text:
in: Pages with broken file links, Articles incorporating text from Wikipedia, Project Nike,
Nuclear anti-aircraft weapons
Cold War nuclear missiles of the United States
Cold War surface-to-air missiles of the United States
MIM-3 Nike Ajax
Nike Ajax
Nike ajax 32.jpg
A Nike Ajax in firing position.
Surface-to-air missile
US Army, allies
Bell Labs,
Douglas Aircraft
$19,300 (flyaway, 1958),
$61,000 total
2,460 lb (1.12 t) total,
1,000 lb (0.454 t) sustainer,
1,460 lb (0.7 t) booster
32 ft 8 in (9.96 m) overall,
20 ft 11 in (6.38 m) sustainer,
13 ft 2 in (4.01 m) booster
14.6 in (0.37 m) sustainer,
16.2 in (0.41 m) booster
radio command
Solid rocket booster,
liquid fuel sustainer
55,000 lbf (240 kN) booster,
2,600 lbf (12 kN) sustainer
50 in (1.3 m) sustainer,
76 in (1.9 m) booster
JP-4/UDMH and RFNA (sustainer)
30 mi (48 km)
Flight ceiling
70,000 ft (21,000 m)
Mach 2.25 (1,710 mph; 2,760 km/h) (@ 50k ft)
command guidance
fixed erector/launchers
The United States Army's Nike Ajax was the world's first operational surface-to-air missile (SAM),[1] entering service in 1954. Nike Ajax was designed to attack conventional bomber aircraft flying at high subsonic speeds and altitudes above 50,000 feet (15 km). Nike was initially deployed in the US to provide defense against Soviet bomber attacks,[2] and was later deployed overseas to protect US bases, as well as being sold to various allied forces. Some examples remained in use until the 1970s.
Technological development during the 1950s quickly rendered the MIM-3 obsolete. It was unable to defend against more capable bombers or multiple targets in formation, and had relatively short range. Even while Nike was being deployed, these concerns led to the contracts for the greatly improved MIM-14 Nike Hercules, which began deployment in 1959. As Hercules developed, the threat moved from bombers to ICBMs, and the LIM-49 Nike Zeus anti-ballistic missile project started to address these. All of the Nike projects were led by Bell Labs, due to their early work in radar guidance systems during World War II.
Originally known simply as Nike, it gained the Ajax as part of a 1956 renaming effort that resulted from the introduction of Hercules. It was initially given the identifier SAM-A-7 (Surface-to-air, Army, design 7) as part of an early tri-service identification system,[3] but later changed to MIM-3 (Mobile Interceptor Missile, design 3) in 1962.[4][N 1]
Part of the Nike Ajax development program designed a new solid fuel rocket motor used for the missile's booster. This had originally been designed for the US Navy's missiles, and was enlarged for the Nike efforts. The rocket was so useful that it found numerous applications outside the military world as the Ajax missiles were decommissioned in the 1960s. Many sounding rockets used the booster as their first or second stage, and many of those used "Nike" in their name.
1.2 Project Nike
1.3 Building the team
1.4 Testing
1.5 Accelerating development
1.6 Production
1.7 Deployment
1.8 After Ajax
1.9 Nike boosters
3 Survivors
3.1 Bases
6.2 Bibliography
The inherent inaccuracy of anti-aircraft artillery means that when shells reach their targets they are randomly distributed in space. This distribution is much larger than the lethal radius of the shells, so the chance that any one shell will successfully hit the target is very small. Successful anti-aircraft gunnery therefore requires as many rounds to be fired as possible, increasing the chances that one of the rounds will get a "hit". During The Blitz, UK gunners fired 49,044 shells in January 1941 for 12 kills, almost 4,100 shells per success.[5] German gunners against daylight raids did better, estimating that an average of 2,800 shells was required to down a single Boeing B-17.[6]
Flying faster means that the aircraft passes through the range of a gun more rapidly, reducing the number of rounds a particular gun can fire at that aircraft. Flying at higher altitudes often has a similar effect, as it requires larger shells to reach those altitudes, and this typically results in slower firing rates for a variety of practical reasons. Aircraft using jet engines roughly double the speed and altitude over piston-powered designs, limiting the number of shells so greatly that the chance of hitting the bomber dropped almost to zero. As early as 1942, German flak commanders were keenly aware of the problem, and expecting to face jet bombers, they began a missile development program to supplant their guns.[7]
The western allies maintained air superiority for much of the war and their anti-aircraft systems did not see as much pressure to improve. Nevertheless, by the mid-war period, the US Army had reached the same conclusion as their German counterparts; flak was simply no longer useful.[8] Accordingly, in February 1944 the Army Ground Forces sent the Army Service Forces (ASF) a request for information on the possibility of building a "major caliber anti-aircraft rocket torpedo". The ASF concluded that it was simply too early to tell if this was possible, and suggested concentrating on a program of general rocket development instead.[8]
The introduction of German jet-powered bombers late in 1944 led to a re-evaluation of this policy, and on 26 January 1945 the Army Chief of Ordnance issued a requirement for a new guided missile weapon system. The request was passed to Bell Labs, then a world leader in radar, radio control and automated aiming systems (see Hendrik Wade Bode).[1]
Project Nike
Main article: Project Nike
Bell accepted the challenge, and Project Nike was officially formed on 8 February 1945.[8] The Bell team was given the task of attacking bombers flying at 500 mph (800 km/h) or more,[N 2] at altitudes between 20,000 and 60,000 feet (6,100 and 18,300 m), and performing a 3G turn at 40,000 feet (12,000 m). Bell reported back on 14 May 1945 (and a formal report the next day) that such a development was indeed possible.[1] They concluded that:
A supersonic rocket missile should be vertically launched under the thrust of a solid-fuel booster which was then to be dropped; thence, self-propelled by a liquid-fuel motor, the missile should be guided to a predicted intercept point in space and detonated by remote control commands; these commands should be transmitted by radio signals determined by a ground-based computer associated with radar which would track both the target and the missile in flight.[8]
This was not the only Army missile project at the time; the US Army Air Force was involved in studies of the Ground-to-Air Pilotless Aircraft (GAPA), a slightly longer-range system based on what was essentially a drone aircraft. Bell had been invited to take part in GAPA as well, but declined as they wanted to concentrate on Nike.[8] GAPA was opened to tender, and was picked up by other companies, notably Boeing.[9] This led to a semi-formalized agreement that the Army Air Force and the Ordnance Corps would split development based on whether or not the design "depend[ed] for sustenance primarily on the lift of aerodynamic forces" like GAPA, or "primary on the momentum of the missile" like Nike.[10]
As part of the Key West Agreement, GAPA was handed to the newly formed US Air Force in 1948, when that force evolved out of the Army Air Force.[11]
Nike Ajax test firing against a B-17 Flying Fortress.
At the ranges and speeds being considered, even a supersonic rocket will take enough time to reach the target that the missile needs to lead the bomber in order to properly intercept it. Bell proposed a system using two radars, one tracking the target, and another tracking the missile. An analog computer would calculate the impact point and send guidance signals to the missile encoded in the second radar's signals,[1] and detonate the warhead on command (as opposed to a proximity fuse).[12]
The Ballistics Research Laboratory was asked to calculate the proper warhead shaping to maximize the chance of a hit. Once determined, Picatinny Arsenal would produce the warhead, and Frankford Arsenal would provide a fuse. Douglas Aircraft would provide the missile airframe and carry out aerodynamic studies, while Aerojet would supply a solid fuel rocket booster for initial launch, and Bell Aircraft would provide a liquid fuel rocket for the upper stage sustainer.[1]
The initial design used a thin upper stage with eight JATO-derived boosters that were wrapped around its tail. The resulting cluster looked quite boxy at launch time. It was expected that the 93,000 lbf (≈414 kN) of booster power would accelerate the missile to supersonic speeds of 1,750 fps (feet per second, ≈1200 mph, 533 m/s) at the end of a booster phase of 1.8 seconds, increasing almost continually to about 2,500 fps (≈1700 mph, 762 m/s) at the end of the liquid engine's firing, then decreasing to 1,150 fps (≈780 mph, 350 m/s) at 96,000 feet (≈29000 m) during the zooming period.[12]
Early in the program, it was realized that existing radar systems based on the conical scanning method did not supply the performance needed for a high-speed missile. In particular, conical scanning radars required some time to settle on an accurate track. The decision was made to use a monopulse radar system for Nike. Two systems were considered, one using phased signals, and another using signal timing known as the "amplitude null system", with the latter being selected. This study resulted in the development of tunable magnetrons for the 250 kilowatt X-band radars for tracking, and 1000 kilowatt S-band radar for target detection. Experiments demonstrated that the radar return from the missile at high altitudes was limited, and when calls for an extended altitude of 150,000 feet (≈46000 m) were added to the requirements, a transponder was added to the missile to boost the return.[12]
These changes, and many more, were summarized in a 28 January 1946 report. The project called for four rounds of test launches starting in 1946, with the aim of having a production design by 1949.[1]
The early model Nike had eight JATO bottles in a cluster, demanding large fins for stability.
The first test firing of a static round was carried out at the White Sands Proving Ground on 17 September 1946 and then returned to Douglas in California for study. The next week an unguided example was launched, and similar tests followed until 28 January 1947, ending the first test series. During one test a missile reached an altitude of 140,000 feet. A second test series followed in September and October 1947, including several improvements in the design in order to address problems with the booster. A further series in 1948, originally planned for 1946, continued to demonstrate problems.[1]
Eventually, the team was forced to give up on the clustered booster concept. Invariably small differences in thrust between the different JATO bottles would lead to significant thrust asymmetries, ones that overwhelmed the stabilizing effect of the fins in spite of them being very large. Instead, the project selected a larger booster being developed by the US Navy's Operation Bumblebee, creating a new version known as the Allegheny JATO T39 2.6DS-51,000.[12] The Navy's similar booster can be seen on the RIM-2 Terrier.
A new series of test firings started in September 1948 but were stopped until May 1949 after a number of modifications were carried out. Funding problems then delayed the program until January 1950. From late January through April another 16 missiles were fired, with much better results.[1]
Test launch of the production model Nike Ajax missile with the new booster.
