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La vida, els rols i els drets de les dones a Xile han experimentat molts canvis al llarg del temps. Els rols socials de les dones xilenes han estat històricament afectats pels rols de gènere tradicionals i una cultura patriarcal, però al llarg del , les dones es van implicar cada vegada més en la política i les protestes, cosa que va donar lloc a les disposicions de la constitució per mantenir la igualtat entre homes i dones i prohibir la discriminació sexual.

El nivell educatiu de les dones, la participació de la mà d'obra i els drets han millorat, sobretot des que Xile va tornar a la democràcia el 1990. Xile va legalitzar el divorci el 2004 i també és un dels pocs països que ha triat una dona presidenta. No obstant això, les dones xilenes encara s'enfronten a molts desafiaments econòmics i polítics, com ara la disparitat d'ingressos, taxes elevades de violència domèstica i rols de gènere persistents.

La història de la dona xilena

Les dones van rebre el dret de vot el 1931 i el 1949, durant l'era presidencial de Xile. També durant l'època, milers de dones van protestar contra el president socialista Salvador Allende a la Marxa de les olles i cassoles buides.

Mentre estaven sota el règim autoritari d'Augusto Pinochet, les dones també van participar en las protestas, protestes contra el plebiscit de Pinochet en què les dones van votar «NO». Durant l'època de Xile sota el dictador Pinochet, l'estat dels drets legals de les dones va quedar darrere de la major part d'Amèrica Llatina, tot i que Xile tenia una de les economies més fortes d'Amèrica del Sud.

Xile va tornar a la democràcia el 1990, provocant canvis en la vida i els rols de les dones dins de la societat. Des del retorn a la democràcia, el govern de Xile ha invertit més recursos polítics i econòmics per ampliar els programes de benestar social que abans. El partit polític Concertación ha estat al poder des del final de la dictadura de Pinochet i, des del 2006 fins al 2010, Michelle Bachelet del partit va ser la primera dona presidenta de Xile.

La dona en la societat

Xile ha estat descrit com un dels països més socialment conservadors d'Amèrica Llatina. En comparació amb els Estats Units d'Amèrica, Xile no va comptar amb tantes feministes entre la seva evolució de la intrusió de les dones a l'esfera política. Les dones xilenes estimaven el catolicisme com els seus ritus de pas, que van iniciar moviments de dones en oposició a l'erupció del partit polític liberal al govern xilè. L'entorn tradicionalment domèstic al qual les dones estaven acostumades es feia servir com a raonament patriarcal per a la restricció dels vots de les dones per part de les dones. No obstant això, les conviccions religioses xilenes com a devotes catòliques van iniciar el seu desig de votar en contra del ferm partit anticlerical liberal.

El 1875, Domitila Silva y Lepe, vídua d'un exgovernador provincial, va llegir els requisits necessàris per a que «tots els xilens adults tinguessin el dret a vot» i va ser la primera dona a votar. Altres dones xilenes elitistes van seguir la seva audaç iniciativa, cosa que va provocar que el partit liberal anticlerical del Congrés aprovés una llei que negava el dret de vot a les dones. Malgrat aquest retrocés, la Domtilia Silva i altres dones d'elit van expressar la seva posició religiosa al partit conservador. El partit conservador era favorable a les dones perquè sabien que el seu suport influiria en la dominació del partit conservador en la política.

El 1912 va començar a esclatar el «socialcatolicisme». Amalia Errazuriz de Subercaseaux dirigia el socialcatolicisme, organització femenina de classe obrera de dones de la classe treballadora. Va introduir la Liga de Damas Chilenas (Lliga de Dames Xilenes) entre altres 450 dones de classe mitjana-alta amb la intenció de «protegir i defensar els interessos de les dones que es guanyaven la vida sense atacar els principis d'ordre i autoritat». Després d'aquesta organització, moltes altres dones d'elit van crear institucions de dones de construcció social. Amanda Labarca també era elitista, però no estava d'acord amb la privilegiada subjecció femenina de les dones de la classe treballadora i fundà el Club de Lectura de Dones. Va creure que les dones haurien d'estar educades, independentment del seu estat socioeconòmic, per tenir un paper més influent en la societat.

Els rols de gènere
Les creences tradicionals sobre el rol de gènere són prevalents a la societat xilena, específicament les idees que «les dones haurien de centrar-se en la maternitat i ser submises als homes». Un estudi del 2010 del Programa de les Nacions Unides per al Desenvolupament (PNUD) va informar que el 62% dels xilens s'oposen a la plena igualtat de gènere. Molts dels enquestats van expressar la creença que les dones haurien de limitar-se als rols tradicionals de mare i dona. No obstant això, l'Informe Mundial sobre el Desenvolupament del 2012 estableix que les actituds masculines envers la igualtat de gènere són que «els homes no perden quan es promouen els drets de les dones».

La maternitat
El catolicisme es concreta íntegrament entre les identitats familiars xilenes. La Mare de Déu és l'exemple idolatrat de la maternitat. Els seus actes purs i sacrificis han de ser encarnats per mares xilenes. Tradicionalment, se suposa que les dones són les coneixedores de la resistència de la Mare de Déu. La importància bíblica es mostra a través del govern tradicional de Xile. A principis de la dècada del 1900, els exemples de gènere del catolicisme foren plasmats pel govern patriarcal i el sufragi de les dones. Les dones eren confinades a la llar.

A finals de la dècada del 1940, la primera dama Rosa Markmann de González Videla va acceptar els problemes de les dones com a reconeixement als Centres de Mares, on les dones tenien accés a recursos per complir el seu paper de mestresses de la llar, i va animar les dones com a consumidores a lluitar contra els elevats costos de vida i augmentar el seu interès en participar en altres vies de la vida pública al país, com ara la participació política i laboral. Els esforços de la Primera Dama per defensar l'evolució de la reforma de les dones van conduir a les tècniques modernes de la reforma de les dones.

A la dècada del 1960, les campanyes per al demòcrata cristià Eduardo Frei Montalva posaven èmfasi en les dones i en les qüestions de les dones. El vot s'havia convertit en obligatori per a tots els xilens i va ser la primera vegada en la història que el registre de votants femenines va passar del 35% al 75%. El canvi democràtic de govern cristià va obrir l'accés de les dones al control de la natalitat. No obstant això, l'èmfasi del govern en la modernització de les institucions femenines i els problemes subjacents de la jerarquia de gènere, va deixar de banda les dones en situació de pobresa. Hi va haver restriccions a les institucions de dones, als Centres de Mares i a la maternitat a les menors de 18 anys. Per paralitzar estructuralment les dones xilenes, la Primera Dama Maria Ruiz Tagle de Frei va supervisar el «bon funcionament» de les organitzacions feministes. Es va crear l'Organització Central per a les Mares (CEMA) com una estructura formal per assessorar les mares xilenes desfavorides.

Carmen Gloria Aguayo va revolucionar els Centres de Mares durant el període de conflicte entre canvi i tradició durant la campanya demòcrata cristiana. Aguayo també va dirigir els departaments de dones del partit entre 48 homes i va reflectir la direcció política de les iniciatives: polítiques de protecció de la família, defensa dels drets de les dones al treball, a la baixa de maternitat, a una remuneració i una ocupació equitativa, una nova oportunitat de formació i aprenentatge al departament promès per a estudis laborals femenins. Com que el benestar familiar es considerava important dins de la societat xilena, les mares han servit com a representació política per tenir veu al govern.

Drets legals
Actualment, les dones tenen molts dels mateixos drets que els homes. El Servei Nacional de la Dona (Servicio Nacional de la Mujer, SERNAM) s'encarrega de protegir els drets legals de les dones al sector públic.

Matrimoni
Fins fa poc, les dones perdien el dret a gestionar els seus propis béns un cop casades, i els marits rebien tota la riquesa, però aquesta llei ha canviat i les dones ja poden administrar els seus propis béns. Una parella també pot signar un acord legal abans del matrimoni per a que tots els béns continuïn sent propietat de qui els va portar al matrimoni.

El Codi Civil de Xile anteriorment exigia que les dones havien de conviure i ser fidels i obedients als seus marits, però ja no està en la llei. Una dona casada no pot ser cap de família o cap de la llar de la mateixa manera que un home; no obstant això, les dones casades no estan obligades per llei a obeir els seus marits.

Divorci
Xile va legalitzar el divorci el 2004 i va anul·lar un codi legal de 1884. La llei que legalitza el divorci és la Nova Llei del Matrimoni Civil, que es va introduir per primera vegada com a projecte de llei el 1995. Ja hi havia hagut anteriors projectes de llei de divorci, però aquest va assolir assegurar-se el suport liberal i conservador suficient per aprovar-lo.

Com que el divorci és legal, hi ha quatre estats matrimonials a Xile: casat/casada, separat/separada, divorciat/divorciada i vidu/vídua. Només els estats de divorci i de vídua permeten un nou matrimoni. Abans de la legalització del divorci, l'única manera d'abandonar el matrimoni era obtenir una anul·lació civil que només s'atorgaria comunicant al registrador civil que el cònjuge havia mentit d'alguna manera pel que fa a la llicència matrimonial, anul·lant així el contracte matrimonial.

Propietat
En el matrimoni, hi ha tres tipus d'actius: els del marit, els de l'esposa i els béns comuns que pertanyen a tots dos. Les terres i les cases d'un matrimoni continuen sent propietat de qui les va portar al matrimoni, però per vendre-les, tant el marit com la dona han de signar. En cas de divorci, tant l'home com la dona tenen dret a la propietat de la casa matrimonial. En el cas de la defunció d'un cònjuge, el cònjuge supervivent, independentment del gènere, té els mateixos drets d'herència al domicili matrimonial. Si no hi ha testament quan el marit mor, es dona a la dona una categoria igual que els fills per herència. Abans del matrimoni, una parella pot signar un document legal que separi tots els béns perquè la dona i l'home administrin cadascun d'ells; en aquest cas, el marit no pot controlar els béns de la seva dona.

Si les dones treballen fora de casa independentment dels seus marits, adquireixen béns personals i poden demostrar que han obtingut aquests béns a través del seu treball independent, aquestes dones treballadores poden acumular aquests béns com a propis, incapaços de ser tocats pels marits.

Els fills i filles tenen els mateixos drets d'herència dels béns mobles (propietats personals) i immobles dels seus pares. Els homes i les dones solters tenen els mateixos drets de propietat sobre béns mobles i immobles.

A les zones rurals de Xile, l'herència és la forma principal d'adquirir la terra tant per homes com per dones, tant si la terra té o no títols de propietat. De vegades, les dones no poden reclamar la seva herència a la terra sense títols perquè el cost dels documents legals és massa elevat.

Sufragi femení
A les dones se'ls va concedir el dret de vot a les eleccions municipals del 1931, i van obtenir el dret a vot a les eleccions nacionals del 8 de gener de 1949, cosa que va resultar en la seva capacitat de vot en les mateixes condicions iguals que els homes i va augmentar la participació de les dones en la política.

