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What Drives Vertical Fiscal Interactions? Evidence from the 1980 Crude Oil Windfall Act
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What Drives Vertical Fiscal Interactions? Evidence from the 1980
Crude Oil Windfall Act
Fidel Perez-Sebastiany U. Alicante and U. Hull
Ohad Ravehz
Hebrew University of Jerusalem October 2018
In economies with multi-level governments, why would a change in the …scal rule of a gov-ernment in one level lead to a …scal response by a govgov-ernment in a di¤erent level? The literature focused primarily on the standard common-pool problem, while giving little attention to the potential role of complementarity or substitutability (CS) between the public goods supplied by the two governments. This paper …lls this gap by focusing on the latter channel. First, we illustrate its potential key role in determining the sign of the vertical reaction through a generic model of vertical …scal interactions. Second, we propose a novel strategy for identifying it, by considering an empirical design that con…nes the common-pool channel to speci…c locations. We implement this design through a quasi-natural experiment: the 1980 U.S. Crude Oil Windfall Act, which increased federal tax collections from sale of crude oil, thereby a¤ecting the tax base of oil rich states speci…cally. This latter feature enables attributing the vertical …scal reactions of the remaining states to the CS channel. Following this strategy, via a di¤erence-in-di¤erences approach, we decompose the sources of the vertical …scal reactions arising from this federal tax change and …nd that those attributed to the CS channel: (i) account for approximately 38% of the overall vertical …scal response; (ii) point at complementarity between state and federal public goods, most notably in transportation and welfare expenditures; (iii) are manifested primarily via changes in states'sales and income taxation.
JEL classi…cations: H77, H71, Q32
Keywords: Federalism, vertical …scal reactions, common-pool problem, complementarities, nat-ural resources
We thank David Agrawal, Ziv Bar-Shira, Thushyanthan Baskaran, Julie Cullen, Israel Finkelshtain, Yaniv Reingewertz, Gerhard Toews, Tony Venables, and seminar participants at the Bank of Israel, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, and University of Oxford for helpful comments and suggestions. We acknowledge outstanding research assistance by Mark Rozenberg, and Maayan Segev. Raveh gratefully acknowledges …nancial support from the Center for Agricultural Economic Research. All errors are our own. The paper circulated previously under the title: "On the Role of State-Federal Complementarities in Vertical Tax Externalities: Evidence from the 1980 Crude Oil Windfall Act".
yFundamentos del Análisis Económico (FAE), University of Alicante; Hull University Business School; email: F.Perez-Sebastian@hull.ac.uk.
zDepartment of Environmental Economics and Management, Hebrew University of Jerusalem; email: ohad.raveh@mail.huji.ac.il
Forthcoming in Regional Science and Urban Economics
© 2018. This manuscript version is made available under the CC-BY-NC-ND 4.0 license http://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/
In multi-level governments such as federations, where each level acts as a separate …scal authority, a change in the …scal rule of a government in one level may create a …scal response by a government in a di¤erent level, thus creating vertical …scal interactions. This issue has taken a central role in the …scal federalism literature, with recent studies examining the various theoretical and empirical aspects of it. One foundational question that emerges from this literature relates to the underlying sources: what drives vertical …scal interactions? Previous seminal studies focused primarily on the standard common-pool problem: taxing a shared tax base, a change in the tax rate of one government level a¤ects the tax base of the other, leading to a …scal response by the latter.1 The literature, however, gave little attention to the potential role of an additional factor: state-federal complementarities or substitutabilities (henceforth, CS).2 When one government changes its …scal
policy, the other may respond due to complementarities or substitutabilities between the public goods supplied by the two governments. In this paper we …ll this gap by focusing on the latter channel. Speci…cally, we illustrate its role in determining the sign of the vertical …scal response, and provide empirical evidence for its sign, magnitude, and relative importance compared to the common-pool mechanism, through a speci…c empirical design.
The notion of state-federal complementarities in public goods dates back to the fundamental allocative principle in …scal federalism of…scal equivalence (e.g. Inman and Rubinfeld (1997), and Olson (1969)), motivating the coexistence of multiple levels of jurisdictions; governments provide public goods based on correspondence between the geographical boundaries of the jurisdictions and those of the bene…ts derived from the supplied public goods, potentially leading to complementary public good provision between the two levels of governments.3 An opposing school of thought,
how-1
See Boadway and Keen (1996), Boadway, Marchand, and Vigneault (1996), Dahlby and Wilson (2003), Keen (1998), and Keen and Kotsogiannis (2002). In e¤ect, this channel refers to the cohabitation of the tax base. While receiving various titles in the literature, we follow Dahlby (1996) and refer to it as the common-pool channel given its reminiscence to the more general common property resource problem.
