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Home Explore Midterm Scientific Report of the Deep Carbon Observatory
Midterm Scientific Report of the Deep Carbon Observatory
Published by josh_wood, 2014-12-11 00:31:36
Description: Midterm Scientific Report of the Deep Carbon Observatory
Keywords: deep carbon,deep carbon science,deep life,reservoirs and fluxes,extreme physics and chemistry,deep energy
CO2) and oxygen in mantle silicates and pro- Gas hydrates are stable over a broadvide a previously unrecognized deep range of conditions in near-surface envi-carbon reservoir.11,12 ronments and remain a major potentialSilicates (trace C)* energy source. 30Common silicate minerals in Earth's Complex organic molecules (C-H-O-N...) mantle may incorporate more than Hydrogen production by mineral reac-1000 parts per million of carbon— tions can drive the production of bothenough to significantly increase Earth's abiotic and biotic organic molecules.31, 32known carbon budget.13Metals (Fe, Ni,...C) Microbes (C-H-O-N-P-S...) 2 x 1020 tons of carbon may reside in Subsurface microbial abundance variesEarth's core, and that carbon affects the regionally by factors of up to 100,000,distribution of other elements between and these sparse subsurface microbialmantle and core.8, 9, 14 ecosystems are characterized by low di- versity and slow metabolisms.33–38Oxides (C-O) 'Polymeric' CO2 adopts a silica-like struc- Viruses (C-H-O-N-P-S...)* ture15, 16 that is stable to the conditions Genomic studies reveal a surprisingof Earth's lower mantle.17 abundance and diversity in a deep, subsurface viriosphere, and these deep-subsurface viruses propagate pri- marily by long-term incorporation into microbial genomes.39 iii DCO Legacies Decadal GoalsDCO's legacies will include an The evolving goals of DCO's four scientific communities guide the program's scientificinternational community of activities and adaptive vision for the growing field of carbon in Earth.deep carbon researchers whointegrate geoscience, physics, The Deep Life community explores the evolutionary and functional diversitychemistry, and biology; new in- of Earth's deep biosphere and its interaction with the carbon cycle.strumentation to make mea- n Determine the processes that define the diversity and distribution of deep life as it surements at high temperatures relates to the carbon cycleand pressures; insights into the n Determine the environmental limits of deep lifedistribution, nature, and depo- n Determine the interactions between deep life and carbon cycling on Earthsition of energy resources;networks to detect fluxes of The Reservoirs and Fluxes community is dedicated to identifying the prin-carbon-containing gases and cipal deep carbon reservoirs, determining the mechanisms and rates byfluids between Earth's interi- which carbon moves among these reservoirs, and assessing the total carbon bud- or and the surface; open access get of Earth.publications and data for use by n Establish continuous open-access monitoring of volcanic gas emissionsthe global research community; n Determine the chemical forms and distribution of carbon in Earth's deepest interiora collaborative infrastructure n Determine the seafloor carbon budget and global rates of carbon input into sub- viewed as a model for future duction zonesresearch programs; and public n Estimate the net direction and magnitude of tectonic carbon fluxes from the man- interest in the birth of a new tle and crust to the atmospherefield of scientific exploration. n Develop a robust overarching global carbon cycle model through deep time, includ- ing the earliest Earth, and co-evolution of the geosphere and biosphere n Produce quantitative models of global carbon cycling at various scales, including the planetary scale (mantle convection), tectonic scale (subduction zone, orogeny, rift, volcano), and reservoir scale (core, mantle, crust, hydrosphere) The Deep Energy community is dedicated to quantifying the environmen- tal conditions and processes from the molecular to the global scale that control the volumes, rates of generation, and reactivity of organic compounds de- rived from deep carbon through geologic time. n Conduct field investigations to determine processes controlling the origin, rates of production, migration, and transformation of abiotic gases and organic species in Earth's crust and mantle n Develop techniques to identify and characterize hydrocarbons and organic species from global fluid and solid samples across deep time (e.g., the Moho, Mars, and meteorites), including their compositions, structures, and isotopic characteristics that resolve the contributions of abiotic- versus biotic-controlled processes n Explore the nature of the organic molecule–mineral interface at crustal and upper mantle conditions n Determine the nature and extent of abiotic reaction rates and mechanisms leading to deep hydrocarbons, other organic compounds, and H2 synthesis n Integrate our understanding of the environmental conditions and processes that control the generation, transport, and reactivity of abiotic/biotic compounds lead- ing to transformative models of global carbon cycles through geologic time The Extreme Physics and Chemistry community seeks to achieve a trans- formative understanding of the physical and chemical behavior of carbon at extreme conditions, as found in the deep interiors of Earth and other planets. n Inventory possible carbon-bearing phases in Earth's mantle and core n Achieve a fundamental understanding of carbon in Earth's core n Characterize the physical and thermochemical properties of deep-Earth phases at relevant pressure and temperature conditions n Develop environmental chambers to access carbon-bearing samples in new regimes of pressure and temperature under controlled conditions (e.g., pH, fO2) and with increased sample volumes and enhanced sample analysis and recovery capabilities n Achieve a fundamental understanding of carbon bonding at conditions equivalent to the cores of Jovian planets n Implement an integrated carbon algorithm-software-hardware computational facili- ty for multiscale deep carbon simulationsiv IntroductionA new science is emerging for carbon, one of nature's key Carbon in Earth, a landmark, openelements — of life, of energy, of climate change. Despite its access volume of Reviews in Mineralogyimportance, we remain largely ignorant of carbon's behavior and Geochemistry, is the first major col-throughout the planet. The carbon that is familiar to us — in the lective publication of the Deep Carbonsurface, atmosphere, and oceans —probably accounts for only Observatory.1a small fraction of Earth's total abundance of this fundamentalelement. More than 90% of Earth's carbon may be hidden deep Volcanoes provide a window to deepwithin the planet and remains unexplored. We do not know the Earth, linking the mantle and atmosphere.Quantities of that carbon and where it resides. We do not know By measuring outgassing from volcanicits Movements from one repository to another or how it moves vents, DCO scientists evaluate thisto the surface and back into the planet. We do not know the important piece of the global carbonForms of carbon at depth, ranging from the inorganic realm of cycle. A gas monitoring station on theminerals to organic constituents of the deep biosphere. Finally, summit of Mount Etna, Italy, is one ofthese questions have implications for Origins — of life, Earth many stations providing data for DCO'sand the Solar System, and deep carbon itself. global volcanic monitoring network. Credit: Adrian JonesLaunched in 2009 as a 10-year program, the Deep CarbonObservatory (DCO) is laying the groundwork for a new scien-tific discipline revolving around carbon. Under the auspicesof DCO, scientists from over 40 countries are now studyingthis central element in diverse, innovative, and transdisci-plinary ways. Communities of scientists are focusing on theReservoirs and Fluxes of carbon within Earth, the nature andextent of Deep Life, carbon-derived Deep Energy within theplanet, and Extreme Physics and Chemistry of carbon.1, 2 Herewe outline the significant discoveries fostered by DCO to datemidway through this decadal quest to answer overarchingquestions about carbon in Earth. We also highlight plans forthe next five years that will target new discoveries about car-bon in our planet and related extreme environments. 