Legislació familiar
Tant els homes com les dones xilenes tenen dret a un subsidi familiar si tenen fills a càrrec de menors de divuit anys (o vint-i-quatre si estan escolaritzats). Hi ha diferències en els requisits de dret per al subsidi familiar relacionat amb el cònjuge, ja que un home compleix els requisits per obtenir un subsidi familiar si té una dona a càrrec, però una dona només té dret a un subsidi familiar si el seu marit està discapacitat. Fins a una reforma de les lleis de paternitat el 1998, els fills nascuts fora del matrimoni tenien menys dret al suport financer i a l'herència dels pares que els fills nascuts dins del matrimoni. El 2007 es va aprovar un projecte de llei per donar a les mares accés directe als pagaments de manutenció infantil.

Les mares que treballen amb un estatus socioeconòmic baix i que acrediten un contracte de treball i una jornada laboral, reben atenció infantil subvencionada mitjançant la legislació aprovada el 1994. Aquest sistema exclou: dones amb ingressos familiars massa elevats, dones a l'atur, dones que treballen al sector informal, i dones les feines de les quals no estan contractades. Xile ofereix un permís de maternitat remunerat a les dones que treballen en el sector formal, pagant el 100% del seu salari durant el permís, i també permet a les dones una pausa d'alimentació d'una hora cada dia fins que el nen compleixi els dos anys. Les treballadores no vinculades al mercat formal i sense contracte de treball no reben permís de maternitat remunerat.

La baixa de maternitat postnatal és ara de sis mesos en lloc dels tres anteriors.

Educació

Les taxes d'alfabetització de les dones gairebé coincideixen amb les dels homes, amb el 97,4% de les dones que saben llegir, enfront del 97,6% dels homes (el 2015).

La legislació xilena obliga l'educació primària i secundària per a nens i nenes. El 2007, el Banc Mundial va declarar que els nivells de matriculació de nens i nenes a l'educació primària i secundària es trobaven en una «paritat virtual». L'educació de les dones a Xile és generalment superior a la dels països veïns.

A l'educació superior, a partir del 2002, les dones tenien índexs d'assistència similars als homes, amb dones amb un 47,5% d'assistència, contra homes amb un 52,5%.

Ocupació

Participació
Xile té una de les taxes d'ocupació femenina més baixes de tota Amèrica Llatina, però la participació de la mà d'obra femenina ha augmentat constantment al llarg dels anys. El 2016, la taxa d'ocupació de les dones era del 52%. Tot i que el 47,5% dels estudiants universitaris són dones, moltes segueixen optant per ser mestresses de la llar en lloc d'incorporar-se al mercat laboral. Un estudi del Banc Mundial del 2012 va mostrar que l'expansió de la llar d'infants pública no va tenir cap efecte sobre la participació de la força laboral femenina. El baix nombre de dones que entren al mercat laboral fa que Xile ocupi un lloc baix entre els països de classe mitjana-alta pel que fa a les dones en el mercat laborat malgrat una formació educativa superior. A Xile, les dones més pobres representen una part menor del mercat laboral. Un estudi del 2004 va mostrar que el 81,4% de les dones treballaven al sector serveis.

Treball formal i informal
Les dones han marxat cada vegada més del treball domèstic no remunerat i van entrar als mercats laborals formals i informals remunerats. Moltes treballadores treballen al sector informal de Xile perquè la competència nacional per obtenir llocs de treball ha augmentat el nombre de llocs de treball poc qualificats. El 1998, el 44,8% de les dones en edat de treballar a Xile treballaven al sector informal, mentre que només el 32,9% dels homes treballaven de manera informal.

Bretxa salarial
Per a feines que no requereixen estudis superiors, les dones guanyen un 20% menys de mitjana que els homes. Per als llocs de treball que requereixen un títol universitari, la bretxa salarial augmenta fins al 40%. Les dones sense estudis universitaris obtenen el 83% dels ingressos que obtenen els homes sense estudis universitaris. L'Enquesta Socioeconòmica Nacional del 2004 i l'informe del Banc Mundial del quadreni del 2004 indiquen que la bretxa global de renda de gènere se situa en el 33% (ja que les dones cobren el 67% dels salaris dels homes).

Política

Participació de les dones a la política
Les dones no van participar en la política fins al 1934, quan van poder utilitzar per primera vegada el seu vot municipal. El vot municipal, i posteriorment nacional, va provocar que les dones s'impliquessin en la política més que abans, pressionant el govern i els partits polítics. Amb l'augment de la importància política de les dones, molts partits van establir seccions femenines de suport i van intentar perseguir els vots de les dones, tot i que passarien anys perquè els partits polítics consideressin realment les dones com a importants per a la política.

El 1r de desembre de 1971, milers de dones que estaven en contra del recentment elegit Salvador Allende van marxar per Santiago de Xile per protestar contra les polítiques governamentals i la visita de Fidel Castro a Xile. Aquesta marxa, coneguda com la Marxa de les olles i cassoles buides, va reunir a moltes dones conservadores i algunes liberals com a força de la política xilena, i el 1977 Augusto Pinochet va decretar el dia de la marxa com a «Dia Nacional de la Dona». Les dones també van fer sentir la seva veu a finals de la dècada del 1980, quan el 52% de l'electorat nacional era femení i el 51,2% de les dones van votar «NO» al plebiscit d'Augusto Pinochet. Es considera que les dones d'aquestes protestes populars han tingut un paper central en la creixent preocupació nacional amb la història de l'activisme polític femení.

A partir del 2006, Xile era inferior a vuit altres països llatinoamericans pel que fa a les dones en posicions polítiques. Amb només unes poques dones legisladores, mantenir l'atenció al tema dels drets de les dones és una tasca difícil, especialment al Senat, on hi ha menys representants femenines que a la Cambra de Diputats. A diferència de la veïna Argentina, on el 41,6% de la cambra de diputats argentina està formada per dones, només el 22,6% de la cambra baixa de Xile està formada per dones. Xile no té cap mandat governamental que exigeixi que les dones representin un percentatge determinat de candidats al partit. La representació política de les dones és baixa, però augmenta en molts partits polítics i hi ha un suport creixent a una llei de quotes sobre la representació de les dones. Els partits progressistes d'esquerres tenen una major obertura a la participació de les dones, evident a les quotes del Partit per la Democràcia i del Partit Socialista per a la representació de les dones com a candidades al càrrec intern del partit.

El 2009, les activistes van exigir als candidats a la presidència que desenvolupessin reformes que milloressin les condicions laborals de les dones. Les reformes van incloure la baixa de maternitat, horaris laborals flexibles i formació laboral. Amb l'objectiu de millorar les oportunitats laborals de les dones, l'expresidenta Michelle Bachelet va fer il·legal preguntar pel gènere a les sol·licituds de treball i que els empresaris exigissin que les empleades es fessin proves d'embaràs.

La segona ona del feminisme
Després d'aquestes dones xilenes, la fase contemporània del feminisme es va construir a través del conflicte social entre socialisme i feminisme. El president elegit democràticament, Salvador Allende, va ser destituït l'11 de setembre de 1973 quan un cop militar va envair el seu palau, assassinant brutalment tots els funcionaris del govern de la Unitat Popular i provocant el debat del suïcidi d'Allende. Aquesta revolució «El camí xilè cap al socialisme» va acabar bruscament, revitalitzant la base del govern. Tanmateix, la fundació va ser corrompuda precipitadament pels valors patriarcals. La destacada sociòloga feminista Maria Elena Valenzuela va argumentar que l'estat militar es pot interpretar com l'expressió per excel·lència del patriarcat: «La Junta, amb un sentit molt clar dels seus interessos, ha entès que ha de reforçar la família tradicional i el paper dependent de les dones, que es redueix a la de la mare. La dictadura, que institucionalitza la desigualtat social, es basa en la desigualtat en la família». Aquestes desigualtats van començar a agitar les dones xilenes. Les dones van començar a formular grups que s'oposaven al domini patriarcal de l'esfera política.

La presidència de Michelle Bachelet
Michelle Bachelet va ser la primera dona presidenta de Xile, qui va dirigir el país entre el 2006 i el 2010. Durant la seva presidència, Bachelet va augmentar el pressupost del Servei Nacional de la Dona (SERNAM) i va ajudar a la institució a obtenir finançament del Fons de desenvolupament per a les dones de les Nacions Unides. La seva administració va tenir un paper actiu en la promoció d'oportunitats i polítiques per a les dones i sobre elles, en la creació o millora de les lleis sobre l'atenció a la infància, la reforma de les pensions i la lactància materna. Durant la seva presidència, Bachelet va nomenar un gabinet que era un 50% femení.

Bachelet va ser la primera directora executiva de l'Entitat de l'ONU per la igualtat de gènere i l'apoderament de la dona.

L'11 de març de 2014 es va convertir en presidenta de Xile per segona vegada.

Política
El Servei Nacional de la Dona (Servicio Nacional de la Mujer, SERNAM) ha notat que és més fàcil assolir que els polítics donin suport i aprovin programes de reducció de la pobresa dirigits a dones pobres que les propostes que desafien les relacions de gènere. Bona part de la legislació xilena sobre drets de les dones ha estat impulsada pel SERNAM: entre 1992 i 2010, SERNAM va introduir seixanta-quatre propostes legislatives per ampliar la igualtat jurídica de les dones.

Històricament, els partits progressistes d'esquerra han cridat més l'atenció sobre els drets de les dones. Tot i això, molts partits polítics recolzen de manera poc sincera l'agenda de les dones i el concepte d'igualtat de gènere, deixant en lloc de fer accions per part del SERNAM o d'organitzacions no governamentals.

Tot i que el SERNAM existeix per ajudar les dones, no hi ha cap clàusula de no-discriminació a la Constitució Política de la República de Xile.

Organitzacions

Organitzacions estatals

El Servei Nacional de la Dona (Servicio Nacional de la Mujer, SERNAM) és la institució política creada el 1991 que elabora lleis executives relatives als drets de les dones. El SERNAM ha establert un programa per ajudar les dones caps de família, un programa de prevenció de la violència contra les dones i una xarxa de centres d'informació que se centren en els problemes dels drets de les dones. La seva presència a Xile és important perquè va ser establerta per llei i forma part permanent de l'estructura estatal de Xile. Com a institució, tendeix a centrar gran part de la seva atenció en determinats segments de dones: dones de baixos ingressos i caps de família, dones treballadores temporals, prevenció de la violència domèstica i prevenció de l'embaràs en adolescents.

Una queixa habitual que té el SERNAM és que les principals designades no són dones vinculades a la comunitat feminista. La institució també té restriccions pel que fa a les polítiques relacionades amb les dones a causa de la seva relació amb l'Estat, com es va veure el 2000 quan el SERNAM va afavorir però no va donar suport explícit al projecte de llei per legalitzar el divorci, perquè estava sota la direcció del Partit Demòcrata Cristià. El 2002 se li va permetre finalment donar suport al projecte de llei.

Recerca i activisme
Molts dels grups de dones de Xile funcionen fora de l'àmbit estatal.

Els centres d'investigació van començar a sorgir a finals del , inclosos el Centre d'Estudis de la Dona i La Morada. El Centre d'Estudis de la Dona és una organització sense ànim de lucre fundada el 1984 i que realitza investigacions, forma dones, té un programa de consultoria i intenta augmentar la participació política de les dones. La Morada és una altra organització sense ànim de lucre que treballa per expandir els drets de les dones mitjançant la implicació política, l'educació, la cultura i els esforços per erradicar la violència.

