This chapter presents an introduction to IP routing and provides insights to related con-cepts, such as IP addressing and various classifications of IP routing protocols. The chapter also provides a high-level overview of implementation and configuration concepts, such as route filtering and redistribution.
The Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) suite of protocols is the underlying technology for information exchange on the Internet. TCP/IP uses a layering approach for computer communications similar to the Open System Interconnection (OSI) reference model, but with fewer than seven layers. Figure 1-1 shows the OSI reference model and the TCP/IP stack side by side. Related layers between the two stacks are indicated in the figure.
IP operates at the Internet layer of the TCP/IP suite, which corresponds to the network layer of the OSI reference model. IP provides connectionless data-delivery services, which involve transmission of information from one part of a network to another in units of data known as packets or datagrams. The essence of the datagram delivery service model is that a permanent pre-established end-to-end path is not required for data transfer between two points in a network. In a packet-based network, each router in the transmission path makes independent local decisions regarding the optimal forwarding path toward the destination for any transit packet. The decision-making is based on forwarding intelligence gathered either dynamically by means of a routing protocol or manually programmed static routes.
Addressing is an important aspect of the data-forwarding process. For any directed com-munication, there is a source and a destination. Addressing allows the target destination to be specified by the source and allows the destination node to also identify the source. Addressing is even more important in the datagram delivery mode of operation because, as in IP forwarding, the data path for any transmission is not nailed through the intermediate nodes between the source and destination.
The routers in the network depend on a routing protocol or static configuration to forward the datagrams in a stream to their intended destination. For any destination address, each node in the data path worries about only the outgoing interface or link along a locally determined optimal path to the destination (or as specified by a special forwarding policy). The IP for-warding process frequently is described as a hop-by-hop destination-based forwarding mechanism. This means that routers at each hop along the data path normally forward packets based on the destination address. However, modern routers also can use policy-based criteria, such as the source address in a packet to direct the forwarding.
This process of forwarding a packet from one node to the other in a connectionless network based on the Layer 3 address (IP address, in this case) also is referred to as routing. Routers are specialized network devices with acquired routing intelligence.
So how do routers really decide where and how to forward packets traversing the inter-network? Well, this is done in a couple of ways. As alluded to previously, routers can be manually preprogrammed with predetermined path information known as static routes, or they can run applications that facilitate the learning and sharing of routing information automatically. Obtaining and propagating routing information by the latter method is re-ferred to as dynamic routing.
IP addressing is central to the operation of the IP protocol. The TCP/IP stack shown in Figure 1-1 features a network interface to the underlying physical and data-link layers, which allow the IP protocol to be media independent. Media independence is probably one of the critical advantages of the IP protocol that has promoted its wide acceptance and ubiquity. IP uses a native addressing scheme, in line with its media-independent architecture, that has no bearing on the underlying local-area network (LAN) or wide-area network (WAN) media interconnect IP devices. Therefore, IP successfully operates over heterogeneous network infrastructures consisting of several kinds of different media technology. This flexibility, together with a simple protocol stack, is the most critical instigator of its popularity.
IP addressing assigns addresses to individual network interfaces of a device (link-based approach) instead of using a single address for the whole device (host-based approach). The various interfaces of a device are connected to network links that are designated as subnetworks (or subnets) and are assigned subnet addresses. An interface's IP address is assigned from the subnet address space of the connecting link. The advantage of this link-based addressing approach is that it allows routers to summarize routing information by keeping track of only IP subnets in the routing tables instead of every host on the network. This is advantageous especially for broadcast links such as Ethernet that might have many devices connected at the same time. The Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is used in IP networking for resolving the IP addresses of directly connected hosts to the corresponding data-link addresses.
As explained in the previous section, the 32-bit IPv4 addressing scheme allows a large number of host addresses to be defined. However, the link-based addressing scheme adopted by IP requires network links to be associated with groups of addresses from which the connected hosts are assigned specific addresses. These address groups, described also as address prefixes, are referred to in classical IP terminology as IP network numbers.
Originally, IP network numbers were defined with rigid boundaries and grouped into ad-dress classes. The idea behind IP address classes was to enable efficient assignment of the IP address space by creating address groups that would support a varying number of hosts. Network links with fewer hosts then would be assigned an address from a class that sup-ports an appropriate number of attached hosts. Another benefit of address classes was that they helped streamline the address-allocation process, making it more manageable.
Five address classes—A, B, C, D, and E—were defined and distinguished by the setting of the most significant bits of the most significant byte in the IP address. Each address class embraced a set of IPv4 address subnets, each of which supported a certain number of hosts. Table 1-1 shows the five IPv4 classes.
As Table 1-1 shows, a specific bit pattern in the first byte of an IP address corresponds to a range of addresses and maps to a specific address class.
Of the five address classes, three—Class A, B, and C—were designated for unicast single source–to–single destination communication. Addresses in Class D were reserved for IP Multicast applications, which allows one-to-many communication. Class E addresses were reserved for experimental purposes.
Figure 1-2 shows the assignment of the 32 bits in a Class A address. The highest-order bit has a fixed value of 0, and the whole of the first byte is the network ID. The last 3 bytes are designated as host bits.
To make it easier for humans to work with IP addresses, these addresses are represented in a format known as dotted-decimal notation. In the dotted-decimal representation, the bits are grouped into octets and are separated by dots. Each octet of binary bits then is converted into the decimal equivalent. The last column of Table 1-1 shows the dotted-decimal notations for the range of addresses in each of the address classes.
Even though classful addressing was introduced to facilitate efficient use of the IPv4 address space, the rigid classful boundaries left a lot more to be desired. Because of its rigidity and inefficiency, classful addressing has been abandoned for the more efficient and flexible notion of classless addressing.
RFC 1700 provides general information on reserved or allocated parameters, including reserved addresses. Private internets that have deployed addresses from the private IPv4 space still can connect to the public Internet by using address Network Address Translation (NAT).
Before CIDR, each classful network number could be allocated for use in only a single organization. However, within an organization, it was possible to use subnetting to break up a classful address into multiple smaller address groups that could be applied to different segments of the same network domain.
When an IP address is subnetted, the address mask is adjusted to reflect the new demarcation between the network and host bits. Figure 1-4 shows the new mask and the corresponding subnets that are created from a Class B address. A string of ones in the mask represent the network bits, and the zeros represent the host bits. A common way of representing an IP address is to indicate its prefix length, which is the number of 1 bits in the mask. This also represents the number of network bits in the address. For example, 172.16.1.0 255.255.255.0 can be represented as 172.16.1.0/24.
Even though classful addressing allows subnetting for more efficient assignment of addresses from a block, in a classful network environment only a consistent mask is allowed. VLSM extends the notion of subnetting to allow different masks to be applied to one network number, providing more flexibility in carving up an address into different block sizes for application to different segments in a network domain. This allows more efficient use of an allocated address block. For example, by using VLSM, the Class B address, 172.16.0.0/16, can be carved into smaller subnets with 24-bit subnet masks by using 8 host bits as subnet bits. You then can further subnet one of the first genera-tion subnets—for example, 172.16.1.0/24—by using another 4 of the remaining host bits. This will result in much smaller blocks such as 172.16.1.0/28, 172.16.1.16/28, 172.16.1.32/28, and so on. VLSM can be used only in classless network environments in which the routing protocols and related routing software support classless addressing. Figure 1-5 illustrates subnetting with VLSMs.
VLSM helps improve the efficiency of IP address usage for an assigned address block; however, it does not solve challenges with inefficient allocation of addresses to organiza-tions. The imminent depletion of IP addresses as the result of inefficient use of classful blocks and the growing number of classful addresses in the global Internet routing tables as organizations were allocated multiples of a Class C address instead of a single Class B address led to the introduction of classless interdomain routing (CIDR).
CIDR allows an IP network number to be any length, abandoning completely the fixed boundaries associated with classful concepts. The two benefits of CIDR are illustrated in the examples provided in Figure 1-6. By eliminating the notions of address classes, a block of addresses such as 192.168.0.0 to 192.168.255.0 consisting of an individual Class C address can be considered a uniform block that can be conveniently represented as 192.168.0.0/16. This essentially implies aggregation of 256 "old notion" Class C addresses into a single address block, referred to as a CIDR block or a supernet.
CIDR also allows network numbers to be flexibly subnetted and allocated to different organizations for interdomain routing exchange. For example, 131.108.0.0/16 can be divided into four subblocks (131.108.0.0/18, 131.108.64.0/18, 131.108.128.0/18, and 131.108.192.0/18) and allocated to four different organizations instead of one.
Static path information can be manually programmed into the router and simply force the router to utilize a particular interface or next-hop IP address for forwarding packets with matching destination addresses. Static routes potentially could match a broad range of network addresses. Yet another way to obtain routing information is to use distributed applications enabled on routers that allow automatic collection and sharing of routing infor-mation. These routing applications frequently are referred to as dynamic routing protocols because they are not only automated route-gathering tools; they also work in almost real time, tracking the state of connectivity in the network to provide routing information that is as current and as valid as possible.
Contrast this behavior with static routes, which are manual route entries and require manual intervention to reprogram the network routers in case of any path changes. Obviously, dynamic routing protocols provide more convenience to the network operator than static routes in managing routing information. The price for this convenience, however, is configuration and troubleshooting complexity. Operation of dynamic routing protocols also can be resource-intensive, requiring large amounts of memory and processing resources. Hence, working with dynamic routing protocols frequently requires advanced knowledge and sophisticated expertise for handling related network design, router configuration, tuning, and troubleshooting chores.
Even though static routing is less demanding on system resources and requires a lower level of technical skill to configure and troubleshoot, the sheer effort of manually entering routes for a sizeable network makes it a less attractive option. Obviously, static routing is not a good candidate for today's large enterprise and Internet service provider (ISP) IP-based networks. Another drawback to static routing is that it is less flexible for implementation of complicated routing policies. When it comes to routing policy implementation, there is no better substitute for the intelligence and flexibility provided by dynamic routing protocols, such as BGP, OSPF, and IS-IS. The next section further discusses dynamic routing protocols.
The last section discusses the essence of IP routing and indicates that dynamic automatic routing is very necessary for large network deployments. This section discusses the characteristics and classification of various IP routing protocols. Although all routing protocols have a common goal of gathering routing information to support packet-forwarding decisions, they can be classified into two broad categories, unicast and multicast, based on the type of data traffic they are designed to provide forwarding information for.
The previous section indicates that IP provides an addressing scheme for identifying various locations or subnets in the network. The destination IP address in an IP packet indicates the target address of the packet. The sender's address is stored in the source address field. An important concept to understand about IP addressing is IP subnetworks. IP subnetworks—or subnets, for short—are mentioned earlier in the section on IP address-ing concepts. Physically, an IP subnet is a collection of interconnected network devices whose IP interface addresses share the same network ID and have a common mask.
The earlier section "IPv4 Address Classes" discusses unicast and multicast addresses. The unicast address space is used for addressing network devices, whereas addresses from the multicast space are used for specifying groups or users tuned in to receive information from the same multicast application.
For any IP unicast subnet, the last address, such as in 192.168.1.255/24, is known as the broadcast address. This address can be used to target all nodes on the subnet at the same time in what is referred to as a directed broadcast.
A unicast routing protocol is optimized for processing unicast network information and provides routing intelligence for forwarding IP packets to unicast destination addresses. Multicast forwarding is conceptually different and requires special routing applications to support forwarding of multicast packets.
Two devices in an IP network normally communicate by sending unicast traffic to each other's IP address. An IP node might have many active interfaces, each of which needs to be configured with an IP address from the unicast space. The address on an interface uniquely defines the device on the subnet directly connected to that interface.
Cisco routers also support the concept of secondary logical subnets, many of which can be configured on a router's interface in addition to the primary address on that interface. Additionally, you can enable tunnel and loopback interfaces on a Cisco router, both of which provide it with unicast IP reachability. Packets with unicast addresses in their destination field are forwarded based on information in the IP routing table. The IP routing table on a Cisco router is displayed with the show ip route command.
If the address in the destination field of a packet is from the multicast address space (Class D), the packet is directed to a multicast group with potentially many receivers. Multicast forwarding uses special mechanisms that enable efficient utilization of network resources. If an application is designed for multidestination delivery, using unicast routing to forward packets of the application's data stream would require unnecessary replication at the source, resulting in a waste of network resources. This can be avoided by using multicast propagation, which replicates multicast packets only when necessary at branches in the network toward the location of receivers.
Figure 1-7 illustrates a situation in which a packet is forwarded from SRC1 to two separate destinations, RCV1 and RCV2, by unicast forwarding.
In this case, SRC1 generates two identical streams of packets with destination addresses 10.1.1.1 and 10.1.1.2, respectively. Packets belonging to each stream are handled indepen-dently and are delivered through RT1 and RT2 to their respective destinations, consuming network resources (bandwidth and processing time) along the paths that they traverse. Contrast this scenario with that shown in Figure 1-8, where IP Multicast forwarding mechanisms are employed.
Multicast forwarding provides a more efficient way to deliver information by replicating packets only at fork points of the network where paths to receivers follow divergent directions. Therefore, as shown in the Figure 1-8, SRC1 originates only a single stream, and packets in this stream are forwarded through RT1 to RT2. They are then replicated at RT2 and fanned out to RCV1 and RCV2.
Multicast routing protocols are functionally different from unicast routing protocols, in that they build multicast forwarding state in the multicast-enabled routers by using a concept known as reverse path forwarding (RPF). RPF is used to ensure that a multicast packet is received from the interface leading to the expected location of the multicast source, as dictated by the routing table in place.
RPF is discussed further in Chapter 12, "Understanding Protocol Independent Multicast (PIM)," which covers IP Multicast routing.
Table 1-2 shows a table of popular multicast and unicast routing protocols.
All the listed unicast routing protocols are supported in Cisco IOS Software; however, from the listed multicast routing protocols, only Protocol Independent Multicast (PIM) sparse mode/dense mode (SM/DM), Multicast Source Discovery Protocol (MSDP), and Multiprotocol BGP are supported.
Multicast routing environments also need an additional protocol called the Internet Gateway Multicast Protocol (IGMP). Multicast OSPR (MOSPF) is not supported at all, but IOS provides special capabilities for interoperability with the Distance Vector Multicast Routing Protocol (DVMRP).
As of this writing, multicast routing protocols are not widely deployed on the Internet. However, this situation obviously will change in the near future as more multicast-oriented applications, such as radio broadcasting, video streaming, remote training, videoconferencing, and gaming, become more popular on the Internet.
The concepts of classless and classful IP routing protocols have roots in the manner in which IP addresses originally were defined.
Under classful addressing rules, a network number was assumed to retain its natural mask unless explicitly specified when subnetted into smaller blocks. However, earlier-generation routing protocols, such as the Routing Information Protocol (RIP), could handle only a single mask for any address throughout a network domain—the natural mask or a single consistent subnet mask. Routing protocols such as RIP that cannot handle more than one type of mask, as in the case of VLSMs, are referred to as classful protocols (see Table 1-3). The reason that classful protocols do not support VLSMs is that, by design, they do not advertise or carry the associated subnet mask with routes and, therefore, use simple intuitive mechanisms to determine the mask associated with a learned route.
The significant growth of the Internet to global dimensions called for more efficient use of the limited IPv4 address space. Available addresses in the IP address space therefore attained the status of a scarce commodity. The classless notions of VLSM and CIDR, discussed earlier, were invented to make address allocation and use more efficient. Routing protocols also were enhanced to support classless addressing environments. Routing protocols that are designed for operation in classless environments and that can handle VLSM address and CIDR are referred to as classless routing protocols.
Table 1-3 features a list of routing protocols categorized as classful and classless. RIP-1 and IGRP are grouped under classful protocols, whereas the more recently developed RIP-2, EIGRP, OSPF, IS-IS, and BGP fall in the classless category. The Exterior Gateway Protocol (EGP), the predecessor of the Border Gateway Protocol (BGP), which currently is considered obsolete, is also a classful protocol.