1 Next generation instruments developed by research teams at Caltech,25 MIT,26 and UCLA27 (clockwise from top left) addressmethane formation temperatures and sources. Credit: Caltech/Thermo Fisher; MIT/Aerodyne Research; UCLA/Nu InstrumentsNext Generation Technologies involves mass spectrometry and the to achieve a major decadal goal re- other involves absorption spectros- garding a deeper understanding ofTechnological innovation goes hand copy. Mass spectrometry and ab- methane formation temperatures,in hand with cutting-edge scientif- sorption spectroscopy are based sources, and provenance. Data fromic discovery, and DCO made signif- on different physical principles and these instruments will enable re-icant commitments to developing each approach has distinct advan- searchers to test hypotheses aboutnovel instrumentation at its outset. tages and disadvantages. Recent in- biotic versus abiotic origins of meth-For example, DCO is simultaneously strumentation breakthroughs by ane. This new instrumentation rep-pursuing two radically different ap- research groups at Caltech,25 MIT,26 resents major steps in developing aproaches for measuring rare, doubly and UCLA27 have positioned DCO new branch of isotope geochemistry.substituted (or "clumped") isotopo-logues of methane. One approach2 QuantitiesHow Much Carbon Does Earth Contain,and Where Is It?The amounts and locations of carbon in Earth are paramountquestions for DCO. To address them, one must also understandhow the abundance of carbon in its different oxidation statesvaries with depth within the planet. Also, carbon cannot beconsidered in isolation; it is a component within complexchemical systems—fluids, melts, and solids —that composeEarth's interior. Indeed, DCO's study of Earth's carbon isrevealing a great deal about other elements and materials atdepth, including the water we drink and the air we breathe.The different physical and chemical properties of the mantleand core affect carbon storage in different ways, and point tosignificant, unexpected reservoirs of carbon. This emergingunderstanding is crucial for investigating a host of problems,ranging from energy resources, geological hazards, and theevolution of Earth and life, to estimates of the extent of thebiosphere deep below the surface.Extent and Sources of Deep Gas Volcanic glasses, such as the one show- cased on the 14 June 2013 cover ofThe clumping of carbon and hydrogen isotopes in hydrocar- Science, reveal a link between Earth's oxi-bon molecules contains important information on the source of dation state and the deep carbon cycle.40hydrocarbons. DCO scientists have developed and implement- The featured DCO research investigateded new methodologies for the analysis of clumped isotopes in this connection using analyses of volcanicmethane. These far-reaching advances could impact a variety glass formed from lava erupting on theof disciplines. For example, mass spectrometric and laser spec- seafloor. Credit: AAAS / Glenn Macpher-troscopy measurements of methane will allow researchers to son, Tim Gooding, Elizabeth Cottrelldistinguish between geological and biological sources of methanein the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and interior of the planet.25 – 27These measurements will lead to improved understanding of thebiogeochemistry of methane in the environment, and extendingthe measurements to larger carbon-containing molecules is ex-pected to lead to the identification of unique signatures of life.This question of deep gas is intimately connected with theextent of oxidation of Earth's interior—a major question ingeoscience. DCO scientists discovered that carbon plays animportant role in controlling the oxidation state of Earth'smantle.40 Studying samples of basalts from mid-ocean ridg-es, DCO researchers found that the pristine mantle is morereduced — contains less oxygen or more hydrogen — than pre-viously thought. On the other hand, experimental studies showthat the mantle underlying Earth's oldest continents is consid-erably more oxidized than previously thought; carbon that re-sides there is oxidized to form CO2 , which is incorporated intomelts and rises to the surface.41 3 Ultradeep diamonds such as these from Diamonds Reveal What's WithinBrazil provide detailed information on thedeep carbon cycle. Credit: Steven Shirey Natural diamonds are not only stunningly beautiful, they are also essential for unraveling secrets of Earth's deepAnalysis of the minerals trapped in interior. Ultradeep diamonds from 400 to 670 km belowdiamonds, such as the red garnet shown the surface (Earth's transition zone) trap pieces of thehere, provide valuable clues to processes surrounding rock at that depth. These tiny inclusionsin Earth's ancient mantle. Credit: Steven thus give researchers a sample of the planet's interiorRichardson that is far beyond the reach of drilling from the surface. Measurements of inclusions in ultradeep diamonds from Brazil reveal the transition zone might have as much water as all the world's oceans put together, with local "wet spots" deep within Earth.42 Specifically, the water content of the mantle is about 1% by weight, which agrees with estimates from electromagnetic remote sensing. This discovery has transformed our view of the amount of water and other volatiles in the mantle —and our understanding of the deep water/hydrogen cycle. Similarly, by studying an inclusion of olivine (Mg, Fe)2SiO4 in a diamond, DCO scientists directly measured the com-position of the surrounding rock and identified the precise mantle depth at which the diamond formed.43 These results exemplify what carbon (as diamond) can tell us about the deep Earth. The extent of rich informa- tion available from detailed study of diamond is only now being recognized,44 such as finding that a single diamond can form in two growth stages, one billion years apart.45 Measurements of the nitrogen impurities of other diamond samples provide evidence for multiple formation events in the mantle.46••• How Much Is Alive?The water content of ringwoodite, DCO embarked on a broad program of sampling the bio-included in a diamond from Brazil, indi- sphere to depths of many kilometers in the crust. If we knowcates Earth's mantle transition zone may the extent of the deep biosphere, we can better understandcontain an ocean of water.42 how much carbon is stored in Earth as well as the hidden richness of the biosphere. Researchers have begun to quan-4 tify the abundance of microbes in the crust,37, 38, 47 and have refined estimates of microbial abundance in the seafloor by one order of magnitude compared to what was previously thought. An influential study provides the most accurate es- timate to date of the microbial biomass in the global subsea- floor; it refines our knowledge of the distribution of microbial life in the subseafloor— estimates that significantly improve our understanding of deep life. The new measurements show that populations of subseafloor microbes can vary by at least 100,000 times regionally, and improve estimates of total glob- al abundance.38 Unexpected Reservoirs of CarbonDiscoveries by DCO scientists point to the existence of placeswhere significant carbon can be held within Earth — from miner-alogical to regional scales. Carbonates, which are common min-erals found at Earth's surface, are potential carriers of carbon intoEarth's mantle, and thus play an important role in the global deepcarbon cycle. One of these, magnesite, is a major carbon host inEarth's mid-lower mantle.48 Carbonates that contain iron undergoan electronic high- to low-spin transition that stabilizes the mate-rial in the deep lower mantle.49, 50 This discovery complementsother research indicating that magnesite could be a deepcarbon reservoir.50 The abundance of carbon-bearing materi-al at depth may be masked by reactions near the surface thatproduce zeolite minerals, which disguise the initial origin ofthe rocks.51 Moreover, very recent findings suggest that carbondissolved in grain boundaries and defects of known mineralscould be a significant carbon reservoir.11, 13, 52Novel minerals and rocks consisting of pure carbon and ox-ygen may exist at depth. One of these, a high-pressure "poly-meric" form of CO2, was synthesized in the laboratory severalyears ago. This unusual material, an ultrahigh-pressure formof dry ice, has been shown to be stable at conditions of Earth'slower mantle, which is the largest region by volume in theplanet.17 Related novel carbonates form at these