Keen (1998) discusses the option of CS-driven vertical …scal externalities, but focuses his analysis on the com-monality of tax bases. Dahlby (1996) considers the role of state-federal CS e¤ects within the context of designing a system of intergovernmental grants, without analyzing their role in the vertical response. Hafer and Landa (2007) model the relation between federal and state public goods in a formal federalism framework; however, they do not consider vertical …scal externalities. More generally, the related theoretical literature remains agnostic about the role of the relationship between state and federal public goods. It either employs a general utility function with no assumptions over the interaction between state and federal public goods, or uses separable demands while excluding one of the types of public goods from the set of preferences.
3Evidence on the so-called Flypaper E¤ ect support this. Examining state-level spending responses to federal
grants, various studies estimate that an in‡ow of federal grants can increase state spending by a factor higher than
1(see Gramlich (1977), Hines and Thaler (1995), and Inman (2008) for surveys). This crowding-in evidence can be interpreted as indirectly pointing at potential complementarity between federal and state spending. We say indirectly because these studies focus mainly on unconditional grants, and hence primarily on the dynamics of windfall-based income e¤ects rather than complementarities in public good provision.
ever, highlights the possibility of substitutability between the di¤erent types of public goods (e.g. Knight (2002)).4 Put together, the literature suggests that while the evidence on the relationship is inconclusive, its existence is an applicable feature of the data, making it a potential driver of vertical …scal relations.
To better illustrate the possible role of state-federal CS relationships in vertical …scal relations, as well as their interaction with the common-pool channel, let us think of the following hypothetical motivational example: a federal government increases its tax rates over labor income to …nance a new inter-state highway, leading to a negative labor supply shock. On one hand, this creates a common-pool problem as it erodes states' tax revenues from labor income. This, in turn, may lead state governments to increase their tax rates to be able to maintain the pre-shock level of public goods.5 On the other hand, however, states may also wish to invest in complementary infrastructure, such as side roads, to properly connect their residents to the newly built inter-state highway. In this case they may also raise their tax revenues via increases in tax rates, yet this time due to a complementarity e¤ect.
Obviously, the example assumes state-federal complementarities, making the common-pool and CS channels go in the same direction. In such a case the overall vertical tax reaction is positive. However, under a di¤erent scenario where the state and federal public goods are substitutes, for instance if the federal government invests directly in states'side roads rather than in an inter-state highway, the two mechanisms would go in opposite directions. Indeed, with su¢ cient substitutabil-ity the overall vertical tax reaction may be negative. This highlights the potential key role that the nature of the CS relationship may take in vertical interactions.
Illustrating this analytically is our …rst objective. Our second objective is building an empirical design that enables identifying the CS-driven vertical …scal reactions. Empirically disentangling states'vertical …scal responses triggered by eroded tax bases from those occurring through the CS channel is a challenging task. To the best of our knowledge, this paper makes a …rst attempt to do so, through a speci…c design that controls the boundaries of the common-pool e¤ect by relating it to an immobile tax base: natural resources – a potentially signi…cant source of income with an inherent, geographically entrenched, immobility.
With these goals in mind, we construct a federalism model of vertical …scal interactions, mo-4
More generally, the type of association observed, whether complementarity or substitutability, may depend on the type of …scal shock, its characteristics, and the expenditure categories a¤ected by it. For instance, some federal spending programs are dependent on state-level matching, creating complementarity by construction.
5Notably, the sign of the change depends on various factors such as, for instance, the elasticity of demand for the
taxed good (Keen (1998)). We, thus, assume for the sake of the example that labor demand is relatively inelastic, and that the optimal level of public good provision did not change following the federal tax change due to, for example, a change in private consumption. Later, when studying this e¤ect analytically, we show the latter may indeed push the outcome in the opposite direction.
tivated by the frameworks of Keen (1998), Besley and Rosen (1998), and Keen and Kotsogiannis (2002). In the model, the level of government spending is chosen endogenously. To …nance the budget, federal and state governments tax several shared tax bases. Unlike previous literature, the role of this cohabitation is studied in detail along with the role of the degree of complementarity (and equivalently, substitutability) between the public goods supplied by each government. This setting, which incorporates both the common-pool and CS channels into the same framework, en-ables studying how the two interact given a federal …scal shock and state-heterogeneity in the tax bases.6
The analysis delivers two main predictions. First, the common-pool and CS e¤ects can be, in general, positive or negative and push in the same or opposite directions. However, when standard functional forms are introduced in the model and speci…c tax cases analyzed, the common-pool and CS channels become negative and positive, respectively. As a consequence, if the complementarity between federal and state public goods is su¢ ciently high, states'tax rates increase with an increase in the federal tax rate. This result illustrates analytically the key role that the CS channel can take in determining the sign of the vertical tax reaction, motivating our focus on it. Second, an increase in the federal tax on a commodity that is immobile and only available in some states, like natural resources, erodes the tax base of states that own it, thus limiting the common-pool channel to these areas. Importantly, under such circumstances, …scal reactions coming from the remaining states can be attributed to the CS channel, hence enabling its identi…cation.
