fue deteriorando progresivamente hasta que tuvo que ser cerrada en 1965. En los años 1970 se empezó a proponer un plan de restauración y de modernización y las obras empezaron a mediados de los años 1980. La galería fue reconvertida y rebautizada en 1994 con su nombre actual para mostrar al público los mecanismos de la evolución y de la biodiversidad.

La galería de Paleontología y Anatomía Comparada fue inaugurada en 1898 con tres galerías en el interior: la Galería de Anatomía Comparada (galerie d'Anatomie comparée) en la planta baja, la Galería de Paleontología (galerie de Paléontologie) en el primer piso, y la Galería de Antropología (galerie d'Anthropologie) en el segundo piso (el segundo piso es en realidad un altillo que le da la vuelta a la parte alta del primer piso). En 1937 las colecciones de antropología fueron transferidas al Museo del Hombre y desde entonces el segundo piso está también ocupado por la paleontología, de ahí el nombre actual del edificio: «Galería de Paleontología y de Anatomía Comparada».

Como ha sido indicado más arriba, la antigua galería de Botánica (galerie de Botanique) estaba localizada desde 1837 en el ala oriental del edificio de la Galería de Mineralogía y de Geología. Sin embargo, la progresiva acumulación de muestras y especímenes hizo que con el tiempo esta primera galería de botánica faltase claramente de espacio (el herbario del Museo Nacional de Historia Natural de Francia es el mayor del mundo: está constituido por casi 8 millones de especímenes). Así es como a principios de los años 1930 la Fundación Rockefeller financió con su mecenazgo la construcción de un nuevo edificio para albergar las colecciones inertes de muestras de plantas y hongos. La nueva galería de Botánica, todavía utilizada en la actualidad, fue finalmente inaugurada en 1935. Desde 2013 el billete de acceso a la galería de Botánica da también acceso a los cuatro invernaderos visitables del jardín (y viceversa: el pago del billete para visitar los invernaderos da también acceso a la Galería de Botánica).

Los invernaderos
De los cinco invernaderos que hay en el jardín, cuatro están abiertos al público. Aunque en el pasado dos de ellos tuvieron armazones de madera (los invernaderos curvos y los «invernaderos coloniales»), todos en la actualidad son de armazón metálico. Los cinco invernaderos se encuentran alineados contiguamente uno detrás de otro, a lo largo de la perspectiva principal del jardín. Los invernaderos son los siguientes:

 El invernadero de las junglas tropicales húmedas (designado hasta 2010 como el «jardín de invierno»)
 Adosado a lo largo del invernadero anteriormente citado se encuentra el invernadero de los desiertos y medios áridos (designado hasta 2010 como los «invernaderos coloniales»)
 El invernadero de las plantas de Nueva Caledonia (designado hasta 2010 como el «invernadero mexicano»)
 El invernadero de la historia de las plantas (designado hasta 2010 como el «invernadero australiano»)
 Los invernaderos curvos (destinados al mantenimiento de las plantas del Jardín, estos invernaderos están cerrados al público, sólo están abiertos al personal botánico del Museo Nacional de Historia Natural de Francia)

El invernadero de las junglas tropicales húmedas fue inaugurado en 1937 y es el mayor de los cinco. De estilo art déco, de 750 m², de clima cálido y permanentemente húmedo (22 °C), es obra del arquitecto René Berger. Aquí se encuentran las plantas trepadoras, los ficus, las palmeras y las bananeras. Los invernaderos coloniales fueron construidos en madera y vidrio en los años 1930 e irremediablemente dañados durante la tormenta de finales de diciembre de 1999. Fueron reconstruidos a partir de 2005 e inaugurados en 2010 con un nuevo nombre y un nuevo propósito bajo la forma del actual invernadero de los desiertos y medios áridos. El invernadero de las plantas de Nueva Caledonia y el invernadero de la historia de las plantas son dos invernaderos gemelos. Obra de Charles Rohault de Fleury durante la primera mitad de los años 1830, los dos fueron inaugurados en 1836. Estos dos invernaderos fueron precursores de la arquitectura metálica en Francia. El invernadero de la historia de las plantas tiene la particularidad de alternar especímenes vivos actuales con especímenes fósiles aparentados, lo cual es una herramienta pedagógica muy útil para mostrar al público el curso evolutivo de las plantas.

La Ménagerie

La Ménagerie («casa de fieras») es uno de los más antiguos parques zoológicos del mundo: se creó oficialmente en 1793 por iniciativa de Bernardin de Saint-Pierre aunque no abrió sus puertas al público hasta diciembre de 1794. Los fondos del parque estaban formados por los animales que se transfirieron desde la Ménagerie real de Versalles y de las casas de fieras privadas y extranjeras.

Actualmente alberga unos 1.100 animales, entre mamíferos, reptiles y pájaros, con unas 5,5 hectáreas de extensión, antiguamente ocupadas por los aserraderos de madera. Su cometido actual es el de preservar las especies en vías de extinción, como por ejemplo el caballo de Prjevalski, en coordinación con otras instituciones pertenecientes al museo. La casa de fieras abarca también un microzoo, donde se encuentran los artrópodos que nos acompañan en nuestra vida diaria, visibles con lupa binocular, así mismo un vivarium compuesto de reptiles de pequeño tamaño, de anfibios y de insectos.

El jardín alpino
El jardín alpino, se creó en 1931, con la intención de estudiar las plantas arbustivas y herbáceas de media montaña del mundo entero (Himalayas, Alpes, Córcega, etc.).
Alberga más de 2.000 plantas en dos zonas conectadas por un pasaje subterráneo.

En el jardín se encuentra un árbol de pistachos macho, a partir del cual el botánico Sébastien Vaillant puso en evidencia la sexualidad de los vegetales en el siglo XVIII.

La escuela de botánica
Aquí se encuentran unas 4500 variedades de arbustos y de plantas, esta escuela fue creada por el botánico André Thouin en el siglo XVIII.

La intención de esta colección, es la de presentar, de manera comprensible para el público, las especies susceptibles de vivir en nuestro medio ambiente rural.
Aquí se encuentran también algunos árboles históricos.
Los jardineros del Museo imparten numerosos cursos específicos.