conditions aswell.10 Moving deeper still, carbon is one of the candidate lightelements of Earth's core. However, estimates of carbon abun-dance in the core differ by more than an order of magnitude.Recent studies have put bounds on the amount of carbonin the core, and show the presence of carbon at depth couldhave a significant effect on how other elements aredistributed between the core and mantle.8, 14 Scientific drilling expeditions at sea and on land afford opportunities to examine the subsurface biosphere, collecting samples from several kilometers below the surface. These deep-sea cores were obtained from Integrated Ocean Drilling Program Expedi- tion 330 to the Louisville Seamount Trail. Credit: Jason Sylvan 5 Community Initiatives MovementsAn important aspect of DCO's What Is the Nature of the Deep Carbon Cycle?near- and long-term contribu-tion to the scientific community We shift focus now from reservoirs to the fluxes of carbon,is the potential to form focused both within the planet and to and from Earth's surface andgroups of researchers with interior. Carbon moves in fluids sequestered naturally incommon goals. Within the Res- Earth, but it is also released in various ways. The global,ervoirs and Fluxes community, "whole-Earth" flux of carbon has major implicationsfor example, the DECADE (DEep for energy and the environment. DCO researchers haveCArbon DEgassing) initiative co- identified large apparent discrepancies between intake andalesced around a common goal release of carbon on both this global scale as well as regionalof increasing volcanic emissions scales. Recent advances resolving the origin of the apparentmonitoring throughout the discrepancies are leading to a new understanding of theworld, and ensuring catalogu- global cycle and epicycles.ing of global volcanic emissionsdata in cutting-edge, openly ac- Carbon-rich Melts and Gasescessible data repositories. Simi-larly, the Census of Deep Life, DCO has embarked on an ambitious program to monitor car-headed up by members of the bon emissions from volcanoes on Earth. So far, scientists haveDeep Life community, is bring- discovered that the total of known volcanic CO2 emissions ising together microbiologists twice what was previously thought.53 This significant outgas-from around the world in an ef- sing connects deep carbon to the air we breathe. Moreover,fort to characterize Earth's deep and underappreciated until now, emission of carbon throughbiosphere. Groups like these nominally "inactive" volcanic vents rivals that of active volca-flourish across DCO and exem- noes. In addition, there can be significant amounts of diffuseplify the open and collaborativespirit we continue to nurture. C outgassingAtmosphere Volcanoes Crust Deempecltairnbgon C inCgsasusbidnugction Mantle Deep C storageThe deep carbon cycle includes ingas- Coresing, storage, and outgassing of carbonin Earth, as depicted in this schematic.21Credit: Adapted from MSA / RajdeepDasgupta6 outgassing of carbon-bearing gases from tectonic regions. The •••DCO researchers investigate explosivefindings provide a much broader view to assess the extent of carbon-rich volcanic eruptions aroundcarbon-based greenhouse gases than previously recognized. In the world, including those of Ol Doinyoaddition, this interaction between fluids in the crust and degas- Lengai in Tanzania, Africa, shown here.sing carbon connects the biosphere to deep Earth. Ultimately, Studies of this volcano clarify how wateruntangling this connection requires multidisciplinary science. and carbon control the nature of its unusual eruptions.20 Credit: MaartenMelting of rock at depth and its subsequent upwelling toward de Moorthe surface is the principal means by which heat is releasedfrom within the planet, and by which its component material Known volcanic emissions of carbonis transported. Mantle melting at mid-ocean ridges is dictated dioxide are two times greater thanboth by chemical composition and by temperature— features previously thought.53that can now be linked to seismic signatures. New findings areemerging about the important roles CO2 and H2O may play.54, 55Carbon emitted in volcanically active regions is a key to un-derstanding the reservoirs and fluxes of deep carbon, and inparticular whether that carbon comes from the upper or lowermantle. A comprehensive investigation of the CO2 contentof the Icelandic mantle, for example, overlaps with previousestimates from the upper mantle, even though Iceland bearsthe fingerprint of the lower mantle, thereby showing how thesource of carbon can be pinpointed.56DCO researchers have discovered that carbonate-rich meltspervade regions of Earth's upper mantle — observations thatrevolutionize our understanding of mantle melting beneathmid-ocean ridges.20, 21 These melts react progressively with themantle as they rise, eventually becoming mid-ocean ridge ba-salts. If true, all CO2 degassed at ridges originated from carbon-ate-rich magma, a hypothesis that explains recent evidence fordeeper melting beneath ridges.22 This melt may also lubricatetectonic plates and facilitate their movement. Indeed, carbonhas a remarkable effect on the properties of melts formed fromsilicate rocks.20 At high concentrations, these melts producecarbonatites causing unusually explosive volcanic eruptions.DCO scientists have discovered that the unique character ofthese eruptions also arises in part from volatiles such as H2O.Diamonds Track Earth DynamicsStudies of diamond play a key role in monitoring Earth'sinternal dynamics.3, 4, 41, 42, 57 DCO scientists discovered thatdiamond morphology shows how the rocks that containthem move from mantle to surface,57 and additional studiesof the inclusions of diamonds reveal the beginning of platetectonics, pinpointing the start of colliding continents on theplanet.4 Moreover, measurements of the isotopes 12C and 13Cand of the mineral inclusions reveal the remarkable signatureof material transport from the surface through the mantle tobelow 670 km, and then back to the surface again — where 7 these diamonds are studied in the laboratory.3 The inclusions initially crystallized as single minerals that could form only at these depths within Earth. However, the isotopic variations of carbon from these ultradeep diamonds are most consistent with an origin in the organic component, providing direct evidence for a deep carbon cycle from surface to the deep lower mantle.3Fluid-mediated reactions in subduction Carbon and Plate Tectonicszones can release significant amountsof carbon, which is later degassed at arc The abundance of mantle carbon influences plate tectonicsvolcanoes.55 A photomicrograph of vari- and the global deep carbon cycle in other ways.58 –60 Depo-ous crystals from a quartz vein analyzed sition of metastable graphite in crustal fluids may facilitatefor this DCO study appeared on the plate boundary subduction of carbon-rich material in Earth.5May 2014 cover of Nature Geoscience. Further, recent research shows that graphite forms readily fromCredit: Nature Publishing Group / Jay carbonates during subduction.6, 7 DCO researchers discoveredJ. Ague that oxygen levels control carbon movement in the mantle and allow carbon to remain mobile in active subduction zones.61Using Earth as a model system, DCO Carbonate mineral dissolution plays a key role in the release ofresearchers are exploring geologic pro- CO2 from subduction zones to volcanoes.58 Additionally, studiescesses relevant on other planetary of subduction zone processes in volcanic rocks from the vol-bodies, such as Mars. Credit: NASA/JPL/ canoes of southern Chile found remarkably sharp variationsMalin Space Science Systems; NASA in melt chemistry over distances of only a few kilometers. This variation greatly affects the release of volatiles during eruption and the severity of volcanic hazard.62 Looking back in time, scientists see that these considerations lead to new findings about Earth's ancient carbon cycle, includ- ing the beginning of plate tectonics4 and the planet's first ice age.63 Earth's growing continents became an increasingly large sink for carbon present in the early atmosphere. Moreover, deep carbon research on Earth informs us about other plan- ets64, 65 and the Moon.66 For example, an ancient carbon cycle on Mars could have involved methane, which has a stronger greenhouse effect than CO2. Challenging the prevailing view, Martian volcanic degassing could have produced a thinner