Even though many unicast routing protocols were developed in the early days of the ARPANET (the predecessor to the Internet), Routing Information Protocol (RIP) emerged as the most popular. Many independent networks that were created at govern-ment research institutions and universities as a result of the remarkable success of the ARPANET also adopted RIP for dynamic routing operations. The evolution of the ARPANET into the Internet required the numerous island networks to be interconnected using a more robust routing protocol. The Exterior Gateway Protocol (EGP) was selected for this purpose. EGP provided an efficient mechanism for routing among the various RIP domains. Therefore, RIP and EGP were optimized for distinct functions in the network based on their capabilities. RIP was used for intradomain routing, and EGP was used for interdomain routing. EGP later morphed into the Border Gateway Protocol (BGP), and other more robust protocols optimized for intradomain routing emerged in place of RIP. In particular, the Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) Protocol was developed in the Internet Engineering Task Force to provide capabilities that RIP lacked, such as more intelligent routing metrics, faster convergence, and operation in classless environments. So, here we are again with yet another classification of routing protocols: interior gateway routing protocols (for intradomain routing) and exterior gateway protocols (for interdomain routing).
Figure 1-9 shows two routing domains, AS 65001 and AS 65002, and an overlapping (shaded) region depicting the interconnection between border routers from each domain. In more current routing terminology, a routing domain also is referred to as an autonomous system. An autonomous system is an independent routing domain under the control of a single administrative authority.
As noted before, an exterior gateway protocol provides the capability for sharing routing information between the two domains. Currently at version 4, BGP is the only IP inter-domain protocol that is used for interconnecting the numerous autonomous systems in the global Internet. An interior gateway protocol provides routing intelligence within an autonomous system. Each of the autonomous systems in the Internet can run any suitable IGP. With the exception of EGP (the obsolete routing protocol) and BGP, all the other unicast protocols mentioned so far—IGRP, EIGRP, RIP, OSPF, and IS-IS—are IGPs (see Table 1-4).
Cisco evolved IGRP into the Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (EIGRP). EIGRP provides faster convergence relative to IGRP by using backup routes, referred to as feasible successor routes, that are readily installed in the routing table when a preferred route is lost. Unlike IGRP, EIGRP supports VLSM.
OSPF and IS-IS are both popular IGPs used in very large IP networks. IS-IS originally was designed as a routing protocol for the Connectionless Network Protocol (CLNP) but later was adapted to route IP about the same time that the Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) proto-col was being standardized in the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF). OSPF and IS-IS are both link-state protocols, whereas RIP, IGRP, and EIGRP are distance vector protocols.
Also, OSPF and IS-IS are link-state protocols that use the shortest path first (SPF) algorithm (named after Dijkstra) for route computation, making them converge relatively fast in re-sponse to network changes.
Both protocols also support a two-level hierarchical routing architecture. OSPF and IS-IS are very similar protocols with almost identical capabilities. However, they have some architectural differences that are beyond the scope of this book.
An interesting point to note, however, is that OSPF was designed entirely for IP only, and OSPF packets are encapsulated in IP packets. In contrast, IS-IS was designed for CLNP and was adapted to support IP additionally. IS-IS packets are not encapsulated in IP packets but rather directly by the data link protocol.
The next section of this chapter looks at yet another routing protocol classification: distance vector and link-state protocols.
This section takes a look at routing protocol from a different perspective. In the previous sections, we considered general classification such as classful versus classless and also IGP versus EGP. This section discusses classification based on design and operation. The second row in Table 1-4 places the protocols discussed so far into four different categories, two of which stand out—distance vector and link-state. These two broad categories actually apply to IGP as shown in the table.
EIGRP is essentially a distance vector protocol just like IGRP, except that it is rightfully considered in its own class as an advanced distance vector protocol because it has more modern characteristics, such as support of classless routing and fast convergence. BGP is also in its own category, path vector protocol because, as an interdomain routing protocol, it uses the AS path attribute, which is made up of the list of autonomous systems that a route has traversed as a key measure for route comparison and selection.
Versions 1 and 2 of RIP (RIP-1 and RIP-2) and IGRP are classified as distance vector protocols because they use route-computation algorithms based on the Bellman-Ford algorithm. The Bellman-Ford algorithm is used in graph theory for calculating the shortest distance between two vertices in a directed graph. A directed graph is a collection of points, interconnected with directional links, such as the nodes and links in an internetwork. Routers running distance vector routing protocols use the Bellman-Ford algorithm for determining the shortest paths to all known locations in the network.
OSPF and Integrated IS-IS are both link-state protocols and use the shortest path first algorithm (Dijkstra) for route computation. Just like the Bellman-Ford algorithm, the Dijkstra algorithm provides an alternate method for computing the shortest distance between two points in a directed graph.
EIGRP uses a Cisco Systems–patented algorithm known as the Diffusing Update Algorithm (DUAL) to optimize route calculation, breaking away from its predecessor, IGRP, which is based on the Bellman-Ford algorithm.
The type of algorithm used by a protocol for route computation goes a long way toward affecting the efficiency of the protocol and how fast it converges. The following sections examine the concepts and operational principles behind distance vector protocols and link-state protocols.
This section reviews key concepts that underlie the operation of distance vector routing protocols, such as metrics, count to infinity, split horizon, holddowns, and triggered updates. These concepts are evaluated in terms of general routing functionality, such as stability and speed of convergence and loop avoidance.
In the Bellman-Ford algorithm, each router advertises the best paths to all known des-tinations, from its perspective, to all neighbors. The links between routers are assigned a measure known as cost or metric. The metric can be determined from characteristics of the links, such as hop count, bandwidth, delay, reliability, monetary value, and so on. The hop count associated with a link between two directly connected nodes is usually 1, even though arbitrary values can be administratively assigned. The metric associated with a specific path to a known destination from any router is the sum of all the metrics of links along that path. Usually, the path with the lowest metric is the best. A router might have many neighbors and, therefore, might receive multiple paths for the same destination. It then computes the metric associated with each of these paths and selects the best path by a criterion such as the lowest metric.
RIP uses hop count for metric, with the maximum possible number of hops to any reachable destinations being 15. A metric of 16 hops or more is considered to be infinity. Hence, a hop count of 15 defines the maximum width of reachability in a RIP network. This imposes a limit on the size of RIP-based networks, which also implies that RIP is suitable for only small, flat networks. Hop count actually pertains to the node count from a specific source to a destination and has no consideration for actual network characteristics, such as bandwidth, delay, or monetary costs.
IGRP, which is also a distance vector protocol, uses a metric system that takes into consider-ation relevant characteristics of the network, such as bandwidth, associated maximum trans-mission unit, reliability of links, and also path delay. The metric assigned to each link in the outgoing direction is calculated from a formula that takes into consideration all these char-acteristics. This sort of multifaceted metric is called a composite metric.
The Bellman-Ford algorithm uses a vector (distance vector), consisting of cost (metric) and next-hop information for each known route to determine best paths in the network from any standpoint. An iterative procedure calculates the cost of all paths for any received route and selects the vector with the best cost for each route. Hence, routing protocols that are based on the Bellman-Ford algorithm commonly are referred to as distance vector protocols (see Table 1-4).
When there is a topology change, a router might invalidate some of the previously known best paths. The router then uses new or existing information to determine an alternate best path for each affected destination. Recalculating routes to rediscover alternate routes as a result of network topology changes is referred to as routing convergence. Routing convergence may be triggered by events such as router failures, link failures, or even administrative metric adjustments.
Routers running distance vector protocols determine best paths for routes relative to neigh-bors that have advertised those routes to them. The mechanics of operation of distance vector protocols, specifically the way routes are advertised by distance vector protocols, makes such environments very susceptible to routing loops—for example, when a router running a distance vector protocol broadcasts routing updates over all interfaces activated for the protocol. When a router broadcasts all known routes in this manner, it may advertise a route back to the source it was heard from. Consequently, when there is a failure, it is possible for two neighboring nodes to think that the other is the next hop along the best path to a specific destination. This situation, which results in a routing loop, is elaborated in Figure 1-10.
In Figure 1-10, RT1, RT2, RT3 are connected serially, and hop count is used as the measure for metric. A route associated with the destination link (Dest3) is advertised by RT3 to RT2, with a hop count of 1. RT2 assigns Dest3 a hop count of 2 and then advertises it to RT1. RT1 stores Dest3 with a hop count of 3 and with RT2 as the next hop. RT1 then might advertise Dest3 back to RT2. This route is not used by RT2 because it has a worse metric (four hops) than the original that came from RT3 (two hops). However, if the connection between RT2 and RT3 is broken, RT2 will remove the original route and install an alternate route to Dest3 with a metric of 4 and RT1 as the next hop. Meanwhile, RT1 has the same route pointing back to RT2 as the next hop. Thus, a loop situation is created and any packets from RT1 or RT2 to Dest3 will be caught up in a "ping pong" between the two routers for some time until their Time To Live (TTL) counters in the packets expire. Routing loops disrupt routing, and it is desirable to curtail them as quickly as they appear. To limit the effect of routing loops, distance vector protocols use a method known as counting to infinity. This principle is elaborated in the next section.
To prevent routing loops of indefinite duration, distance vector protocols enforce limits on route metrics that allows routers to declare routes as unreachable after the associated metrics reach a certain value. In the loop situation described in Figure 1-10, RT1 and RT4 might advertise Dest3 to each other, each time increasing the associated hop count received from the other by 1 and before readvertising the route. Consequently, the metric associated with Dest3 will continue to increase. Counting to infinity places an upper bound on the metric beyond which it is considered infinity and the route is declared unusable. For RIP, this upper bound is 15.
Holddown is used to dampen a route's response action to finding an alternate route when a primary route is no longer usable. When a router determines that a route is no longer avail-able, it places the route in holddown state for a duration called the holddown time, during which it doesn't select an alternate route, even if available. The route in holddown state is advertised with a metric or value of infinity in an attempt to purge it from the network. Purging unusable routes helps reduce the incidence of routing loops.
To illustrate this using Figure 1-10, RT2 places Dest3 in holddown when it invalidates routes heard from RT3 because of the failure of the connection between them. With Dest3 in holddown state, RT2 does not use the alternate route from RT1; instead, it advertises Dest3 to RT1 again with a metric. This allows RT1 to withdraw Dest3 from its tables. By the expiration of the holddown time, both RT1 and RT2 are expected to have removed Dest3 from their routing tables, thus avoiding a potential routing loop.
Another benefit to using holddowns is that it prevents unnecessary reactions to equipment-related glitches that cause the link to flap. The downside is that it contributes significantly to the higher convergence times associated with distance vector routing protocols.
Routing loops are primarily the result of routes being leaked back to their sources. For example, in Figure 1-10, the loop between RT1 and RT2 is caused by feedback of Dest3 back to RT2 by RT1, misleading RT2 to think that RT1 is the next hop on an alternate path to Dest3.
Split horizon prevents a router from advertising a route back out the interface through which it was received. With split horizon in effect, RT1 cannot advertise Dest3 back to RT3 over the link between them (see Figure 1-10).
Poison reverse is similar in principle to split horizon, except that it allows routes to be advertised back out the interfaces on which they were received as unreachable (metric of infinity assigned). That is, routes are "poisoned" in the reverse direction. Referring to Figure 1-10, with poison reverse enabled, RT1 advertises Dest3 back to RT2, but with a metric value of infinity (16 hops, in the case of RIP).
The approach adopted by poison reverse can result in undue waste of bandwidth if many poisoned routers must be advertised back out. However, this approach speeds up route convergence by eliminating the need for holddowns. In this case, the alternate route would have an obvious infinite metric when fed back to the source, hence simplifying the search for an alternative path, when the primary route is lost.
Routers running distance vector routing protocols, such as RIP and IGRP, advertise all the contents of their routing tables at regular intervals. Periodic broadcasts of large routing tables are a major concern in large networks. For example, RIP broadcasts all known routes out of every active interface every 30 seconds, by default, even if there are no changes. IGRP uses a default update interval of 90 seconds.
If updates are advertised only periodically, changes in the network might not be communi-cated fast enough, impacting convergence times. Also, the holddown time typically is tied to the update interval. So a larger interval might result in less bandwidth consumption by routing updates yet might introduce higher convergence times.
Triggered (or flash) updates remove delays in convergence caused by periodic updates by sending updates immediately following a network change instead of waiting for the periodic update timer. Flash updates trickle through the network from one node to the other, resulting in an overall time gain in network-wide convergence, even if not very significant. Complicity between periodically scheduled updates and triggered changes can result in unpredictable behavior.
Link-state protocols are relatively more modern and, therefore, incorporate capabilities into their design to overcome some of the shortcomings of distance vector protocols discussed previously. Hence, they are more sophisticated and require more memory and processing resources to operate effectively. By virtue of characteristics such as faster convergence, incremental updates, and a hierarchical architecture, link-state protocols are more suitable for deployment in large internetworks. Two popular link-state protocols used in IP networks are OSPF and IS-IS.
Unlike distance vector protocols, which share best-known routing information, link-state protocols allow routers to exchange topology (link-state) information that allows them to draw out the layout of the internetwork's topology. Routers in a link-state network converge relatively faster than their distance vector counterparts by responding immediately to changes in the topology, without the need for loop avoiding or limiting holddowns and counting to infinity. For example, RIP and IGRP typically feature convergence times in minutes, whereas OSPF and IS-IS converge in the order of seconds for comparable network changes.
Link-state protocols support hierarchy for scaling purposes by carving out a network into areas (see Figure 1-11). Routing within areas fall in the first level of the routing hierarchy. The areas are interconnected over a backbone area, and routing within the backbone consti-tutes the second level of the hierarchy.
Routers in the same area or the backbone share link-state information that is assembled into a link-state database. The topology of the area or the backbone is discerned by running the shortest path first algorithm over the respective databases. This procedure also generates the best routes that are used in the IP routing and forwarding tables. Chapter 8, "Understanding Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)," and Chapter 10, "Understanding Intermediate System-to-Intermediate System (IS-IS)," describe the operation of the link-state routing protocols and their respective protocols in more detail.
Both OSPF and IS-IS use metrics, which are measures of link bandwidth. OSPF goes a step further, to provide autoconversion of the bandwidth on interface to a link cost. IS-IS metrics are 10, by default, on all interfaces. In both cases, the metric or cost associated with a link can be manually configured. The metric associated with a route is the sum of all the metrics on the outgoing links to the associated destination.
Chapters 8 and 10 provide more information on metrics in OSPF and IS-IS, respectively.
The previous sections in this chapter provide a high-level overview of IP routing protocols from the perspectives of design, architecture, and operation. The section discusses briefly generic implementation-related issues that impact operation of these protocols on Cisco routers. Details of operation and configuration of each protocol are covered in the protocol-specific chapters.
Cisco IOS Software provides common command resources for configuring and enabling the capabilities of IP routing protocols. Commands such as distance, distribute-list, redistribute, route-map, policy-map, access-list, prefix-list, offset-list, and so forth frequently are referred to as protocol-independent commands because they can be used in diverse ways to enable many features in Cisco IOS Software, including routing protocol capabilities. In their application to routing protocols, protocol-independent commands are used for filtering routes, enabling redistribution, configuring default routes, and imple-menting various routing policies. You can find more detail on these commands online at www.cisco.com; however, this section discusses the distance command and the feature that it supports—administrative distance.
All the IP routing protocols discussed so far can operate concurrently and yet independently on Cisco routers if enabled together. Usually, only one IGP (OSPF or IS-IS) is required to run alongside BGP in an IP network. However, depending on the situation and the history of a network, more than one IGP might be operation to support routing requirements.
Administrative distance is a Cisco-specific method of distinguishing between routes obtained from different routing sources in the same network. It provides a simple mech-anism to differentiate believability of routing information sources. Cisco IOS Software assigns numeric values to routing sources that allow routes from one routing source to be preferred over similar routes from another source. Sources with lower administrative distance values are preferred. When multiple protocols supply the same route, only the route from the source with the lower administrative distance will make it into the routing table. Table 1-5 lists the default administrative distances of IP routing sources. The distance command can be used to modify any of the defaults.
Even though this book is about routing protocols and how to troubleshoot routing-related problems, we would like to briefly mention in this introductory chapter that the high-speed forwarding requirements in today's networks have led to ingenious ways of packet processing on routers that extend beyond basic decision-making based on the IP routing table. The routing table remains critical for routing guidance, but instead of using the contents of the routing table directly, routers transform the routing information in the routing table for storage in data structures, optimized for high-speed packet forwarding. Cisco provides various high-speed forwarding mechanisms, such as fast switching, optimum switching, and Cisco Express Forwarding (CEF).
Frequently, troubleshooting routing problems requires investigation into the fast-forwarding tables, such as the CEF Forwarding Information Base (FIB) and the Adjacency Database. Detailed discussions of these fast-forwarding mechanisms are outside the scope of this book. More information on this subject matter is available at the Cisco site, www.cisco.com.