Following the latter insight, we study a quasi-natural experiment that mimics the analytical design: the 1980 U.S. Crude Oil Windfall Act (henceforth, COWA), under which excise taxes over the sale of crude oil increased based on a pre-set formula dependent on the international price of crude oil. Through this act, which was eventually repealed in 1988, the federal government collected approximately 80$ billion over a period of 7 years (1980-1986) with an aim to assist low-income households, fund mass transit, and invest in the exploration of new energy sources; objectives that we show were largely met. Notably, all of the tax receipts were essentially collected from American oil producers, hence eroding the tax base of, and con…ning the common-pool mechanism to, oil rich states speci…cally. Controlling for factor reallocation, the vertical …scal reactions of the remaining states can then be attributed, as the theory suggests, to the CS channel, thus enabling the assessment of its sign, magnitude, and relative importance.
Employing an annual-based state-level panel covering the period of 1963-2007, we examine states'heterogeneous …scal reactions to the federal COWA tax collections, across levels of oil
abun-6
We focus our discussion on top-to-bottom shocks given the nature of the quasi-natural experiment that we examine.
dance. The treatment e¤ect for this analysis is constructed in two stages. In the …rst stage we estimate the …tted values of state-speci…c regressions of the COWA tax collections on the federal expenditures in each state (net of transfers and direct payments to individuals). In the second stage we merge these …tted values together. This, in turn, yields a measure of the COWA-driven federal expenditures in each state during the treatment years (1980-1986). We then employ this mea-sure in the analysis, via a di¤erence-in-di¤erences methodology. The identi…cation strategy rests on the plausibly exogenous nature of the treatment (COWA-based) and treatment group (subset of states with geographically-based natural endowments), as well as on a likely common-trend in non-treatment years. We elaborate on these key points in the empirical part.
Following this methodology we estimate the vertical …scal reaction of each state-group (oil-rich vs. oil-poor) to the federal tax shock, and use the estimates to decompose the vertical tax responses to their two main sources: common-pool and CS. We …nd that the portion of the responses attributed to the CS channel: (i) account for approximately 38% of the overall vertical …scal response; (ii) point at complementarity between state and federal public goods, most notably in transportation and welfare expenditures; (iii) are manifested primarily via changes in states'sales and income taxation. We show that the main results are robust to various controls, speci…cations, sample restrictions, as well as resource abundance and tax measures.
The paper relates to three strands of literature. First, the empirical literature on vertical tax externalities, including Besley and Rosen (1998), Devereux, Lockwood, and Redoano (2007), Esteller-More and Sole-Olle (2001), Fredriksson and Mamum (2008), Goodspeed (2000), Hayashi and Boadway (2001), Hoyt (2001) and Reingewertz (2018), which examine the e¤ects of various federal tax shocks on di¤erent tax bases over multiple time periods and countries. The …ndings of these studies are jointly inconclusive, providing opposing evidence on the sign of the vertical tax externality. Importantly, their estimates include both the common-pool and CS components, without distinguishing between them. We contribute to this literature by illustrating the poten-tial importance of the CS channel, showing that its sign and magnitude may determine the sign of the vertical externality. This, in turn, may reconcile their opposing …ndings, calling for the concurrent consideration of both mechanisms in future related empirical work. In addition, by dis-entangling the two channels, we provide more direct evidence on the common-pool-driven vertical …scal externalities, …nding that they are negative in our experiment.
Second, the literature on …scal competition (see Wilson (1999), Wilson (2015), and Wilson and Wildasin (2004) for a synthesis of this vast literature). The majority of studies focus on competition in tax rates; however, competition may occur in other …scal instruments. As noted by Wildasin (1988), when competition is not perfect this distinction may yield di¤erent outcomes, with
potentially important implications. Our results, primarily via the notable importance of the CS channel in vertical reactions, support the view that tax rates may adjust to changes in expenditures, thus highlighting the relevance of distinguishing between these forms of …scal competition.
Third, the literature on the optimal number of government layers. Since the seminal work of Tiebout (1956), a body of literature has emerged stressing the bene…ts of having overlapping governments based on e¢ ciency grounds (Oates (1972) and Qian and Roland (1998)). Conversely, other studies critique this view, arguing that it does not account for inter-governmental strategic behaviors that may lead to ine¢ ciencies via …scal common-pool problems (Berry (2008), Knight (2006) and Poterba and von Hagen (1999)). We contribute to this literature by showing that even when inter-dependencies among di¤erent layers are accounted for, …scal comovements between di¤erent layers may be e¢ cient due to complementarities in public goods. Moreover, since these studies do not account for the CS channel, our results suggest that they may be over-estimating the said ine¢ ciencies.
The paper is structured as follows. Section 2 presents the model. Section 3 undertakes the empirical analysis, outlining the empirical design, data, and results. Section 4 concludes.
Analytical Framework
In this section we lay out a simple analytical framework to present the role of state-federal CS relationships in vertical …scal interactions, alongside the standard common-pool mechanism. In addition, the model illustrates the type of federal tax shock that enables identifying the CS channel and its relative importance in the vertical interactions; an important feature that will serve to motivate the design of the empirical analysis in the next section.