at- mosphere, yet one more capable of warming the planet.65 Returning to energy resources on Earth, at a time when the hydrocarbon industry is shifting toward nontraditional fuels such as shale gas, we need spatially- and time-resolved atmospheric data to assess the before and after of regional and local energy operations. DCO is creating the necessary databases to address this challenge and is developing new methods to measure outgassing.67 Methane clathrate deposits in continental shelves and permafrosts form potentially the largest accessible energy resources on Earth, but exploiting8 them for energy use presents major technological and Earth's subduction zones host a richenvironmental challenges. DCO scientists are involved variety of organic carbon species thatin studies of the movements of vast methane hydrate could spark the formation of diamondsfields.68 DCO scientists are also playing a leading role in and perhaps become food for microbialefforts to understand the geochemistry of geologic carbon life. This finding may hold the key tosequestration, a significant challenge in mitigating the effects understanding the origins of life itself.23of atmospheric CO2.69DCO Global Field Studies innovative techniques and technol- interactive map, shown below, and ogies to find surface clues about car- information about ongoing work atIn their 10-year quest to clarify the bon contained deep inside Earth. In more than 150 field sites. Coordinat-role of deep carbon in Earth's past, 2014, the entire community came ing field activities and data analysispresent, and future, DCO scien- together to assemble a compre- across the four DCO communitiestists journey to some of the most hensive picture of the scope and over the remaining five years ofremote and scientifically valuable geographic diversity of DCO field- the program is a high priority andplaces on the planet. From estab- work. Our website hosts resources will promote innovative sciencelishing global volcano monitoring allowing DCO scientists to evaluate that crosses traditional disciplinarysystems to collecting sediment, the portfolio of field studies from boundaries.rocks, and gases from Earth's vast a global perspective, including anseafloor, DCO researchers apply 9 This diagram depicts a remarkable Formsframework, or "polymeric" structure, ofCO2 determined by DCO scientists.15, 16 What Forms of Carbon Exist Within Earth?The structure is stable under the hightemperature and pressure conditions of Novel carbon structures and chemical reactions are beingEarth's lower mantle, thus representing documented observationally, experimentally, and theoreti-a potential reservoir of deep carbon.17 cally. Structurally, electronically, and chemically, carbon canCredit: PNAS /Mario Santoro mimic other elements in the periodic table. This diversity of carbon forms also touches on biological diversity at depth. Observations over the past five years have led to remark- able findings, and surprising correlations are emerging. DCO science has updated the once-prevailing view that carbon in deep fluids is mostly oxidized; it is now thought that reduced forms of carbon are potentially more common than oxi- dized forms in deep Earth. Further, the study of new forms of carbon materials is leading to discoveries in physics and advanced technology. DCO's 2014 Early Career Scientist Workshop in Costa Rica featured two days of immersive field trips, including a visit to Póas volcano. Credit: Katie Pratt and Carlos José Ramirez Umaña10 Novel Structures DCO Early Career ScientistsTwo teams have determined the structure of a remarkable A new generation of scientistspolymeric form of CO2, finding that the structure is that of the trained with support from DCO iscristobalite form of SiO2, in which the coordination of the car- tackling diverse and important sci-bon atom by oxygen goes from two to four.15, 16 The detailed entific challenges. As one of itsdetermination of the crystal structure of this silica-like CO2, to- legacies, DCO aims to foster the pro-gether with the determination of its stability range,17 opens vast fessional development of these di-new possibilities for carbon storage at high pressure. Such pos- verse young scientists as the meanssibilities are even more likely with the demonstration of CO2- to promote international and in-SiO2 solid solution, forming cristobalite-type mixed polymeric terdisciplinary collaboration andstructures.70 The discovery that carbon can substitute for silicon to lay the foundation for the fu-in certain ceramics11 suggests the existence of related structures ture of deep carbon science. Thein the planet as well as prospects for the creation of new mate- first step in building a network ofrials based on this unusual substitution. Moreover, carbon, ox- DCO Early Career Scientists was toygen, and silicon can all potentially substitute for each other in host a workshop organized ex-mineral structures at mantle conditions,12 in striking contrast to clusively by and for this communi-the rules that govern Earth's surface mineralogy. ty. In February 2014, 40 postdocs, grad students, and newly appoint-Other novel forms of carbon are being found at depth. Clues ed assistant professors came to-obtained by DCO scientists hint at the enigmatic origin of car- gether at the University of Costabonados, an unusual polycrystalline form of carbon,71 and Rica in San José. The workshop, con-this work shows that altogether new structures form at high vened by an Early Career Scientistpressures.72-75 In conditions of planetary interiors, methane re- Committee, included two days ofacts to form heavy hydrocarbons.29, 76 Research has uncovered presentations and two days in thethe fundamental thermodynamic and kinetic basis for these field visiting nearby Turrialba andreactions.77 Using new neutron scattering techniques devel- Póas volcanoes. The major goal ofoped with support from DCO, scientists have determined the this workshop was to bring togeth-high-pressure structures of methane clathrates,28 a major po- er scientists at similar points in theirtential energy resource,30 and another group has identified career and encourage both interna-new silica-based clathrates containing hydrocarbons.78 Also, tional and cross-disciplinary collabo-new transitions in methane itself have been discovered.79 By ration. In July 2014, DCO continuedtracking carbon isotopes through chemical reactions in the to expand the community of ear-lab, DCO researchers found signatures of the role of metal car- ly career scientists with a Summerbides never seen at the surface— a feature previously attribut- School at Yellowstone Nationaled to subducted organic carbon.80 Finally, DCO researchers Park, USA. The Summer School mod-have found that at the atomic level carbon can be stored in el featured a small faculty of senior"defect sites" in mantle minerals — a discovery that provides DCO scientists, connecting near-a mechanism for trapping much more carbon within this re- ly 40 early career scientists throughgion of the planet than previously assumed.52, 81 classroom lectures and field activ- ities. After many participants atDiscoveries are being made in solid-state physics that could both events expressed a strong de-lead to the creation of new carbon-based devices for advanced sire to meet again, the young scien-technology. For example, DCO researchers have found that tists organized sessions and eventsthe electronic properties of defects in diamond could be used for the 2014 AGU Fall Meeting, andin quantum computing.82 Polymers of carbon and sulfur developed a successful proposal toformed under pressure make up a new class of superconduc- support a second DCO Early Careertors.83 Amorphous carbon forms a novel crystalline material Scientist Workshop.at high pressure,84 and compression of benzene leads to noveldiamond nanothreads.85 11 ••• Water and CarbonPopulations of subseafloor microbes Understanding the nature of carbon in deep Earth requirescan vary by five orders of magnitude improved knowledge of its most important solvent, H2O, underregionally.38 these conditions. A team of DCO scientists developed a new model for water that permits computation of the uptake and transport of carbon by aqueous fluids at high pressure.86 The model complements the first direct measurements of the form of carbonate ion in hot, high-pressure aqueous fluids exist- ing at depth.87 This theoretical advance is based on the