Relacions internacionals
Xile va ratificar la Convenció de les Nacions Unides sobre l'eliminació de totes les formes de discriminació contra les dones el 1988, declarant internacionalment el seu suport als drets humans de les dones.

Una de les missions de Xile com a part de l'ONU és el compromís amb la democràcia, els drets humans i la perspectiva de gènere com a fonaments de l'acció multilateral.

Delictes contra les dones

Violència domèstica

La violència domèstica a Xile és un problema greu que afecta un gran percentatge de la població, especialment entre la població demogràfica amb ingressos més baixos. La Llei de violència intrafamiliar aprovada el 1994 va ser la primera mesura política per abordar la violència a la llar, però com que la llei no s'aprovaria sense ser acceptada per les dues parts, la llei era feble en la forma en què tractava la protecció i el càstig de les víctimes per als agressors. La llei es va reformar posteriorment el 2005.

Un estudi del SERNAM del 2004 va informar que el 50% de les dones casades a Xile havien sofert abús conjugal, el 34% va informar haver patit violència física i el 16% va informar d'abús psicològic.

Segons un altre estudi del 2004, el 90% de les dones de renda baixa a Xile experimenten algun tipus de violència domèstica.

A causa de l'alta prevalença de la violència domèstica, moltes dones xilenes l'accepten com a normal. La legalització del divorci el 2004 va obtenir l'aprovació de dones de tot el país, especialment de les preocupades per la violència domèstica, ja que les dones abans no podien escapar de relacions abusives a causa de les lleis de divorci.

Des de gener fins a novembre de 2005, es van denunciar als carabiners 76.000 casos de violència familiar; 67.913 van ser fetes per dones, 6.404 per homes i aproximadament 1.000 per nens.

Violació
La violació, inclosa la violació del cònjuge, és un delicte criminal. Les sancions per violació oscil·len entre els 5 i els 15 anys de presó i, en general, el govern fa complir la llei. El 2004 es va canviar el Codi penal, de manera que l'edat per a la violació legal és de 14 anys; anteriorment era als 12 anys. La llei protegeix la privadesa i la seguretat de la persona que fa la denúncia. El 2006, de gener a novembre, la policia va rebre informes de 1.926 casos de violació, en comparació amb 2.451 casos de tot el 2005; els experts creien que la majoria dels casos de violació no es notifiquen. El Ministeri de Justícia i el PICH tenen diverses oficines específicament per proporcionar assessorament i assistència en casos de violació. Algunes ONG, com La Morada, ofereixen assessorament a les víctimes de violacions.

Assetjament sexual
Una llei del 2005 contra l'assetjament sexual proporciona protecció i compensació econòmica a les víctimes i penalitza l'assetjament per part d'empresaris o companys de feina. La llei preveu una indemnització per acomiadament a qualsevol persona que dimiteixi per haver estat víctima d'assetjament sexual si ha treballat per a l'empresari durant almenys un any. Durant el 2005, la Direcció del Treball va rebre 244 denúncies per assetjament sexual, i el 2009 es van rebre 82 denúncies. La majoria de les queixes provenen de dones.

Discriminació
Un estudi realitzat el 2005 per Corporación Humana i l'Institut d'Afers Públics de la Universitat de Xile va revelar que el 87% de les dones enquestades sentien que les dones patien discriminació. Segons l'enquesta, el 95% creia que les dones s'enfrontaven a la discriminació en el mercat laboral, el 67% consideraven discriminades en la política, el 61% consideraven que les dones eren discriminades pels mitjans de comunicació i el 54% a la família.

Altres preocupacions

Família
Avui dia, les dones més joves opten pel matrimoni i tenen menys fills que les seves predecessores. La taxa de fecunditat total al 2015 era de 1,82 nens / dones nascuts. Això és inferior a la taxa de reposició de 2,1, i també inferior a la d'anys anteriors. Un estudi del 2002 va informar que les dones urbanes tenien una mitjana de 2,1 fills per dona, i les dones que vivien a les zones rurals tenien més fills, una mitjana de 2,9. A partir de la dècada del 1990, tant les dones urbanes com les rurals tenien una mitjana de menys nens que abans. Per a les dones que tenen fills, després de les lleis sobre llars d'infants de l'expresidenta Michelle Bachelet, les llars d'infants que ofereixen serveis gratuïts són quatre vegades més nombrosos. Les mares lactants també tenen el dret legal d'alletar durant la jornada laboral.

Les dones tenen menys probabilitats de buscar divorcis i anul·lacions matrimonials.

Salud i sexualitat
Les dones a Xile tenen una llarga esperança de vida i viuen una mitjana de 80,8 anys, uns sis anys més que els homes. L'educació sexual rarament s'ensenya a les escoles i és considerada «tabú» per moltes famílies xilenes. Els amics i la família solen ser la principal font d'educació sexual. El 1994, Xile va despenalitzar l'adulteri.

VIH / SIDA
La taxa de VIH/SIDA a Xile es va estimar el 2012 en el 0,4% dels adults de 15 a 49 anys. Tot i que els casos de VIH i SIDA en dones s'han estabilitzat internacionalment, Xile ha experimentat un augment de la infecció pel VIH/SIDA. Les creences socials sobre els rols tradicionals de les dones com a mares fan que les dones tinguin menys probabilitats d'utilitzar anticonceptius, cosa que augmenta l'oportunitat de patir malalties de transmissió sexual. Les dones xilenes també se senten subordinades als homes a causa d'aquests sistemes de creences tradicionals, cosa que fa que les dones tinguin menys possibilitats de negociar l'ús del preservatiu. El 2007, el 28% de les persones amb VIH/SIDA a Xile eren dones. El nombre de dones que viuen amb el VIH és inferior a les que tenen SIDA. Un estudi de Vivo Positivo va mostrar que el 85% de les dones que vivien amb el VIH/SIDA van informar que tenien poca o cap educació ni informació sobre el VIH/SIDA fins al diagnòstic.

Un estudi del 2004 va trobar que les dones xilenes amb VIH/SIDA eren susceptibles a l'esterilització forçosa. El 56% de les dones xilenes seropositives van informar que les treballadores de la salut les pressionaven per evitar l'embaràs amb l'esterilització. De les dones que van optar per ser esterilitzades, la meitat van ser obligades o persuadides a fer-ho. Les dones víctimes de violència domèstica corren un major risc de contraure el VIH i, el 2004, el 56% de les dones amb VIH i el 77% de les dones amb VIH/SIDA van ser víctimes de violència domèstica, abús sexual o violació abans del seu diagnòstic.

Avortament

Entre 1989 i 2017, Xile va tenir algunes de les lleis sobre avortament més estrictes del món, que van prohibir completament el procediment. La llei actual permet l'avortament si la vida de la mare està en perill, en cas de malformacions letals del fetus o en casos de violació.

Algunes xilenes destacades

Activistes

 Adriana Hoffmann
 Ana Figuero
 Carmen Gloria Quintana
 Ernestina Pérez Barahona
 Isabel Morel
 Juana Calfunao Paillaléf
 Julieta Kirkwood
 Katherine Salosny
 Marcela Del Sol
 María Soledad Cisternas
 Marta Salgado
 Patricia Verdugo
 Roxana Miranda
 Sara Larraín
 Sola Sierra

Actrius

 Adriana Vacarezza
 Alexandra Castillo
 Alicia Ika
 Aline Küppenheim
 Amaya Forch
 Ana González Olea
 Andrea Velasco
 Antonia Santa María
 Bárbara Ruiz-Tagle
 Bélgica Castro
 Blanca Lewin
 Carmen Barros
 Carmina Riego
 Carolina Arregui
 Catalina Palacios
 Chela Bon
 Claudia Celedón
 Claudia Conserva
 Claudia di Girolamo
 Claudia Paz
 Coca Guazzini
 Daniela Castillo
 Daniella Tobar
 Delfina Guzmán
 Denise Rosenthal
 Elisa Zulueta
 Elvira Cristi
 Fernanda Urrejola
 Francisca Gavilán
 Francisca Imboden
 Francisca Merino
 Gloria Münchmeyer
 Hilda Anthony
 Hilda Sour
 Ignacia Allamand
 Javiera Díaz de Valdés
 Jocelyn Osorio
 Katherine Salosny
 Katty Kowaleczko
 Leonor Varela
 Liliana García
 Liliana Ross
 Lorenza Izzo
 Loreto Valenzuela
 Luz Valdivieso
 Maite Orsini
 Malú Gatica
 Malucha Pinto
 Manuela Martelli
 María Elena Swett
 María José Urzúa
 María Maluenda
 Maricarmen Arrigorriaga
 Miranda Bodenhöfer
 Mirella Latorre
 Mireya Véliz
 Mónica Godoy
 Myriam Palacios
 Nathalia Aragonese
 Nelly Meruane
 Nieves Yankovic
 Paola Lattus
 Paola Volpato
 Patricia López
 Paulina García
 Paulina Urrutia
 Paz Bascuñán
 Paz Yrarrázabal
 Sandra O'Ryan
 Shenda Román
 Sigrid Alegría
 Silvia Santelices
 Sonia Viveros
 Sussan Taunton
 Tamara Acosta
 Tanza Varela
 Valentina Vargas
 Violeta Vidaurre
 Ximena Abarca
 Ximena Huilipán
 Yamna Lobos
 Yoya Martínez

Advocades

 Adriana Olguín
 Alejandra Krauss
 Carmen Hertz
 Carolina Goic
 Cecilia Medina
 Claudia Nogueira
 Elena Caffarena
 Fabiola Letelier
 Gael Yeomans
 Gloria Ana Chevesich
 Luz Bulnes
 María Soledad Cisternas
 Matilde Brandau
 Matilde Throup
 Mónica Madariaga
 Olga Feliú
 Pamela Pereira
 Patricia Pérez Goldberg
 Paulina Veloso
 Soledad Alvear
 Ximena Rincón

Arquitectes

 Dora Riedel
 Glenda Kapstein Lomboy
 Joan MacDonald
 Monica Pidgeon
 Sonia Tschorne

Artistes

 Agustina Gutiérrez Salazar
 Alejandra Ruddoff
 Ana Cortés
 Aurora Mira
 Catalina Bauer
 Catalina González
 Catalina Parra
 Cecilia Vicuña
 Celia Castro
 Christiane Pooley
 Claudia Aravena
 Emma Formas de Dávila
 Ester Cosani
 Eugenia Vargas
 Francisca Sutil
 Gabriela Roepke
 Gracia Barrios
 Herminia Arrate
 Janet Toro
 Laila Havilio
 Lily Garafulic
 Lotty Rosenfeld
 Luz de Viana
 Luz Donoso
 Magdalena Mira
 Marcela Donoso
 Mariana Matthews
 Marta Colvin
 Matilde Pérez
 Patricia Waller
 Rebeca Matte Bello
 Roser Bru
 Sybil Brintrup
 Sylvia Palacios Whitman
 Teresa Gazitúa
 Valeria Zalaquett
 Virginia Errázuriz
 Ximena Armas
 Ximena Morla Lynch
 Ximena Zomosa

Ballarines

 Adriana Barrientos
 Carmen Beuchat
 Joan Jara
 Maura Rivera
 Nicole Moreno
 Violeta Zúñiga
 Viviana Guzmán
 Yamna Lobos