There could be several formalizations that deliver our main insights. We adopt the simplest one that allows studying the vertical externalities arising from the interrelated tax-setting behavior of the federal and state governments in a federation. We adopt a generic framework that follows the work of Keen (1998), and Besley and Rosen (1998). In particular, we extend Keen (1998)'s theoretical analysis to allow for multiple tax rates and study in detail the di¤erent e¤ects that drive vertical externalities. For this, we only need to specify the consumption side of the model. More speci…c cases that incorporate particular functional forms and a production side of the economy, and focus on the tax rates analyzed later in the empirical section – namely, severance, income, sales, and corporate taxes –are presented in the Appendix.
Consider a nation composed of a central (federal) government, andZ…scally autonomous states, each with its own government and populated by a …xed mass of consumers of size one.7 Let us focus
on states. Governments can impose taxes onN commodities and/or production inputs to …nance the supply of public goods. The state operates under a balanced budget so that total revenues equal total spending, that is,
t0sbs=gs; (1)
wheretis the vector of tax ratesft1s; ::; tN sg,bis the vector of tax basesfb1s; ::; bN sg, with bjs 0 and tjs2[0;1), and 0 denotes transposed.
Similarly, the federal government imposes a collection of tax rates T on a vector of tax basesB to …nance a federal public goodG such that
Z =G: (2)
Budget constraint (2) says that all states receive the same amountG. The model, therefore, assumes partial equalization by the federal government.8 This phenomenon stands at the heart of our main mechanism as it enables the occurrence of a …scal asymmetry across regions. Such asymmetry is observed in the vast majority, if not all, of federations.9
Importantly, both levels of government can co-occupy or cohabit some tax bases so that b is contained in B. Examples are the income tax base and the corporate tax base. Other taxes, on the other hand, like the ones on sales and property (for example, in the case of the U.S.), are only imposed by state governments. Nevertheless, even if there is no direct cohabitation of the same tax base, federal taxes can also a¤ect the tax base of other types of state taxes. For example, federal severance taxes a¤ect oil …rms' pro…ts, and therefore also state sales taxes collected from the consumption spending carried out by the oil …rms'owners.
Assume that the state government is benevolent.10 We concentrate on the competitive equilib-rium in which the relatively-small state s internalizes the domestic determinants of the tax base, but takes the behavior of other states and the federal administration as given.11 More speci…cally,
sources of the vertical interactions. We discuss further implications of this assumption in the empirical part.
In that sense, we abstract from explicitly modelling a federal transfer mechanism, which would not add further insights to the current framework.
Previous studies documented large cross-state di¤erences, even in those federations with large-scale equalization payment schemes. Boadway (2006) discusses the case of Canada, a federation with a major redistributive scheme. Partial equalization is as well observed in various developed and developing federations (Martinez-Vazquez and Searle (2007)) and in the OECD (Blochliger and Charbit (2008)).
1 0The government's objective, within a tax competition context, can be expressed in several forms. Other models
consider a leviathan government (Brennan and Buchanan (1980)) or a semi self-interest one (Cai and Treisman (2005)). We comment on this issue later in the section.
We focus on the competitive equilibrium. Notice however that the key is the assumption that states take the behavior of all other governments as given. This looks sensible to us if we think of states as small economies. Then, an alternative focus on the Nash equilibrium or considering the federal government as a Stackelberg leader should not have any signi…cant impact on our qualitative results.
stateschooses the level of tax rates to maximize the representative-consumer's utility as follows: max
ts f
u(cs; gs; G) =v(c) + (gs; G)g (3)
subject to equations (1), (2), and
cs=c(t0s; T0); (4)
wherecs is the aggregated value of the consumption bundle in state s.
The consumption functionc(t0s; T0)is decreasing in each of the tax rates, in accordance with the notion that higher taxes reduce the spending capacity of households. The functions v( ) and ( ) are, in turn, increasing and strictly concave. In addition, the cross-partial derivation of ( ) can be larger than or equal to zero. Notice that if this cross derivative is strictly positive, the public goodsgs and G are complements. Following the initial motivational example,gs may complement Gwhen, for instance, the federal government builds cross-state transportation infrastructure within states for which the state government would like to connect via further local infrastructure built using its own budget. We assume for simplicity that ( )is the same across states.12
The …rst order conditions (FOCs) for this problem provide the optimal decisions. Focusing on tax ratetjs, the related FOC is
@v(cs) @tjs +@ (gs; G) @gs @gs @tjs = 0: (5)
The …rst term in the left hand side (LHS) gives the decline in the marginal utility of consumption motivated by an increase in tax ratetjs. The second summand captures its marginal bene…t, due to the increase in the supply of the public good gs permitted by a larger tax collection. At the optimum, the marginal bene…t and the marginal cost must be equalized.