first accurate determination of dielectric properties of water under extreme pressures and temperatures.88, 89 Their work has the potential to revolutionize our understanding of the geochem- istry of fluids in Earth's mantle in diverse ways, providing an explanation for why Earth has a unique, nitrogen-rich atmosphere24 in contrast to other planets, and how diamond forms within the planet.23, 90 Further, DCO scientists continue to investigate the intriguing properties of pure water under pres- sure, including the puzzling transitions from low- to high-den- sity water forms.91 Volcanism on Earth Volcanism on Mars and Venus Previously observed differences in the ratio of atmospheric nitrogen to noble gas- es (argon, krypton, neon, and xenon) on Earth, Mars, and Venus were explained by DCO scientists through the use of a novel deep Earth water model. Their calcula- tions point to subduction zone plate tectonics as the differentiating factor leading to Earth's distinctive and habitable atmosphere.24 Credit: Nature Geoscience12 Life at Depth Scientific drilling in continental and marine settings provides samples for in-Subsurface environments, both marine and continental, vestigations that address a wide rangerepresent the largest habitat on Earth for microbial life. of DCO's decadal goals, including theScientists have identified the important role of pressure as extent and diversity of the deep bio-a driving force in the distribution, activity, and survival of sphere. A continental scientific drillingmicrobial life throughout Earth's history.92 An important site in Sweden is shown above and thepart of the global sulfur cycle is the subseafloor microbial drilling vessel, JOIDES Resolution, below.conversion of sulfate. To estimate how much sulfate is Credit: Tom Kieft (top); Internation-turned over by microorganisms throughout the planet, DCO al Ocean Discovery Program (IODP) andresearchers used an artificial neural network and a vast William Crawfordaccumulation of data collected over more than four decadesby international drilling programs. They found that sulfate-starved microbes in fact control turnover.19 Furthermore,DCO scientists found that these reactions can occur attemperatures that could support primitive life (i.e., in theabsence of photosynthesis).93Recent discoveries are leading to numerous other insightsabout the deep biosphere.33–39, 94–96 For example, in additionto microbes, the deep biosphere may contain a wealth of vi-ruses — a "deep viriosphere."39 In another finding, examinationof subseafloor microbial populations33, 34 reveals surprisinglysimilar microbes in disparate places around the world,35 andnew statistical methods enable researchers to visualize micro-bial diversity.97 DCO microbiologists also conducted laboratoryexperiments in a remarkable study of directed evolution ofmicrobes at tens of kilobar pressures.98 Deep life discoveriesare not restricted to microbes; new species of deep nematodesdramatically expand the known metazoan biosphere. 99 13 Origins What Can Deep Carbon Tell Us About Origins? Studies of deep carbon address profound questions of the origins of carbon and carbon-bearing forms, including prebiotic systems and life itself. Carbon atoms are born in stars and are released in exploding supernovae. These atoms' subsequent movements and modifications are revealed in part by diverse carbon-rich meteorites and planetary materials. Thus, DCO scientists use carbon from meteorites, Moon rocks, and planetary atmospheres as historical tracers to record events from the depths of space and time. ••• Early EarthThe number of carbon-bearing mineral Examining the role of carbon in Earth through time providesspecies on Earth has grown from an esti- an important window on the evolution of our planet. It is nowmated 35 when life began to more than apparent that both the atmosphere and near-surface reser-400 known carbon minerals today. 1, 100 voirs of early Earth were rich in carbon. Key to understanding how the planet evolved since then is the coupling of the deep water and carbon cycles.101 Complementing studies of carbon elsewhere in the solar system,64–66 DCO is providing new infor- mation about the modulation and redistribution of the initial, planet-scale carbon budget set by accretion through various differentiation processes. During the first few tens of millions of years of Earth's history, carbon partitioned strongly into the core, making the core the largest terrestrial reservoir of carbon. The flux of carbon being ingassed versus outgassed potentially varied greatly throughout Earth's history.21 New discoveries in mineralogy provide fossil evidence for early life,102 and reveal the existence of more than 400 mineral species that were pres- ent on Earth when life began.1, 100 The work also constrains the composition of Earth's atmosphere at the birth of life. 63, 103Workshops the 2013 Kazan Workshop on Abi- ty also holds regular meetings and otic Hydrocarbons (Kazan Federal workshops, at which early careerDCO's commitment to community University, Russia). Others focused and veteran scientists present newbuilding is exemplified by the broad on building cross-disciplinary con- findings alongside cross-communityspectrum of workshops taking place nections, such as the 2014 New Gen- colleagues. These workshops bringas part of the initiative. Success- eration Technology in Deep Carbon together often-unlikely collabora-ful workshops from the first half of Science Workshop (Rice University, tors, and the resulting communitythe program focused on challeng- USA) and the 2014 DCO Data Sci- of deep carbon scientists will con-es and breakthroughs in deep car- ence Day (Rensselaer Polytechnic tinue to grow as one of DCO's cru-bon science. Examples include the Institute, USA). Each DCO Communi- cial legacies.2012 Serpentine Days Workshop(Porquerolles Island, France) and14 2.6-Billion-Year-Old Water The world's oldest water, isolated for 2.6 billion years in fractures 2–3 km deep inIn a landmark study, DCO scientists discovered deep pockets the Canadian Shield, may represent theof water isolated from the surface at 2 –3 km depth for close most ancient extreme environment into the last 2.6 billion years.104 This discovery in the Canadian which life can survive.104Shield of saline fluid, rich in H2, CH4, 4He, and N2, tells us a greatdeal about environments for the ancient deep biosphere. The Dissolved hydrogen and methane influids may represent the most extreme ancient continental water erupting from fractured rocksenvironment yet observed in which life can survive, sustained fuel the deep biosphere. These gases,by products of water-rock interaction in a setting cut off such as those found at Soudan Mine,from sunlight. This interaction between rocks and water may Minnesota, USA, may be trappedalso be a key factor in determining the history of Earth and underground for billions of years,other planets in the Solar System, and thus shed light on the providing clues about the origins of lifepossible existence of life beyond our own planet. For example, on Earth.104 Credit: Jon Tellingsubsurface microbial life could have survived long afterthe surface of Mars lost its water and became sterile. Theseremarkable findings build on previous work by members ofthis team who found microbial communities at similar depthsin a South African gold mine, living off dissolved hydrogen inwater tens of millions of years old. 15 Fueling the Deep Biosphere Geologic hydrogen production has long been thought to fuel deep ecosystems. A critical reaction is "serpentinization," which is also associated with the weathering and hydration of mantle rock. Laboratory studies by DCO scientists found that the rate of this reaction can be increased by an order of magnitude using aluminum oxide as a catalyst. This discovery could unlock understanding of the origins of life as well as show the way toward commercial hydrogen production for fuels or fuel cells.31 Deep microbial niches based on serpentinization byproducts mediate elemental fluxes in the hydrated oceanic mantle. The "microhydrogarnets" that form are widespread in oceanic crust and constitute a prebiotic environment of prime interest for studying the emergence of the first microbial cells on Earth.32 Cold seeps are spectacular ecosystems on the deep seafloor with an unexpectedly large biomass and diversity of animals and microbes. Researchers discovered that methane fuels these deep