Through early development, the Nike project had not been considered very important. A series of events in the late 1940s led to a re-appraisal of the situation, including the Soviet atomic test in 1949, the communist victory in China, and the Berlin Blockade. The June 1950 opening of the Korea War brought all of this to a head and new urgency was given to US defense. In October 1950, US Secretary of Defense Charles E. Wilson appointed Kaufman Keller to the newly created position of Director of Guided Weapons to speed their development.[13]
Keller examined the various ongoing projects and decided that Nike was the best developed. He recommended that development of Nike be accelerated and that an initial production run of 60 launch stations and 1,000 missiles should be completed by 31 December 1952, with continued production of 1,000 a month after that date. In January 1951, Wilson approved the plan, in spite of additional testing being required.[13] A new test series of the proposed production model was carried out starting in October, and on 27 November 1951, Nike successfully intercepted a QB-17 target drone. Twenty-two further tests followed that year. In the new year a new test series started, including a live-fire attack on a QB-17 in April 1952 that was viewed by visiting brass.[13]
The Nike Ajax assembly line.
Production was launched in August 1952. By the end of the year, three complete ground systems and 1,000 missiles had been delivered to White Sands. The complete system was set up by January 1953, and an underground launch site first fired on 5 June 1953. Crew training was carried out at Fort Bliss with the missiles fired toward White Sands. Service deliveries began that year, and eventually, a total of 350 launch systems and 13,714 missiles were produced over the production run.[1] In 1957, the National Guard started taking over the anti-aircraft role, replacing regular army units at Bliss.[1]
Further information: List of Nike missile sites
This Nike Ajax site is on full alert, with missiles ready for launch on all sixteen launch sites. This image appears to be taken from the control area (IFC) which was separated from the launch area to allow its radars to see the missiles as they launched.
Nike bases were arranged around major cities and military sites.
Deployment of the Nike I was under the direction of the Army Anti-Aircraft Command (ARAACOM). ARAACOM initially proposed a series of widespread bases surrounding cities and major military sites. However, while planning the deployment around Chicago, it became clear that Lake Michigan would force sites protecting approach from the east to be located in the city itself. Moreover, various scenarios demonstrated that having a staggered two-layer layout of the sites would offer much greater protection, which argued for some bases to be located closer to the urban centers.[1]
For range safety reasons, launch sites had to have considerable empty land around them in the event of an accidental warhead or fuel explosion. Originally this would require about 119 acres of land per site. This presented a serious problem for the planners, and especially the Corps of Engineers Real Estate Offices. As early as 1952 they had asked for a solution, which led to design architect Leon Chatelain, Jr. developing an underground configuration.[14]
As the missile batteries were now protected and accidental explosions would be contained, the safe area was dramatically reduced, and that cut the land requirement down to 40 acres.[14] This was the system tested at White Sands in 1953 and with its success, on 28 October 1953 ARAACOM directed that most deployments would use this option. The system used a basic building block with four above-ground launching stations over an underground battery with additional missiles. Missiles were raised to the surface on an elevator and then pushed, by hand, along rails to their launchers.[15] Stations normally consisted of four to six of these basic building blocks.
The first site to build their Nike I system was Fort Meade, who started receiving their missiles in December 1953, replacing their 120 mm M1 guns.[16] This site reached initial operational status in March 1954, and went on full round-the-clock combat status on 30 May. The Army considers 30 May to be the "birth date" of the Nike system. On 15 November 1956 the missile was officially renamed as the Nike Ajax, as part of DA Circular 700-22.[1]
Over the next four years, 265 batteries were constructed around the majority of major northern and coastal cities.[17] They replaced 896 radar-guided anti-aircraft guns, leaving only a handful of 75 mm Skysweeper emplacements as the only anti-aircraft artillery remaining in use by the US. All of the Skysweepers were removed from service by 1960.[18]
A Nike Ajax missile exploded accidentally at a battery in Leonardo, New Jersey on 22 May 1958, killing 6 soldiers and 4 civilians. A memorial can be found at Fort Hancock in the Sandy Hook Unit of the Gateway National Recreation Area.[19][20]
After Ajax
The Nike missile family, with the Zeus B in front of the Hercules and Ajax.
Nike site D-57/58 was used for both Ajax and Hercules until 1974, and is now in an advanced state of decay.
As early as April 1952, planners expressed concerns over the Ajax's ability to pick out targets in a packed formation. The Nike radar would see several nearby targets as a single larger one, unable to resolve the individual aircraft. The warhead's lethal range was smaller than the resolution, so it might not approach any one of the aircraft close enough to damage it. This led to suggestions about equipping the Nike with a nuclear warhead, which would be able to attack the entire formation with a single round. Bell was asked to study this in May, and they considered two options; one using the WX-9 warhead on the existing missile, which they called "Nike Ajax", while a slightly enlarged missile with the XW-7 warhead was known as "Nike Hercules". The Army selected the Hercules option, ordering it into development in December 1952.[21] At the time, the missiles were officially known as Nike I and Nike B.[3] As part of DA Circular 700-22, Nike I officially became Nike Ajax and Nike B became Nike Hercules.
The nuclear-armed Nike B was originally going to be a slightly larger Nike I, just wide enough to carry the new warhead. But during early development, the decision was made to move to a solid fuel upper stage. This required a larger fuselage and was heavier as well. In order to get the new missile into the air, the booster engine was replaced with a new design using four of the original boosters strapped together. The new missile offered interception altitudes well above 100,000 feet (30 km) and ranges on the order of 75 miles (121 km). A new long-range search radar was introduced, the HIPAR, but the original AQU radar was retained as well, now known as LOPAR.[N 3] The tracking radars were also upgraded to higher power. But with those exceptions, Hercules was operationally similar to Ajax, and designed to operate at existing Ajax sites, using their launchers and underground facilities.[1]
Conversion from Ajax to Hercules began in June 1958. Initially, the Hercules was deployed at new bases, providing coverage over existing Ajax areas. But plans had been made to convert existing Ajax sites to Hercules where possible, or close the Ajax base where it was not. As the Hercules had over double the range of the Ajax, fewer sites were needed to provide the same coverage. A total of 134 Hercules bases were commissioned, down from Ajax's 240. The last US Ajax site, outside Norfolk, Virginia, closed in November 1963.[1] Ajax remained in active service in overseas locations for some time. The Japan Self-Defense Forces operated theirs until they were replaced by the Hercules-based Nike J in the 1970s.
As the original Bell Nike team worked on Hercules, the nature of the strategic threat was changing. By the late 1950s the concern was the ICBM and little interest in the threat of bombers remained. Even before Hercules deployed, Bell was once again asked to consider the new threat. They concluded that the Nike B (Hercules) could be adapted into an anti-ballistic missile with relatively few changes to the missile. The role would require considerably greater upgrades to the radars and computers instead. These efforts gave rise to the Nike II project in 1958,[22] soon known as LIM-49 Nike Zeus.
Unlike the earlier Nike efforts, the Zeus would never reach operational status. Like the Ajax and Hercules, Zeus could only attack a single target at a time, although by deploying multiple radars it was expected that up to six missiles could be guided at once. This was fine when the threat was a few dozen enemy ICBMs, but as it became clear that the Soviets were placing almost all of their effort into ICBMs, Zeus looked increasingly unable to deal with the hundreds of targets that would result. Serious technical problems also arose, including electromagnetic pulse and similar effects that blocked radar, questions about the missile's ability to damage enemy warheads, and above all, rapidly rising costs. Development was canceled in January 1963.[23]
Nike boosters
File:Nike Ajax missile.jpg
A Nike Ajax missile at the Belgian Royal Museum of the Armed Forces and Military History in Brussels.
As Ajax missiles were removed from service, thousands of unused booster rockets were left over from the program, and more when the Hercules was removed from service years later. These proved perfect for all sorts of roles, notably as the boosters for various sounding rockets. These designs often, but not always, included "Nike" in their name. Examples include the Nike-Cajun, Nike-Apache, Nike-Smoke and many others.[24]
The TTR and MTR radars used a fresnel lens made of thin metal plates arranged in a frame. The feed horn is at the bottom of the A-shaped supports.
The ACQ radar was the primary search radar for the Ajax, and was also used for short-range duties with the Hercules as LOPAR.
This Nike Ajax site has only two launch areas, the oval-shaped areas in the middle of the image. The rectangular openings are elevators that raise the missiles from their underground storage areas, and the four launchers are the small squares on either side. To the left of the launchers is the refueling area, surrounded by a high berm in case one of the missiles exploded.
A complete Nike Ajax system consisted of several radars, computers, missiles, and their launchers. Sites were generally arranged in three major sections, the administration area, area A, the magazine and launcher area with the missiles, L, and the Integrated Fire Control area with the radar and operations center, or IFC. Most sites placed the A and IFC on one parcel of land with the L on another, but some sites used three entirely separate areas. The IFC was located between 1,000 yards and a mile from the launchers, but had to be within the line-of-site so the radars could see the missiles as they launched.[15]
The launch area normally consisted of two or three underground facilities and their aboveground launchers. Sites with four to six launchers were not unknown. A single launcher site normally held twelve missiles, eight in the service area and four in the underground ready area or on their launchers. When an alert was received, the missiles were transferred to the surface one at a time using an elevator, then pushed along rails on the surface leading to the launchers. The launchers bisected the rails, so the missiles were simply pushed over the launchers, connected to the electrical hookups, and then raised to about 85 degrees by the launchers. The missile launch area also contained a separate fueling area surrounded by a large berm, a required safety precaution given the hypergolic fuels, and a variety of service areas.[15]