A main goal of our analysis is understanding how a change in a federal tax rate – say Ti – modi…es the optimal state tax rate tjs. Applying the implicit function theorem to expression (5) obtains dtjs dTi = @2v(c s) @tjs@Ti + @ (gs;G) @gs @2g s @tjs@Ti + @2 (g s;G) @gs@Ti @gs @tjs @ @tjs h@v(c s) @tjs + @ (gs;G) @gs @gs @tjs i : (6)
Note that the denominator of (6) is equal to minus the second derivative with respect to the decision variable in maximization problem (3) evaluated at the maximum, which means that the denominator is always positive.
Therefore, the change in tjs induced by a change in Ti depends exclusively on the impact of 1 2We discuss further implications of this assumption in the empirical part. As will be evident, it does not a¤ect
the federal tax on the terms that composed FOC (5). In the numerator of (6) we can identify three di¤erent e¤ects of Ti: (i) amarginal utility e¤ect given by @2v(cs)=(@tjs@Ti); (ii) amarginal
revenue e¤ect captured by @2gs=(@tjs@Ti) times @ (gs; G)=@gs; and (iii) a public-good CS e¤ect, given by@gs=@tjs multiplied by the impact of the variation ofTi on the weight @ (gs; G)=@gs.13
The marginal utility and marginal revenue e¤ects are closely interrelated, because most taxes have a direct impact on both government revenues and households'spending capacity. More specif-ically, when a federal tax rate rises, it reduces the state tax base because of cohabitation. The decline in the tax base further reduces both the state government revenue and the consumer's in-come. Given this, we refer to the join marginal-utility/marginal-revenue e¤ect as thecommon-pool
mechanism.14
The above de…nition of the public-good CS e¤ect implies that if the state behaved, instead, as a leviathan that simply maximizes revenue, the CS e¤ect would not play any role. Notice that maximizing revenues only requires the equalization of the marginal revenue to zero. Therefore, evidence in favor of a role of the CS e¤ect can be also interpreted as evidence against a pure leviathan behavior.
Equation (6) has no clear sign because the three summands in its numerator can be positive or negative. Starting with the …rst one, we can decompose the marginal utility as @v(cs)=@cs times @cs=@tjs. The decline in consumption induced by a higher federal tax rate tends to decrease @cs=@tjs but increases the marginal utility because @v(cs)=@cs < 0. Thus the overall change in @v(cs)=@tjs is ambiguous.
Moving to the marginal revenue, the term @ (gs; G)=@gs is strictly positive. This implies that the sign of the second summand in the numerator of equation (6) is exclusively given by @2gs=@tjs@Ti. Employing the state government budget constraint, expression (1), and taking into 1 3Let us compare these e¤ects with the ones analyzed by Besley and Rosen (1998) and Keen (1998). Like us, Besley
and Rosen (1998) consider an array of state and federal taxes. However, they mainly look at the state response to a federal tax change when the goal is to raise a …xed amount of revenue. From their setup, Besley and Rosen (1998) describe a deadweight loss e¤ect similar to (i), and a revenue e¤ect and a tax-related CS e¤ect that jointly can resemble (ii). The model presented by Keen (1998) is, on the other hand, closer to ours. Speci…cally, in this model federal tax rates may a¤ect the chosen level ofgs. Nonetheless, unlike us, he focuses on a single instrument to raise
revenue and on the e¤ects related to the co-occupation of the tax base (common-pool). Therefore, neither of these two papers disentangles the public-spending CS e¤ect from the common-pool one.
A clearer way to show that the e¤ect that works through the marginal utility can also be considered to be part of the common-pool channel is, for example, by looking at the state sales (or consumption) tax. In this scenario, an increase in the federal rate could reduce consumption expenditure, and therefore state tax revenues. This case is analyzed in the Appendix. Importantly, it leads to the same main insights.
account that a change in the state tax ratetjs can modify several tax bases, we can write: @2gs @tjs@Ti = @ @Ti 8 > < > :bjs 1 ebjs(tjs) + N X v=1 v6=j bvs tvs tjs ebvs(tjs) 9 > = > ;; (7)
where ebjs(tjs) denotes the elasticity of the tax base bjs to its own tax rate tjs, and ebvs(tjs)
represents the cross elasticity of the tax base bvs to the tax rate tjs.
Hence, the sign of the marginal revenue e¤ect depends on how the federal tax rate a¤ects the elasticities. This is the same insight as the one o¤ered by Keen (1998) but extended to multiple possibly interrelated taxes. As a corollary, because both the marginal utility and the marginal revenue can increase or decrease when there is a federal tax-rate shock, the common-pool e¤ect can be positive or negative.
Finally, we look at the CS channel. The sign of the term @2 (g
s; G)=(@gs@Ti) will be positive when the two public goods are complements –i.e., if@2 (gs; G)=(@gs@G)>0–because@gs=@Ti 0 and @G=@Ti >0 always.15 On the other hand, the sign of @2 (gs; G)=(@gs@Ti) can be positive or negative if gs and G are substitutes. The direction of the CS mechanism also depends on the sign of @gs=@tjs. We know that this derivative is given by the terms within the curly brackets in expression (7). Hence, the sign of the CS e¤ect depends on the elasticity of substitution between gs and G, as well as on the tax-rate elasticities of the tax bases. If, for example, the public goods are complements and gs rises with tjsthen the CS e¤ect is positive.