Científiques

 Adriana Hoffmann
 Allison Göhler
 Carolina Villagrán
 Cecilia Hidalgo Tapia
 Dora Altbir
 Gloria Montenegro
 Isabel Behncke
 Ligia Gargallo
 Luisa Eugenia Navas
 María Catrileo
 Mary Kalin Arroyo
 Mélica Muñoz-Schick
 Millarca Valenzuela
 Teresa Torres
 Verónica Vallejos
 Wanda Quilho

Comediants

 Adela Calderón
 Coca Guazzini
 Gloria Münchmeyer
 Helvecia Viera
 Jani Dueñas
 Javiera Contador
 Myriam Palacios
 Natalia Cuevas
 Rebeca Ghigliotto

Diplomàtiques

 Amanda Labarca
 Gabriela Mistral
 Lucía Gevert Parada
 Maité Allamand
 María Eugenia Oyarzún
 María Maluenda
 Marta Maurás
 Soledad Alvear

Directores de cinema

 Alicia Scherson
 Angelina Vásquez
 Bettina Perut
 Carmen Luz Parot
 Cecilia Barriga
 Cecilia Vicuña
 Dominga Sotomayor Castillo
 Ishtar Yasin Gutierrez
 Maite Alberdi
 Marcela Said
 Marialy Rivas
 Marilú Mallet
 Nieves Yankovic
 Valeria Sarmiento

Editores

 Blanca Santa Cruz Ossa
 Henriette Morvan
 Irene Geis
 Isabel Morel
 Lucía Gevert Parada
 Paula Escobar
 Sara Hübner de Fresno
 Vera Zouroff

Empresàries

 Anita Alvarado
 Emilia Díaz
 Ingrid Antonijevic
 Sara Braun
 Soledad Saieh

Enginyeres comercials

 Barbarita Lara
 Camila Merino
 Magdalena Matte
 Margot Kahl
 María Eugenia Larraín
 María Ignacia Benítez

Escriptores

 Adriana Valdés
 Alejandra Matus
 Alicia Galaz Vivar
 Alicia Morel
 Alicia Scherson
 Amanda Labarca
 Ana María del Río
 Andrea Jeftanovic
 Astrid Fugellie
 Carla Guelfenbein
 Carmela Jeria Gómez
 Carmen Arriagada
 Carmen Berenguer
 Carmen Marai
 Carmen Rodríguez
 Carola Saavedra
 Cecilia Vicuña
 Delia Domínguez
 Diamela Eltit
 Elena Caffarena
 Eliana Navarro
 Elisa Serrana
 Elvira Santa Cruz Ossa
 Emilia Díaz
 Ernestina Pérez Barahona
 Esther Valdés de Díaz
 Francisca Valenzuela
 Gabriela Bussenius
 Gabriela Etcheverry
 Gabriela Mistral
 Gabriela Roepke
 Gigia Talarico
 Inés Echeverría Bello
 Isabel Allende
 Isabel Gómez Muñoz
 Isabel Morel
 Lucia Bulnes de Vergara
 Luz de Viana
 Mabel Condemarín
 Magdalena Petit
 Marcela Del Sol
 Marcela Paz
 Marcela Serrano
 Margarita Aguirre
 Margarita Pisano
 María de la Cruz
 María Flora Yáñez
 María Larraín de Vicuña
 María Luisa Bombal
 María Mercedes Vial
 María Monvel
 María Olivia Mönckeberg
 Mariana Cox Méndez
 Mariela Griffor
 Marina Arrate
 Marjorie Agosín
 Marta Brunet
 Marta Salgado
 Martina Barros Borgoño
 Matilde Ladrón de Guevara
 Mercedes Marín del Solar
 Mercedes Valdivieso
 Mónica Echeverría
 Monica Pidgeon
 Neddiel Muñoz Millalonco
 Pía Barros
 Raquel Señoret
 Rosabetty Muñoz
 Rosario Orrego
 Sofía Eastman
 Soledad Fariña Vicuña
 Stella Corvalán
 Stella Díaz Varín
 Tadea de San Joaquín
 Teresa Gazitúa
 Teresa Wilms Montt
 Vera Zouroff
 Viviana Guzmán
 Winétt de Rokha
 Yolanda Montecinos

Esportistes

 Alexa Guarachi
 Alison Maillard
 Ana María Arias
 Andrea Koch Benvenuto
 Anita Irarrázabal
 Anita Lizana
 Antonieta Galleguillos
 Aranza Villalón
 Barbara Barone
 Bárbara Castro
 Bárbara Gatica
 Beatriz Marinello
 Berna Carrasco
 Catalina Soto
 Cecilia Costa Melgar
 Daniela Anguita
 Daniela Guajardo
 Daniela López
 Daniela Seguel
 Denisse Ahumada
 Denisse van Lamoen
 Fernanda Aguirre
 Fernanda Brito
 Francisca Campos
 Giovanna Arbunic Castro
 Ivania Martinich
 Katherinne Wollermann
 Lilo Mund
 Macarena Benvenuto
 Macarena Miranda
 María Mailliard
 María-Alejandra Quezada
 Marlene Ahrens
 Melisa Miranda
 Nicole Perrot
 Noelle Barahona
 Paola Muñoz
 Patricia Demick
 Paula Cabezas
 Paulina Sepúlveda
 Paz Echeverria
 Simona Castro
 Stephanie Subercaseaux
 Valentina Castro
 Verena Vogt
 Yeny Contreras

Metgesses

 Eloísa Díaz
 Ernestina Pérez Barahona
 Guo Mei
 Marisol Prado
 Michelle Bachelet
 Sheila Cassidy

Models

 Adriana Barrientos
 Ana Luisa König
 Anahi Hormazabal
 Andrea Díaz
 Belén Montilla
 Camila Andrade
 Camila Recabarren
 Camila Stuardo
 Carolina de Moras
 Catalina Cáceres
 Catalina Vallejos
 Catalina Vera
 Cecilia Amenábar
 Cleo von Adelsheim
 Constanza Silva
 Daniella Campos
 Dominique Gallego
 Elvira Cristi
 Fernanda Sobarzo
 Gabriela Barros
 Hellen Toncio
 Ignacia Allamand
 Isabel Bawlitza
 Javiera Díaz de Valdés
 Jocelyn Osorio
 Kika Silva
 Leonor Varela
 Lorenza Izzo
 Macarena Mina
 Maite Orsini
 María Eugenia Larraín
 María Jesús Matthei
 Marie Ann Salas
 Nicole Moreno
 Pamela Díaz
 Paulina Mladinic
 Raquel Calderón
 Renata Ruiz
 Sofía Viacava
 Tanza Varela
 Tonka Tomicic
 Trinidad de la Noi
 Uranía Haltenhoff
 Vanessa Ceruti
 Ximena Huilipán

Músiques

 Amaya Forch
 Ana Tijoux
 Andrea Tessa
 Antonia Santa María
 Bárbara Muñoz
 Bárbara Sepúlveda
 Camila Meza
 Carolina Mestrovic
 Carolina Nissen
 Catalina Palacios
 Cecilia Amenábar
 Cecilia Echenique
 Cecilia Pantoja
 Christell
 Clara Solovera
 Claudia Acuña
 Colombina Parra
 Daniela Aleuy
 Daniela Castillo
 Denise Rosenthal
 Denisse Malebrán
 Emperatriz Carvajal
 Ester Soré
 Francesca Ancarola
 Francisca Gavilán
 Francisca Valenzuela
 Gabriela Pizarro
 Isabel Parra
 Javiera Mena
 Javiera Parra
 K-Bust
 K-Réena
 Luciana Echeverría
 Magdalena Matthey
 Malú Gatica
 Margot Loyola
 María Eugenia Larraín
 María José Quintanilla
 Mon Laferte
 Monna Bell
 Myriam Hernández
 Natalia Contesse
 Natalia Cuevas
 Neddiel Muñoz Millalonco
 Palmenia Pizarro
 Paloma Mami
 Pascuala Ilabaca
 Patricia López
 Patricia Maldonado Aravena
 Paz Undurraga
 Raquel Calderón
 Silvia Urbina
 Tomasa del Real
 Violeta Parra
 Ximena Abarca

Periodistes

 Alejandra Costamagna
 Bárbara Rebolledo
 Bettina Perut
 Blanca Tejos Muñoz
 Carmela Jeria Gómez
 Carmen Luz Parot
 Carmen Puelma
 Carolina Aguilera
 Diana Arón
 Diana Bolocco
 Elena Aldunate
 Elizabeth Subercaseaux
 Ena von Baer
 Erica Vexler
 Esther Valdés de Díaz
 Eva Gómez
 Graciela Romero
 Irene Geis
 Isabel Morel
 Ivette Vergara
 Julia Vial
 Karen Doggenweiler
 Karen Poniachik
 Lenka Franulic
 Lucia Bulnes de Vergara
 Lucía Gevert Parada
 Luisa Lynch
 Marcela Vacarezza
 María de la Cruz
 María Eugenia Oyarzún
 María Luisa Godoy
 María Olivia Mönckeberg
 María Romero Cordero
 Mariela Griffor
 Marina de Navasal
 Patricia Verdugo
 Paula Escobar
 Pilar Vergara
 Raquel Correa
 Rayén Araya
 Rosa González Román
 Rosario Orrego
 Rosario Ortiz
 Sara Hübner de Fresno
 Silvia Pinto
 Virginia Cox Balmaceda
 Yolanda Montecinos

Polítiques

 Adriana Delpiano
 Adriana Olguín
 Alejandra Krauss
 Beatriz Allende
 Camila Merino
 Carmen Castillo Taucher
 Carolina Schmidt
 Carolina Tohá
 Catalina Parot
 Cecilia Pérez
 Claudia Pascual
 Constanza Valdés
 Elena Caffarena
 Ena von Baer
 Gloria Valerín Rodríguez
 Helia Molina
 Inés Enríquez Frödden
 Ingrid Antonijevic
 Karen Poniachik
 Laura Albornoz
 Magdalena Matte
 María Ignacia Benítez
 María Teresa del Canto
 Michelle Bachelet
 Mireya Baltra
 Mónica Jiménez
 Mónica Madariaga
 Mónica Zalaquett
 Morín Contreras
 Patricia Pérez Goldberg
 Paula Narváez
 Paulina Urrutia
 Paulina Veloso
 Raquel Argandoña
 Romy Schmidt
 Roxana Miranda
 Sara Larraín
 Soledad Alvear
 Sonia Tschorne
 Ximena Rincón
 Yasna Provoste

Primeres Dames

 Ana Echazarreta
 Carmen Gana López
 Cecilia Morel
 Delfina de la Cruz
 Enriqueta Pinto
 Eulogia Echaurren
 Gertrudis Echenique
 Herminia Arrate
 Hortensia Bussi
 Isabel Riquelme
 Juana Rosa Aguirre
 Leonor Oyarzún
 Lucía Hiriart
 María del Carmen Sotomayor
 María Errázuriz
 Mariana de Aguirre
 Marta Larraechea
 Mercedes Fontecilla
 Nicolasa Valdés
 Rafaela Bezanilla
 Rosa Markmann
 Sara del Campo
 Teresa Larraín