La rosaleda
Creada en 1990 longitudinalmente delante de la fachada de la Galería de Mineralogía y Geología, en la rosaleda del jardín se presentan al público las diferentes subespecies de rosas, expuestas de un modo ameno y fácilmente identificables.

La rosaleda expone 170 variedades vivas de rosas europeas, plantadas a lo largo del sendero Haüy (allée Haüy). El sendero debe su nombre a René Just Haüy, pionero en el desarrollo de la cristalografía, quien además enriqueció las colecciones de mineralogía del edificio adyacente al sendero, la galería de Mineralogía y Geología. La rosaleda, justo delante del edificio, está adornada con dos estatuas: El amor prisionero de Félix Sanzel, y Venus genitrix de Louis-Marie Dupaty.

Historia
Creado en 1635, el Jardin royal des plantes médicinales («Real jardín de las plantas medicinales», conocido también como le Jardin du roi, «el Jardín del rey») es rebautizado por la Revolución francesa en 1793 como el Muséum national d'histoire naturelle (Museo Nacional de Historia Natural). El jardín mismo, ya sin el adjetivo de royal («real») pasa desde entonces a ser conocido simplemente como «Jardín de las plantas».

La Revolución había estallado poco después de la muerte de Buffon (intendente del Jardin du roi), e implicó numerosos cambios en la organización del Jardín. Aquí el inicio del texto de la fundación, redactado por los mismos científicos, a petición de la Asamblea Nacional:
 Artículo I: El establecimiento se nombrará Museum d'Histoire Naturelle.
 Artículo II: El objetivo principal del establecimiento será la enseñanza pública de la historia natural, en toda su extensión, y aplicada al avance de la agricultura, del comercio y de las artes.
 Artículo III: El Museo de Historia Natural estará bajo la protección inmediata de los representantes de la Nación.
 Artículo IV: Todos los funcionarios del Museo de Historia Natural tendrán el título de profesores.
 Artículo V: Todos los profesores del Museo tendrán los mismos derechos y deberes.

A fin de conservar el salario elevado de Daubenton, los científicos le nombraron a él y a Buffon como los fundadores del Museo, y Daubenton, entonces con una edad de 74 años, fue nombrado como director de por vida. Siguió un tiempo confuso, en el que el gobierno tuvo otros asuntos más urgentes que tratar. En 1791, Bernardin de Saint-Pierre fue nombrado intendente del Jardín.

Referencias

Véase también
Castor y Pollux (elefantes)

Enlaces externos

 Página oficial del Jardin des plantes
 Página oficial del Jardin des plantes, en la web del Muséum national d'histoire naturelle
 Página oficial del Muséum national d'histoire naturelle

Bibliografía
 Michel Van Praët, Geneviève Meurgues: Le Cabinet d'histoire du Jardin des plantes, MNHN París, 2006;
 Yves Laissus: Le Muséum national d'histoire naturelle, Gallimard, París, 1995;
 Stéphane Déligeorges, Alexandre Gady et Françoise Labalette: Le Jardin des plantes et le Muséum national d'histoire naturelle, Monum, París, 2004, ISBN 2-85822-601-6;
 Philippe Jaussaud et Édouard Raoul Brygoo, Du Jardin au Muséum en 516 biographies, MNHN París, 2004, ISBN 2-85653-565-8.

Plantes, Jardín des
Plantes, Jardín des
Plantes, Jardín des
Plantes, Jardín des
Plantes, Jardín des
Monumentos históricos de Francia
Plantes, Jardín des
Plantes, Jardín des
V Distrito de París


We are located in Pays des Collines, just at the Flemish and Walloon border of Belgium. I am Felix Ho. Since the early age of three, I've always been fascinated by animals especially dogs. Growing up in Hong Kong, one of the busiest and most populated cities in the world, owning a dog can be a rather luxury hobby. When I was about seven, after a long period of my nagging, my dad brought home my first German Shepherd pup, Blackie. Due to my family's lack of experience about bringing up a puppy, we had to take him back to RSPCA after a short time. However, Blackie somehow planted a burning desire in my head about working with dogs when I grow up.


This page helps answer: how do I use the word congratulated in a sentence? How do you use congratulated in a sentence? Can you give me a sentence for the word congratulated?
Example sentences with the word congratulated, a sentence example for congratulated, and congratulated in sample sentence.


The election officials seized gold jewels worth Rs 8 crore from a private delivery van on Monday. When the flying squad officials were checking vehicles on GST Road near Kathipara flyover on Monday morning, they intercepted a van belonging to a delivery agency and seized the gold jewels.
When inquired, the employee Senthil Aathipan said that the gold arrived at the Chennai airport cargo from Bengaluru and that they were supplying it to various shops in the city.
However, they could not produce valid documents to substantiate their claim after which the gold weighing about 25 kg was seized. It was handed over to the Alandur treasury.


I purchased my first Synth and I am having issues figuring out how to get sounds from my synth to Logic 9. Basically I want to play the sounds that are on the synth and have them record into Logic and if possible be able to edit notes from the recorded sounds once they are in Logic.
Connect both your midi and audio connections from your synth to your audio and midi interfaces (or directly to your computer - depending on what midi and audio hardware you may be using). You can then record the MIDI data into Logic on an external MIDI track so that it is in a state where it is available for editing. When you want to finalize it and convert it into audio you can bounce the track to audio.
If you want to record as audio straight in from your synth you can easily do that on an audio track. But your editing options will be greatly limited. You won't be able to actually edit the "notes" and will have to deal with the audio file as a whole. Which is fine if it's basic cut copy paste type of editing that you are looking for. But not so good for more nuanced editing of the actual part.