Long distance surveillance was handled by the ACQ or LOPAR radar, short for "Low-Power Acquisition Radar." LOPAR included an IFF system and a system for handing off targets to the tracking radars. Two monopulse tracking radars were used, the Target Tracking Radar (TTR) to track the target handed off by the LOPAR, and the Missile Tracking Radar (MTR) to track the missile as it flew toward the target.[25]
Launch of the missile was accomplished by lighting the solid fuel booster, which provided 59,000 lbf of thrust for three seconds. The booster pushed the missile through the sound barrier, and it remained supersonic for the rest of its flight. The MTR picked up the missile as the booster fell away, and then tracked it continually after that point. Data from the TTR and MTR were sent to the analog tracking computer, which continually calculated the impact point and sent radio commands to the missile to guide it. In order to maximize range, the missile was normally flown almost vertically to a higher altitude than the target, where the thinner air lowered drag and allowed the missile to descend on its target. At the correct time, the missile's three warheads were triggered by a signal from the computer.[25] The warheads were surrounded by metal cubes providing a blast-fragmentation effect.
The Nike Ajax system could attack only one target at a time,[26] a problem it shared with its descendants. As the various Ajax missile sites were overlapped, this led to the possibility that two sites might attack one target while another flew past both. ARADCOM initially set up a coordination system not unlike the Royal Air Force's plotting room from the Battle of Britain, with commands from a central manual plotting room being sent to batteries over telephone lines. This was clearly inadequate, and in the late 1950s the Interim Battery Data Link was introduced to share data between batteries. This allowed command to be devolved to the battery commanders, who could see which targets other batteries were attacking.[1] This system was further improved with the introduction of the Missile Master system, which replaced manual plotting with a computer-run system, and then the simpler and smaller Missile Mentor and BIRDIE systems.[27][28]
The Nike batteries were organized in Defense Areas and placed around population centers and strategic locations such as long-range bomber and important military/naval bases, nuclear production facilities and (later) ICBM sites. The Nike sites in a Defense Area formed a circle around these cities and bases. There was no fixed number of Nike batteries in a Defense Area and the actual number of batteries varied from a low of 2 in the Barksdale AFB Defense Area to a high of 22 in the Chicago Defense Area. In the US the sites were numbered from 01 to 99 starting at the north and increasing clockwise. The numbers had no relation to actual compass headings, but generally Nike sites numbered 01 to 25 were to the northeast and east, those numbered 26 to 50 were to the southeast and south, those numbered 51 to 75 were to the southwest and west, and those numbered 76 to 99 were to the northwest and north. The Defense Areas were identified by a one- or two-letter code which were related to the city name. Thus those Nike sites starting with C were in the Chicago Defense Area, those starting with HM were in the Homestead AFB/Miami Defense Area, those starting with NY were in the New York Defense Area, and so forth. As an example Nike Site SF-88L refers to the launcher area (L) of the battery located in the northwestern part (88) of the San Francisco Defense Area (SF).[17]
Studies throughout the Nike project considered mobile launchers, but none were developed for the Ajax system. Missile sites were "relocatable" or "transportable", and all of the support equipment was built into trailers or otherwise provided road wheels.[29]
Nike site SF-88L missile status board.
The best preserved Nike installation is site SF88L located in the Marin Headlands just west of the Golden Gate Bridge in San Francisco, California. The site is a museum and contains the missile bunkers, and control area, as well as period uniforms and vehicles that would have operated at the site. The site has been preserved in the condition it was in at the time it was decommissioned in 1974. The site began as a Nike Ajax base and was later converted to Nike Hercules.[30]
The second best preserved Nike installation is site NY-56 at Fort Hancock in Sandy Hook, New Jersey. The site has been restored and contains the original missile bunkers, as well as three Nike Ajax and a Nike Hercules on display. The site is on the National Register of Historic Places.[31]
Nike-Ajax Missile Site N-75 in Carrollton, Virginia. The former Nike-Ajax missile base is now home to the Isle of Wight County Parks and Recreation Department. Many buildings still stand including the barracks, mess hall, administration and recreation building and officer/non-commissioned officer family housing. Visitors can also see the fueling area and concrete slabs that mark the location of the underground missile bunkers. The park, over 100 acres in size, offers different recreational activities and features softball and soccer fields, basketball, volleyball, and tennis courts, picnic areas, nature and mountain bike trails, skate park, playgrounds, senior center and a recreation hall. In addition, there are fishing opportunities in Jones Creek.[32]
MIM-14 Nike Hercules and LIM-49 Nike Zeus, Ajax's successors.
S-25 Berkut and S-75 Dvina, Soviet counterparts to the Ajax
English Electric Thunderbird and Bristol Bloodhound, UK counterparts
List of Nike missile sites
↑ Nike was initially designated SAM-G-7, and later changed to SAM-A-7. Originally the Air Force used A while the Army used G, but the Air Force abandoned the 1947 tri-service designation system in 1951 and the Army took over the A designation.
↑ Cagle says 600 mph, but many other sources put it at 500 or more.
↑ Although none of the references state the reason for keeping the AQU radar, it appears this was in order to avoid having to upgrade certain displays in the control centers.
↑ 1.00 1.01 1.02 1.03 1.04 1.05 1.06 1.07 1.08 1.09 1.10 1.11 1.12 1.13 1.14 FAS 1999.
↑ Pease, Harry S. (September 26, 1960). "Nike Ajax has altered war's character vastly". Milwaukee Journal. p. 10, part 1. https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=IGwjAAAAIBAJ&sjid=_CUEAAAAIBAJ&pg=7091%2C3361947.
↑ 3.0 3.1 Cagle 1959, VI.
↑ Western Electric SAM-A-7/M1/MIM-3 Nike Ajax
↑ Ian White, "The History of Air Intercept Radar & the British Nightfighter", Pen & Sword, 2007, p. 75.
↑ Westerman 2001, p. 197.
↑ Westerman 2001, p. 11.
↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 Cagle 1959, I.
↑ Leonard 2011, p. 104.
↑ Walker, Bernstein & Lang 2003, p. 39.
↑ "GAPA (Ground-to-Air Pilotless Aircraft)", Boeing
↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 12.3 Cagle 1959, III.
↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 Lonnquest & Winkler 1996, p. 56.
↑ 14.0 14.1 Cagle 1959, VII.
↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 Morgan & Berhow 2002, p. 9.
↑ Merle Cole, "Nike Missiles: Army Air Defense Installations In Anne Arundel County: 1950–1973" Archived 22 February 2013 at the Wayback Machine., Fort George G. Meade Museum
↑ 17.0 17.1 Lonnquest & Winkler 1996, pp. 570–572.
↑ Stephen Moeller, "Vigilant and Invincible", ADA Magazine, May/June 1995, Chapter 3, Modernization
↑ "Nike Battery NY-53 Middletown, NJ"
↑ "Nike Ajax Explosion – Sandy Hook, NJ"
↑ Lonnquest & Winkler 1996, p. 57.
↑ Donald Baucom, "The Origins of SDI, 1944–1983", University Press of Kansas, 1992, p. 19.
↑ Mustafa, Tariq (30 March 2012). "SUPARCO – The formative years (1961–1967)". The Friday Times. http://www.thefridaytimes.com/beta2/tft/article.php?issue=20120330&page=22. Retrieved 30 March 2017.
↑ 25.0 25.1 Morgan & Berhow 2002, p. 10.
↑ Morgan & Berhow 2002, p. 17.
↑ Considerable detail on the battlefield control systems are available in "Air Defense Artillery Control Systems", US Army Air Defense Digest, 1966, pp. 34–41.
↑ Ed Thelen, "Nike was 'mobile'?", Ed Thelen's Nike Missile Web Site.
↑ Nike Missile Site, SF88L
↑ Site NY-56 Sandy Hook, New Jersey, Nike Historical Society
↑ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 25 March 2015. https://web.archive.org/web/20150325185544/http://www.visitsmithfieldisleofwight.com/NikeSite.php. Retrieved 7 January 2015.
Cagle, Mary (30 June 1959). Nike Ajax Historical Monograph. U.S. Army Ordnance Missile Command. http://ed-thelen.org/mono-1-2.html#table.
Federation of American Scientists (20 June 1999). "Nike Ajax (SAM-A-7) (MIM-3, 3A)". http://www.fas.org/nuke/guide/usa/airdef/nike-ajax.htm.
Leonard, Barry (2011). History of Strategic and Ballistic Missile Defense: Volume II: 1956–1972. DIANE Publishing.
Lonnquest, John; Winkler, David (November 1996). To Defend and Deter: The Legacy of the United States Cold War Missile Program. http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf&AD=ADA337549.
Morgan, Mark; Berhow, Mark (1 June 2002). Rings of Supersonic Steel: Air Defenses of the Uniter States Army 1950–1979. Hole In The Head Press. ISBN 9780615120126. https://books.google.com/books?id=vagljMKPYrkC.
Westerman, Edward (2001). Flak: German Anti-Aircraft Defenses, 1914–1945. University Press of Kansas. ISBN 0700614206. http://www.nazi.org.uk/military%20pdfs5/Flak%20German%20AntiAircraft%20Defenses%20-%201914-1945%20.pdf.
Walker, James; Bernstein, Lewis; Lang, Sharon (2010). Seize the High Ground: The U. S. Army in Space and Missile Defense. Washington, D.C.: Center of Military History. ISBN 9780813128092. Archived from the original on 17 February 2013. https://web.archive.org/web/20130217012808/http://www.smdc.army.mil/2008/Historical/Book/Chap2.pdf. Retrieved 13 May 2013.
"Nike: the U.S. Army's Guided Missile System", Western Electric
The Continental Air Defense Collection at the United States Army Center of Military History
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Category:MIM-3 Nike-Ajax.
Nike Historical Society
http://designation-systems.net/dusrm/m-3.html
Nike Hercules in Alaska
Nike Ajax Explosion Marker: Gateway National Recreation Area
The short film Big Picture: Pictorial Report Number 20 is available for free download at the Internet Archive [more]
Nike Ajax the first surface-to-air missile
United States Army missile designations 1948–1963
1948-1951 system
RTV-G-1
CTV-G-5
SAM-G-7
SSM-G-8
RTV-G-10
SSM-G-12
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text:
Q: Why doesn't anything in my if-else work? Below is my code and I believe my problem lies in my getGeoLoc() method. The purpose of this method is to get geo location info from an api by entering an IP, and then use that info, specifically the latitude and longitude values to get a map image to display in the GUI along with the city and region values.
My problem is that I found that nothing happens in my if and else if statement where I test if the api was a success of failure and act accordingly. I do so by testing the strings. The first line the api returns is "success" or "fail" which I store in an array (lines[0]) and then into a variable (geoTester).
When I print this value out before the if/if else, I get a value, when I print it inside the if/ if else I get nothing. Why is this?
I suspect it may have something to do with the way I have my variables or perhaps some sort of logical error in my if/ if else.
Apology: I did not realize my problem rested within my comparison statements, I overlooked it. Sorry for the duplicate question
ThreatPanel.java:
public class ThreatPanel {