Referències

Bibliografia

Xile
Xile


text:
Health Ministry prepares rapid plan of action for COVID-19 vaccine
16 December 2020, Kathmandu
The government has centered its focus to vaccinate the citizens against COVID-19.
Spokesperson of the Ministry of Health and Population Dr. Jageshwor Gautam said that the government was carrying out efforts to vaccinate the citizens.
Spokesperson Dr. Gautam said that the Rapid Plan of Action for Vaccination was prepared and eight different workstations were designated to provide vaccines to 72 percent of the country's population.
According to him, the tasks of formation of vaccine secretariat, completion of vaccine's technical working paper, infrastructure assessment (equipment, storage, and supplies), needs assessment (public and private), prioritization of receivers with explanation and human resources, training and guidelines have been advanced.
Similarly, the formation of a task force to advance the call for vaccine fund proposal, operation, and public information dissemination guidelines for dialogue with stakeholders, monitoring, regulation, research, and clinical management identification are also in progress.
Dr. Gautam said that the government has also formed an experts' advisory committee to provide technical suggestions on the COVID-19 vaccine.
The vaccines imported through COMAX would be available for only 20 percent of the country's population. The government has its preparation to import the remaining 52 percent vaccines through government to government (G2G) and public procurement process.
In the first phase, vaccines would be made available for three percent of the vaccine that would be available for 20 percent population.
In order to arrange the rapid import of medicines and vaccines in an emergency situation, the government has amended the Drugs Act-2035 BS.
He shared that correspondence in writing has been made to international agencies to acquire vaccines at the facility of Co-Max. The agencies have been asked to ensure technical facilitation of COVID-19 vaccine and availability of Co-Max Cold chain.
Necessary works such as human resource capacity assessment for vaccine storage and preservation have been so far done, he added.
"A technical action plan on COVID-19 has been prepared and necessary works have been carried out after consultation in the national vaccine advisory committee", he further shared.
A proposal has been sent to the ministry of finance seeking resource allocation required for the procurement of COVID-19 vaccines, he further informed.
Ministry spokesperson Dr. Gautam also shared that works are being undertaken in coordination with the World Health Organization, UNICEF, and World Bank in regard to COVID-19 vaccines, he shared.
Nepal has so far recorded 250,180 coronavirus infected among which 238,569 got recovered and 1,730 have lost their lives to the deadly virus.

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


text:
Insurance Companies and Markets for Insurance Agents
The Benefits of CSE Insurance Group
CSE Insurance Group has been serving the property-casualty needs of public employees and their families since 1949. Founded by a postal worker, while CSE's products are available to the general public it is in providing for civil servants that CSE specializes via special discounts for members of qualifying professions, such as educators, law enforcement and firefighters. T
The company offers Auto, Home, Dwelling Fire, Umbrella, Boat and Commercial products in California, Arizona, Nevada and Utah. CSE also offers specialty products for hard-to-place property. The company has enjoyed four straight years of growth, and is rated A- (Excellent) by AM Best. CSE was named one of the Top 50 Property-Casualty Carriers of 2010 by the Wards Group. CSE uses both traditional and modern methods, working with its independent agent force to best serve its clientele while incorporating the latest technology to ensure a seamless experience in writing new business, making modifications to existing policies and claims handling. CSE markets its products through a variety of media, including television, direct mail and e-mail campaigns.
It also connects with both its agents and insureds through social media channels such as Facebook, Twitter and a company blog. By focusing on its core strength of being a specialized regional carrier, CSE has carved a solid niche in the property-casualty business. This public employee niche can open market opportunities to independent agencies that do not exist with other carriers.
If you are interested in CSE appointment opportunities, contact Kelli Schulhofer, Vice President of Field Operations, at (925) 817-6314, or kschulhofer@cseinsurance.com.


text:
<?php

namespace Omnipay\AuthorizeNet\Message;

/**
 * Authorize.Net SIM Authorize Request
 */
class SIMAuthorizeRequest extends SIMAbstractRequest
{
    protected $action = 'AUTH_ONLY';

    public function getData()
    {
        $this->validate('amount');

        // Either the nodifyUrl or the returnUrl can be provided.
        // The returnUrl is deprecated, as strictly this is a notifyUrl.
        if (!$this->getNotifyUrl()) {
            $this->validate('returnUrl');
        }

        $data = array();
        $data['x_login'] = $this->getApiLoginId();
        $data['x_type'] = $this->action;
        $data['x_version'] = '3.1';
        $data['x_method'] = 'CC';
        $data['x_fp_sequence'] = mt_rand();
        $data['x_fp_timestamp'] = time();
        $data['x_delim_data'] = 'FALSE';
        $data['x_show_form'] = 'PAYMENT_FORM';
        $data['x_relay_response'] = 'TRUE';

        if ($this->getClientIp()) {
            $data['x_customer_ip'] = $this->getClientIp();
        }

        // The returnUrl MUST be whitelisted in Authorize.net admin panel under
        // "Response/Receipt URLs".
        // Use the notifyUrl if available, as that is strictly what this is.
        // Fall back to returnUrl for BC support.
        $data['x_relay_url'] = $this->getNotifyUrl() ?: $this->getReturnUrl();
        $data['x_cancel_url'] = $this->getCancelUrl();

        if ($this->getCustomerId() !== null) {
            $data['x_cust_id'] = $this->getCustomerId();
        }

        if ($this->getCurrency() !== null) {
            $data['x_currency_code'] = $this->getCurrency();
        }

        if ($this->getTestMode()) {
            $data['x_test_request'] = 'TRUE';
        }

        $data = array_merge($data, $this->getBillingData());

        $data['x_fp_hash'] = $this->createHash($data);

        return $data;
    }

    /**
     * This hash is put into the form to confirm the amount has not been
     * modified en-route.
     * It uses the TransactionKey, which is a shared secret between the merchant
     * and Authorize.Net The sequence and timestamp provide additional salt.
     *
     * @param $data
     * @return string
     */
    public function createHash($data)
    {
        $fingerprint = implode(
            '^',
            array(
                $this->getApiLoginId(),
                $data['x_fp_sequence'],
                $data['x_fp_timestamp'],
                $data['x_amount']
            )
        ) . '^';

        // If x_currency_code is specified, then it must follow the final trailing carat.

        if ($this->getCurrency()) {
            $fingerprint .= $this->getCurrency();
        }

        // The md5 hash against the transactionKey is being removed 2019 and
        // replaced with an SHA-512 hash against the signatureKey.

        if ($signatureKey = $this->getSignatureKey()) {
            return hash_hmac('sha512', $fingerprint, hex2bin($signatureKey));
        } else {
            return hash_hmac('md5', $fingerprint, $this->getTransactionKey());
        }
    }

    public function sendData($data)
    {
        return $this->response = new SIMAuthorizeResponse($this, $data, $this->getEndpoint());
    }
}

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaGithub


NEW YORK, Feb. 17, 2015 (GLOBE NEWSWIRE) -- Varonis Systems, Inc. (Nasdaq:VRNS), the leading provider of software solutions for unstructured, human-generated enterprise data, today announced important enhancements and new capabilities for Varonis DatAdvantage, Varonis DataPrivilege, and the Varonis IDU Classification Framework.
With the release of version 6.0.80 of the industry-leading Varonis Metadata Framework platform and the expansion of IDU Classification Framework to Linux and UNIX environments, Varonis continues to raise the bar in enabling organizations of all sizes to analyze, protect, manage and share their rapidly growing volumes of unstructured data.
IDU Classification Framework for Linux/UNIX: Users will be able to find and classify data that is sensitive, regulated or of value that they store on Linux or UNIX servers and UNIX-accessible NAS devices. Finding and locking down overexposed sensitive information helps avoid costly and damaging data breaches.
IDU Classification Framework: Users will have improved granularity in defining patterns, excluding lists, negative look ahead and look behind, and improvements to existing patterns.
DatAdvantage: With the new statistics interface capabilities and reports on employee file and email activity to enhance security, IT operations and business intelligence, customers can now filter, view and report on activity with more granularity. Ensuring that only the right people have access to the right data at all times, monitoring use and alerting on abuse are critical capabilities in today's world.
DataPrivilege: New workflow capabilities allow business users to collaborate more quickly by creating new folders that are automatically provisioned, permissioned correctly and then managed by business data owners without requiring IT's assistance.
Yaki Faitelson, Varonis Co-Founder and CEO, said, "Over the past decade, Varonis has defined and continually advanced the standards for the way organizations secure, manage and take advantage of their rapidly expanding human-generated data. Rarely does a week pass without headlines of the latest damaging data breach, not only targeting financial information but also sensitive data and intellectual property. These breaches can meaningfully disrupt business, and in almost every case the companies victimized have failed to implement fundamental solutions that would have prevented or minimized the damage. At the same time, rarely does a day pass for a typical employee without struggling to find, access or share data they need to do their job. It is unacceptable that attackers can more easily search out and extract intellectual property than trusted employees. It is becoming increasingly clear that organizations cannot reverse or even slow this trend - one that threatens their ability to conduct business -- without having Varonis as a core component of their infrastructure."


Stretches of extreme cold followed by days where the temperature hovers around or above the freezing mark could create problems for the province's natural gas lines.
"This year, due to the intense cold and the depth of the frost layer, followed by sudden warming, SaskEnergy is alerting customers that conditions are favourable for a leak to occur," the Crown corporation said in a news release Thursday.
SaskEnergy advises people and businesses to contact them immediately at 1-888-700-0427 if an odour is detected.
Earlier this month, a leak knocked out service to thousands of customers in the Melfort area.
If a leak is reported, workers will be dispatched to investigate, SaskEnergy says, and repairs will be made if a leak is found. The best way to detect a leak is the smell, as an additive in the product makes it smell pretty foul.
Repairs typically take a couple of hours, during which time the gas will be shut off.
Extreme cold blanketed the province around the end of 2017 and at the beginning of the new year, with average lows lingering down around –30 C.
Now temperatures in the province are nearing the freezing mark — or above freezing, in some areas.