Effectively, in case you ask me Oh, wait, I simply realized you addressed your question to comrade socialists, so never thoughts. Sally, you have got touched upon a really interesting level. I know what you imply: there may be generally a reluctance to truly use these books for the purpose for which they have been intended. However I feel it is good to take action, for it permits us to take part in magnificence and nourish our hearts. It's kind of like leaving the nice china in the cabinet your whole life, when it's meant to be loved.
Along with finishing all college, college and basic degree requirements, students enrolled in the Health Training & Behavior program could have the opportunity to take numerous core programs. These core courses include Private and Household Health, Community and Environmental Health, Health Schooling Skilled Growth and Internship in Health Schooling along with a number of specialization programs corresponding to Girls's Health Issues, Developments in Worldwide Health and Minority Health Points.
With altering time, no matter the age, we now have grow to be very inclined towards junk meals intake, which in the long run comes up with problems reminiscent of chubby and weight problems. While some folks understand that they should reduce weight but lacks motivation, whereas the other group is aware of the health dangers that junk foods brings but continues with their consuming habits. Nevertheless, there is excellent news for those people who could not management their consuming habits. With the healthy methods to shed extra pounds fast, you may keep consuming with out thinking much about the calorie count.
Everyone is knowledgeable of the fact that all people are created with different liking. This means that there may be probable cause for some citizens on not having a interest for this space of selection. Nobody must be judged like being unhealthy for no coming into this sort of action packed games. Completely different causes might occur if that might be requested to other people.
As the history of psychiatric mental health has instructed us, the world has come a great distance in treating the psychological illness once they've been recognized. Now the objective of psychological health is to catch somebody before they begin to exhibit symptoms of a psychological illness through screenings. Psychiatric mental health is something used all through our nursing careers whether or not we're working with a mentally sick affected person or not. It's in our on a regular basis lives as a nurse that we use psychiatric psychological health that has advanced so effectively throughout historical past.