JPanel DarkPanel = new JPanel(); //panel to house all display components using GridBagLayout

public GridBagLayout gridBag = new GridBagLayout();
public GridBagConstraints gbc = new GridBagConstraints();

//Parameters for determining the threat level
final int TEST = 0;
final int TEST2 = 10;
final int TEST3 = 20;

//Variables used for finding the geo location and displaying the google map image
private String geoTester;
private String city;
private String region;
private String latitude;
private String longitude;
private Image img;
private ImageIcon icon;
URL geoLocRetriever;

Color severeColor = new Color(225,69,00); // a more distinguishable 'orange'
Color borderColor = new Color(235,235,235); // color used for each components border

//Target declarations.
JLabel Target = new JLabel("TARGET");
JLabel TargetServerData;

//Client declaration
JLabel ClientIdData = new JLabel("filler"); //filler

//ServerID declarations
JLabel ServerIdData;

//Attacker declarations.
JLabel Attacker = new JLabel("ATTACKER");
JLabel AttackerData;

//Geo Location declarations
JLabel GeoLocData;
JLabel GeoLocImg;
JLabel GeoLocLabel = new JLabel("LOCATION");

//Threat Level declarations.
JLabel ThreatLevel = new JLabel("THREAT");
JLabel ThreatLevelData;

//Number of Attacks declarations
JLabel NumberOfAttacks = new JLabel("ATTACKS");
JLabel NumberOfAttacksData;

//DUMMY
JLabel dummy1 = new JLabel();
JLabel dummy2 = new JLabel();

public ThreatPanel()
{
DarkPanel.setLayout(gridBag);
DarkPanel.setBackground(Color.BLACK);

//Create new JLabels for the data that is to be continuously updated
TargetServerData = new JLabel();
AttackerData = new JLabel();
ThreatLevelData = new JLabel();
NumberOfAttacksData = new JLabel();
ServerIdData = new JLabel();
GeoLocData = new JLabel();
GeoLocImg = new JLabel();

// Component settings. After each add(), GridBagConstraint (gbc) returns to default.
// gridx and gridy refer to the cells position, similar to Excel or HTML tables.
// weightx and weighty determines how to distribute space among columns and rows.
// gridheight and gridwidth define how many cells a component occupies.
// fill determines how the component will fill the display area.

//FIRST COLUMN//////////////

Target.setFont(new Font("Arial", Font.BOLD, 85));
Target.setForeground(Color.GREEN);
Target.setHorizontalAlignment(SwingConstants.CENTER);
gbc.gridx = 0;
gbc.gridy = 0;
gbc.weightx = 1;
Target.setBorder(BorderFactory.createMatteBorder(3, 3, 2, 2, borderColor));
gbc.fill = GridBagConstraints.BOTH;
DarkPanel.add(Target, gbc);

ClientIdData.setForeground(Color.WHITE);
ClientIdData.setFont(new Font("Arial", Font.BOLD, 100));
ClientIdData.setHorizontalAlignment(SwingConstants.CENTER);
gbc.gridx = 0;
gbc.gridy = 1;
ClientIdData.setBorder(BorderFactory.createMatteBorder(0, 3, 0, 2, borderColor));
gbc.fill = GridBagConstraints.BOTH;
DarkPanel.add(ClientIdData, gbc);

TargetServerData.setForeground(Color.WHITE);
TargetServerData.setFont(new Font("Arial", Font.BOLD, 110));
TargetServerData.setHorizontalAlignment(SwingConstants.CENTER);
gbc.gridx = 0;
gbc.gridy = 2;
TargetServerData.setBorder(BorderFactory.createMatteBorder(0, 3, 0, 2, borderColor));
gbc.fill = GridBagConstraints.BOTH;
DarkPanel.add(TargetServerData, gbc);

ServerIdData.setForeground(Color.WHITE);
ServerIdData.setFont(new Font("Arial", Font.BOLD, 100));
ServerIdData.setHorizontalAlignment(SwingConstants.CENTER);
gbc.gridx = 0;
gbc.gridy = 3;
ServerIdData.setBorder(BorderFactory.createMatteBorder(0, 3, 0, 2, borderColor));
gbc.fill = GridBagConstraints.BOTH;
DarkPanel.add(ServerIdData, gbc);

Attacker.setFont(new Font("Arial", Font.BOLD, 85));
Attacker.setForeground(Color.GREEN);
Attacker.setHorizontalAlignment(SwingConstants.CENTER);
gbc.gridx = 0;
gbc.gridy = 4;
Attacker.setBorder(BorderFactory.createMatteBorder(2, 3, 2, 2, borderColor));
gbc.fill = GridBagConstraints.BOTH;
DarkPanel.add(Attacker, gbc);

AttackerData.setForeground(Color.RED);
AttackerData.setFont(new Font("Arial", Font.BOLD, 110));
AttackerData.setHorizontalAlignment(SwingConstants.CENTER);
gbc.gridx = 0;
gbc.gridy = 5;
AttackerData.setBorder(BorderFactory.createMatteBorder(0, 3, 0, 2, borderColor));
gbc.fill = GridBagConstraints.BOTH;
DarkPanel.add(AttackerData, gbc);

GeoLocData.setFont(new Font("Arial", Font.BOLD, 70));
GeoLocData.setForeground(Color.RED);
GeoLocData.setHorizontalAlignment(SwingConstants.CENTER);
gbc.gridx = 0;
gbc.gridy = 6;
GeoLocData.setBorder(BorderFactory.createMatteBorder(0, 3, 3, 2, borderColor));
gbc.fill = GridBagConstraints.BOTH;
DarkPanel.add(GeoLocData, gbc);

//SECOND COLUMN/////////////////

ThreatLevel.setFont(new Font("Arial", Font.BOLD, 85));
ThreatLevel.setForeground(Color.GREEN);
ThreatLevel.setHorizontalAlignment(SwingConstants.CENTER);
gbc.gridx = 1;
gbc.gridy = 0;
gbc.weightx = 0.0;
ThreatLevel.setBorder(BorderFactory.createMatteBorder(3, 0, 2, 3, borderColor));
gbc.fill = GridBagConstraints.BOTH;
DarkPanel.add(ThreatLevel, gbc);

ThreatLevelData.setFont(new Font("Arial", Font.BOLD, 100));
ThreatLevelData.setForeground(Color.BLACK);
ThreatLevelData.setOpaque(true);
ThreatLevelData.setHorizontalAlignment(SwingConstants.CENTER);
gbc.gridx = 1;
gbc.gridy = 1;
ThreatLevelData.setBorder(BorderFactory.createMatteBorder(0, 0, 2, 3, borderColor));
gbc.fill = GridBagConstraints.BOTH;
DarkPanel.add(ThreatLevelData, gbc);