text:
CIC News > Latest News > Immigration > Express Entry > Saturday Surprise: Canada invites 27,332 Express Entry candidates in bold move ANALYSIS: The Canadian government shows it is serious about achieving its 401,000 Immigration Levels Plan target in 2021 despite the coronavirus pandemic.
Saturday Surprise: Canada invites 27,332 Express Entry candidates in bold move ANALYSIS: The Canadian government shows it is serious about achieving its 401,000 Immigration Levels Plan target in 2021 despite the coronavirus pandemic.
Kareem El-Assal
Published on February 14th, 2021 at 04:00am EST Updated on February 15th, 2021 at 09:25am EST
In what has been a year full of surprises, even yesterday's Express Entry draw managed to catch all of us off guard.
Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada (IRCC) held a rare Saturday draw in which it invited a stunning 27,332 Express Entry candidates to apply for permanent residence.
Did you receive an ITA? Get Help Submitting your PR Application.
The first surprise is the sheer size of the draw. Since its launch in 2015, the largest Express Entry draws ever have issued 5,000 permanent residence invitations. In other words, yesterday's draw was nearly six times larger than the previous record.
Another major surprise is that IRCC decided to invite candidates with a Comprehensive Ranking System (CRS) score as low as 75. This means they invited almost every Express Entry candidate that met the eligibility criteria of the Canadian Experience Class (CEC) program.
Express Entry is a competitive system and prior to COVID-19, IRCC would only invite candidates with the highest CRS scores. Right before the pandemic, a candidate typically needed a CRS of around 470 to receive a permanent residence invitation. Getting a CRS of 470 or above usually means you have several years of post-secondary training and perhaps multiple educational credentials, several years of professional work experience, and a strong command of English and/or French. Yesterday's draw meant a candidate did not even need a high school education to be invited.
So what do we make of all this?
The biggest takeaway from this draw is that IRCC is serious about doing its best to achieve its Immigration Levels Plan target for 2021. It is aiming to welcome 401,000 new immigrants this year and beyond. This appears daunting in light of the current pandemic circumstances in Canada and around the world. Last year immigration to Canada fell to the lowest level since 1998.
IRCC only invited CEC candidates in yesterday's draw since it estimates 90 per cent of them are currently in Canada and hence, it will be easier to complete their permanent residence process now than it will be for candidates currently overseas. It is safe to say that IRCC expects to be able to transition these candidates to permanent residence later in 2021, otherwise it would not have held such a large draw. Canada's Immigration Minister Marco Mendicino has been hinting recently that IRCC will continue to rely on candidates in Canada to support its immigration levels targets.
We can continue to expect bold action from IRCC this year in fulfilment of this goal. The reason for this is there are not enough Express Entry candidates currently in Canada from which the government can rely on to achieve their 401,000 target in 2021. Put simply, we should continue to expect the unexpected.
Another takeaway is that it is in each candidate's best interests to enter the Express Entry pool. Sometimes candidates opt against entering the pool because they believe their CRS score is too low or in recent times, because IRCC has given preference to inviting CEC and Provincial Nominee Program (PNP) candidates, rather than Federal Skilled Worker Program (FSWP) and Federal Skilled Trades Program (FSTP) candidates. However, Express Entry is unpredictable, and it is self-defeating to exclude one's self from the pool. You never know what IRCC is going to do, so enter the pool anyway and try your luck. Who knows, you might even get an ITA if your CRS score is as low as 75.
Federal Skilled Worker Program (FSWP) candidates (who tend to make up the majority of successful Express Entry candidates), may be feeling demoralized right now. They also deserve to be invited to apply for permanent residence but IRCC is focusing on Express Entry candidates within the country. However, FSWP candidates should not lose hope for two major reasons.
First, IRCC will eventually draw FSWP candidates. As we saw last year, IRCC held PNP- and CEC- specific draws at the start of the pandemic but then closed 2021 by holding all-program draws. It is safe to say that the time will once again come for FSWP candidates to be drawn from the pool.
Second, yesterday's draw shows that the sky is the limit in terms of what IRCC is willing to do to achieve its immigration levels targets. If IRCC is willing to invite 27,332 CEC candidates in one draw, then there is nothing stopping them from also inviting massive numbers of FSWP candidates in the future. If you are an FSWP candidate, it is in your best interests to submit the strongest possible Express Entry profile so that you give yourself the best chance to receive an immigration invitation. After the Saturday Surprise, we cannot rule out the possibility of IRCC significantly reducing its CRS cut-off and significantly increasing ITAs for FSWP candidates during the pandemic. FSWP immigrants have long been, and will continue to be vital to Canada's prosperity.
Hence, as the COVID-19 pandemic continues, let's keep IRCC's words in mind from the press release it issued yesterday: "IRCC will continue to accept and process Express Entry applications and looks forward to welcoming skilled workers from abroad when travel resumes."
In other words, don't lose hope.
Canada immigration, cec, coronavirus, covid, express entry, fswp, immigration levels plan, ita, Marco Mendicino, PNP


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Q: Check if $u + v\sqrt 2 > u' + v'\sqrt 2$ without computing $\sqrt 2$ I'm building an algorithm that perform some computations on two inputs, m and n. These are numbers of the form $u + v\sqrt 2$, where $u$ and $v$ are integers.
I'm asking here because at a certain point the algorithm checks if m $>$ n, and, in order of the algorithm to be effective, it must not use the infinite decimal expansion of $\sqrt 2$.
So how can I say about the possibility to perform that check exactly and in a finite length of time? Is there a way to do that?
Just to give an example, if it had been to check m $=$ n, that is $u + v\sqrt 2 = u' + v'\sqrt 2$, it would have been much simpler, because one would have just need to check that $u + v = u' + v'$, since $\sqrt 2$ is irrational.
What about, instead, the inequality? How to get rid of $\sqrt 2$?

A: The only non obvious case is when $a=u-u'$ and $b=v'-v$ are nonzero and have the same sign. Assume for definiteness that $a$ and $b$ are positive. To check whether $a\gt b\sqrt2$ or $a\lt b\sqrt2$, compute $a^2$ and $2b^2$ and compare them.

A: The numbers in $a+b\sqrt{2}$ can be reduced to a form in base $1+\sqrt{2}$, such that all numbers in the set has a unique representation, and that that if one spelling is 'later' than another, than the later spelling is bigger, rather like decimals.
You can do this with coins on the table.  The two 'equalities' are shown in the model below.  This is to be done on a grid or abacus of two bases.  The idea is to reduce the collection to a double row, with no more than one stone in each column, and only '0', if the next column contains a '1'.
         b                                  . 1         1   1
      1  b      1 = a+a = b+b       2   =  1. 1     =   0   0
      a  a                                              q . q

One can show the vertical base is $\sqrt{2}$ and the horizontal base is $1+\sqrt{2}$.  It is possible to reduce any combination of $x+y\sqrt{2}$ to a sum of digits $0,1,\sqrt{2}$ in a base $1+\sqrt{2}$, where none of the patterns show.
You can easily demonstrate this works, by feeding coins at the '1', and 'counting' in this base.  The numbers run ($q=\sqrt{2}$),  1, q.q, 10.q, q0.q, qq.01, 100.01, 101.01, 10q.q1, etc.
This same algorithm can be used to test cases which are very near the size of the registers of a computer.  This is because it does not rely on calculating the square.
The process is to start with $a(\sqrt{2}+)b$, and then calculate $A=a+b, b=A+a, a=A$.  Keep doing this until both come to the same sign, in which case the sign is the result.
For example, this tests whether $10$ is greater than $7\sqrt{2}$  3 comes from 10-7, -4 comes from -7+3, and this iterates.
   b   10  -4    2   0   1
   a   -7   3   -1   1   1

If you count the number of iterations (eg $c=0$, then $c=c+1$, then the difference at any stage is $(a\sqrt{2}+b)/(\sqrt{2}+1)^c$.

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaStackExchange


Early reviews spanned La Bodega, Nyala, and Sophie's, while one headline read: "Sloppy eggs and bee-pollen cookies survive at Naam". All are still going strong, but not Le Railcar, which stood at Carrall Street's north end, or—this was the cacti-and-dusty-pink-sofa era—Santa Fe Café and Zuni Café, where, at both, chef Eddie Cheung cooked a fusion dish of linguine with tiger prawns and black-bean sauce that home chefs tried to emulate.
Now, some 650 reviews later, and umpteen stories under my belt about what we buy, cook, grow, and raise, it's time for a move. Not to a rival publication but to France.
By 1992, I was covering Tomato Fresh Food Café, where a dish was served with—a phrase I would use increasingly—"whatever's in season". Now, we assume menus are linked to the calendar, and expect ingredient sources to be listed. Not back then. Isadora's Co-operative Restaurant on Granville Island, which served organic beef from Rafter K Ranch in the Chilcotin, was a rarity. The public market had been around since 1979, but you couldn't buy spot prawns right off the fishing boats at the government wharf, farmers markets were years away, and veterans' housing stood where Lumií¨re now stands.
A benchmark year, 1992 saw a group of chefs, writers, and industry others meet at the Raintree, Vancouver's ground-breaking regional-cuisine restaurant, where food activist Herb Barbolet explained the concept of the organization FarmFolk/CityFolk. We were all a bit vague about what food security was or why it was so critical, or how "food" and "politics" even belonged in the same sentence. Now, it all seems prescient.
Restaurant reviewing soon expanded further afield to focus on what grew in our back yard and what chefs did behind closed doors. A confirmed nosey parker, I inveigled myself into the kitchens of the Hotel Vancouver, Le Crocodile, and, in 1993, Bishop's, pasting myself against a wall in the surprisingly small space. At the end of a long evening, I knew without question why John Bishop had, and continues to have, the reputation he does. I wrote of Bishop "spiraling a finely sliced apple like a miniature staircase (a favour he occasionally performs for guests), quietly switching a full laundry bag for an empty one—and his almost hand-rubbing glee when someone who's ordered a fine Spanish red chooses chicken livers to go with it". Driving out with then–Bishop's chef Dennis Green to Hazelmere Farms on a chilly winter day to pore over seed catalogues and discuss what crops Naty and Gary King would grow for the restaurant prefigured today's chef-producer alliances. Attending a regional-cuisine dinner in a Cowichan Valley farmhouse in January—cooked by chefs Bill Jones and Sinclair Philip—brought home the continuum of food production.
Meanwhile, back in Vancouver, new restaurants continued to come on the scene. Here, in 1994, is chef Gord Martin cooking moules at Mussel Bros., and, some years later, sitting down with me as I tracked how primal scribbles evolved into wildly inventive dishes for Bins 941 and 942. Not a review, this time, so I could "out" myself. Apart from the level playing field of media events, I always ate anonymously, confirming details by phone; chat often led to other discoveries.
"Know where Chinese chefs eat after work?" One midnight, I found myself, with New Zealand–born chef Simon Chin plus his fridge-sized maí®tre d', bombing down Fraser Street to a restaurant that served late-night snacks. "Try it and we'll tell you what it is," was the deal as I sampled pork intestine—"a cousin to Sunday-roast pork crackling"—and pig's blood, "basically a sliced clot". Well, maybe not those, but I do think Vancouver diners are far braver about trying new tastes than they used to be. Raw fish? Very few Japanese restaurants are in my early stack of newsprint, whereas today we have 400 or so.
Early in 1995, I chanced on a new little Indian spot where "the service was just plain lovely", mentioned the care the owner "brings to everything he makes", and stated that "a meal for two under $25 isn't only possible, it's extravagant". The restaurant was Vij's, and the first two quotes still apply. Vikram Vij is one of the chefs who has become synonymous with Vancouver for out-of-town foodies. Another is Robert Clark, who I once spent a kitchen morning with at C Restaurant, where he almost persuaded me to share in his sampling of fresh sea-urchin juice. Good chefs know no fear.
What will I miss when I leave Vancouver? Mostly, the abundance of Asian restaurants. White-linen palaces, scruffy noodle shops, Richmond food courts—I'm there. My cellar, sadly, will lack Joie and Burrowing Owl and those gorgeous Elephant Island fruit wines, and I'll only have a long-distance perspective on emerging culinary regions like the Cowichan Valley, the Okanagan, and the Fraser Valley.
Writing for the Straight not only took me there, but also into the lives of readers who phoned or e-mailed to ask where to treat Toronto cousins to dinner, or if I knew where in White Rock they could buy suckling pig, preferably roasted. I've been lucky enough to work with some ardent and intelligent food writers, notably André LaRivií¨re, author of the former Conscientious Kitchen monthly column, who is now the driving force behind the Green Table Network that helps restaurants work towards a sustainable food system.
The big difference between then and now, of course, is where we all get our information. Citytv show CityCooks not only does a superb job of conveying the breadth of local cuisine but also, rightly, collars world-famous chefs and authors whenever they visit Vancouver, usually lured by Barbara-jo McIntosh to her eponymous bookstore.
Just as inspiring were the nonprofessionals. The four generations of TV producer Prem Gill's family who I watched make wedding sweetmeats called ladoos in the Sikh temple. Another wedding in Crete, an invitation that resulted from a restaurant review and a subsequent friendship with Harry and Thea Prinianakis, now owners of the Main, where the olive oil they use comes from the family grove.
The dishes I'll take with me to France aren't made with shaved truffles (although I'd never say no), foie gras (I can buy that at the local market), or quail stuffed with ceps (I can buy that from the travelling butcher's van). I think of cream-braised cabbage with bacon at long-closed North 49, cooked by Karen Barnaby, who now helms the Fish House in Stanley Park, and the blow-your-mind grilled prawns with a chili sorbet at Diva at the Met when Michael Noble was there. Then there are the bacon-wrapped scallops at C Restaurant, a dish created by its first chef, the late Soren Fakstorp. And to finish, shrikand, a Gujarati dessert of thickened yogurt, saffron, pistachios, and cardamom seeds which I first tasted at a small place, long-gone, called Surat Sweet.
Writing about restaurants has been like a series of brief affairs versus the deepening relationship that normal people have with their favourite eateries. I'll miss the constant challenge of trying to translate sensual experiences into words. But I won't miss the large Visa bills, making reservations under a fake name (and then forgetting it), the black looks if my husband Peter called me "Ange" within waiters' earshot, and drinking little or no wine to keep my wits sharp while imbibing gallons of water. I needed all those loo visits though. Where else would I jot notes?
Restaurant reviewing is in flux. When I started, maybe a half dozen of us in Vancouver ate for a living. Now, thanks to the Internet, everyone is a critic, a few near-professional but most bashing away at the equivalent of kindergarten piano practice. Still, I'll trade that when I can read the Horowitzes of restaurant criticism in the Sunday Times or the New York Times with my morning latte. Going on-line also lets us eat imaginary dinners at Chez Panisse or the Fat Duck, or shows us 1,200 photos of dishes served at El Bulli.
Chefs, of course, eat around. Last I heard of David Hawksworth, he was munching his way through Las Vegas and San Francisco, research for the restaurant he'll open next year. More places are coming down the pipe, including DB Bistro Moderne, and there are ongoing questions, like when will Moderne Burger a few doors east tear the brown paper off its windows (it's been well over a year), and what and who will fill Holt Renfrew's rooftop space.
I've done my bit. It's your turn.