The issues surrounding the employment of migrant workers are the subject of this month's Hot Topic on LearningWorks, the Highlands and Islands Enterprise (HIE) website dedicated to online training and learning. LearningWorks explores the key issues employers should be aware of when employing migrant workers, with links to new information about work permits and the workers registration team.
Those looking to start their own business in the creative industries are being given a unique opportunity to take advantage of contracts available from Highlands and Islands Enterprise (HIE). The Indiepreneur programme has two contracts available for new, recent or upcoming businesses involved in the creative industries across the Highlands and Islands.
Pupils at Farr High School in Bettyhill near Thurso have been recognised at the Highland and Islands' leading business awards ceremony for their excellence in engineering. Farr High School Young Engineers Club collected the Scottish Council for Development and Industry (SCDI) Highlands and Islands Young Engineers Club of the Year Award at the organisation's Highlands and Islands Dinner and Awards ceremony which took place last night (Friday) at the Highland Conference Centre in Nairn.
Ross-shire young entrepreneur David Skea (20) has won the Highland final of the 2006 Prince's Scottish Youth Business Trust (PSYBT) and Royal Bank of Scotland Business Awards. David from Alness started his business in 2004 marketing diver-caught shellfish.
ENTERPRISE funding has been secured to enable a range of Seafood Scotland (SFS) market development services to continue to be delivered to the Highlands and Islands seafood sector. The �57,000 financial package from Highlands and Islands Enterprise (HIE) will provide funding towards the costs incurred by SFS in the Highlands and Islands over the next two years and builds on the success of a previous package of assistance.
FOOD and drink producers in the Highlands and Islands are invited to come along to the Inverness Caledonian Thistle stadium on September 26 to learn some valuable advice on developing their business operation. The event, featuring a number of leading speakers, is the first in a new programme of meetings organised by the Highlands and Islands Food and Drink Forum.
Two of the north's top websites have teamed up to offer local companies and organisations a cost-effective alternative to the so-called traditional media when they need to advertise for new staff. For as little as �80 (ex VAT) for voluntary organisations, or �100 per week for other recruiters, job vacancies in Caithness, Sutherland and Orkney can now be advertised on www.hijobs.co.uk, covering the whole of the Highlands and Islands, and here on Caithness.Org, Scotland's most popular community website.
An E-learning system developed by The Highland Council to train staff on Housing Benefit and Council Tax Benefit fraud awareness is such a success that it is now being used by 270 other local authorities across the UK. The training package entitled "Focus on Fraud Awareness" makes the process of delivering quality training to a large number of front-line staff spread across a large geographical area both effective and efficient.
The well-known hostel at Helmsdale run by the Scottish Youth Hostel Association was put up for sale and many folk thought that was the end of an era. However the hostel was bought by Irene Drummond and after a lot of work reopened earlier this year.
The prestigious Highlands and Islands Tourism Awards sponsored by Scottish Provincial Press, Royal Bank of Scotland, Highlands and Islands Enterprise & AVC Media are the annual celebration and recognition of the best of the Industry and this year the event will focus on those important values that give the Highlands and Islands their true sense of place for visitors from around the world - one Hundred Thousand welcomes (ceud mile failte). Tourism businesses throughout the region are invited to apply for any ofthe thirteen awards.
SUMMARY The July 2006 unemployment figures were released on 16th August 2006. During the month, June 2006 to July 2006, the number of people claiming unemployment benefit in Great Britain rose by 0.7%, from 925,466 to 932,191 (6,725 claimants).
Work begins on Monday (21 August) on a major project which will bring The Highland Council's 110 administrative and professional staff from the five current locations across East Sutherland into the one building at Drummuie, just south of Golspie. The Council is refurbishing the former technical studies wing of Golspie High School - an impressive listed building which dates back to 1903 - over the next 62 weeks to provide the Council with a modern new office with 100 car parking spaces.
A new website promoting opportunities in the Highlands is launched today.- In response to the buoyant Highlands and Islands economy, a new recruitment website - www.hijobs.co.uk - is launched today. The company is expected to turnover �500,000 in its first year.
As young people across the Highlands and Islands anxiously await their exam results, Careers Scotland is urging pupils to remain calm and take advantage of the Exam Results Helpline. Exam results will be posted throughout Scotland in August, and experts from Careers Scotland will be on standby to reassure callers and provide impartial advice.
This year's Highland Spotlight exhibition sees some exciting changes to the format. Not only is there a new date - Tuesday 5 September 2006 - but there are also new features in the form of the Young Business Zone and the NSIG Energy Zone, adding to the already successful Fusion IT Zone.
Lamb grading, sheep health, production systems and easycare sheep are among the topics to be discussed at North Sheep an open day for the sheep industry which is due to be held on Thursday the 10th August 2006, at Kirkton Farm by Melvich, Sutherland, by the kind permission of Messers W Findlayon. This free event which starts at 1.00pm has been organised by SAC and is supported by European Social Fund (ESF), Highlands and islands Enterprise (HIE), Scottish Agricultural College (SAC), Quality Meat Scotland (QMS).
New Links for the Western Isles Sunday Services Introduced Air services to and from and within the Western Isles are to be further improved with the news announced today that Highland Airways is to directly link Benbecula with Inverness, and increase frequency on its Stornoway -Inverness services. The enhancement includes the addition of a new lunchtime rotation between Inverness and Stornoway each weekday and a flight on Sundays to provide more comprehensive weekend travel options between the two centres.
Businesses and community organisations in the Highlands and Islands are being asked to help demonstrate that European Union funding has been properly invested. The Highlands and Islands Enterprise network (HIE) is compiling evidence to show in detail the good use put to funding distributed under the EU's six-year Highlands and Islands Special Transitional Programme (HISTP).
Does your business have a project or development you never have time to undertake? Do you want to take advantage of up to date knowledge, enthusiasm and drive? If the answer is yes, the Caithness and Sutherland Enterprise (CASE) Graduate Placement Programme could be just what you're looking for. CASE is offering a limited number of places to businesses in the Caithness and Sutherland area.