The district court of Düsseldorf, Germany, has acquitted Ralf S., the 52-year-old defendant on trial for the bombing attack on the Düsseldorf-Wehrhahn train station 18 years ago. Despite considerable evidence pointing to S. as the perpetrator, he walks out of court as a free man.
The ruling by presiding judge Rainer Drees will encourage free rein to neo-Nazis for their hatred of foreigners.
The avowed xenophobe and anti-Semite Ralf S., who at least 18 years ago was well-connected in the Düsseldorf neo-Nazi scene, was accused of remotely detonating a pipe bomb filled with TNT at the Wehrhahn S-Bahn station in Düsseldorf on July 27, 2000.
Seven women and three men sustained injuries which in some instances were life-threatening. A piece of shrapnel killed a pregnant woman's unborn baby. The victims were mainly young Jewish men from Eastern Europe who studied German at a nearby language school. Many of the injured are still traumatized today. That the court acquitted Ralf S. was a great disappointment to them.
The state prosecutor's office charged S. with 12 counts of attempted murder and compiled a compelling chain of evidence. Based on this evidence, chief prosecutor Ralf Herrenbrück considered S. guilty and announced he intended to appeal the ruling to the Federal Supreme Court. According to Herrenbrück, the defendant "overfulfilled" the criminal profile drawn up by experts.
S. was among the suspects from the beginning, but the case only got going in 2014, when S., in jail for failure to pay fines, bragged to a fellow inmate that he had carried out the attack. S. was finally arrested in February 2017.
During the trial, the former neo-Nazi Holger P. also appeared as a witness. S. had also bragged to him about the crime while in detention pending trial, because he had taken P. for a kindred spirit. S. confessed to him that he had carried out the attack. "The thing didn't go like he expected, because he wanted everybody there to die," Holger P. said of the conversation.
But there was still a baby killed, responded P., according to his own statement. S. is said to have answered that one could call it a "successful euthanasia." S. saw himself as a hero. "As a soldier for Germany who had to save the honour of his country," P. testified.
From the beginning of the trial, the judge adopted a line sympathetic to the defence. Whether or not S. was the perpetrator was essentially still an open question, and the evidence did not prove his commission of the crime. Drees had already taken this view months earlier. In mid-May he released the defendant from pre-trial detention because there was supposedly not enough suspicion against him.
But the judge was instrumental in arriving at the present outcome of an acquittal on the principle of "in doubt, for the accused." He either did not believe witnesses from the beginning because they were "mentally unstable" like Holger P., or he interrogated them for so long—like the fellow inmate from 2014—that they began to contradict themselves.
The judge gave no more credence to the testimony by S.'s former girlfriend that she had seen the bomb in an additional apartment he rented four to five days before the attack, than he did to her testimony that S. had announced the attack around a year before. "I'll blow them up," he once said.
The judge played down contradictions in the testimony of S. and even his self-incrimination. S. was a man who had a strong tendency to show off, who "lied incessantly" to his fellow inmates.
The police had overheard S. say: "When you look at it that way, what I did at Wehrhahn was just an abortion—ah, what I could have done." The judge interpreted the last half-sentence in favour of the defendant.
When he told his former wife that their children were the three great fortunes of his life, "and if you add the Wehrhahn thing, it's four," it could have just been irony from the judge's point of view. There was ultimately a restraining order imposed on the father.
The prosecution introduced as important evidence against S. that he was identified by witnesses as the man who sat on an electrical junction box during the explosion and after the explosion slowly walked away instead of caring for the victims. A facial composite of the man was created with the help of one witness.
His companion at the time identified S. from this sketch without any doubts. Chief prosecutor Herrenbrück declared, if one superimposed this sketch and the photo from S.'s identification card, one could see it was the same person.
The court, however, maintained that S. made a phone call from his apartment just a few minutes after the crime. He could not, therefore, have been the man from the facial composite sketch. S. lived close by the scene of the attack.
The coincidences are endless, commented Herrenbrück. "This mystery man must have looked and dressed like the defendant. That doesn't exist." Herrenbrück made the serious accusation against the court that the chamber had let itself be deceived.
The result, as in the NSU trial, is that the defendants come away with lenient sentences or are acquitted and important questions are ignored. In the Wehrhahn trial, the question is once again left open as to whether the state intelligence services were involved.
According to the 1999 Report on the Protection of the Constitution, "well-established right-wing extremist structures" had taken root in Düsseldorf. The secret service closely monitored the Düsseldorf neo-Nazi scene, in which Ralf S. was firmly entrenched.
His statements about the North Rhine-Westphalian secret service are therefore highly suspicious. Ralf S. claims their V-Leute, or confidential informants, wanted to lure him into a trap after the attack. One of them allegedly provided him with 1,200 marks for one year—why? Another encouraged him to experiment with explosive materials. He did not provide further details about these incidents.
Dominik Schumacher of Mobile Counselling against Right-wing Extremism, who followed the entire trial, said after the verdict: "For example, there was a V-Mann active in the immediate vicinity of the defendant." He was speaking of the former skinhead André M.


The \'Parineeta\' protagonist\'s initial struggle had a silver lining when her parents who were opposing her choice to be in films, later wanted at least one of her films completed.
PANAJI: Bollywood actress Vidya Balan said she was labelled as jinxed in the industry as her projects were getting shelved.
"My family went with the perception of Cinema of being big bad world. I told my parents that I will do one film and I will quit. I got signed for Malayalam film which was shelved.
"Later there were about three films that I was part of which were shelved. I was labelled jinxed. I was thrown out of the film because of that," Balan said at the ongoing 'Women Economic Forum' here.
The 'Parineeta' protagonist said her initial struggle had a silver lining when her parents who were opposing her choice to be in the films, later wanted that at least one film of her should be completed.
The 37-year-old actress said when she was going through a rough phase and was shooting a song for 'Euphoria' (band), she met Pradeep Sarkar (director of Parineeta) who offered her the film, which she thought would not be completed.
"I met Pradeep Sarkar during shooting of Euphoria. He said I will do the film with you.. I said 'kitne aye kitne gaye' (so many came and went) I did not believe him but I later did Parineeta with him," she recalled.
"When I was growing up, I did not like my name because it was old fashioned. Every alternate girl had that name. My sister was Priya but still I liked her name," the 37-year-old actress said.
"It was much later that I began to appreciate the name that my parents have given me.. I started liking it when one of the guy told me that Vidya is such old world name and you are old world charm," she said.
"Only two things that they have held me together is my family and my faith. I am irreligious. I don't pray to particular god but I pray to supreme God. I am eternally optimistic. I know that if the sun go down it has to come up," she added.
Vidya admitted that she came into the industry being a selfish odd girl.
"I thought I was the best actress ever born. Parineeta convinced me. For someone who wanted one complete film, it was a big deal," she said.
"But slowly criticism started happening. I suddenly began to be criticised and there came a stage where everything I did or did not do was being criticised. I was completely confused," Vidya said.