NumberOfAttacks.setFont(new Font("Arial", Font.BOLD, 85));
NumberOfAttacks.setForeground(Color.GREEN);
NumberOfAttacks.setHorizontalAlignment(SwingConstants.CENTER);
gbc.gridx = 1;
gbc.gridy = 2;
NumberOfAttacks.setBorder(BorderFactory.createMatteBorder(0, 0, 2, 3, borderColor));
gbc.fill = GridBagConstraints.BOTH;
DarkPanel.add(NumberOfAttacks, gbc);

NumberOfAttacksData.setFont(new Font("Arial", Font.BOLD, 100));
NumberOfAttacksData.setForeground(Color.RED);
NumberOfAttacksData.setHorizontalAlignment(SwingConstants.CENTER);
gbc.gridx = 1;
gbc.gridy = 3;
NumberOfAttacksData.setBorder(BorderFactory.createMatteBorder(0, 0, 0, 3, borderColor));
gbc.fill = GridBagConstraints.BOTH;
DarkPanel.add(NumberOfAttacksData, gbc);

GeoLocLabel.setFont(new Font("Arial", Font.BOLD, 85));
GeoLocLabel.setForeground(Color.GREEN);
GeoLocLabel.setHorizontalAlignment(SwingConstants.CENTER);
gbc.gridx = 1;
gbc.gridy = 4;
GeoLocLabel.setBorder(BorderFactory.createMatteBorder(2, 0, 2, 3, borderColor));
gbc.fill = GridBagConstraints.BOTH;
DarkPanel.add(GeoLocLabel, gbc);

GeoLocImg.setHorizontalAlignment(SwingConstants.CENTER);
gbc.gridheight = 2;
gbc.gridx = 1;
gbc.gridy = 5;
GeoLocImg.setBorder(BorderFactory.createMatteBorder(0, 0, 3, 3, borderColor));
gbc.fill = GridBagConstraints.BOTH;
DarkPanel.add(GeoLocImg, gbc);

//DUMMY ROW AND COLUMN used in order to preset fixed size for map component
dummy1.setHorizontalAlignment(SwingConstants.CENTER);
gbc.gridheight = 2;
gbc.gridx = 2;
gbc.gridy = 5;
gbc.insets = new Insets(302,0,0,0); //extra 2 pixels to account for border
dummy1.setBorder(BorderFactory.createMatteBorder(0, 0, 0, 0, borderColor));
gbc.fill = GridBagConstraints.BOTH;
DarkPanel.add(dummy1, gbc);

dummy2.setHorizontalAlignment(SwingConstants.CENTER);
gbc.gridx = 1;
gbc.gridy = 7;
gbc.insets = new Insets(0,503,0,0); //extra 3 pixels to account for border
dummy2.setBorder(BorderFactory.createMatteBorder(0, 0, 0, 0, borderColor));
gbc.fill = GridBagConstraints.BOTH;
DarkPanel.add(dummy2, gbc);

MainDisplay.frame.add(DarkPanel);

}

public void getGeoLoc()
{
String locHolder;
try {
    //System.out.print(MainDisplay.getAttackerIpHolder());
    geoLocRetriever = new URL("http://ip-api.com/line/"+ MainDisplay.getAttackerIpHolder());
} catch (MalformedURLException e) {
    e.printStackTrace();
}

InputStream stream = null;
try {
    stream = geoLocRetriever.openStream(); //read from url
} catch (IOException e1) {
    e1.printStackTrace();
}
ByteArrayOutputStream buffer = new ByteArrayOutputStream();
if (stream != null) try {
    final BufferedInputStream input = new BufferedInputStream(stream);
    final byte[] reader = new byte[16384];
    int r = 0;
    while ((r = input.read(reader, 0, 16384)) != -1)
        buffer.write(reader, 0, r);
    buffer.flush();
} catch(IOException e) {
    e.printStackTrace();
} finally {
    if(stream != null) try {
        stream.close();
    } catch(IOException e) {
        e.printStackTrace();
    }
}

locHolder = new String(buffer.toByteArray());
String[] lines = locHolder.split("\n"); //arranges data from stream into an array
System.out.print(lines[0]);
geoTester = lines[0];
if (geoTester == "success"){ //test the first returned line for success or failure to avoid null outputs in the panel

    System.out.print(geoTester);
    city = lines[5] + ",";
    region = lines[4];
    latitude = lines[7];
    longitude = lines[8];
    //System.out.print(city);
    System.out.print(lines[5]);
    String temp;
    temp="https://maps.googleapis.com/maps/api/staticmap?center=" +latitude +"," +longitude +"&zoom=7&size=500x300&markers=color:red|label:A|" +latitude +"," +longitude +"&sensor=false";
    URL mapurl = null;
    try {
        mapurl = new URL(temp);
    } catch (MalformedURLException e) {
        e.printStackTrace();
    }
    try {
        img = ImageIO.read(mapurl);
    } catch (IOException e) {
        e.printStackTrace();
    }
    icon = new ImageIcon(img);  //ImageIcon with the google map image
}
else if (geoTester == "fail"){ // if fail, the jlabel for the map will become error image
    try {
        img = ImageIO.read(new URL ("file:src/jollyroger.jpg"));
    } catch (MalformedURLException e) {
        e.printStackTrace();
    } catch (IOException e) {
        e.printStackTrace();
    }
    icon = new ImageIcon(img);
    city = "To "; //to be used for error feedback
    region = "Search"; //to be used for error feedback
}

}

public void ShowThreats(){

getGeoLoc();
String geoLocEnd = city + region;
GeoLocData.setText(geoLocEnd);
GeoLocImg.setIcon(icon);

String targetEnd = MainDisplay.getTargetIpHolder();
    if (targetEnd == null){
        TargetServerData.setText("NULL VALUE");
    }
    else TargetServerData.setText(targetEnd);

String attackerEnd = MainDisplay.getAttackerIpHolder();
    if(attackerEnd == null){
        AttackerData.setText("No IP Stored");
    }
    else AttackerData.setText(attackerEnd);

String serverIdEnd = MainDisplay.getServerIdHolder();
    ServerIdData.setText(serverIdEnd);

String numAttacksEnd = MainDisplay.getNumAttacksHolder();
    if(numAttacksEnd == null){
        NumberOfAttacksData.setText("N/A");
    }
    else NumberOfAttacksData.setText(numAttacksEnd);

    int threatLevelEnd = MainDisplay.getThreatLevelHolder();
    if ((threatLevelEnd > TEST ) && (threatLevelEnd < TEST2)){
        ThreatLevelData.setText("WARNING");
        ThreatLevelData.setForeground(Color.YELLOW);
    }
    else if ((threatLevelEnd > TEST2 ) && (threatLevelEnd < TEST3)){
        ThreatLevelData.setText("SEVERE");
        ThreatLevelData.setBackground(severeColor);
    }
    else if (threatLevelEnd > TEST3){
        ThreatLevelData.setText("CRITICAL");
        ThreatLevelData.setBackground(Color.RED);
    }
    else{
        ThreatLevelData.setText("N/A");
        ThreatLevelData.setBackground(Color.PINK);
    }

}

}

A: You can't use "==" to compare strings in Java.
// Wrong
geoTester = lines[0];
if (geoTester == "success"){ //test the first returned line for success or failure to avoid null outputs in the panel

// Correct
if (geoTester.compareTo("success") == 0)

You can also use "String.equals()" or "String.equalsIgnoreCase()":
http://docs.oracle.com/javase/6/docs/api/java/lang/String.html

A: == compares the exact values. So it compares if the primitive values are the same,
.equals() calls the comparison method of objects, which will compare the actual objects pointed by the references. In the case of Strings, it compares each character to see if they're equal.
So compare like
if (geoTester.equals("success")){

}

Prefer to read :Java Strings: compareTo() vs. equals()

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaStackExchange


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text:
Oleh Leonidovych "Oleg" Shafarenko (; born October 31, 1981) is a Ukrainian former ice hockey player. He last played for HC Donbass of the Ukrainian Hockey Championship.