Clickfunnels Notifications – Is Clickfunnels Right for Your Business?
Clickfunnels is the favorited tool, because it simplifies the ENTIRE sales and marketing funnel process for businesses.There are so many different types of sales funnels. Each of them needing to be designed specifically for a certain client. So, they need to be built in a way that they attract your desired customer. There are funnels for webinars, sales, membership websites, and contributor list and each one are quite different from the other. The good thing is that ClickFunnels has you covered.
After you choose your funnel inside Clickfunnels, the next step is to choose a template. There are many different templates available, and the best part? They are all proven to work. With a throng of proven and tested templates at your disposal, ClickFunnels accelerates your A/B testing period because you don't have to weed out templates that are not performing.


text:
Q: Adding Service Reference with encoding=ISO-8859-1 to Visual Studio 2013 I have a autogenerated webservice that i need to consume so that i may be able to create an application form. the problem is, when i am trying to add the webservice, it has an error
There was an error downloading 'http://bmctest016:8080/ctmbpi/TEST/_vti_bin/ListData.svc/$metadata'.
The request failed with HTTP status 404: %2Fctmbpi%2FTEST%2F%5Fvti%5Fbin%2FListData%2Esvc%2F%24metadata+Not+Found.
Metadata contains a reference that cannot be resolved: 'http://bmctest016:8080/ctmbpi/TEST'.
The content type text/html of the response message does not match the content type of the binding (application/soap+xml; charset=utf-8). If using a custom encoder, be sure that the IsContentTypeSupported method is implemented properly. The first 1024 bytes of the response were: '

<title>Error 500 com/sun/messaging/AdministeredObject</title>

HTTP ERROR: 500

com/sun/messaging/AdministeredObject

RequestURI=/ctmbpi/TEST

Powered by Jetty://

'.
The remote server returned an error: (500) Internal Server Error.
If the service is defined in the current solution, try building the solution and adding the service reference again.

I noticed that it fails to download the metadata from the webservice and as per checking with the autogenerated webservice. The encoding was ISO-8859-1 and as per research, Visual Studio 2013 recognizes UTF-8 webservice right?
Is it possible to change the settings in visual studio to read and identify the webservice encoded with ISO-8859-1? I still don't know how to change the autogenerated webservice to be encoded to UTF-8 so that visual studio will recognizes it.
P.S. The webservice is working fine and has succeeded multiple testing. Also, the webservice is identifiable by SoapUI Tool.
Thanks all

A: You can add a Web Reference instead of a Service Reference:

Add Service Reference -> Advanced... -> Add Web Reference... -> Set WSDL / URL -> Add Referece

Then, set the request encoding:
WS client = new WS();
client.RequestEncoding = Encoding.GetEncoding("ISO-8859-1");

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaStackExchange


text:
LEARNING FROM PAST PROJECTS
LEARNING FROM PROFESSIONALS
EXPLORING PUBLIC PERCEPTIONS
LONGITUDINAL PROJECTS
TARGETED WORKSHOPS
EDP AT EXTERNAL EVENTS
EDP LIVE
EDP RESOURCES
INSPIRING DESIGN STORIES >
DESIGN PROJECT STORIES
STORIES OF COMMUNITY ENGAGEMENT IN DESIGN
HOW TO THINK ABOUT MAKING CHANGES
EXPLORE DESIGN AND KEY DESIGN TASKS >
EXPLORE DESIGN: Community Buildings
DESIGN TRAINING: Film
DEVELOPING A SHARED PURPOSE: film
PREPARING TO WORK WITH ARCHITECTS
HOW TO ENGAGE COMMUNITIES IN DESIGN >
DESIGNING PLACES WITH PEOPLE: Booklets
COMMUNITY ENGAGEMENT IN DESIGN: Film
DIGITAL MEDIA booklet
USING DIGITAL MEDIA - film
Places of worship at the service of people and communities
post by Sophia de Sousa
Two recent EDP workshops brought people together to share their personal reflections on their relationship with their faith, their places of worship and their faith communities. Both workshops took participants through a series of questions about:
the role of faith buildings within a community
the significance these buildings hold for the communities who use them
how the design of these buildings affects how the faith communities and the wider local communities, interact with and within them.
how places of worship can support social action and the provision of community activities and services.
The first workshop on Faith, Architecture and the City in Bradford on 8 May, was organised in partnership with the Baroness Warsi Foundation and brought together people from local Sikh, Hindu, Muslim and Christian communities. We were kindly hosted by the Guru Gobind Singh Gurdwara, which is the oldest Gurdwara in Bradford and active in interfaith collaboration and social action in the city.
The second workshop on 23 July, was hosted by the West London Synagogue, which is one of the oldest synagogues in the UK and the oldest house of prayer affiliated with the movement of Reform Judaism. The workshop was organised in collaboration with Margaret Greenfields and Searle Kochberg from another AHRC-funded project, entitled Ritual Reconstructed, and brought together members of Masorti, Reform and Liberal Jewish communities in London, as well as members of other faith groups who volunteer at synagogues.
Discussion with participants at both workshops revealed the shared significance of faith in the lives of all of those present, yet a wide spectrum of views on the role and impact of the physical structure of their places of worship.
What follows is a brief summary of some of the themes that emerged. It is worth noting that the focus of both of these workshops was on places of worship within the urban context.
Sanctuary and community
There was a strong view that places of worship offer an important reference point, a meeting place where people who practise a faith can find others with shared values, cultural references and a sense of community, be it in their own local area or when travelling or moving to a new place. These are places people know they will be welcome, no matter where they are and how far from home they may find themselves.
A marker in the city
While many participants spoke of practising their faith well beyond the confines of the walls of their place of worship, they did feel that the presence of their faith buildings set down an important marker, a statement of representation within the urban landscape, which seemed of particular significance within immigrant communities. Some spoke of the places of worship signalling "We are here!", both to those who are already settled, and to new arrivals.
Spaces for faith practices and rituals
When we started to focus more on the buildings themselves, a larger variation of perspectives started to emerge. Some spoke of the importance of a building that had been created for the purpose of their specific faith rituals and that had features designed to physically represent and support those rituals. People also spoke of buildings and their symbolic features holding not only theological meaning, but also memories and family milestones that sometimes spanned generations.
We discussed the adaptation of spaces that previously had other uses, sharing places of worship with other faith communities, and taking over a worship space from a different faith group, and explored examples of this happening among different faith communities. Some expressed the view that buildings are "just buildings" and that practically any space could be adapted to host faith rituals. There was, however, general agreement that it was important to have places where people could gather to share faith rituals, so many of which are rooted in people coming together as a community, through prayer, song, food or other activities.
Spaces for social action
Another theme that emerged strongly from the discussions was the place of worship as a place to support social action, both within and beyond the faith community. Almost all of those present were involved in some activity through their place of worship to help people face challenges, build positive relationships and reach their potential. The spectrum of activities and services delivered at the places of worship represented were numerous and varied. These included offering meals and food for those in need, helping refugees to access and navigate support services, and providing social and support activities for various age groups, including training and skills development.
Unlocking the potential of buildings
There was a clear frustration that any fixed place of worship creates some limitations on what can happen there. Whether a faith community is worshipping at a listed church, synagogue or temple, in an old fire station, in a community hall or in any other kind of building, the spectrum of activities that can happen there will be influenced by how well the building is working for the people who use it or would like to use it. Specific issues raised include the state of repair of the building, whether it has only one main space or a series of spaces, whether it is fully accessible, or whether it has sufficient heating and lighting. Nearly all of the workshop participants saw potential for their places of worship to be improved, through small changes such as decoration, or through large-scale physical changes.
However, participants expressed the importance that none of these changes should compromise the role of places of worship as a sanctuary and place for a community of shared values, a place for ritual, and for social action. All of those present at our workshops agreed that above all, places of worship are spaces for people to come together, to feel supported and nourished, and to help others feel the same.
Many thanks to our workshop partners and to all of the participants who took part for their generosity in helping us to explore these themes. If you would like to contribute your views, please take part in our survey to find out how individuals and communities view the future of places of worship in the UK and their place in society, or get in touch with our team at empoweringdesign@gmail.com.
Sophia de Sousa is Chief Executive at The Glass-House Community Led Design (EDP partner) and part of the core team of the Empowering Design Practices project.
Blog from the EDP project team.
Bow Church
Diocese Of Ely
Historic England
Intangible Legacies
Israac Somali Cultural And Community Association
Major Parish Churches
Sheffield Buddhist Centre
St John Stadhampton
St Mary's Sheffield
Stratford Upon Avon URC
Yorkshire Baptist Association

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


text:
Брикеразио (, , ) — коммуна в Италии, располагается в регионе Пьемонт, в провинции Турин.