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text:
jazz instruments 1920s
Important orchestras in New York were led by Fletcher Henderson, Paul Whiteman and Duke Ellington. What instruments are used in a jazz band and why? Its most infamous bootlegger of hard liquor and beer was Al Capone, leader of the crime syndicate known as the Outfit. The American Music Instrument Company of Michigan introduced the first "coin-op" electronic record machine, with ten 78 records and 20 song selections, in 1927. During the Jazz Age, it became very common for those who could afford it to have pianos and sheet music in their own houses. The new cultural phenomenon of listening to jazz on high-fidelity 78 rpm records on a nickel-per-play machine became a fast hit in speakeasies. Many New Orleans jazzmen had moved to Chicago during the late 1910s in search of employment; among others, the New Orleans Rhythm Kings, King Oliver's Creole Jazz Band and Jelly Roll Morton recorded in the city. The marquee nightclubs serving liquor in New York and Chicago – known to police but frequently tolerated thanks to payoffs from club owners – became larger, noisier and more opulent as they competed for paying customers. Some of the tunes listed were already well-known standards by the 1930s, while others were popularized later. From New Orleans, where Armstrong and Oliver originated, came a style in which musicians performed together as an ensemble. In fact, F. Scott Fitzgerald himself was no stranger to this sort of lifestyle. In Chicago, a free-form, improvisational style arose. (1929). The 1920s were an essential period for jazz music, because it was a time for experimenting and inventing. Some of the tunes listed were already well-known standards by the 1930s, while others were popularized later. Two of the best-known nightclubs of the era were Madden's Cotton Club and Connie's Inn, owned by Conrad Immerman, both in New York's predominantly black Harlem district (Connie's Inn closed its doors with the repeal of Prohibition in 1933). [4], Bogdanov, Woodstra & Erlewine 2002, p. 201, Bogdanov, Woodstra & Erlewine 2002, p. 140. Jazz became known for including a lot of improvisation, because the original jazz musicians could not read music. This competitive club culture had mobsters such as Al and Ralph Capone of Chicago and Owney Madden of New York vying for the best performers for their drink-swilling customers. The time of the most influential recordings of a song, where appropriate, is indicated on the list. Change ). Web. Change ), You are commenting using your Google account. But coin-operated phonographs (known a decade later as "jukeboxes") would take over with the introduction of 78 rpm records made with amplified electronic sound in 1926. Jazz originated in New Orleans around 1895. Prohibition forced tens of thousands of saloons throughout the country to shut down, but the demand for drink remained, and thousands of illegal bars, or speakeasies, soon opened. [6] Several songs written by Broadway composers in the 1920s have become standards, such as George and Ira Gershwin's "The Man I Love" (1924), Irving Berlin's "Blue Skies" (1927) and Cole Porter's "What Is This Thing Called Love?" This quote from, http://library.thinkquest.org/C005846/categories/artliter/artslit.htm>, http://www.ovtg.de/3_arbeit/englisch/gatsby/jazz_age.html>, http://reading.cornell.edu/reading_project_06/gatsby/jazz_age.htm>, http://www.trailend.org/dow-jazzage.htm>. Next Story: Flappers and Gangsters Ruled the Silver Screen, The Mob Museum, located in downtown Las Vegas │ themobmuseum.org │ 702.229.2734 │ info@themobmuseum.org, The decade that F. Scott Fitzgerald, author of the 1925 novel, Rumrunners Delivered the Good Stuff to America's Speakeasies, During Prohibition, Mob Bosses Tripped Up By Tax Laws, Prohibition Agents Lacked Training, Numbers to Battle Bootleggers, Key Court Rulings Enhanced Prohibition Enforcement, Women's Rights Advanced During Prohibition, Flappers and Gangsters Ruled the Silver Screen, Prohibition Sparked a Women's Fashion Revolution, Dating Replaced Courtship During Prohibition, Mixed Drinks Made Rotgut Liquor Palatable, Brewers and Distillers Found Creative Ways to Survive, Gold Diggers, Snuggle Pups and the Bee's Knees, In Las Vegas, Prohibition Was Sporadically Enforced. However, it was not until the 1930s that musicians became comfortable with the harmonic and melodic sophistication of Broadway tunes and started including them regularly in their repertoire. The time of the most influential recordings of a song, where appropriate, is indicated on the list. However, this did not stop jazz from becoming immensely popular within the younger generation. ( Log Out / By midnight the hilarity had increased. It also would lead to millions in profits for organized crime bosses. Women, given the right to vote by the 19th Amendment, were welcomed in the new underground lounges. Web. A period known as the "Jazz Age" started in the United States in the 1920s. It is no surprise that Gatsby, as wealthy as he was, followed this trend as well. Other technological advances would spur the growth of jazz during Prohibition. It came first from the African American community and was a form of blues. By the mid-1920s, jazz was being played in dance halls and roadhouses and speakeasies all over the country. Jazz had become popular music in the country, although older generations considered the music immoral and threatening to old cultural values. The club served white audiences and dignitaries such as Chicago Mayor Jim "Big Bill" Thompson. Some of their jazz records openly referred to illegal booze. One of Smith's songs, called "Me and My Gin," included the refrain, "Any bootlegger sure is a pal of mine." Armstrong recorded a popular song about drinking titled "Knockin' a Jug.". The devotion to jazz shown by the Capone brothers and other business-minded mobsters during Prohibition would benefit black jazz greats Armstrong, Ellington, Waller, Earl "Fatha" Hines and Ethel Waters, and with them, the future of jazz as an enduring genre of American music. Bar owners soon were hiring small jazz bands with local players to furnish background or dance music. Jazz standards are musical compositions that are widely known, performed and recorded by jazz artists as part of the genre's musical repertoire. This list includes compositions written in the 1920s that are considered standards by at least one major book publication or reference work. [3] Dances such as the Charleston and the Black Bottom were very popular during the period, and jazz bands typically consisted of seven to twelve musicians. Soon, white Americans began to pick it up too, and the mix of European and African styles formed a new genre of jazz that was wholly American. ( Log Out / The decade that F. Scott Fitzgerald, author of the 1925 novel The Great Gatsby, hailed as "the Jazz Age" began when jazz was already the pop music of its time, especially among members of the younger generation in the 1920s. As Armstrong, Oliver, Ellington and many top black jazz musicians attained national fame in the 1920s, they felt pressure from Mob-owned clubs. "Jazz Age." Das Otto-von-Taube-Gymnasium in Gauting. In Chicago, a free-form, improvisational style arose. These songs, some of them even mentioned in The Great Gatsby, define and represent jazz music in the 1920's. The 1920s were an essential period for jazz music, because it was a time for experimenting and inventing. Through careful listening and analysis, they allow us to look more deeply at the novel. This list includes compositions written in the 1920s that are considered standards by at least one major book publication or reference work.
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jazz instruments 1920s 2020


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The Spiritual national defence (German: Geistige Landesverteidigung; French: Défense [nationale] spirituelle) was a political-cultural movement in Switzerland which was active from circa 1932 into the 1960s. It was supported by the Swiss authorities, certain institutions, scholars, the press and intellectuals. Its aim was the strengthening of values and customs perceived to be 'Swiss' and thus create a defence against totalitarian ideologies.

The movement first directed its attention towards National Socialism and fascism. Later during the Cold War, Swiss spiritual national defence took a stance against communism.  Even when the movement was no longer actively promoted by the authorities, it remained alive well into the 1980s. Today Swiss politicians frequently still use terms and metaphors from the spiritual defence ideology.

History
On 19 June 1935, a social democrat member of the National Council, Fritz Hauser, put forward a postulate in which he called upon the Federal Council to examine how the spiritual independence of culture in Switzerland could be defended in the face of the threat from fascist movements in Germany.  One week later, the Swiss Society of Writers (Felix Moeschlin, Karl Naef) presented Federal Councillor Philipp Etter with a proposal for a Swiss cultural policy.

The Social Democratic Party of Switzerland gave its approval to the defence proposal – subject to the following condition: "Combating all trends in domestic politics which, in contradiction to the will of the Swiss people, aspire to a diminution of the democratic rights of freedom and self-determination of the citizens and the removal of the influence of the constitutional authorities over the state and its policy."  The 1936 Social Democratic Party conference held in Zürich, however, rejected a defence loan.  However, unconditional recognition of the legitimacy of national defence followed in January 1937 with the party's adoption of the 'Richtlinienbewegung' (Movement of Guiding Principles).