Career highlights
2008–2009 World Championship (Div. 1B) Silver Medal
2009–2010 World Championship (Div. 1A) Silver Medal
2010–2011 Continental Cup Champion; World Championship (Div. 1B) Silver Medal

Transactions

References

External links

1981 births
Living people
Sportspeople from Kyiv
HC Shakhtyor Soligorsk players
Sokil Kyiv players
Ukrainian ice hockey forwards
HC Dinamo Minsk players
HC Donbass players
HK Mogilev players
Yunost Minsk players
Ukraine men's national ice hockey team coaches

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


text:
Julin ist der Familienname folgender Personen:

 Anatoli Iwanowitsch Julin (1929–2002), sowjetischer Leichtathlet
 Andrea Julin (* 1994), finnische Skilangläuferin
 Christian Julin-Fabricius (1802–1875), deutsch-dänischer Dichter, Pädagoge, Übersetzer und Jugendbuchautor
 Harald Julin (1890–1967), schwedischer Schwimmer und Wasserballspieler
 Jessica Julin (* 1978), finnische Fußballspielerin
 Magda Julin (1894–1990), schwedische Eiskunstläuferin

Siehe auch:
 Yulin


text:
Review Timeline | CrossMark Policy | ClinMed Features
International Journal of
Immunology and Immunotherapy ISSN: 2378-3672
EARLY ONLINE
Here's what COVID-19 does to Your Body
- Infection
- Immune response
- Severe symptoms
Coronavirus Phases
- Phase 1: Cell invasion and viral replication in the nose
- Phase 2: Replication in the lung and Immune system alerted
- Phase 3: Pneumonia
- Phase 4: Acute respiratory distress syndrome, the cytokine storm, and Multiple organ failure
Adaptive Immune Responses
- Immune response of T cells
- Humoral immune responses
- Figure 1
Singh N, Suthar B, Mehta A, Nema N, Pandey A (2020) Corona Virus: An Immunological Perspective Review. Int J Immunol Immunother 7:050. doi.org/10.23937/2378-3672/1410050
Review Article | OPEN ACCESS DOI: 10.23937/2378-3672/1410050
Corona Virus: An Immunological Perspective Review
Nimesh Singh1*, Bharat Suthar1, Abhay Mehta1, Neeti Nema2 and Archna Pandey3
1Flax Laboratories, B-29/1, Mahad MIDC, Taluka- Mahad, Distt. - Raigad, M.H., India
2Department of Chemistry, SCMIPS, Indore, M.P, India
3Department of Chemistry, Dr. H.S. Gour University, Sagar, M.P. India
As the world is seeing the plague of COVID-19, an illness brought about by a novel coronavirus, SARS-CoV-2, developing hereditary qualities and clinical confirmations recommend a comparative way to those of SARS and MERS. A course of viral particles enters the body through the nose, eyes or mouth. Breathing conveys a portion of these particles to the lower respiratory tract where the spike proteins of the coronavirus, acting like a key, lock into epithelial cells that line the respiratory tract just as those in the air sacs in the lungs. SARS-CoV-2 can remain undetected longer than numerous influenza or coronaviruses and its spike proteins can pick up passage by opening the ACE2 protein on the lung cells. People might be tainted by and experience the ill effects of various distinctive infections, and in many occasions the disease is settled with or without tissue harm. Reinfection is normally subclinical, and for some infections we have compelling immunizations; exemplary models incorporate measles, mumps, rubella, rotavirus and varicella zoster infections. Different infections, for example, HIV, hepatitis C infection (HCV), hepatitis B infection (HBV) and some herpesviruses, can cause significant tissue harm in a few or all people they contaminate, and sores can get incessant. These infections as a rule have at least one properties that permit them to decrease the viability of host versatile or natural resistance, and we need powerful immunizations against the vast majority of these specialists. Contamination with infections, for example, flu infection and respiratory syncytial infection (RSV) has a variable result. Most people may endure mellow or subclinical contamination, yet others experience serious ailment that can be deadly. Numerous infections taint people and most are controlled agreeably by the resistant framework with restricted harm to have tissues. Some infections, in any case, harm the host, either in segregated cases or as a response that ordinarily happens after disease. The result is affected by properties of the tainting infection, the conditions of contamination and a few variables constrained by the host. A coronavirus is a sort of basic infection that causes a disease in your nose, sinuses, or upper throat. Most coronaviruses aren't perilous. COVID-19 is an illness that can cause what specialists call a respiratory tract disease. It can influence your upper respiratory tract (sinuses, nose, and throat) or lower respiratory tract (windpipe and lungs). It's brought about by a coronavirus named SARS-CoV-2.
Corona virus, COVID-19, Immune response, Infection
Coronaviruses are a group of related RNA viruses that cause diseases in mammals and birds. In humans, these viruses cause respiratory tract infections that can range from mild to lethal. Mild illnesses include some cases of the common cold (which is caused also by certain other viruses, predominantly rhinoviruses), while more lethal varieties can cause SARS, MERS, and COVID-19. Symptoms in other species vary: In chickens, they cause an upper respiratory tract disease, while in cows and pigs they cause diarrhea. There are as yet no vaccines or antiviral drugs to prevent or treat human coronavirus infections [1-4].
Coronaviruses constitute the subfamily Orthocoronavirinae, in the family Coronaviridae, order Nidovirales, and realm Riboviria [5,6]. They are enveloped viruses with a positive-sense single-stranded RNA genome and a nucleocapsid of helical symmetry. The genome size of coronaviruses ranges from approximately 26 to 32 kilobases, one of the largest among RNA viruses [7]. They have characteristic club-shaped spikes that project from their surface, which in electron micrographs create an image reminiscent of the solar corona, from which their name derives [8] (Figure 1 and Figure 2).
Figure 1: Transmission electron micrograph (TEM) of avian infectious bronchitis virus. View Figure 1
Figure 2: Illustration of the morphology of coronaviruses; the club-shaped viral spike peplomers, colored red, create the look of a corona surrounding the virion when observed with an electron microscope. View Figure 2
Coronaviruses were first discovered in the 1930s when an acute respiratory infection of domesticated chickens was shown to be caused by infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) [9]. Arthur Schalk and M.C. Hawn described in 1931 a new respiratory infection of chickens in North Dakota. The infection of new-born chicks was characterized by gasping and listlessness. The mortality rate of the chicks was 40-90% [10]. Fred Beaudette and Charles Hudson six years later successfully isolated and cultivated the infectious bronchitis virus which caused the disease [11]. In the 1940s, two more animal coronaviruses, mouse hepatitis virus (MHV) and transmissible gastroenteritis virus (TGEV), were isolated [12]. It was not realized at the time that these three different viruses were related [13].
Human coronaviruses were discovered in the 1960s [14,15]. They were isolated using two different methods in the United Kingdom and the United States [16]. E.C. Kendall, Malcom Byone, and David Tyrrell working at the Common Cold Unit of the British Medical Research Council in 1960 isolated from a boy a novel common cold virus B814 [17-19]. The virus was not able to be cultivated using standard techniques which had successfully cultivated rhinoviruses, adenoviruses and other known common cold viruses. In 1965, Tyrrell and Byone successfully cultivated the novel virus by serially passing it through organ culture of human embryonic trachea [20]. The new cultivating method was introduced to the lab by Bertil Hoorn [21]. The isolated virus when intranasally inoculated into volunteers caused a cold and was inactivated by ether which indicated it had a lipid envelope [17,22]. Around the same time, Dorothy Hamre and John Procknow at the University of Chicago isolated a novel cold virus 229E from medical students, which they grew in kidney tissue culture. The novel virus 229E, like the virus strain B814, when inoculated into volunteers caused a cold and was inactivated by ether [23].
By now, researchers and health experts have gained a better understanding of the range of symptoms caused by COVID-19, which include fever, a dry cough, and of course, the dangerous inflammation of the respiratory system. Most of us know that COVID-19 can be much more severe than a typical flu, but lesser known are the mechanics behind how the virus causes pneumonia in its victims. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), most people who contract COVID-19 only experience mild flu-like symptoms. Occasionally though, the infection can cascade into a severe case of pneumonia that can be lethal, especially for older people and those with underlying medical conditions (Figure 3) [24].
Figure 3: Occasionally, the infection can cascade into a severe case of pneumonia that can be lethal [24]. View Figure 3
The virus, officially named SARS-CoV-2, enters the body - generally through the mouth or nose. From there, the virus makes its way down into the air sacs inside your lungs, known as alveoli.
Once in the alveoli, the virus uses its distinctive spike proteins to "hijack" cells. The primary genetic programming of any virus is to make copies of itself, and COVID-19 is no exception. Once the virus' RNA has entered a cell, new copies are made and the cell is killed in the process, releasing new viruses to infect neighboring cells in the alveolus.
Immune response
The process of hijacking cells to reproduce causes inflammation in the lungs, which triggers an immune response. As this process unfolds, fluid begins to accumulate in the alveoli, causing a dry cough and making breathing difficult. For 80-85% of people infected by COVID-19, these symptoms will run their course much as they would with a case of the flu.
Severe symptoms
In 15-20% cases, the immune system's response to inflammation in the lungs can cause what's known as a "cytokine storm". This runaway response can cause more damage to the body's own cells than to the virus it's trying to defeat, and is thought to be the main reason for why the conditions of young, otherwise healthy individuals can rapidly deteriorate.
If enough alveoli collapse, acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) can occur, requiring a patient to be placed on a ventilator for breathing assistance (Figure 4).
Figure 4: In 15-20% cases the immune system's response can cause a 'cytokine storm' [24]. View Figure 4
At this stage, the surfactant that helps keep alveoli from collapsing has been diluted, and fluid containing cellular debris is impairing the gas exchange process that supplies oxygen to our bloodstream.