The half board is a formula including the dinner and the breakfast the next morning.
If you book in advance (24hrs minimum), you will be able to enjoy the special half board rate : make your choice for your 3 courses in our "carte". Some dish will have an extra charge. .
The reservations must be guaranteed by a valid bank card with expiration date. Bookings will be automatically cancelled if invalid number.
We accept Visa cards, Eurocard, MasterCard and American Express.
Cancellation more than 10 days prior expected arrival date: no fees.
Cancellation between 10 and 3 days prior expected arrival date: 50% cancellation fees of total amount confirmed booking (with max of 3 nights), charged on credit card.
Cancellation within 3 days prior arrival, or no-show: 100% cancellation fees of total amount confirmed booking.
In the case of departure prior to the confirmed date, please inform reception at least 48 hours in advance of your new departure date. If not, the whole stay as reserved will be charged by way of compensation.
Rooms are available from 03.00pm.
We keep all reservations guaranteed until 07.00pm.
Please, advise us in case of late arrival.
The day of your departure, check-out is at 11am.


text:
Q: What do you call a number that is not a factor of another? If $2$ is a factor of $4$, what would $3$ be? A non-factor? Anti-factor?
I've tried searching for this online but I couldn't find an answer for some odd reason. Maybe I'm looking in the wrong spots.

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaStackExchange


text:
Mid-Herts ladies pitch in for Herts after outstanding trophy success
Published: 5:11 PM July 10, 2008
Updated: 2:30 AM February 23, 2021
MID-HERTS Golf Club will represent Hertfordshire in the Inter-County finals after winning the coveted Pearson Trophy to add to their impressive recent success. There were 38 clubs competing in the event running throughout the last few months
MID-HERTS Golf Club will represent Hertfordshire in the Inter-County finals after winning the coveted Pearson Trophy to add to their impressive recent success.
There were 38 clubs competing in the event running throughout the last few months and more than 300 lady players contested 500 matches.
Mid-Herts Golf Club, based at Gustard Wood near Wheathampstead, booked their place in the semi finals held at Batchworth Park on Monday, June 30. After a testing seven hours of golf, beating Moor Park in the semi-finals and Sandy Lodge in the final, Mid-Herts were able to celebrate victory. Captain of the Mid-Herts Pearson team, Clare Dew, said: "The squad was absolutely fantastic. I am so proud of each and every one of them."
The Pearson Trophy, now in its 98th year, is played for in four counties. The Mid-Herts team will now go on to represent Hertfordshire in the Inter County Finals against Surrey, Kent and Middlesex to be held on July 25 in Surrey at West Hill Golf Club.
This victory adds to the club's many recent successes. Mid-Herts boast the Ladies County Champion, the Herts Professional Champion, previous winners of the Mail on Sunday National Club Classic (2006) and the runner-up in the Men's County Championship. Mid-Herts golfer Hannah Burke has been invited to enter the Ladies English Open.
Mid-Herts Golf Club is holding an Open Day on Sunday, August 3, for potential new members between 1pm and 4pm. There will be drinks and food in the club house, a fun putting competition and an opportunity to play nine holes with a member. Guests will have a complimentary golf swing and golf club 'check up' with the Mid-Herts professional team.
For those who attend the day, Mid-Herts is offering some membership offers. Contact Kim Arnold on 01582 832242 for more information or to book a place at the open day.
Back row left to right: Pat Marshall, Pam Clark, Su Hawke, Linda Hyam, Margaret Martin, Sandra Lindsay, Mary Hoare, Karen Bax, Deborah Connor
Middle Row: Maree Palmer, Liz Carter (Ladies Captain, Mid-Herts Golf Club) Captain of Batchworth Park Golf Club, Clare Dew (Mid-Herts Pearson Team Captain), Janet Biscoe. Front row: Liz Thomas, Lindsay Murray-Gray.

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


The PivotSummaryDataRow class represents a single row from the PivotSummaryDataSource data source. The summary row presents data from a data cell in the pivot grid. To obtain which cell corresponds to the current row, use the Location property.
The values of the summary row cells are obtained using the indexed notation. They can be accessed by the index of their column, the name of the corresponding pivot grid field, or the PivotGridFieldBase object that represents the field.


In the wake of a revolution, Jutland's elite soldiers, the Vanargand, must band together to defeat the Ruzi Empire and stop death itself—the Valkyria. With an engaging story full of political intrigue, a battle system that mixes real-time combat and tactical strategy, a gorgeous visual style, and more, Valkyria Revolution will immerse players into the frontlines of a desperate war. Equipped with advanced mana weaponry and wielding powerful ragnite spells, this grizzled anti-Valkyria squad will charge head on to combat the terrifying threat of the Valkyria. However, Amleth Gronkjaer, the commanding officer of Vanargand, hides a terrible secret. Is he friend or foe to the country he has sworn to protect?
If your looking for a STORY driven jrpg look no farther. This game runs good, decent graphics an encountered no problems so far. Only negative thing I can say it's a little heavy on the story side so takes a few to get into the action, other then that nothing bad at all. My only other worry is that its worth the $40 I've paid so far so good. There seems to be plenty to do an I hope to see more games like this to come to Xone. Don't count Sega out yet.
174 out of 185 people found this helpful.
this game is not like the original it's similar to dynasty warriors not a turn based strategy game but its still good.
127 out of 168 people found this helpful.
its different than chronicles combat is more action . deep character development far above chronicles as far as the story goes . if you expect a chronicles clone this isn't it. not for rpg players that cry when sequels aren't clones of the original.
Review title of UnknownCan't Wait!!
Finally more JRPGs on Xbox. Now we need a Star Ocean port.
92 out of 124 people found this helpful.
I already pre order and it cost 3 times more than in north america. We need more JRPG, people from united states and even canada you are not alone in this fight, we will bring more JRPGS to xone. Support JRPG!
Review title of TranxisI did not do Revolution justice.
I was excited for this game and had high hopes for it but as I finished the game it left much to be desired. Ultimately the egregious gameplay, overuse of bosses and rather bland mechanics wore down my enthusiasm. The story is not as bad as I once felt it to be, after mulling over my thoughts it was a decent story all things considered. My initial discontent for the gameplay seeped into the rest of my review which lead to me not doing Revolution justice where it did well. The cutscenes are longer than needed, some of the dialogue would of fit better during gameplay instead of being cramed into multiple cut scenes. The loading screen issue, well not much needs to be said on that matter. If story is all you need then Valkyria Revolution will most likely statisfy you however if you value gameplay just as much as story maybe hold off. That being said $40 does seem a fitting price. I will play through Revolution sometime in the future and will update this review accordingly.
Review title of FoG Silent HopePUMPED!
Finally! Bring more JRPGs to XBOX! Thanks SEGA!
As someone who really enjoyed the previous entries in this series I was extremely disappointed in this entry. They removed or dumbed down everything that made the earlier games fun and replaced it with "mash A until you win" gameplay.
66 out of 101 people found this helpful.