Население составляет 4322 человека (2008 г.), плотность населения составляет 191 чел./км². Занимает площадь 23 км². Почтовый индекс — 10060. Телефонный код — 0121.

В коммуне 15 августа особо празднуется явление Вознесения Девы Марии.

Демография
Динамика населения:

Города-побратимы
  Бель-Виль, Аргентина (1998)
  Шорж, Франция (2003)

Администрация коммуны
 Официальный сайт: http://www.comune.bricherasio.to.it/

Ссылки
 Официальный сайт населённого пункта
 Национальный институт статистики
 http://www.istat.it/english/

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


text:
Tchantches (asteróide 4440) é um asteróide da cintura principal, a 1,7733257 UA. Possui uma excentricidade de 0,0768767 e um período orbital de 972,5 dias (2,66 anos).

Tchantches tem uma velocidade orbital média de 21,48960074 km/s e uma inclinação de 21,35048º.

Este asteróide foi descoberto em 23 de Dezembro de 1984 por François Dossin.

Ver também
 Lista de asteróides
 Asteroide da cintura principal

Ligações externas

Asteroides da cintura principal
Objetos astronômicos descobertos em 1984


text:
About Pedro Roffe
IP, Trade and Development
home » Susan Sell
Susan Sell
Susan K. Sell is a Professor at the School of Regulation and Global Governance. She earned her PhD in Political Science at the University of California – Berkeley. She taught at Pomona College and the Claremont Graduate School before joining the George Washington University. There, she was a Professor of Political Science and International Affairs. She served as Director of the Institute for Global and International Studies at the Elliott School of International Affairs at George Washington from 2007-2012. Susan's research interests include international political economy, trade, economic development, intellectual property, and investment. She focuses on the global governance of public health, food sovereignty, education and climate change. She has published numerous articles and book chapters and serves on the editorial boards of International Studies Quarterly; the Review of International Political Economy; the European journal of International Relations, and Global Governance. She serves on the Board of Geneva-based IP-Watch, a reporting service targeted at under-resourced negotiating delegations. Professor Sell has been a consultant for the Ford Foundation, the Open Society Institute, and the World Health Organization. In 2015-2016 she was appointed to the Expert Advisory Group for the United Nations Secretary General's High-level Panel on Public Health and Access to Medicines.
This conference was presented by the University of Minnesota Law School in cooperation with The Faculty of Law, University of Geneva - Uni Bastions and the Centre for International Governance Innovation (CIGI), and with media sponsorship from Intellectual Property Watch.


December 2014A Top 3 US Bank selected our PatientCollect product for its commercial healthcare customers.
October 2013We began processing payments for a Top 5 Health Insurance Provider on 9 state-based health insurance exchanges.
November 2011We launched PatientCollect, a SaaS based patient payment solution designed for healthcare providers.
December 2008Our payment platform processed 120 million payments annually, totaling $20 billion in payment value!
October 2008We developed the industry's first global real-time funds transfer service. Talk about innovation.
June 2008We unveiled Orbipay, a bill payment solution that enables companies to accept payments from their customers through multiple channels.
September 2007We developed the industry's first innovative de-coupled product.
December 2005Between August 2005 and December 2005, we processed over $1 Billion in payments for HSBC Bank.
October 2005We developed a very successful global payments platform.
August 2005We implemented the very first version of our bill payments technology platform for our first client, HSBC Bank.
July 2005We opened our offshore development center in Hyderabad, India.
January 2003Alacriti is founded in New Jersey by Manish Gurukula and Sai Raavi.


The construction that has fascinated and puzzled passers-by to St. Peter's by the Sea Lutheran Church has come to an end. The church located on the edge of OB and Point Loma is inviting the community to see the spectacular update at an Open House on Saturday, April 18, 1:00 – 4:00 PM.
For everyone who watches the construction going on and never sees the final product, this is chance to view a meaningful change to a site that effectively combines old and new.
Docents will be available to explain the changes as you tour the facility; there will be crafts and activities for the children, and the" before and after" pictures are displayed for all to see.
This is not a church service or a dedication with speeches; it is planned as an introduction to the new church building for the neighborhood and to explain the plans for the building to the community.
The building is fully ADA compliant, complete with "green" features – including the native plant landscaping -, and the effective combination of modern facilities with the traditional sanctuary.
Watkins-Landmark Construction was the contractor, a responsibility that included accommodating Sunday Church services throughout the construction process. The San Diego architectural firm, "domusstudio architecture" worked with a committee to satisfy an astonishing variety of needs with style and practicality.
When asking if anything was left to be done, Pastor Marohn pointed out that the basketball backboards were still being installed. Perhaps they, too, will be ready by the Open House.
With the new kitchen there is a sparkling new coffee pot. And what is an open house without punch and cookies? Plan to see your friends and neighbors there, enjoy the thriving native plant garden, and stifle any envy when you see what that kitchen has to offer. The theme, "All are welcome" provides an opportunity to see this project for yourself.


The decision to sell real estate or property is one that needs careful thought considering the amount you stand to earn after a successful sale. For first-timers, the sale is best done with the help of an estate agent. As you probably already know, there are a variety of choices when it comes to getting this done. You can visit a local high street agent and pay a fee to get your property listed.
Selling property is a costly affair given all that is involved in the process—agency fees, removals, relocation expenses, and, in most cases, legal advice from property lawyers. All these costs can add up and burn quite the whole in your pocket. Help from high street agents will only add to the already steep cost, which is why HouseTree.co.uk suggests considering the help of online estate agents instead.
• Agents who also comply with all government regulations related to property buying and selling—but at a more affordable cost.
• Links to important property portals. This ensures that your property is listed and advertised on channels where it will be seen.
• Wider reach—online estate agents are more likely to operate at a national level, meaning your property is marketed to those looking for property from further away. Instead reaching just the local market, you also gain access to those with plans of moving to the area and are looking for the right house.
These agents have many different packages on offer. It would be smart to spend some time researching and locating a reputable agent who will suit your needs and budget. Even if your budget for getting a property listed is very limited, you should go through these agents. They will help you complete your deal faster and more efficiently.


text:
8728 Мімацу (8728 Mimatsu) — астероїд головного поясу, відкритий 7 листопада 1996 року.

Тіссеранів параметр щодо Юпітера — 3,512.

Примітки

Див. також
 Список астероїдів (8701-8800)

Посилання

 Інформація про малі планети на сайті minorplanetcenter.net

Астрономічні об'єкти, відкриті 1996
Головний пояс астероїдів


OpenVPN is built for portability. At the time of this writing, OpenVPN runs on Linux, Solaris, OpenBSD, FreeBSD, NetBSD, Mac OS X, and Windows 2000/XP. Because OpenVPN is written as a user-space daemon rather than a kernel module or a complex modification to the IP layer, porting efforts are dramatically simplified.
OpenVPN has been built with a strongly modular design. All of the crypto is handled by the OpenSSL library, and all of the IP tunneling functionality is provided through the TUN/TAP virtual network driver. The benefits of this modularity can be seen, for example, in the way that OpenVPN can be dynamically linked with a new version of the OpenSSL library and immediately have access to any new functionality provided in the new release. For example, when OpenVPN is built with the latest version of OpenSSL (0.9.7), it automatically has access to new ciphers such as AES-256 (Advanced Encryption Standard with 256 bit key) and the encryption engine capability of OpenSSL that allows utilization of special-purpose hardware accelerators to optimize encryption, decryption, and authentication performance. In the same way, OpenVPN's user-space design allows straightforward porting to any OS which includes a TUN/TAP virtual network driver.
While OpenVPN provides many options for controlling the security parameters of the VPN tunnel, it also provides options for protecting the security of the server itself, such as --chroot for restricting the part of the filesystem the OpenVPN daemon has access to, --user and --group for downgrading daemon privileges after initialization, and --mlock to ensure that key material and tunnel data is never paged to disk where it might later be recovered.
There are three major families of VPN implementations in wide usage today: SSL, IPSec, and PPTP. OpenVPN is an SSL VPN and as such is not compatible with IPSec, L2TP, or PPTP. The IPSec protocol is designed to be implemented as a modification to the IP stack in kernel space, and therefore each operating system requires its own independent implementation of IPSec. By contrast, OpenVPN's user-space implementation allows portability across operating systems and processor architectures, firewall and NAT-friendly operation, dynamic address support, and multiple protocol support including protocol bridging. There are advantages and disadvantages to both approaches. The principal advantages of OpenVPN's approach are portability, ease of configuration, and compatibility with NAT and dynamic addresses. The learning curve for installing and using OpenVPN is on par with that of other security-related daemon software such as ssh. Historically, one of IPSec's advantages has been multi-vendor support, though that is beginning to change as OpenVPN support is beginning to appear on dedicated hardware devices. While the PPTP protocol has the advantage of a pre-installed client base on Windows platforms, analysis by cryptography experts has revealed security vulnerabilities.
As a user-space VPN daemon, OpenVPN is compatible with with SSL/TLS, RSA Certificates and X509 PKI, NAT, DHCP, and TUN/TAP virtual devices. OpenVPN is not compatible with IPSec, IKE, PPTP, or L2TP.
Yes, starting with version 1.5. Can I use a web browser as an OpenVPN client? No. While OpenVPN uses the SSL/TLS protocol for security, OpenVPN is not a web application proxy. It is an OSI layer 2 or 3 full-mesh internetwork tunneling solution and requires that OpenVPN be installed on both client and server.
standalone, with support for unencrypted UDP tunnels.
OpenVPN can also be linked with the LZO real-time compression library. OpenVPN supports adaptive compression, meaning that it will enable link compression only when the tunnel data stream is found to be compressible. OpenVPN runs entirely in user space and does not require any special kernel components other than the TUN/TAP virtual network driver available for Windows, Linux, and BSD variants.