In the most severe cases, systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS) occurs as the protein-rich fluid from the lungs enters the bloodstream, resulting in septic shock and multi-organ failure. This is often the cause of death for people who have succumbed to a COVID-19 infection.
However, in reality, the physiological processes underlying these phases overlap. People with COVID-19 may or may not show features of earlier or later phases [25].
Phase 1: Cell invasion and viral replication in the nose
Both SARS-CoV-2 and SARS-CoV gain entry via a receptor called ACE2. More commonly known for their role in controlling blood pressure and electrolytes, these receptors are also present in the lungs, back of the throat, gut, heart muscle, and kidneys. In 2004, researchers from the University Medical Center Groningen in the Netherlands reported that ACE2 receptor cells were not present on the surface layer of cells in the nose and were, therefore, not an important site for SARS-CoV viral replication. In SARS, there are hardly any upper respiratory tract symptoms, and viral units are rarely present outside the lungs. This fact initially took the focus away from continuing to look for ACE2 receptors in the nose.
Recently, an international team of researchers has found the ACE2 receptors on goblet (secretory) cells in and on ciliated (hairy) cells in the nose. More recently, scientists have found ACE2 receptors in the mouth and tongue, potentially indicating a hand-to-mouth route of transmission. Researchers also found a plentiful supply of a protease called TMPRSS2, which chemically splits off the top of the coronavirus spike to allow the SARS-CoV-2 RNA to enter into the nasal cells. Once inside the cell, the virus's genetic material directs the cell to manufacture millions of new copies of itself.
As a result, SARS-CoV-2 can bind 10 times more tightly to insert its RNA into the cell, starting to explain why COVID-19 spreads so rapidly [25,26] (Figure 5).
Figure 5: Transmission electron micrograph of nasal epithelium before and after coronavirus inoculation. a) Transmission electron micrograph day 0. This shows normal tissue with an intact well-ciliated surface and minimal disruption; b) Transmission electron micrograph day 3. This shows abnormal tissue with severely disrupted cell surface. Marked loss of cilia is seen. Internal scale bars = 2.9 µm [26]. View Figure 5
Phase 2: Replication in the lung and Immune system alerted
The viral load study in Germany showed that active viral replication occurs in the upper respiratory tract. Seven out of nine participants listed a cough among their initial symptoms. In contrast to the falling numbers of viral units in the upper respiratory tract, numbers in sputum rose for most of the participants. In two individuals with some signs of lung infection, the virus in sputum peaked at day 10-11. It was present in the sputum up to day 28 in one person. Across all participants, there was an average of 7 million units in 1 milliliter (about 35 million units in a teaspoon). This amount is about 1,000 times more than that in people with SARS. In the lung, the ACE2 receptor sits on top of lung cells called pneumocytes. These have an important role in producing surfactant - a compound that coats the air sacs (alveoli), thus helping maintain enough surface tension to keep the sacs open for the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide. As soon as the body recognizes a foreign protein, it mounts the first response. One part of the body's immune response - the lymphocytes - begin to produce the first defense IgM-type antibodies and then the longer term specific neutralizing antibodies (the IgG type) [25].
Phase 3: Pneumonia
Approximately 13.8% of people with COVID-19 will have severe disease and will require hospitalization as they become short of breath. Of these individuals, 75% will have evidence of bilateral pneumonia. Pneumonia in COVID-19 occurs when parts of the lung consolidate and collapse. Reduced surfactant in the alveoli from the viral destruction of pneumocytes makes it difficult for the lungs to keep the alveoli open.
As part of the immune response, white blood cells, such as neutrophils and macrophages, rush into the alveoli. Meanwhile, blood vessels around the air sacs become leaky in response to inflammatory chemicals that the white blood cells release. This fluid puts pressure on the alveoli from outside and, in combination with the lack of surfactant, causes them to collapse. As a result, breathing becomes difficult, and the surface area in the lung where oxygen transfer usually takes place becomes reduced, leading to breathlessness [25].
Phase 4: Acute respiratory distress syndrome, the cytokine storm, and Multiple organ failure
The most common time for the onset of critical disease is 10 days, and it can come on suddenly in a small proportion of people with mild or moderate disease. In severe acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), the inflammation stage gives way to the fibrosis stage. Fibrin clots form in the alveoli and fibrin-platelet microthrombi (small blood clots) pepper the small blood vessels in the lung that are responsible for gas exchange with the alveoli. There is hope that drugs already licensed for anticlotting action in strokes could be helpful at this stage. Cytokines are chemical mediators that white blood cells such as macrophages release, and they can engulf infected cells. These cytokines - which have names such as IL1, IL6, and TNFα - have actions that include dilating the vessel walls and making them more permeable. In extreme circumstances, this can lead to a collapse of the cardiovascular system [25].
Immune response of T cells
MERS-CoV and SARS-CoV are β-coronaviruses that can cause deadly lower respiratory tract contaminations and extrapulmonary manifestations [27-29]. T cells, CD4+ T cells, and CD8+ T cells especially assume a critical antiviral job by adjusting the battle against pathogens and the danger of creating autoimmunity or overpowering inflammation [30]. CD4+ T cells advance the creation of virus-specific antibodies by actuating T-dependent B cells. Be that as it may, CD8+ T cells are cytotoxic and can murder viral tainted cells. CD8+ T cells represent about 80% of all-out infiltrative fiery cells in the pneumonic interstitium in SARS-CoV-infected patients and assume an essential job in clearing CoVs in tainted cells and prompting safe injury [31]. What's more, by contrasting T-cell-deficient BALB/c mice (transduced by ad5-hdp4) with controls and B‐cell‐deficient mice, a few specialists verified that T cells could get by in the contaminated lungs and devastate the tainted cells [32]. It underlines the significant job of T cells as opposed to B cells in the control of the pathogenesis of MERS-CoV disease. A cross-reactive T cell reaction prompts a diminishing in MERS‐CoV [33]. However, CD4+ T cells are increasingly defenseless to MERS-CoV contamination. The consumption of CD8+ T cells doesn't influence and postpone viral replication at the hour of contamination with SARS-CoV [34,35]. Depletion of CD4+ T cells is related to a diminished aspiratory enrollment of lymphocytes and killing immunizer and cytokine creation, bringing about a solid immune‐mediated interstitial pneumonitis and deferred freedom of SARS-CoV from lungs [36]. Additionally, T aide cells produce proinflammatory cytokines through the NF-kB flagging pathway [37]. IL-17 cytokines select monocytes and neutrophils to the site of disease with irritation and actuate other downstream cytokine and chemokine falls, for example, IL-1, LL-6, IL-8, IL-21, TNF-β, and MCP-1 [38,39].
Humoral immune responses
B cell subsets with phenotypes normal for credulous, non-isotype-switched, memory cells, and antibody-secreting cells collect in CoVs [40]. The antigen incitement of MERS-CoV disease was explained by utilizing the particular 9-mer peptide "CYSSLILDY", which situated at position 437 to 445 inside the area of the S glycoprotein [40]. The arrangement has the most noteworthy B cell antigenicity plot and can frame the best number of connections with MHCI alleles in an electronic simulation [41]. Reports show that humoral invulnerability is basic to control the diligent period of CoV contamination. More antibodies confined from patients who have to endure MERS-CoV contamination have been portrayed, including MCA1, CDC-C2, CSC-C5, CDC-A2, CDC-A10, MERS-GD27, and MERS-GD33 [42,43].
For most people, Covid-19 seems to be pretty mild. And it takes a while - to the tune of five days to two weeks - to cause symptoms, if it does at all.
Unfortunately, that's exactly what makes the novel coronavirus so dangerous. In the period that an infected person is asymptomatic or mildly ill, they could transmit the virus to dozens of other people through water droplets expelled by coughs or sneezes, transferred on skin and other surfaces. Angiotensin converting enzyme 2 receptors, or ACE2 receptors for short, is a part of the sympathetic nervous system. Their job is to bind to a hormone (conveniently called the ACE2 hormone) as part of the body's stress response. The ACE2 hormone plays a role in constricting blood vessels, which raises blood pressure.
The virus that causes Covid-19 can latch onto the ACE2 receptor undetected - likely because of its animal origins. The adaptive immune system - the part that creates antibodies that help identify pathogens quickly - hasn't had a chance to learn what SARS-CoV-2 looks like yet. This means the virus can use a molecular phishing scam to sneak into the cell. People with diabetes or high blood pressure - who are typically older adults - often take a class of drugs called ACE inhibitors. These drugs limit the constriction of blood vessels and, in doing so, make ACE2 receptors more prevalent throughout the body. Some scientists hypothesize that this is why people with these conditions have much more severe cases of Covid-19.
Although infection with the emerging SARS-CoV was associated with a severe acute respiratory disease, most human CoVs are responsible for mild upper respiratory tract infections, such as common colds, with only occasional spreading to the lower respiratory tract. Most respiratory viruses interact with DCs in the upper respiratory tract, which results in initiating an antiviral immune response but may also result in the spreading of the virus as a result of DC migration to the draining lymph nodes.
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International Journal of Immunology and Immunotherapy
Int J Immunol Immunother
Abbrevation: ijii
DOI: 10.23937/2378-3672/1410050
Pub Type: Open Access
Nimesh Singh, Flax Laboratories, B-29/1, Mahad MIDC, Taluka- Mahad, Distt - Raigad, Maharashtra, India.
© 2020 Singh N, et al. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.
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redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