A professionally qualified Human Resource & Law professional having more than thirty five (35) years of experience in the area of Human Resource Development, Employee Relations, HR Policy formulation, Performance Management & Labour Legislations in Indian and multi-national companies of repute. To mention a few, he has held senior positions in the area of HR with Glaxo Smithkline Consumer Healthcare Limited, Vardhman Group, Duncan Goenka Group, Anand Group, Cadila Laboratories etc. He had lead HR teams to support business in achieving organizational objectives. Handled successfully difficult IR situations including strikes, lockouts, gheraos, etc.
Presently he is working as HR Consultant based at Chandigarh providing HR and Labour Laws Consulting services to entrepreneurs/ Industrial organizations/ industries in and around Baddi and Chandigarh area. Mr Khullar is associated with NIPM (Punjab Chapter) since 1995. He is a life member and Vice President of NIPM (Punjab Chapter) an association of HR professionals.


Heart beating, palms sweating, you think to yourself, is this really happening? For many people, the proposal is as important as the wedding itself. Popping the question in the right place can make memories that last a lifetime. Don't worry, we've got you covered. Find below a list of the top 5 places to propose in Owen Sound.
If you are planning an old fashioned rural country wedding there are many themes that you can incorporate. Even a mixture of themes is appropriate for a country wedding.
Finally! We are off the ground and on our way to becoming the ultimate wedding resource for Brides and Grooms in Grey and Bruce Counties.


text:
Valdecebro es una localidad de la provincia de Teruel, en Aragón, España. Actualmente forma parte del municipio de Teruel.

Enlaces externos

Página web oficial Gobierno de Aragón.