Bodies liquid in the heat of the day.
in the ripples and we're going to stay.
I am fuzzy like the state I am in.
and I'm reaching at the creature within.
and I beckon one right into my eye.
kiss it gently and then kiss it goodbye.
drops explode like sadness deep in my brain.
and I'm doing it again and again.


What is the abbreviation for Peace, Life And You?
A: What does PLAY stand for?
PLAY stands for "Peace, Life And You".
A: How to abbreviate "Peace, Life And You"?
"Peace, Life And You" can be abbreviated as PLAY.
A: What is the meaning of PLAY abbreviation?
The meaning of PLAY abbreviation is "Peace, Life And You".
A: What is PLAY abbreviation?
One of the definitions of PLAY is "Peace, Life And You".
A: What does PLAY mean?
PLAY as abbreviation means "Peace, Life And You".
A: What is shorthand of Peace, Life And You?
The most common shorthand of "Peace, Life And You" is PLAY.
You can also look at abbreviations and acronyms with word PLAY in term.


text:
Q: Cannot insert the value NULL into column when I try to insert it from text box but works fine when I insert it directly I am not able to INSERT the data into database when I try to insert the data from the text box with ID="USERNAME" that is by selecting the VALUES as @USERNAME e.g.:InsertCommand="INSERT INTO [Table12] ([USERNAME]) VALUES (@USERNAME)".
But the same works absolutely fine if I don't opt to insert the data from the above text box.
I am getting below error if I were to use the above code in for INSERT statement.
"Cannot insert the value NULL into column 'USERNAME', table 'D:\LOGINCONTROL\LONGINCONTROLTEM\LONGINCONTROLTEM\APP_DATA\ASPNET-LONGINCONTROLTEM-20150905150101.MDF.dbo.Table12'; column does not allow nulls. INSERT fails.
The statement has been terminated."
Below statement works fine but not the above, as in the text "SOME VALUE" is inserted into the database correctly, once I click the button, which proves that there is no connection issue here.
e.g.:InsertCommand="INSERT INTO [Table12] ([USERNAME]) VALUES ('SOME DATA')".
Below is the complete code that I am using.
<%@ Page Language="C#" AutoEventWireup="true" CodeBehind="INPUTTODATABASE.aspx.cs" Inherits="LongincontrolTem.INPUTTODATABASE" %>

<!DOCTYPE html>

<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head runat="server">
    <title></title>
</head>
<body>
    <form id="form1" runat="server">
    <div id="testtest" runat="server">

      User Name:   <asp:TextBox ID="USERNAME" value="" runat="server" ></asp:TextBox>

        <asp:Button ID="SaveData" runat="server" Text="InsertData" OnClick="SaveData_Click" />

        <asp:SqlDataSource ID="InsertInformation" runat="server" DataSourceMode="DataSet"
          ConnectionString="Data Source=DECTO-PC;AttachDbFilename=|DataDirectory|\aspnet-LongincontrolTem-20150905150101.mdf;Integrated Security=True"
         InsertCommand="INSERT INTO [Table12] ([USERNAME]) VALUES (@USERNAME)"
          ProviderName="System.Data.SqlClient" >

<InsertParameters>
        <asp:Parameter Name="USERNAME" Type="Char" />

    </InsertParameters>

        </asp:SqlDataSource>

    </div>
    </form>
</body>
</html>

// **code behind page**
using System;
using System.Collections.Generic;
using System.Linq;
using System.Web;
using System.Web.UI;
using System.Web.UI.WebControls;

namespace LongincontrolTem
{
    public partial class INPUTTODATABASE : System.Web.UI.Page
    {
        protected void Page_Load(object sender, EventArgs e)
        {

        }

        protected void SaveData_Click(object sender, EventArgs e)
        {
            SqlDataSource DataSourced = (SqlDataSource)FindControl("InsertInformation");

            DataSourced.Insert();
        }
    }
}

A: It looks like there are a couple of minor changes needed to get this working:
First, your InsertParameters should refer to your TextBox, as this is what you need to supply the value. Also, you probably need a type of String rather than Char. Try replacing that block with something like:
<InsertParameters>
    <asp:ControlParameter Name="USERNAME" Type="String" ControlID="USERNAME" />
</InsertParameters>

Next, your SaveData_Click event can be simplified:
protected void SaveData_Click(object sender, EventArgs e)
{
    InsertInformation.Insert();
}


text:
Braćevac (Kyrillisch: ) ist ein Dorf in der Opština Negotin und im Okrug Bor im Osten Serbiens. Es befindet sich 23 Kilometer südlich der Stadt Negotin.

Das Dorf wird in zwei Ortsteile gegliedert: Donji Braćevac und Gornji Braćevac.

Geographie
Braćevac liegt am Rande der Karpaten, im nördlichen Teil der Region Timočka Krajina.

Nahe Städte und Dörfer
Das Dorf befindet sich an der südlichsten Spitze der Gemeinde Negotin.

Geschichte
Das Dorf wird das erste Mal in den Jahren 1497, 1521, 1530 und 1586 in türkischen Schriften namentlich erwähnt. Im Dorf wurde 1872 die Serbisch-orthodoxe Dreifaltigkeitskirche erbaut.

Bis zum Ende des Ersten Weltkrieges 1918 war das Dorf unter bulgarischer Herrschaft. Danach fiel es, wie die restliche Region, an das Königreich Jugoslawien.

Nach dem Zweiten Weltkrieg wurde während des Zweiten Jugoslawiens 1949 der Kulturdom gebaut und das Dorf an das Stromnetz angeschlossen. 1956 erhielt das Dorf eine Krankenstation und 1981 wurden die Straßen asphaltiert sowie Braćevac an das staatliche Telefonnetz angeschlossen.

Einwohner
Laut Volkszählung 2002 (Eigennennung) gab es 533 Einwohner. Die meisten von ihnen waren Serbisch-Orthodoxe. Davon waren:

Weitere Volkszählungen:

Bildung
Da sich das Dorf relativ nahe an der Stadt Negotin befindet, gibt es nur eine Grundschule im Dorf. Diese wurde 1952 erbaut und bekam den Namen "Momčilo Ranković" Rajac.

Verweise

Einzelnachweise und Anmerkungen

Weblinks
 Braćevac auf der Webseite der Gemeinde Negotin (serbische Sprache)
 Geographie Braćevac
 Lage und Ausdehnung Braćevac

Ort in der Opština Negotin


Finish a critical job when you're low on ink – printing is completed with remaining colour or black cartridge.
Get professional-quality colour for a low cost per page.
HP 901XL Black Officejet Ink Cartridges print affordable, laser-quality black documents, using HP Officejet ink. Save more when you choose a high capacity cartridge. Count on HP Officejet ink for consistent reliable performance.
Save more using a high-capacity cartridge that delivers 3 times more laser-quality black printing. HP Officejet ink produces archival-quality output that resists fading for decades.
Finish a critical print job even when one cartridge runs low on ink - printing is completed with the remaining black or colour cartridges. Just remove the consumed cartridge to finish printing the document.
Count on Original HP ink cartridges for consistent, reliable performance. HP 901XL Black Officejet Ink Cartridges contain 65% recycled plastic and with HP Planet Partners, you can conveniently recycle your ink cartridge.


Welcome to our project showcase! Click on any of the images below to view the project details.
An example of using EPHenry Coventry Wall and EPHenry Old Towne Cobble to repair major settling problem and cracked mortared brick steps.
Pondless Waterfall or Large Koi Pond?


The Kenya government's failure to invest in palliative care - alleviation of symptoms - has left thousands of children suffering from acute and chronic pain that is treatable.
That's according to a new report by New York-based Human Rights Watch, which asserts that many of those with chronic pain are suffering largely because the Kenyan government has not integrated care that helps alleviate symptoms into its public-health services.
Palliative care is provided to patients suffering with terminal and life-threatening illnesses, such as HIV/AIDS, cancer and sickle cell anemia. Palliative care helps patients manage pain and also provides support for the emotional, psychological and social effects of the diseases.
According to the report's author, Juliane Kippenberg, one of the groups in greatest need of access to palliative care is children.
"Kenya is afflicted by childhood disease. Over 12 percent of Kenyan children die before their fifth birthday. There are around 150,000 children in Kenya living with HIV and many of them suffer pain - even some of those on anti-retroviral drugs. Cancer is on the rise in Kenya. Children also suffer from sickle cell disease, tuberculosis and other painful diseases. Palliative care should go hand in hand with curative treatment. In some cases it can even help curative treatment succeed, for example by enabling a child on anti-retroviral drugs to adhere to the medication," said Kippenberg.
One of the most basic ways to manage this pain is morphine. The World Health Organization has designated oral morphine as an essential medicine for basic health care. Kenya has given oral morphine a similar designation, but the report found it was rarely, if ever, purchased by the government. It is largely unavailable in all but seven of Kenya's more than 250 public hospitals.
Of the nearly 250,000 Kenyans taking anti-retroviral medication, there only is enough morphine to treat about 1,500.
Part of the problem is the perception in Kenya's medical community. According to Kippenberg, Kenyan doctors tend to view morphine as dangerous, rather than essential. As a result, they rarely prescribe it or even request supplies for health-care facilities.
But the national coordinator for the Kenya Hospices and Palliative Care Association, Zipporah Ali, says pain medication and palliative care can actually make medical treatments more effective.
"Palliative care and pain medication actually prolongs life for people with terminal illnesses," said Ali. "If you actually control a patient's pain you improve their quality of life; you might even actually prolong their life. Palliative care and pain medication go hand in hand with curative treatment."
Though hospice care has been available in Kenya since 1990, there are only about 30 facilities in the country and none specialize in the treatment of children, which often prevents a proper diagnosis of a child's pain.
Human Rights Watch is calling for the Kenyan government to make oral morphine available in all public hospitals and to provide health-care professionals with proper training on palliative care for children.
According to Ali, the Kenya Hospice and Palliative Care Association is working with the government to integrate palliative care into the national health system. Ali said the government was planning to unveil palliative care units in 10 government hospitals by the end of this year.