ecosystems, and a substantial fraction of the methane comes from sources of carbon buried kilometers under the seafloor.36 DCO scientists carefully examined metabolic rates per cell in ancient seafloors, suggesting that the microbial communities studied may be living at the minimum energy flux needed for prokaryotic cells to subsist, and that the total available energy flux ultimately controls deep biosphere community size.37 Hydrocarbon Origins Reactions among minerals and organic compounds in hydrothermal environments play critical roles in Earth's deep carbon cycle, providing energy for the deep biosphere. A DCO team found that a common sulfide mineral, ZnS, cleanly catalyzes a fundamental chemical reaction —the making and breaking of a C-H bond.18 This discovery shows how the mineral surface affects hydrocarbon generation in marine hydrothermal systems such as black smokers, an environment proposed for the origins of life. These and other studies of the generation of hydrocarbons by mineral reactions are bridging the gap between organic and inorganic chemistry, potentially linking nucleotide and polypeptide formation, and eventually life within the mineral world. This micrograph shows a snapshot of the Aluminum oxide increases the produc- serpentinization reaction as aqueous fluids tion of hydrogen by the serpentinization come into contact with the mineral olivine reaction, an important source of energy (yellow). The reaction releases life-sus- for the deep biosphere, by an order of taining chemical energy in the form of magnitude.31 molecular hydrogen. Credit: Bernard Evans16 The Next Five YearsAt this halfway mark in the DCO program, it is important toreport significant successes from our first five years and evaluatethe progress toward our decadal goals in order to plan for theremainder of the decade-long program. DCO scientists contin-ue paving the way for ever more exciting work, and, througha range of cross-disciplinary initiatives, they will continue toaddress some of the most important questions in science.New science opportunities include the following: Global field work conducted by DCO scientists continues to expandEarth's Carbon Budget. DCO has created a worldwide knowledge of Earth's carboncommunity of scientists who work together according to a well- cycle. Sampling of gases, waters,defined plan, linking strands of research that complement one and microorganisms in this crateranother and that otherwise would have been conducted out of lake, Dziani Dzaha, in the Mayottesync. The problem of Earth's carbon budget is truly a global one, Archipelago off the coast ofand it needs to be tackled at the appropriate scale that includes Madagascar provides insights intothe continued development of new experimental techniques.13 biogeochemical connections. Credit: Magali Ader and Sébastien TurayAbiogenic Carbon. The unambiguous differentiation of abiot-ic from biotic organic compounds remains a decadal challengefor DCO. Success will depend heavily on continued break-throughs in "clumped isotope" measurement technology and thequantification of the global sources, sinks, and fluxes of reducedcarbon—especially methane—coupled with those of hydrogen.The link between reduced carbon compounds and hydrogen iskey to elevating our understanding of the global carbon cycle,which lies at the intersection of all four DCO communities.Deep Carbon and Deep Time. The deep time datainfrastructure, including new fundamental models along withvast data and modeling resources in an open-access platform,could be a major breakthrough in how the global scientificcommunity tackles new scientific questions. This effort isbuilding a new virtual scientific instrument, available to all,that will be an engine of discovery about Earth's changinggeosphere and biosphere through deep time. The envisionedstatistical and visualization features will make this tool set anabsolutely new and transformative advance. 17 Deep mines serve as important field Deep Biosphere. One of the most important discoveries oflocations for deep carbon science. For DCO's second half will involve major advances in what limitsexample, DCO scientists discovered microbial life in the deep subsurface. Current and future projects,nematodes (roundworms) living 0.9to 3.6 km under-ground in water- with major involvement ofcontaining fractures located within the DCO researchers, are systemat-Driefontein gold mine, South Africa, ically examining the influencesshown here.97 Credit: T.C. Onstott of factors such as temperature and energy on the presenceResearch on the forms of carbon under and activity of microbial lifeextreme temperatures and pressures has in situ. This research will helpimplications for materials science and establish the limits of geolog-technology. This diamond nanothread is ical detectability of life, whichan example of a newly discovered form then provide unique andof carbon that remains stable under am- unprecedented constraints forbient conditions.85 Credit: Enshi Xu the limits of life. Extreme Biophysics. Deter- mining biophysical effects of extreme environments on bio- molecular structures as well as living systems as a whole is another decadal challenge. Such sys- tematic exploration of life's adaptations to extremes remains an unexplored frontier. Application and extension of experimental and theoretical tools developed in molecular biology, biophys- ics, and drug discovery research could lead to breakthroughs in understanding the form and function of organisms and ecosys- tems in the deep biosphere as well as potentially elsewhere in the cosmos. Origins of Life. DCO is poised to address diverse questions about how Earth's biosphere evolved through time, including the origins of life. New insights stem from developments in the study of mineral evolution and mineral diversity at Earth's dynamic exosphere. A potential breakthrough would be discovery of vestiges of deep life in very ancient fluids from stable cratons and other geologically representative environments discussed above. New Carbon-based Materials. New discoveries of the phys- ics and chemistry of carbon under extreme conditions raise the possibility of creating altogether new carbon and carbon-rich materials with extraordinary properties for a range of new tech- nologies (e.g., superconductors, sensors, thermoelectrics, and high-strength components). Satellite Observations of Carbon Emissions. DCO is embracing the prospects of a new high-resolution CO2-mon- itoring satellite with high-resolution imaging down to 500 m—a capability that would complement existing global missions like OCO-2. Such a satellite could be pointed at an18 active volcano when it erupts. Measuring volcanic emissions Satellites such as the Orbiting Carbonof CO2 from space will open the door to fully quantifying Observatory-2 (OCO-2), shown here,point sources of carbon in the atmosphere needed to under- provide new opportunities for studies ofstand natural versus anthropogenic fluxes and their impacts carbon in Earth, such as measurementson climate. from space of carbon dioxide from volcanic emissions and outgassing of the oceans.Missions Beyond Earth. An Credit: JPL/NASAimportant new opportunity isthe ongoing Rosetta mission,which sniffs out gases releasedby comet 67P/CG, 500 mil-lion km from Earth. Resultswill constrain origins of water,carbon, and other volatile ele-ments on terrestrial planets—exploration at its purest level.DCO scientists are associatedwith groups who built and arein charge of the mass spectro-meters on board the spacecraft.The origin of the carbon in thiscomet and related bodies is afirst-order cosmological problem.Nature of Extrasolar Carbon. The recognition that plan-ets are commonplace in the cosmos, including some with car-bon-rich compositions, opens up new prospects for DCO whereits techniques, methodologies, and expertise could be applied tothe nature of carbon well beyond our Solar System (perhaps ul-timately leading to a "Deep Space Carbon Observatory").New Physics of Ultradense Carbon Materials. New facil-ities and instruments now exist for exploring matter at pres-sure-temperature conditions orders of magnitude more extremethan current approaches permit, and creating cold, highly com-pressed solids to hot, dense matter of stellar interiors. A recentlandmark study at the National Ignition Facility at LawrenceLivermore National Laboratory demonstrated this new researchtool with highly accurate