Localidades de la provincia de Teruel
Teruel

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


text:
OCGN Stock Falls Despite Positive FDA Update
Ocugen (NASDAQ:OCGN) stock is down despite news that the FDA is allowing it to proceed with clinical trials of its Covid-19 vaccine candidate
This news lifts a significant hurdle that had been holding the company back in recent months
However, Ocugen's share price remains down sharply on the year
Source: Wirestock Creators / Shutterstock.com
Shares of Ocugen (NASDAQ:OCGN) are in focus today on news that the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has lifted its clinical hold on the company's Covid-19 vaccine candidate. India's Bharat Biotech produced the vaccine.
OCGN stock is down 2% despite the news that clears the biotechnology company to proceed with the necessary clearances for its Covid-19 vaccine. In April, the agency paused trials of Ocugen's vaccine candidate, called Covaxin, after a World Health Organization inspection of a Bharat Biotech facility.
It appears Bharat has resolved those issues, which is a positive development for Ocugen and its shareholders.
What Happened With OCGN Stock
In a news release, Dr. Shankar Musunuri, chairman and co-founder of Ocugen said:
"We're extremely pleased that we can proceed with our clinical trials for Covaxin … The need for delivering an additional, differentiated vaccine option, we believe, remains a priority."
Ocugen is responsible for conducting clinical trials and commercializing the Covid-19 vaccine in the U.S. under its partnership with Bharat Biotech. Covaxin already has full approval in India. Globally, Ocugen says 350 million doses of Covaxin have been administered.
Covaxin also has emergency-use authorization in 25 other countries. The vaccine is not yet approved in the United States or Canada.
Today's news that the FDA has cleared Ocugen to once again proceed with clinical trials for its Covid-19 vaccine is a positive development. The Malvern, Pennsylvania-based company's vaccine candidate has suffered from repeated delays and is late to come to market.
Prior to Covid-19, Ocugen was primarily focused on developing treatments for eye disease. It pivoted to developing a vaccine against Covid-19 in partnership with Bharat Biotech in an effort to capitalize on offering a solution to the global health crisis. However, the delay in bringing the Covid-19 vaccine to market has hurt Ocugen's share price.
Year to date, OCGN stock is down 50% and currently trading at just $2.16 a share. At various times, Ocugen has been treated as a meme stock and its share price has jumped as high as $18 before collapsing again.
What's Next for Ocugen
OCGN stock gets a bounce today on news that it can again resume its clinical trials. However, until the company's Covid-19 vaccine receives full approval in the U.S. and Canada, it is likely to remain a penny stock and could fall further should there be any further delays or setbacks.
Investors should proceed with caution.
On the date of publication, Joel Baglole did not have (either directly or indirectly) any positions in the securities mentioned in this article. The opinions expressed in this article are those of the writer, subject to the InvestorPlace.com Publishing Guidelines.
Joel Baglole has been a business journalist for 20 years. He spent five years as a staff reporter at The Wall Street Journal, and has also written for The Washington Post and Toronto Star newspapers, as well as financial websites such as The Motley Fool and Investopedia.
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text:
Feel Chelsea
Home Columnist Two more Chelsea youngsters set to emerge under Lampard after the international...
Two more Chelsea youngsters set to emerge under Lampard after the international break
Chris Darwen
One word that has stuck with Lampard in his short Chelsea reign is "youth". Right from the onset, he made his intentions known on developing a lot of youngsters and giving them more chances.
This was a bold move because Chelsea are not renowned for aiding youngster's careers and with the transfer ban the Blues had to deal with in the summer, the appointment of a youth loving coach couldn't have come at a better time.
While the likes of Mason Mount and Tammy Abraham have imposed themselves early on, even more youngsters could be set for first-team chances.
Billy Gilmour has become one of the most highly-rated youngsters in the Chelsea academy and he could get his chance in the Premier League after the international break.
The 18-year-old was named on the bench by Frank Lampard for the league match against Sheffield United at Stamford Bridge.
The Scotland U21 international has massively impressed Lampard and did a good job in pre-season, having been part of the first-team squad for training.
It was a big sign of how much Lampard rates him, with Tiemoue Bakayoko having not been with the team amid reports that he is set to leave on loan and return to Monaco.
Jody Morris and Joe Edwards know him both well from their time coaching in the academy, and now he is looking to make that step towards the senior side.
But why is he so highly rated?
The youngster joined the Blues in the summer of 2017 from Rangers, where had been with the Scottish club throughout his youth.
A talented midfielder, Gilmour showed his excellent skills throughout the past two seasons with the Blues, helping them win the FA Youth Cup and getting to the UEFA Youth League final.
Gilmour was taken to Ireland with the first team for pre-season, having impressed Lampard during the two matches.
Chelsea's familiar policy is to send youths on loan and the fact that Gilmour was not sent on loan this summer as well, despite the likes of Conor Gallagher and Luke McCormick heading out for the 2019/20 campaign, shows that Lampard is keen to keep him around.
Gilmour has great ability on the ball, with vision and passing to a high level, which is something that has been impressive to watch.
And now he could be set for game time and first-team action under Frank Lampard.
Everyone had David Luiz as a certain starter in their predicted lineups for this season, only for the new manager to surprise everyone by letting the defender go.
With Antonio Rudiger out, Lampard has lined up with Kurt Zouma and Andreas Christensen so far. It was expected that one of them would make the grade to partner the German when he returns, but instead Frank's pitched another curve-ball.
Fikayo Tomori, who was player of the season at Derby under Lampard's management last year, was thrown into the first team against Sheffield United when nobody saw it coming.
The Blues ended up conceding twice in a frustrating second half that saw them let two points slip' but it was still a gamble worth taking. Christensen and Zouma hadn't looked at their best, and if Tomori wasn't going to get his chance now, with last season's two top centre-backs gone, when was he going to get one?
It remains to be seen whether Tomori keeps his place, but despite the goals, he did little to lose it.
He was calm and assured on the ball and showed his quickness and intelligence in defence. Lampard knows just how good he is, and with cup games to come after the international break, this might be just the beginning of a big season for the 21-year-old.
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Chris is the founder of Ronnie Dog Media and feelchelsea.com - you can find him either cracking funnies on gettingsackedinthemorning.com or providing data-driven statistical pieces for all the sites in the Ronnie Dog House
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La Rahmaniya (in cabilo tareḥmanit) è una confraternita islamica fondata intorno al 1774 da Sidi Mhemmed ben Abderrahman ben Ahmed el Guejtouli el Djerdjeri el Azhari (noto come Bu Kobrin "dalle due sepolture"), un religioso nato e morto in Cabilia, nel villaggio di Aït Smaïl. La Rahmaniya, nata nel solco della Khelwatiya, ha conosciuto un grande sviluppo soprattutto nel XIX secolo in tutta l'Algeria e nel resto del Maghreb.

Nascita dell'ordine
Sidi Mhemmed studiò a lungo al Cairo (alla scuola coranica di el Azhar), dove si affiliò alla confraternita khelwatiya ad opera dello sceicco Mohammed b. Salem Hafnawi, per ordine del quale compì viaggi fino in India, nel Sudan e in Turchia. Inviato infine in Algeria, con lo scopo di istruire i fedeli alle regole della confraternita, si recò dapprima nel proprio paese di Ait Smail, dove acquisì in breve tempo una reputazione che gli valse fama in tutto il paese. Passato a Hamma, un sobborgo di Algeri, suscitò le invidie dei capi religiosi della capitale, che gli intentarono un processo mettendo in dubbio la sua ortodossia. Ma la pressione della piazza in suo favore fu tale che il processo si concluse con una sua completa riabilitazione. Tornato ad esercitare le sue funzioni di capo della confraternita nel villaggio di Ait Smail, dopo pochi anni morì, ed anche la sua morte vide uno scontro tra fedeli di Algeri e fedeli cabili. Dalla capitale vennero infatti dei confratelli intenzionati a "rubare" il cadavere per seppellirlo a el Hamma. Il furto fu perpetrato, e ancor oggi ad Algeri si osserva la kubba del santo, ma i Cabili sostennero che per miracolo il suo corpo si era "sdoppiato" e giaceva ancora nella tomba del villaggio, da cui il soprannome Bu kobrin "dalle due sepolture" di Mhemmed ben Abderrahman.

I capi successivi

Alla morte del fondatore (1794), subentrarono al comando, nell'ordine:
Ali ben Aissa (marocchino, designato dallo stesso fondatore dell'ordine) 1794-1836
Belkacem ou Elhafid (cabilo, dei Babors)
Lalla Khedidja (vedova di Ali ben Aissa)
Hadj Bachir (marocchino), morto ca. 1841-42
Mohamed ben Belkacem n Aït Anan (cabilo, degli A. Zmenzer)
Sidi Hadj Amer (dal 1844 al 1857)
Dopo il ritiro in esilio in Tunisia di Hadj Amer a seguito della disfatta contro l'esercito francese, la confraternita entra in crisi. La zawiya di At Smaïl viene chiusa dalle autorità, e altri centri prendono il suo posto nella gerarchia dell'ordine, e non è facile seguire con precisione questo processo. Secondo alcuni autori, il comando sarebbe passato da Sidi Hadj Amer, in esilio, al suo secondo in graduatoria, Sidi Mhemmed el Djaadi, cui però la massa degli adepti avrebbe preferito lo sceicco Aheddad di Seddouk. Secondo altri, tra il 1857 e il 1860 il comando sarebbe stato mantenuto dallo sceicco El Bedjawi, prima di cederlo allo stesso sceicco Aheddad.