Statement of the Federal Council regarding Spiritual Defence
A document of the Federal Council was published on 9 December 1938 relating to the organisation and the task of safeguarding and promoting Swiss culture.  This called for the creation under civil law of a cultural foundation to be known as Pro Helvetia, a body which would receive state subsidies.  It would guarantee the defence of the common spiritual values of Switzerland in order to counterbalance 'state sponsored propaganda from neighbouring countries'.
"While the armed defence of the nation, together with the preparation and organisation of such defence, is exclusively a matter of the state – indeed its primary duty – we wish to leave the spiritual defence of the nation primarily in the hands of the citizen. The state should have the necessary means at its disposal, and retain the right to oversee the use of these means.  But apart from this, the spiritual forces of the nation should mobilise and deploy themselves in a common defensive front."

National Socialism and the Second World War
The call for a spiritual defence of Swiss democracy against fascism through radio and film originated in left wing circles and became all the more relevant with the rise to power of Hitler in 1933. The latter event completed the encirclement of Switzerland, for its neighbours, with the exception of France, were at that time all governed by authoritarian fascist regimes. In this first phase, spiritual defence had a definite anti-German tone: the specific Swiss character, as opposed to that of Germany, was to be given primary emphasis. A special form of spiritual defence was illustrated by the so-called 'Elvetismo' (cp. Helvetism) movement in Canton Ticino which opposed Italian Irredentism.  Here the emphasis was placed on the specific character of Ticino as opposed to that of Italy.

The central thrust of spiritual defence was the creation of an ethnic community in Switzerland.  This meant the overcoming of class antagonisms and the creation of a Swiss identity – a community of destiny – which would encompass the cultural differences and the four national languages. The term "Helvetic totalitarianism", as expressed by the Swiss historian Hans Ulrich Jost, falls short for it refers solely to the civil form of spiritual defence.  From 1938, the term was adopted officially by the Swiss Federal Council. Federal Councillor Philipp Etter in a pivotal paper placed his primary emphasis upon the affiliation of Switzerland to the three dominant European cultural spheres: cultural diversity, the federal nature of democracy and the reverence accorded to the dignity and freedom of man.

The Swiss National Exhibition held in Zurich in 1939 is regarded as the most effective expression of spiritual defence.  The so-called "Landigeist" (homeland spirit) flooded through the land and – coming shortly before the outbreak of the Second World War – gave people a feeling of an unbroken national will for independence against all the demands of Germany and the annexation of the German-speaking cantons into a Greater German Reich.  This was especially relevant now that Austria and the Sudetenland had been taken over.

The main problem faced by spiritual defence was the influx of state-directed German and Italian propaganda – mainly in the form of radio broadcasts, books and magazines – which had an influence on Switzerland.  To counteract these influences, private and governmental cultural institutions were created for the purpose of putting out "Swiss" propaganda: among these were "Pro Helvetia" [created in 1939], "Neue Helvetische Gesellschaft" ("New Helvetic Society") [created in 1914] and "Heer und Haus" ("Army and Home") [created in November 1939].

The Swiss film industry was heavily promoted in order to cultivate the notion of spiritual defence among cinema audiences. The most important of such films were: "Füsilier Wipf" (by Leopold Lindtberge, 1938) and "Landammann Stauffacher (1941) as well as Franz Schnyder's "Gilberte de Courgenay" (1941). During the Second World War, spiritual defence was strengthened by censorship, which came under the "Abteilung Presse und Funkspruch" (Department of press and broadcasting).

Cold war
After the Second World War, the movement remained active with its thrust directed towards the danger of communist infiltration. Whereas the Federal Council had adopted a relatively muted and accommodating approach to National Socialism before 1945 (as exemplified by the ominous speech of the Federal President, Marcel Pilet-Golaz, in June 1940) the Council adopted a more defiant tone immediately after the war, stating that the NS leadership must be 'ruthlessly eradicated'.  Echoing the anti-communist spirit of the times, emphasis was placed upon a constitutional democracy and welfare state, and the part-time ('militia-like') character of a powerful Swiss army.

Spiritual defence led increasingly to an attitude of mind known as bunker mentality, a political and spiritual isolationism and a militarization of the civil society.  Strong criticism from cultural and intellectual circles forced the Swiss authorities to abandon the official promotion of Spiritual defence after 1962. Nevertheless, the Swiss army kept up the pressure for a will of national defence, and propagated the notion of Switzerland's unconditional dependence on a numerically strong and well equipped militia – this to exist alongside unconditional political and economic neutrality.

After effects
The Federal Council continued to use the term Spiritual defence in its vocabulary and pictorial language during the campaign leading up to the 1989 referendum to decide whether Switzerland should retain an army or become demilitarised. (see Group for a Switzerland Without an Army.)  The celebrations in 1989 to mark the 50th jubilee of mobilisation continued in the same vein. The occasion of the 60th, diamond jubilee, was supposed to reawaken the spirit of the "active service generation" (those who had been mobilised during the Second World War) in advance of a ballot to decide on the procurement of new equipment for the army.  In this connection it is significant that Switzerland was the only country to celebrate mobilisation rather than a peace settlement.

Political parties, too – primarily right wing parties such as the Swiss People's Party – still make use of ideas from the Spiritual defence movement to oppose European integration or any Überfremdung of Switzerland.  This happened during the referendum over the proposed adhesion of Switzerland to the European Economic Community in 1992 and in the campaign against Swiss participation in the 2005 Schengen Agreement and Dublin Regulation.  Furthermore, other less known aspects of the post war Spiritual defence movement still survive unchallenged, namely the notion of a social market economy or a social partnership.

Imagination is also quite a rare gift.  In the years to come, the majority of our people will not wish to consider – no more than was the case in 1920, 1930 or even later – if and how our nation could again be threatened. What we have done, especially since 1933, to arouse our nation from its lethargy and to call upon its conscience and its vigilance will have to be done again and again.
– General Henri Guisan''

See also
Cabaret Cornichon
Gilberte de Courgenay (German :de:Gilberte de Courgenay) and (French :fr:Gilberte de Courgenay)
National Redoubt (Switzerland)

References

External links

The above is a translation of the article in the German Wikipedia at :de:Geistige Landesverteidigung

 Marco Zanoli: Zwischen Klassenkampf, Pazifismus und Geistiger Landesverteidigung. Die Sozialdemokratische Partei der Schweiz und die Wehrfrage 1920–1939. Zürcher Beiträge zur Sicherheitspolitik und Konfliktforschung Nr. 69
 Universität Basel: Basler Historiker und Geistige Landesverteidigung
 ETH Zürich: Testfall "geistige Landesverteidigung"
 Expo 1939: Die geistige Landesverteidigung als Installation
 Lexikon der Filmbegriffe: Geistige Landesverteidigung
 Das Magazin vom 7. Mai 2012: Füsilier Wipf - der erste grosse Film im Zeichen der geistigen Landesverteidigung

Government of Switzerland
Federal Assembly (Switzerland)
20th century in Switzerland

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


text:
HomeLocal NewsSchool board trustee Barry Neufeld, opposed to SOGI will run again in...
School board trustee Barry Neufeld, opposed to SOGI will run again in Chilliwack
Longtime trustee is campaigning on opposition to Ministry of Education's sexual orientation gender identity policy.
Neufeld, was chastised by rival board members, the British Columbia Teachers' Federation, and the British Columbia Ministry of Education. They disagreed with his opposition to the government's sexual orientation gender identity (SOGI) policy. said he was running again because "I care so much about children who are uncomfortable in their bodies."
In a statement, he said, "I want them to grow up as well adjusted, contented adults. I don't hate them. I want to protect them. And I care enough about them that I don't want them to permanently damage their bodies and destroy forever their ability to experience the joy of bringing new life into the world."
SOGI is a programme the province claims, it will make British Columbia schools more accommodating, to students. The government insists it will help those who identify as; lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, two-spirit, heterosexual, or cisgender, a made up woke word for a person identifying with the same gender as one was assigned at birth).
Neufeld is battling former BCTF president Glen Hansman in court for comments Hansman made that Neufeld believes are defamatory.
According to a June 2021 article by Postmedia's Keith Fraser, the case began in 2017 after a Facebook post by Neufeld that was critical of his district's gender inclusivity education program.
Hansman responded to a number of media outlets and activists made calls for Neufeld to resign.
Neufeld filed a suit for defamation alleging Hansman's statements smeared him suggesting he is a biggot, hates homosexuals and transgender people, and claimed he committed a criminal offence of so-called "hate speech" and should not be allowed near children.
Hansman opposed the lawsuit and tried to have it thrown out under the B.C. law, the Protection of Public Participation Act, designed to protect participation in matters of public interest.
Initially it was successful but then later overturned by the B.C. Court of Appeal.
Neufeld said he stood against "the new gender ideology, pushed by gender radicals, our government, medical professionals, our schools and by pharmaceutical companies who are making exorbitant profits as they cultivate customers for a lifetime of hormone therapy."
Neufeld a potential alliance with seven people on the Chilliwack school board, including two who are politically aligned with Neufeld: Heather Maahs and Darrell Furgason.
The Chilliwack School District if governed bu the board and is responsible for 20 elementary schools (K-5), five middle schools (6-8) and five secondary schools (9-12).
There's a total 14,000 students in the district with 1,800 teachers and support staff.
Barry Neufeld
RBC survey finds 85% of British Columbians feel they haven't saved enough for retirement
BC teacher gets 10-year ban after inappropriate behavior with students


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text:
Linda May French is an American astronomer specializing in the physical properties of asteroids and comets, including their shapes and surfaces. She is also interested in astronomy education and in the history of astronomy, particularly focusing on the life of John Goodricke, an 18th-century deaf British amateur astronomer. She is a professor of physics at Illinois Wesleyan University.

Education and career
French is originally from Hagerstown, Indiana, and first made plans for becoming an astronomer at age five, after being given a children's book on astronomy. But as a student at Indiana University, she went through English and education majors before returning to astronomy after taking a junior-year general education course in the subject. She graduated from Indiana University in 1973, with an A.B. in astronomy and a minor in physics. She then went to Cornell University for graduate study in astronomy, where she worked as a teaching assistant for Carl Sagan, earned a master's degree in 1977, and completed her Ph.D. in 1980.

After a one-year visiting assistant professorship at Bates College, she was a postdoctoral researcher and lecturer at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology from 1982 to 1988, a researcher at the Air Force Geophysics Laboratory at Hanscom Air Force Base in Massachusetts from 1988 to 1989, and a pre-secondary science teacher at The Park School in Brookline, Massachusetts from 1989 to 1992, before returning to academia as an associate professor of physics at Wheelock College in Boston in 1992. She moved to Illinois Wesleyan University in 2002, and was promoted to full professor in 2008.

She was a program director at the National Science Foundation for a three-year term beginning circa 2017.

Recognition
Asteroid 3506 French was named after French in 1988. In 2016, Illinois Wesleyan University gave her their highest teaching award, the Kemp Foundation Award for Teaching Excellence. French was named a Legacy Fellow of the American Astronomical Society in 2020.

References

External links
Home page
Dr. Linda French: Don't limit yourself, interview by Kelsi Singer, September 2015, Women in Planetary Science

Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people
American astronomers
American women astronomers
Indiana University alumni
Cornell University alumni
Wheelock College alumni
Illinois Wesleyan University faculty
Fellows of the American Astronomical Society