measurements of the compression ofdiamond at 50 megabars of pressure.105In addition to addressing the above science questions, DCO willexpand its program in the following ways:Build the DCO Science Network. Our mission is to bringtogether a diverse group of scientists to tackle the big ques-tions of deep carbon science in novel ways. Over the next fiveyears DCO will continue to grow our already far-reachingcommunity through a variety of activities, including work-shops and conferences on cutting-edge scientific questions 19 New visualization techniques and methods, global field studies, and collaborative researchhelp clarify the forms and inter- endeavors. We are also committed to supporting enhancedactions of carbon under deep diversity among deep carbon scientists, as well as early careerplanetary interior conditions, scientists who represent the future of this new field and asuch as carbonate-bearing aque- primary legacy of DCO.ous fluids shown here.88 Credit:Ding Pan Develop Data Infrastructure. DCO scientists have already begun the process of creating an extensive deep carbon data infrastructure. Through both internal database development and partnerships with existing data management systems, DCO scientists will create a comprehensive deep carbon data infrastructure within the DCO Data Portal. Models & Visualization. Developing new ways to visu- alize complex datasets in the context of deep Earth through deep time represents another important legacy of DCO. We have begun the process of creating a four-dimensional planetary carbon circulation model. The research and de- velopment process for such a model is necessarily highly in- terdisciplinary, and will unite geobiologists, geochemists, and geodynamicists, as well as data scientists and engineers, in developing creative ways to visualize deep Earth data. The DCO Science Network ing a comprehensive suite of data analysis tools and legacy databas- One of the major legacies of DCO es. Combined with vibrant public is a pioneering network of scientists webpages reporting recent com- in the new and transdisciplinary munity news, relevant science high- field of deep carbon science. From lights, events, and "deeper views," the outset, DCO has brought to- external perspectives on hot top- gether people with diverse skillsets ics in deep carbon science, the DCO to tackle cutting-edge scientif- website forms a focal point for the ic questions in novel and produc- DCO Science Network. We encour- tive ways. To solidify, promote, and age graduate students, postdocs, grow this network of deep carbon faculty and research scientists, in- scientists, we developed the DCO dustry representatives, artists, jour- Community Portal, an online sys- nalists, and others interested in the tem composed of user profiles, field of deep carbon science to join community resources, and collabo- the DCO Science Network and sub- rative tools. Members of the DCO mit their profile information at Science Network can also access the deepcarbon.net/join. DCO Data Portal, where deep car- bon and data scientists are build-20 Contributors to Deep Carbon ScienceScientists from throughout the world are contributors to an ever-growing collection of hundreds of journal articles,books, and other scientific publications resulting from DCO-related research focused on deep carbon science(catalogued at deepcarbon.net). The first major collective publication of DCO, Carbon in Earth,1 integrates a vastbody of research in physics, chemistry, biology, and Earth and space sciences. The chapters in this volume synthe-size the current state of knowledge about deep carbon, and outline unanswered questions guiding DCO for theremainder of the decade and beyond.Carbon in EarthReviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry, Volume 75Robert M. Hazen, Adrian P. Jones, and John A. Baross, editorsPublished in March 2013 as an Open Access volume, 698 pages"Carbon in Earth is an outgrowth of the Deep Carbon Observatory (DCO), a 10-year interna-tional research effort dedicated to achieving transformational understanding of the chemicaland biological roles of carbon in Earth. Hundreds of researchers from 6 continents, includingall 51 coauthors of this volume, are now engaged in the DCO effort. This volume serves as abenchmark for our present understanding of Earth's carbon — both what we know and whatwe have yet to learn. Ultimately, the goal is to produce a second, companion volume to markthe progress of this decadal initiative."1Chapter 1. Why deep carbon? Robert M. Hazen and Craig M. SchiffriesChapter 2. Carbon mineralogy and crystal chemistry. Robert M. Hazen, Robert T. Downs, Adrian P. Jones, and Linda KahChapter 3. Structure, bonding, and mineralogy of carbon at extreme conditions. Artem R. Oganov, Russell J. Hemley, Robert M. Hazen, and Adrian P. JonesChapter 4. Carbon mineral evolution. Robert M. Hazen, Robert T. Downs, Linda Kah, and Dimitri SverjenskyChapter 5. The chemistry of carbon in aqueous fluids at crustal and upper-mantle conditions: experimental and theoretical constraints. Craig E. Manning, Everett L. Shock, and Dimitri A. SverjenskyChapter 6. Primordial origins of Earth's carbon. Bernard Marty, Conel M. O'D. Alexander, and Sean N. RaymondChapter 7. Ingassing, storage, and outgassing of terrestrial carbon through geologic time. Rajdeep DasguptaChapter 8. Carbon in the core: its influence on the properties of core and mantle. Bernard J. Wood, Jie Li, and Anat ShaharChapter 9. Carbon in silicate melts. Huaiwei Ni and Hans KepplerChapter 10. Carbonate melts and carbonatites. Adrian P. Jones, Matthew Genge, Laura CarmodyChapter 11. Deep carbon emissions from volcanoes. Michael R. Burton, Georgina M. Sawyer, and Domenico GranieriChapter 12. Diamonds and the geology of mantle carbon. Steven B. Shirey, Pierre Cartigny, Daniel J. Frost, Shantanu Keshav, Fabrizio Nestola, Paolo Nimis, D. Graham Pearson, Nikolai V. Sobolev, and Michael J. WalterChapter 13. Nanoprobes for deep carbon. Wendy L. Mao and Eglantine BoulardChapter 14. On the origins of deep hydrocarbons. Mark A. Sephton and Robert M. HazenChapter 15. Laboratory simulations of abiotic hydrocarbon formation in Earth's deep subsurface. Thomas M. McCollomChapter 16. Hydrocarbon behavior at nanoscale interfaces. David R. Cole, Salim Ok, Alberto Striolo, and Anh PhanChapter 17. Nature and extent of the deep biosphere. Frederick S. Colwell and Steven D'HondtChapter 18. Serpentinization, carbon, and deep life. Matthew O. Schrenk, William J. Brazelton, and Susan Q. LangChapter 19. High-pressure biochemistry and biophysics. Filip Meersman, Isabelle Daniel, Douglas H. Bartlett, Roland Winter, Rachael Hazael, and Paul F. McMillanChapter 20. 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Sloan Foundation.28 DEEP CARBON OBSERVATORY deepcarbon.net SECRETARIAT GEOPHYSICAL LABORATORY CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON 5251 BROAD BRANCH ROAD, NW WASHINGTON, DC 20015 -1305 About the Deep Carbon Observatory Logo C is the chemical symbol for carbon. The cropped area of the C represents the estimated 10% of the carbon at Earth's surface and in the oceans, atmosphere, and upper crust. The keyhole symbolizes DCO's quest to unlock the secrets of deep carbon. The red area represents the remaining 90% of carbon contained in Earth's lower crust, mantle, and core.1About the cover: The serpentinization process, a reaction between water and rock,is crucial for deep microbial ecosystems. The reaction releases life-sustaining chemicalenergy in the form of molecular hydrogen and, in the process, modifies surroundingminerals. A false color scanning electron micrograph illustrates this reciprocal relationshipbetween the geosphere and biosphere, where hydrogarnets are shown in blue, poly-hedral serpentine in green, iron oxides in red, and relics of biofilm in yellow.Credit: Daniele Brunelli / Bénédicte Ménez (Università di Modena e Reggio Emilia / IPGP) 32
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Ronda Rich: Being Southern means the occasional hotel lobby conversation
Groups give agriculture awards to residents, businesses
Dori Bishop leads Merrily the donkey, left, and Yankee Doodle the pony to the covered barn Thursday at Pony Perfect Party. The business, which has been around for 18 years, won Agribusiness of the Year at the annual Agribusiness Award breakfast. - photo by SARA GUEVARA | The Times
Savannah King
Updated: March 29, 2012, 11:30 p.m.