The common-pool and g-G CS e¤ects are, therefore, both at work and can be positive or negative. This highlights a key point of the analysis: the CS channel may play an important role in understanding the sign and magnitude of the vertical tax reaction, shedding light on a point of disagreement in the literature. However, given that we can not pin down the sign with certainty, the magnitude and direction of each of these two forces become an empirical issue. Next, we obtain results that allow o¤ering theoretical foundations to disentangle the two mechanisms.
Suppose that the federal tax rate Ti is imposed on a commodity available only in some states but not in others. In the empirical analysis, this commodity is (immobile) oil reserves. This implies that, only if state s owns the commodity, the variation in the state tax rate tjs will be driven by the three e¤ects de…ned above. However, if this is not the case, a change in Ti will produce zero variation in the marginal utility, marginal revenue, and state revenues –that is,@2v(cs)=(@tjs@Ti),
In principle, the sign of @G=@Ti could be positive or negative because of the impact of Ti on the tax bases.
However, in terms of our model, moreGis always good, and therefore, a benevolent federal government will raiseTi
@2gs=(@tjs@Ti), and @gs=@Ti will be equal to zero. Consequently, expression (6) will become dtjs dTi = @2 (g s;G) @gs@G @G @Ti @gs @tjs @ @tjs h@v(c s) @tjs + @ (gs;G) @gs @gs @tjs i: (8)
Only revenues obtained by the federal government and the public good that it supplies will increase. Importantly, expressions (6) and (8) suggests that it is possible to separate the CS from the other e¤ects when there is state-heterogeneity in taxed commodities. In particular, expression (8) implies that if statesdoes not own commodityi, a change in the federal tax rateTia¤ectstjssolely through the CS channel. Put di¤erently, whenbis = 0the common-pool mechanism is eliminated. Conversely, ifbis >0, changes in tjsoccur through all channels.
In the Appendix, we provide three speci…c examples that study the impact of the federal sev-erance tax rate on capital-income, corporate, and sales state taxes.16 They show that in all cases the common-pool mechanism is negative. The ambiguity of its sign vanishes because part of the variation in the marginal revenue is neutralized by the change in the level of consumption, thus suggesting that the common-pool channel is mainly driven by the change in the marginal utility of private-good consumption. Since this marginal utility increases with Ti, the marginal utility derived from the services provided by the state public good needs to increase as well; this, in turn, causes the supply of the state public good and the state tax rate to decrease.
The CS channel is, on the other hand, always positive. This occurs because in these more speci…c cases the fall in the tax base of the capital-income, corporate and sales state taxes brought about by the increase in the federal tax rate is relatively small. As a consequence of these opposing forces, all else equal, weaker complementarity between g and G may lead state governments to react in an opposite manner to federal tax shocks due to the common pool mechanism. Conversely, su¢ ciently high complementarity may lead to a positive comovement in the two-level tax rates.
The most important takeaway message from our generic model and the more speci…c tax cases presented in the Appendix is that having a design where the federal tax shock is on an immobile tax base, and some states are su¢ ciently rich in it, then the sign, magnitude, and relative importance of the CS channel can be identi…ed by observing changes in ti in states that do not own that type of tax base. We exploit these features in the empirical part.
In particular, in the empirical part we focus on a federal tax on extractive industries because they employ natural resources, which possess an immobile nature and are only present in some
Results with a labor-income tax would be qualitatively the same to the ones that we obtain with corporate taxes. This is because in the model presented in the Appendix each …rm is owned by an entrepreneur so that pro…ts work like the return to labor.
locations due to their inherent geographic characteristics. Then, state di¤erences in the size of the non-mobile tax base will enable to maintain the common-pool e¤ect within speci…c states. in addition, natural resources o¤er signi…cant rents. As we show later when investigating U.S. states, in some cases (e.g. Alaska, Wyoming) their income can add up to more than 40% out of all income sources of the state. This, in turn, implies that tax shocks related to them may be meaningfully impactful for both the state and federal governments.
Another lesson that we extract from the theoretical analysis is that taxes are not the only force that can change tax-base levels. There exists the possibility that input movements, like capital ‡ows, triggered by changes in states' tax rates can a¤ect the …nal outcome in all states to some extent, as illustrated in more detail in the cases presented in the Appendix. This has various empirical implications which we will consider; for instance, the need to control for inter-state factor movements.
The analytical framework illustrated the potential key role of the CS mechanism within the larger vertical …scal dynamics. In this section we seek to provide empirical evidence for the g G CS channel, including its magnitude, sources, and relative importance compared to the common-pool channel. We do so by taking the U.S. as a case study, and exploiting a quasi-natural experiment –the 1980 Crude Oil Windfall Act–which follows the case of a change inTi wherebis= 0 for some of the states, thus providing a design under which the g G CS e¤ect is potentially identi…able. Next, we discuss the details of this act, and its applicability to our case.