text:
Q: Formatting the output of a String I am new to C#. I am studying it in a module in college. We have been given an assignment which involves us having to create a simple booking application using the various components included in the toolbox in Visual Studio.
The UI has a ListBox which enables the user to select multiple names of people that will attend the event. The selected items are concatenated to a String and output in a Label when the user confirms the selection.
This is the code where I get the values from the ListBox
 protected void btnRequest_Click(object sender, EventArgs e)
{
    //Update the summary label with the details of the booking.
    n = name.Text;
    en = eventName.Text;
    r = room.SelectedItem.ToString();
    d = cal.SelectedDate.ToShortDateString();

    foreach (ListItem li in attendees.Items)
    {
        if (li.Selected)
        {
            people += li.Text + " ";
        }
    }

    confirmation.Text = r + " has been booked on " + d + " by " + n + " for " + en + ". " + people + " will be attending.";
}

Below is my entire code:
public partial class _Default : System.Web.UI.Page
{
    //Variables
    public TextBox name;
    public TextBox eventName;
    public Label confirmation;
    public DropDownList room;
    public Calendar cal;
    public Button btn;
    public ListBox attendees;

    //Booking variables - store all information relating to booking in these variables
    public String n; //name of person placing booking
    public String en; //name of event
    public String r; //room it will take place
    public List<String> att; //list of people attending
    public String d; //date it will be held on

    public String people;

    protected void Page_Load(object sender, EventArgs e)
    {
        //Get references to components
        name = txtName;
        eventName = txtEvent;
        room = droplistRooms;
        attendees = attendeelist;
        cal = Calendar1;
        btn = btnRequest;
        confirmation = lblSummary;

    }
    protected void btnRequest_Click(object sender, EventArgs e)
    {
        //Update the summary label with the details of the booking.
        n = name.Text;
        en = eventName.Text;
        r = room.SelectedItem.ToString();
        d = cal.SelectedDate.ToShortDateString();

        foreach (ListItem li in attendees.Items)
        {
            if (li.Selected)
            {
                people += li.Text + " ";
            }
        }

        confirmation.Text = r + " has been booked on " + d + " by " + n + " for " + en + ". " + people + " will be attending.";
    }

    protected void Calendar1_SelectionChanged(object sender, EventArgs e)
    {
        d = cal.SelectedDate.ToShortDateString();
    }

The output is this:
Room 2 has been booked on 08/10/2013 by Jason Manford for Comedy Gig. Jack Coldrick Bill Gates Larry Page Jimmy Wales will be attending.
However I would like to add an and to the last name of the person attending the event. How would I go about doing this. Would I have to use a List?
Many Thanks...

A: Try copying the selected items into another collection and using a simple counter:
int counter = 1; // start at 1 so that the counter is in line with the number of items that the loop has iterated over (instead of 0 which would be better for indexing into the collection)

List<ListItem> selectedItems = new List<ListItem>();

foreach (ListItem li in attendees.Items)
{
    if (li.Selected)
    {
        selectedItems.Add(li);
    }
}

foreach (ListItem li in selectedItems)
{
    counter++;

    if (selectedItems.Count > 1 && i == selectedItems.Count) // check after the counter has been incremented so that only the last item triggers it
    {
        people += " and";
    }

    people += li.Text + " ";
}

As pointed out by a few people, you should also think about using a StringBuilder, as strings are immutable in .Net, which means that they cannot be modified. Every time you append text to a string, behind the scenes a new string is being created with the new contents and the old one is being discarded. As you can imagine, if you have a lot of names in the list, this could eventually end up impacting performance. Example below:
List<ListItem> selectedItems = new List<ListItem>();

foreach (ListItem li in attendees.Items)
{
    if (li.Selected)
    {
        selectedItems.Add(li);
    }
}

StringBuilder sbPeople = new StringBuilder();
int counter = 1; // start at 1 so that the counter is in line with the number of items that the loop has iterated over (instead of 0 which would be better for indexing into the collection)

foreach (ListItem li in attendees.SelectedItems)
{
    counter++;

    if (selectedItems.Count > 1 && i == selectedItems.Count) // check after the counter has been incremented so that only the last item triggers it
    {
        sbPeople.Append(" and");
    }

    sbPeople.Append(li.Text);
    sbPeople.Append(" ");
}

Reference to the StringBuilder docs: http://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/system.text.stringbuilder.aspx

A: var p = new List<string>() {"person1", "person2", "person3"};
string people;
if(p.Count == 1)
    people = p[0];
else
    people = string.Join(", ", p.Take(p.Count - 1)) + " and " + p[p.Count - 1]

To better fit your code I would write something like this (as indirectly suggested from the comments):
var p = attendees.Items.OfType<ListItem>.Where(y => y.Selected).Select(y => y.Text).ToList();
var people = "";
if(p.Count == 1)
    people = p[0];
if(p.Count > 1)
    people = string.Join(", ", p.Take(p.Count - 1)) + " and " + p[p.Count - 1]

Confirmation.Text = string.Format("{0} has been booked on {1} by {2} for {3}. {4} will be attending", r, d, n, en, people);

A: You can replace your foreach with this one
var peopleList = new List<string>();

foreach (ListItem li in attendees.Items)
{
    if (li.Selected)
       peopleList.Add(li.Text);
}

var people = string.Join(",", list.Take(list.Count - 1));
people += list.Count > 1 ? " and " + list.Last() : list.Last();

A: To keep the answer in line with your question, I'll make this easy to follow - although I'm use StringBuilder instead of appending a string - I've seen this method process larger strings much faster.
var selectedPeople = new List<string>();

foreach (ListItem li in attendees.Items)
{

    if (li.Selected)
    {
        people.Add(li.Text);
    }

}
var sb = new StringBuilder();
if (selectedPeople.Count == 0)
{
    sb.Append("");
}
else
{
    for (var i = 0; i < selectedPeople.Count; i++)
    {
        if (i > 0)
        {
            sb.Append(" ");
            if (i == selectedPeople.Count)
            {
                sb.Append("and ");
            }
        }
        sb.Append(selectedPeople[i]);
    }
}

...

confirmation.Text = r + " has been booked on " + d + " by " + n + " for " + en + ". " + sb.ToString() + " will be attending.";

I would suggest you look into the other answer which suggests using SelectedItems though, to prevent having to do the first loop.

A: var selectedPeople = list.Items.OfType<ListItem>().Where(c => c.Selected).Select(c => c.Text).ToList();
string people;
if (selectedPeople.Count == 1)
    people = selectedPeople[0];
else
    people = string.Join(", ", selectedPeople.Take(selectedPeople.Count - 1))
                + " and " + selectedPeople[selectedPeople.Count - 1];


Here at Timberview Care Center our goal is to make the transition from hospital to home a success. Whether it is an elective surgery, coping with a chronic illness, or an unexpected medical trauma, the road to recovery can begin in our caring and supportive community. We offer a continuum of health care servies within a skilled nursing setting, designed to help our clients resume their former lifestyles and become as independent as possible.


Frank Christenberry has a B.A. in criminal justice from the Indiana University College of Arts and Sciences and is the senior office services assistant for International Services.
Previously, Frank worked in the construction and building materials industry.
Frank's duties are myriad and far reaching. They include payroll, HR, campuswide Add New Person Approval, SIS troubleshooting, and purchasing.


Sheli Gartman enjoys using humor and laughter in all her group events. She uses real stories, interacts with the audience in super fun, engaging ways, and leaves them feeling positive and ignited!
Stand Up: This type of comedy is usually a grab bag of jokes, stories and song, all designed to create fun, unity and laughter!
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In anticipation of Thor: The Dark World, we've decided to compile and relive all of Thor's greatest hits. And when we say "greatest hits," we mean it!
Well, sort of. You see, Thor is almost always involved in some of the best hits, but sometimes he's actually on the receiving end rather than the "giving" end. While we love watching Thor take on his enemies with his incredible brute strength and Mjölnir in hand, we equally enjoy Thor taking a few hits himself because, let's be honest, it takes quite a lot to take Thor down. He is a Norse god, after all.
So, here is a collection of what we've deemed as Thor's greatest hits so far. Who knows how many more we'll be able to add after seeing Thor: The Dark World!
It's powers like this one that make us wonder why Thor really ever has a problem against villains. If he can knock them down in one swoop, what's the problem?
Who could forget the time when Thor pulled a pro-wrestling move on Loki atop of Stark Tower? Who knew that WWE was broadcast as far as Asgard?
Thor vs. The Hulk… in sloooooow motion.
Thor really brought the hammer down in this scene against his fellow Avengers. We wonder why they didn't use that trick once or twice during the battle of New York!
Thor completely demolished that coffee cup. It never stood a chance. How dare that cup empty itself of coffee and not automatically refill! It had it coming.
To be fair, Thor had just walked out of the hospital and wasn't ready for combat against heavy metal machinery. On the other hand, he's a god who got mowed down by a middle-aged astrophysicist.
While Thor did get a few hits in when dealing with the glass cage, he didn't really stand a chance. We guess that hitting the glass cage with Mjölnir in the first place wasn't the best idea.
Iron Man ruined such a brotherly bonding moment by giving Thor one of his greatest hits. At least it was nice to know that Loki was listening.
Ok, so Iron Man bested Thor once when he took him by surprise. But twice? With a flying kick? This was definitely not one of his best moments (even though it made us laugh a bit).
This one is definitely not a "Thor vs." because it looks like Thor is just getting beaten. While this is not so great for Thor, we can't wait to see this scene in Thor: The Dark World.
This hit needs no explanation. It's hilarious and awesome. Period.
Which one of Thor's greatest hits is your favorite?


Dende (den-dê) n. in Portuguese is the name of the bright orange palm oil used to enrich certain dishes, mainly used in the northeast region of Brazil.
London based theatre company Dende Collective was created in 1999 and most of our work to date has had a strong Brazilian flavour to it, and like the dishes cooked with the Dende oil, Dende Collective's shows are a savoury feast, often with an international feel to them, bringing together a rich mixture of styles and visual elements.
Dende shows bring to the stage the exciting cultural mixture that makes London one of the most vibrant cities in the planet, attracting to the theatre a wide range of diverse audiences.
In 2003, we became an associate theatre company of the Oval House Theatre and our work featured in the Arts Council Decibel booklet 'Promoting Diversity'.