Comunque sia, a partire dal 1860 circa, il comando della Rahmaniya appare incontestabilmente nelle mani dello sceicco Aheddad (Mohand Amezian Iheddaden), la cui zawiya, a Seddouk, sembra arrivasse a ospitare 200 studenti all'anno e a controllare direttamente 2000 confratelli (Aït Ferroukh 2001: 39).

L'insurrezione del 1871
Lo scoppio dell'insurrezione della Cabilia del 1871 sarà un grave colpo per la confraternita. L'anziano sceicco Aheddad (ormai ultraottantenne), benché sulle prime piuttosto riluttante, finì per aderire alla sollevazione propugnata da el Mokrani, sembra su pressione dell'ambizioso figlio primogenito sceicco Aziz. E così, con una celebre orazione pubblica tenuta l'8 aprile di quell'anno al mercato dei Meisna, proclamò il jihād contro i Francesi. Data la vastissima diffusione della confraternita, questo proclama bastò a far divampare in brevissimo tempo la lotta per tutta la Cabilia e le altre regioni dove essa era più seguita.

Ma i combattimenti contro un esercito enormemente meglio equipaggiato durarono pochi mesi e si conclusero con una cocente sconfitta, al termine della quale i Francesi decisero di sottoporre l'Algeria intera (ed in particolare la Cabilia) ad un regime di stretto controllo, con l'eliminazione di tutti i capi locali che non fossero di sicura fiducia, ivi compresi quelli religiosi. Lo sceicco Aheddad morì in prigione pochi giorni dopo una condanna a 5 anni di prigione da parte del tribunale di Costantina, mentre il figlio Aziz venne deportato in Nuova Caledonia (da cui riuscì in seguito a fuggire per rifugiarsi a Jedda e concludere poi i suoi giorni in Francia nel 1895).

Per la verità non tutti i capi religiosi della Rahmaniya aderirono incondizionatamente alla mobilitazione promossa dallo sceicco Aheddad. Per esempio, lo sceicco Mohand ou-Lhocine di Takka, da tempo in disaccordo con lo sceicco, fu molto freddo al riguardo, consapevole dell'inevitabile sconfitta e dell'inutilità del sacrificio di tante vite umane.

Dopo il 1871
Tra le drastiche misure che i francesi presero per reprimere la ribellione ed impedire che si ripetesse vi furono diversi provvedimenti tesi a ridurre l'influenza della Rahmaniya sulla popolazione. La "casa-madre" di Ait Smail venne chiusa, e delle altre sedi vennero privilegiate quelle dirette da personalità favorevoli alla Francia.

Lo sceicco Aheddad dalla sua prigione di Costantina nominò suo successore Si el-Hadj b. Hamlaoui b. Khelifa, mokaddem della zawiya di Châteaudun-du-Rhummel (oggi Chelghoum-Laid, nella regione di Costantina), ma di fatto da quel momento il potere nella confraternita non venne più esercitato da un'unica autorità e si trovò ripartito tra diversi centri. Oltre alla sopraddetta zawiya e a quella altrettanto importante di Mohammed ben Belqasem a Boudjellil nei pressi di Akbou, sopravvissero altri sei centri principali, relativamente indipendenti gli uni dagli altri:
 la zawiya di Costantina, creata da Si Mostafa ben Abderrahman ben Bachtarzi, guidata dal suo discendente Elhadj Mohammed es-Said;
 la zawiya di Nefta (in Tunisia), fondata da Mostafa ben Mohammed ben Azzouz;
 la zawiya di Khenga Sidi Nadji in prossimità di Khenchela nell'Aurès, gestita dai discendenti di Si Abdelhafid ben Mohammed (già moqaddem di Mohammed Ben Azzouz);
 la zawiya di Tolga nel sud dell'Algeria, non lontano da Biskra, fondata dallo sheikh Ali ben Amor e diretta dal suo successore Ali ben 'Athman;
 la zawiya di El-Hamel nell'Oranese, a una dozzina di chilometri da Bou Saada, dove si stabilì Mohammed ben Belqasem (1810 ca.- 2 giugno 1896), di origini marabuttiche, circondato da fama di santo e taumaturgo; gli succedette un nipote, Hadj Mohammed ben Belqasem;
 la zawiya di Timermacin, a poca distanza dall'oasi di Masmoudi (nell'Aurès), dove esisteva in precedenza una zawiya fondata da Si Sadok ben Elhadj (moqaddem di Mohammed ben Azzouz), che aveva combattuto i francesi nel 1858-1859 ed era stato sconfitto e catturato. La nuova zawiya era retta dal figlio Tahar.

La confraternita nel XX secolo
Anche se dopo il 1871 perse la direzione accentrata che ne aveva fatto un importante strumento di mobilitazione globale antifrancese, la Rahmaniya rimase comunque una sorta di "congregazione" nazionale algerina, sempre di molto maggioritaria rispetto agli altri ordini presenti sul territorio, e non furono pochi gli episodi che videro coinvolti i centri di attività di questa confraternita, per esempio in occasione dei fatti dell'8 maggio 1945, o quando l'influsso dei capi religiosi è decisivo per assicurare la vittoria di uomini del PPA alle elezioni del 1948.

Nonostante la concorrenza che venne esercitata (soprattutto negli anni '40) dal movimento ulemista, al momento dello scoppio della guerra d'Algeria, i membri della Rahmaniya superavano ampiamente le 100.000 unità, distribuiti in numerose zawiye in tutto il paese. Una delle più importanti era quella di Algeri (boulevard Bru), che da sola ne contava 16.000, ma la distribuzione era veramente capillare. Basti pensare che solo nei territori del Sud si contavano più di 90.000 adepti.