3.1 The 1980 Crude Oil Windfall Act
Throughout the 1970s the price of domestic oil was controlled by the U.S. federal government, which started decontrolling it in 1979, completing the process in 1981. Concurrently, the price of oil surged, peaking in the early 1980s, as illustrated in Figure 1. Realizing this would provide signi…cant pro…ts to American oil producers, the Carter Administration enacted the Crude Oil Windfall Act in 1980, which was an excise tax on domestic crude oil imposed at the wellhead. The tax was paid on the di¤erence between the market price of oil and a base price which was set as the May 1979 oil price adjusted for in‡ation. The aim of the Carter Administration was, on the one hand, to prevent oil producers from reaping excessive pro…ts and, on the other, to use the raised revenues to assist low-income households, fund mass transit, and explore new energy sources. As a commitment device, the administration proposed to put the revenues in a trust fund to ensure that they are used for these purposes.
Given the decrease in the oil price during the 1980s, the consequent decline in revenues from the said tax (decreasing to virtually none in 1987), and various political pressures that accompanied this decline, the bill was eventually repealed in 1988.17 Therefore, revenues were collected for 7 …scal years, during 1980-1986. Figure 2 presents the annual collections, which sum up to approximately 80$ billion. This represents a relatively large magnitude compared to those produced by other federal tax changes during the 1980s.18 Nonetheless, this yields a relatively small change in the total federal revenues. Notably, previous empirical studies on vertical tax externalities in the U.S. suggest that changes of this magnitude produce noticeable …scal reactions by state governments.19
The analysis to follow indicates that this is also the case when focusing more speci…cally on the CS e¤ect.
Importantly, the federal tax is speci…cally on a non-mobile factor (oil sector); it hence follows the case of a change in Ti where bis = 0 for some of the states, presented in Section 2, creating a common-pool problem solely in the oil rich states. More speci…cally, the latter occurs because the tax is imposed directly on the oil producers, who in turn cannot forward it to the selling price given that it has been deregulated in the U.S. by that point and is therefore determined by global demand. The result is a decrease in domestic oil production, and hence an erosion of the tax base of oil endowed states speci…cally. The magnitude is non-trivial. In a report prepared by the U.S. Congressional Research Service, Lazzari (2006) estimates the COWA-driven reduction in domestic oil production during the period of 1980-1986. Appendix Table A1 outlines the annual estimated magnitudes. In 1981, for instance, COWA decreased oil production by approximately 310 million barrels, or about 8.3% of total oil output. The estimated reduction over 1980-1986 is around 4.8% of total oil output (approximately 1268 million barrels).
Additional features make this federal tax policy appealing for our purposes. First, using narra-tive sources Romer and Romer (2010) classi…ed the COWA tax change as exogenous given it was motivated by long-run concerns. While their rational relates primarily to GDP, it is also applicable to state tax rates; having a long-term perspective suggests that the enactment of this act was not driven by short-term changes in state tax rates. This, in turn, contributes to considering the tax 1 7During this time there were several amendments made to it. Some were minor and technical, and others more
substantial (under the Economic Recovery Tax Act of 1981, for instance), decreasing tax rates on newly discovered oil, and introducing a tax credit for royalty owners, among others. Nonetheless, the tax remained e¤ective, and revenues were collected until it was repealed.
Computing the present value of the change in federal revenues induced by major federal tax acts (reporting it at the year the acts were enacted), Romer and Romer (2010) report that COWA's expected e¤ect on federal revenues is larger (in absolute value) than that of other major federal tax changes enacted in the 1980s, such as the De…cit Reduction Act of 1984, the Tax Reform Act of 1986, and the Budget Reconciliation Act of 1987.
For instance, Reingewertz (2018) identi…es vertical …scal externalities using Romer and Romer's (2010) sample of federal tax changes, which includes COWA as well as other federal tax shocks of smaller magnitude.
policy change itself as being plausibly exogenous. Second, as outlined above the tax collections, as well as the decision to eventually repeal the act, were primarily based on variations in the inter-national price of crude oil. Assuming the latter is an exogenous variable determined in the global market, the annual COWA shocks we examine are plausibly exogenous as well. These features take a central role in the empirical analysis. Last, the tax change takes place in the U.S., an economy that follows the analytical framework closely in terms of presenting a federal environment with am-ple cross-state variation in resource abundance and non-redistributed resource income, as Figure 3 illustrates.20
3.2 Data and methodology
Our objective is to decompose the states'vertical tax reactions to the federal COWA tax shocks to their CS and common-pool components, with an emphasis on identifying the former. To do so we examine the heterogeneous …scal reactions across states'level of resource richness, via a di¤erence-in-di¤erences approach. Next, we describe the treatment e¤ect, treated group, methodology, and identi…cation strategy. Starting with the treatment e¤ect. While the experiment we examine (COWA) represents a change in federal tax policies, the vertical tax reactions of state governments are rather tied to changes in federal expenditures by state. Hence, as a …rst step we test whether tax receipts from COWA were translated, to some extent, to spending at the federal level in general. The analysis and results are relegated to the Appendix.21 We …nd that COWA revenues were indeed associated with increased public expenditure at the federal level, following the program's initial o¢ cial objectives on revenue usage.