text:
Q: Not sure of my approach for a specific part in React Redux app? I am working on a mini React Redux app, where initially I am loading a list of articles. Clicking on each of these articles should render that specific articles content and details on the page.
My current app architecture is as following
App.js
class App extends Component {
    render() {
        return (

                <AppHeader></AppHeader>
                <PageContent></PageContent>

        );
    }
}

PageContentContainer.js
const mapStateToProps = state => ({
    posts: state.simpleReducer.posts
});

const mapDispatchToProps = dispatch => {

    return {
        frontPagePosts: () => {
            dispatch(actions.frontPageItems())
        }
    }
};

class PageContentContainer extends Component{

    componentDidMount(){
        this.props.frontPagePosts();
    }

    render(){
        return(

                    <FrontPageComponent posts={this.props.posts}/>

        )
    }
}

The FrontPageComponent is just a view rendering component with no logic in it.
class FrontPageComponent extends Component{
    render(){

        return(

                    {this.props.posts.map((val, idx) => {
                        return(

                                            {val.title}

{val.excerpt}

                        )
                    })}

        )
    }
}

My current thought process is introduce another view component for viewing the individual article <ReadArticleComponent/>. Every time a user clicks on the individual article, it would change a boolean state value called showArticle in the store. Based on this it would render either components accordingly. So for example the logic in my PageContentContainer would look like
componentDidMount(){
    //ajax call to the backend

    if(!this.props.showArticle){
     this.props.frontPagePosts();
    }else{
      this.props.showArticleContent()
    }
}

.........

render(){
   ......

   {!this.props.showArticle ? <FrontPageComponent.../>
     : <ReadArticleComponent/>
   }
}

But how would I handle the case where the user hits the back button and goes back to the page with all the articles. Is my approach right or should I be using React Router in my app?


Could any of this trio force their way into an Ashes Test before the series is out?
Can Los Angeles wrestle the Olympic 2024 bid away from Boston?
They may vote 'Yes' in the referendum, but will they see out the year in the Euro?
Would trading Spurs dud for Benteke be Levy's best deal ever?
Poll: How many Brits will be left standing at Wimbledon in round three?


text:
https://www.greenwichtime.com/local/article/Field-Point-Road-closed-in-central-Greenwich-14815248.php
Greenwich road re-opens after issue with Eversource equipment
By Robert Marchant and Tara O'Neill
Updated 2:37 pm EST, Thursday, November 7, 2019
UPDATE: 2:20 p.m. Field Point Road has re-opened completely
GREENWICH — A technical issue with a piece of equipment being brought to the new downtown Eversource Energy substation caused the closure of Field Point Road in both directions late Wednesday afternoon through Thursday.
The road will be closed until Thursday afternoon, the town's dispatch center reported Thursday morning.
Around 5:30 p.m. Wednesday, police urged motorists to avoid Field Point Road because the street was closed from Fairfield Avenue to the Metro-North bridge for a "disabled large tractor trailer" until Thursday morning.
But Frank Poirot, an Eversource spokesman, confirmed later Wednesday night that the problem is actually with some of the utility company's equipment as crews work to move pieces to the Greenwich substation.
"There's a technical issue with one of the pieces of equipment there," Poirot said. "It'll be parked out on that short stretch of Field Point Road as crews work through the issue."
He said the problem isn't the truck itself but rather a piece of equipment that will unload the truck.
Otherwise, he said, everything is moving along smoothly.
The project's timeline — which was figured out in advance — was expected to begin Wednesday and last through Friday. Poirot said despite Wednesday night's slight disruption, there would not be any change to the timeline.
He said when Eversource planned out to the timeline for this, the company took into account any potential mechanical issues or snags that could come up.
"We've been working closely with town officials to ensure they're kept up to date with what's going on," he said.
The utility company announced Monday that residents could see some traffic disruption as the two large pieces of equipment were delivered for the new downtown substation.
The pieces of equipment are more than 14 feet tall and weigh nearly 148,000 pounds. The equipment was delievered on trucks that are almost 140 feet long.
Once construction wraps up at the substation — located at the former site of the Pet Pantry Warehouse on Railroad Avenue — it will be connected to one in Cos Cob through 2.3 miles of transmission lines.


"The client, an elderly couple, had a 6-year-old male, neutered Rhodesian Ridgeback that was aggressive to dogs" describes Dr. Jennie Jamtgaard, an applied animal behavior consultant and behavior instructor at Colorado State University College of Veterinary Medicine. "They had watched Dog Whisperer with Cesar Millan and seen Millan place aggressive dogs in with his group of dogs and then hold them down on their sides or back if they were aggressive. So they brought their dog to the dog park and basically flooded him [immersed him in the aggression-inducing situation]."
Not surprisingly, they didn't get far. "The female owner was trying to make the dog lie down while she stood on the leash, while all the dogs came up to hover and sniff. Her dog growled, then another dog growled back, and her dog (who probably weighed the same as she did) started to lunge and she couldn't stop it. Then she was bitten while breaking up the fight that ensued. She could not have done an alpha roll if she had wanted to, though she did lament her obvious lack of being in the 'pack leader' role."
In this case, the bite was an accident. But it's not always so.
"The dog was fine with people and had never been aggressive to people before this bite. The owners were Millan-watchers, and dealt with the dog in a completely punishment-based way. They thought this was what they were supposed to do, but felt uncomfortable and frustrated. They repeatedly tried to physically subdue the dog whenever it was aggressive, a technique they had done for months. They admitted to knowing things weren't improving, but didn't have other ideas. Finally, at PetSmart, the dog growled and lunged, and when the female owner—5 months pregnant at the time—tried to force the dog down, she was bitten on the arm. The bite was tooth depth punctures. That was when they called me."
Unfortunately, these bite incidences are not surprising. According to a new veterinary study published in The Journal of Applied Animal Behavior (2009), if you're aggressive to your dog, your dog will be aggressive, too.
Says Meghan Herron, DVM, lead author of the study, "Nationwide, the number-one reason why dog owners take their dog to a veterinary behaviorist is to manage aggressive behavior. Our study demonstrated that many confrontational training methods, whether staring down dogs, striking them, or intimidating them with physical manipulation, do little to correct improper behavior and can elicit aggressive responses."
Indeed, the use of such confrontational training techniques can provoke fear in the dog and lead to defensively aggressive behavior toward the person administering the aversive action.
For the study, Herron, Frances S. Shofer and Ilana R. Reisner, veterinarians with the Department of Clinical Studies at University of Pennsylvania, School of Veterinary Medicine, produced a 30-item survey for dog owners who made behavioral service appointments at Penn Vet. In the questionnaire, dog owners were asked how they had previously treated aggressive behavior, whether there was a positive, negative or neutral effect on the dogs' behavior, and whether aggressive responses resulted from the method they used. Owners were also asked where they learned of the training technique they employed. 140 surveys were completed.
These sources attribute undesirable or aggressive behavior in dogs to the dogs striving to gain social dominance or to a lack of dominance displayed by the owner. Advocates of this theory therefore suggest owners establish an "alpha" or pack-leader role.
Herron stresses, "Studies on canine aggression in the last decade have shown that canine aggression and other behavior problems are not a result of dominant behavior or the lack of the owner's 'alpha' status, but rather a result of fear (self-defense) or underlying anxiety problems. Aversive techniques can elicit an aggressive response in dogs because they can increase the fear and arousal in the dog, especially in those that are already defensive."
Herron points out that, interestingly, not all owners reporting an aggressive response to a particular aversive technique felt that the training method had a negative effect on their dog's behavior. For instance, while 43% of owners who hit or kicked their dog reported aggression directed toward them as a result, only 35% of owners felt that the technique had a negative effect.
Herron explains that one reason owners may have difficulty making the connection is that aversive techniques may temporarily inhibit reactive or undesirable behaviors – so that it appears the behavior has improved – but it's not a long-term fix. In addition, owners may not have recognized non-aggressive fearful responses to the correction and may have felt the technique was indeed helpful in the particular context. However, increasing the dog's fear can also increase defensive aggression in the same or other situations.
What Methods Can Be Used Instead?
So what about the Australian Cattledog and Rhodesian Ridgeback we met at the beginning of this post?
Says Jamtgaard about her cases, "The Australian Cattledog improved dramatically at our consultation, being calm during situations the owners had never witnessed before, such as the neighbor dogs barking at her only a few feet away. I think seeing what just a few minutes of work could accomplish by changing approach gave them the hope that it could work.
Within 4-6 weeks they began to be able to go on normal walks with her, with dogs at normal distances. I continued following up by phone with the owners every few days at first, then weekly for the first 3 months. They felt so good that they could treat her differently (more kindly). The owner now competes with her dog in weight-pulling contests and can be in close contact with other dogs they meet during contests and on the street, whereas before, the dog was reactive from over a hundred feet."
This calm behavior has continued well beyond the first months of training. Jamtgaard states, "I saw the owner 2 years after the consult, with toddler in tow, and things were continuing to go well."
"The elderly couple with the Rhodesian Ridgeback also achieved their goals in that 6-8 week range, structured similarly to the above as far as consults," says Jamtgaard. They were able to walk their dog safely and have him remain calm when they encounter other dogs. The dog can sit while they talk to the other dog owners. They do walk him on a Gentle Leader, but that helps with the safety issue of his size relative to their weight, should a situation happen. At last communication, approximately 6 months after our initial consult, things had continued to go well."