Friend of Agriculture
President of the Georgia Poultry Federation Mike Giles was honored with the 2012 Friend of Agriculture Award.
"It's a tremendous honor to be recognized as a friend of agriculture because agriculture has been so good to me my whole life," Giles said.
Giles' family owned an agribusiness in Dooly County that primarily grew row crops such as peanuts and cotton.
Giles said it is a tremendous honor to be recognized in the community he calls home. Abit Massey, president emeritus of the Georgia Poultry Federation, praised Giles for his leadership and his love of agriculture, poultry and people.
"He's just an outstanding person, an effective leader. He works very hard and he's respected by others," Massey said.
Farmer of the Year
Twenty-one-year old Payton Edge was honored with his second Farmer of the Year award. In the fall of 2011, he was given the honor by Soil and Water Conservation and was surprised to be honored again by Hall County.
"It's a great privilege. It's really good. I'm glad to get it," Edge said.
Hall County Agriculture Extension Agent Michael Wheeler said Edge was chosen because there aren't many young men who have the focus required to operate a farm. Farming requires forethought and planning, something Edge figured out at a young age.
Edge's mother, Sabrina Edge, said her son's love of farming began when he was 2 or 3. "My favorite picture of him is on our refrigerator. We had planted watermelons that year and he was so proud to see those things grow and he took care of them. He's always loved agriculture and farming and being outside," Sabrina Edge said.
Agribusiness Hall of Fame
Alton Bruce and Homer Wilson were honored posthumously for being North Georgia poultry pioneers.
The two men worked together throughout their lives and owned Bruce and Wilson Feed and Poultry.
Bruce's son, Randy Bruce, and Wilson's wife, Edna Wilson, were present to accept the awards.
"We're so grateful for these two men and what they meant to all of us in the community and we're very humbled by this award," Randy Bruce said.
The families were presented with a certificate to honor the men. Their names will be added to the Hall of Fame plaque at the Hall County Extension Agents Office.
"(Wilson) would have given anything in the world to have been here. He loved to work— he was a workaholic— and chickens," Edna Wilson said.
Dori Bishop likes to say her life began at age 11.
That was the year she and her family moved to Gainesville, the same year she got her first horse.
Over the years her love of horses continued to grow as did her passion for education.
Bishop worked as a kindergarten teacher at Enota Elementary School in the early 1990s.
She was asked to bring one of her ponies to the school for the students to see. She said that was where the idea for her business Pony Perfect Party began.
She has been educating children and adults about animals and agriculture since 1994.
"I used to be asked if I missed teaching in the school system. And I'm like 'No, I do it everyday, and I do it with passion and I love what I do,'" Bishop said.
Pony Perfect Party was honored by Hall County as the 2012 Agribusiness of the Year at the annual AgriBusiness Awards Ceremony on Thursday morning.
The breakfast was held at the East Hall Community Center and was hosted by the Hall County Chamber of Commerce and the Hall County Cooperative Extension.
"It was quite an honor. And I think deserved, only because Pony Perfect Party has touched so many lives," Bishop said. "I almost feel like the Pony Perfect Party events are the beginning of the horse bug for a lot of kids."
Hall County Agriculture Extension Agent Michael Wheeler said the business received several nominations for agribusiness of the year.
"They do such a good job. They promote agriculture, they expose kids to opportunities they wouldn't have and they're very giving of their time and energy," Wheeler said.
Bishop is starting to see the impact she and the animals have made on children over the years.
"I watched kids grow up and now they bring their kids back. The kids I had parties for, that took riding lessons with me, now they're coming back with their children to do it and I think that's wonderful," Bishop said.

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


Culex sitiens is wide-spread in Southeast Asia, the South Pacific and Australia.
It is known to transmit diseases such as Ross River virus. However, this is not a risk for New Zealand as this disease is not present here. Culex sitiens may also be able to transmit Japanese encephalitis but this has not been observed outside of a laboratory setting.
Culex sitiens larvae were found near the Kaipara Harbour in the Kawau Parau Inlet (north of Auckland). The larvae were found during regular surveillance as part of the Ministry for Primary Industries' (MPI's) National Saltmarsh Mosquito Surveillance Programme. So far, no adult mosquitoes have been found.
MPI was alerted to the suspected detection of the larvae on 9 March 2018. Further testing for identification was completed on 12 March.
Contractors for MPI are now taking water samples and setting light traps to collect larvae and trap adult mosquitoes in and around the initial find. This will help us find out if there is a sustainable breeding population.
After returning to the initial find site on 16 March, 2 more larvae were found. The new find is not definite evidence that there is an established breeding population of the mosquito but does make it more likely.
We will have the necessary permissions in place to begin spot treatment when suspicious larvae are found as part of the sampling and trapping process. Our field staff will treat any suspicious larvae with a product called Vektobac, which is an inert bacteria granule. There are no human health concerns from using this treatment.
If there is a sustainable breeding population, it's likely that MPI will begin an eradication programme, after consultation with local iwi, residents and organisations. MPI has successfully eradicated exotic mosquitoes in the past.
We are also investigating how the mosquito may have entered the country.