Bibliografia
 Younes Adli, La Kabylie à l'épreuve des invasions. Des Phéniciens à 1900), Alger, Zyriab, 2004 ISBN 9961-715-35-7
 Farida Aït Ferroukh, Cheikh Mohand. Le souffle fécond, Paris, Volubilis, 2001 - ISBN 2-9600304-1-9
 Pierpaola Cossu D'Escamard, L'insurrezione del 1871 in Cabilia e la confraternita Rahmaniyya, Roma, Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei, 1977 (MSM8-XX-2)
 Octave Depont & Xavier Coppolani, Les confréries religieuses musulmanes, Alger, Jourdan, 1897 testo in pdf (sito BNF)
 Mouloud Mammeri, Yenna-yas Ccix Muhend [« Le Cheikh Mohand a dit »], Alger, Laphomic, 1989.
 Louis Rinn, Marabouts et khouan. Etude sur l'islam en Algérie, Alger, Jourdan 1884 testo in pdf (sito BNF)

Storia dell'Algeria
Confraternite islamiche


text:
Arkansas man gets 5-year term for 6th DWI in decade by Steven Mross | April 16, 2019 at 4:30 a.m.
Igor Vuceta - Photo by Garland County jail
HOT SPRINGS -- A man was sentenced to five years in prison April 9 after pleading guilty in Garland County Circuit Court to his sixth offense of driving while intoxicated within a 10-year period.
Igor Vuceta, who lists a Garland Street address, pleaded guilty to the charge, a felony punishable by up to 20 years in prison, and, in addition to prison time, was fined $900, ordered to pay $570 in court costs, had his driver's license suspended for four years and must complete an alcohol safety program.
An additional felony charge of failure to appear was withdrawn, and Vuceta will be given credit for time served.
According to the probable cause affidavit, on Feb. 26, 2018, around 11:30 a.m., Arkansas State Police Cpl. Andrew Ault was sitting on the eastbound shoulder of U.S. 270 near Crystal Springs when he clocked a black Cadillac SRX doing 73 mph in a 55 mph zone so he pulled over the driver, identified as Vuceta.
Ault asked Vuceta for his ID. He was unable to provide any but gave his name and date of birth. A computer check revealed Vuceta's license was suspended and he had a warrant for failure to appear.
Ault noted that upon approaching Vuceta he smelled an "overwhelming odor" of marijuana and noted he was "paranoid and talkative" with red eyes, body and eyelid tremors, and had "raised taste buds" and a green residue in his mouth.
Ault had Vuceta exit the vehicle and conducted field sobriety tests, noting he failed two of three tests. He took him into custody at that point and a urine test was later conducted which led to a charge of DWI -- drugs.
Records showed Vuceta was previously arrested for DWI on Aug. 9, 2008, in Garland County; on Oct. 5, 2008, in Saline County; on July 20, 2014, in Garland County; on Aug. 3, 2014, in Garland County; and on April 3, 2015, in Hot Spring County.
Vuceta was being held on $10,000 bond and pleaded innocent to the charge on Sept. 4, 2018. His attorney attempted to get his bond lowered, but it was denied. He was later released on Nov. 26, 2018, on $10,000 bond.
He was scheduled for a disposition hearing on March 5 but failed to appear, so a warrant was issued for his arrest. He was taken into custody again on March 11 and had remained in custody since then.
Metro on 04/16/2019
Print Headline: Arkansas man gets 5-year term for 6th DWI in decade


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text:
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Swiss leave Tripoli embassy after Libya stand-off
by AMIQ • February 22, 2010 • Comments Off on Swiss leave Tripoli embassy after Libya stand-off
TRIPOLI (Reuters) – Two Swiss businessmen left the shelter of their country's embassy in Tripoli on Monday after Libyan police had surrounded the building in a long-running row which has drawn in governments across Europe.
One of the two men, Max Goeldi, emerged alone from the embassy building and was met by a police general and a senior Justice Ministry official, who drove him off to start serving a four-month prison sentence for immigration violations.
Earlier, the other Swiss man who had taken refuge in the embassy, Rachid Hamdani, came out. His lawyer said he was being taken by car to neighboring Tunisia after Libyan authorities gave him clearance to leave the country.
Both men have been barred from leaving Libya since July 2008 after police in Geneva angered Tripoli by arresting a son of Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi on charges — later dropped — of abusing domestic staff.
Libya denies there is any link between the cases of the two Swiss businessmen, who had been working in Libya, and the arrest in Geneva.
The diplomatic row between Libya and Switzerland took on a Europe-wide dimension last week when Tripoli, in retaliation for Switzerland imposing visa restrictions on some Libyans, said it would stop issuing entry visas to most European citizens.
"The surrender of the two Swiss men from the embassy came in the framework of the implementation of the law. Libya is keen on implementing the law," senior Libyan Justice Ministry official Khaled Kouayeb told reporters outside the Swiss embassy.
"The first Swiss, Hamdani, is innocent and he was allowed to leave the country and go home and the second Swiss is going to prison to carry out his four-month jail term," said Kouayeb, who was one of the officials who met Goeldi outside the embassy.
Tripoli had issued a deadline to Switzerland to hand over the two men, who have been holed up in the embassy for months, by midday (1000 GMT) or face unspecified consequences.
Dozens of police surrounded the embassy building at one point, but these numbers were reduced before Hamdani, and then Goeldi, emerged from the compound.
The diplomatic row has threatened to undermine Europe's booming business ties with Libya, an oil producer that has been attracting billions of dollars in foreign investment since it emerged from decades of international isolation.
AIN ZARA PRISON
Libyan officials had indicated previously that Hamdani would be allowed to leave Libya because he was acquitted of all the charges against him, but the sticking point was Tripoli's demand that Goeldi serve his sentence.
A police source said Goeldi was taken to the Ain Zara prison on the outskirts of Tripoli, where inmates serving short sentences are usually imprisoned.
There was no immediate indication whether the end of the embassy stand-off would lead to a solution in the parallel row over visas for European citizens.
The European Union said last week it deplored a decision by Libya to stop issuing entry visas to citizens from the Schengen area — a borderless zone that includes Switzerland and most European countries.
Libyan media said the move was retaliation for Switzerland putting several senior Libyans, including members of Muammar Gaddafi's family, on a visa blacklist.
An EU diplomat in Brussels said on Monday that talks with Libyan officials on the issue on Sunday had made progress. "We're moving toward a resolution on the issue," said the diplomat.
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