Motivated by these initial observations we construct the treatment e¤ect. As noted, the focus is on COWA tax collections yet the vertical reactions are made, ultimately, to changes in federal expenditures. This point is central to our analysis because complementarities or substitutabilities are essentially a product of the relations of state and federal expenditures. Hence, ideally our treatment needs to capture the changes in the state-speci…c federal expenditures that were driven by COWA, during the treatment period. These data are not observed directly. Instead, we construct a proxy that implicitly assumes that the national COWA tax collections were allocated across states based on the relative allocations of all other federal expenditures, captured via the observed state-speci…c federal expenditures per capita in each state.22 We construct this proxy (treatment) in two 2 0We measure resource abundance by state income from severance taxes. While these taxes pertain to the
produc-tion of fossil fuels in general, oil takes a central role in its composiproduc-tion.
2 1Speci…cally, it is discussed in Appendix C, with the results presented in Table A2, and descriptive statistics
provided in Table A3.
2 2Later we also show for robustness that similar results are produced in case we assume that the COWA tax
stages. In the …rst stage we take the …tted values of the following state-speci…c regression, for each stateiseparately, at year t, estimated over our treatment years (1980-1986):
Fti= + (COW A)t+ i;t; (9)
whereFidenotes the real per capita federal expenditures in statei, andCOW Adenotes the annual tax collections from COWA. More speci…cally, Fi represents the state-speci…c per capita federal expenditures, net of federal transfers and direct payments to individuals. This subtraction enables focusing the analysis on the portion of federal expenditures that may relate to complementarities or substitutabilities. Equivalently, it ensures that our estimates do not capture mechanic comple-mentarities related to matching grants, or federal redistribution. Notice that a higher Fi yields a higher FF Vi (…tted values), consistent with the allocation assumption; i.e. states in which federal expenditures are relatively higher are assumed to be equivalently allocated proportionally higher COWA-sourced federal expenditures.
A key feature of the state-speci…c federal expenditure data is that it is available from 1981, unlike our treatment that begins in 1980. To maximize the constructed treatment e¤ect, we expand Fi to 1980 based on the assumption that it is distributed equally across the nation. Under this assumption, the Fi for 1980 is the national federal expenditures (net of transfers and payments to individuals) divided by the national population, for all i. This assumption is strong if the comparison is indeed across states. This is illustrated in Figure 4, which shows that Fi (1981-1986) has much variation across states. However, in our di¤erence-in-di¤erences framework, the key comparison is between the treated and control groups (described below). Figure 5 shows that Fi (1981-1986) exhibits little di¤erence between the two state-groups, motivating the expansion we take for 1980. Nonetheless, later in the analysis we show that the main results hold when 1980 is excluded from the sample.
An additional key point relates to COW A. While Fi is at the state level, COW A remains to be at the national level, representing the overall annual tax collections from COWA, across all states. Maintaining the national perspective withCOW Ais an important feature of the empirical analysis because it follows the design of the analytical framework in which tax collections from resource rich states are translated to federal expenditures in states that are not endowed with this tax base. TranslatingCOW Ato the state level does not capture this feature because no collections were made from the resource poor states.
Moving to the second stage of the treatment construction, we take the FF V (…tted values) of each state, and merge them into a single treatment e¤ect, which we denote by CA (representing
an abbreviation of COWA).23 This measure, hence, gives the COWA-driven real per capita federal expenditures in each state (net of transfers and payments to individuals), representing the treatment examined in the analysis. Importantly, it has both cross-sectional and time variation. Its basic descriptive statistics are outlined in Table 1. Notably, the meanCAis around 40$ (with a standard deviation of approximately 28$). This, in turn, suggests that while the scope of COWA may be relatively small compared to the general federal revenues, the extent to which it impacts state-speci…c federal expenditures may nevertheless induce an observable CS e¤ect,24 and hence enable the identi…cation of its sign and other relevant characteristics.
Thus, the treatment we examine is CA, during the period of 1980-1986. The treated group (RR, denoting resource rich), under the benchmark analysis, includes the states that had at least some positive income from natural resources during the treatment years; this de…nition applies to 32 states. The control group (N RR, denoting non resource rich) includes the remaining 18 states. The list of states included in each group is provided in the data Appendix. Despite its inclusion of relatively resource poor states in the treated group, we adopt this division for the baseline estimation as it ensures that the tax bases of the economies in the control group are not a¤ected by the tax policy examined.
To that end, we employ an annual-based panel of the 50 U.S. states that covers the period of 1963-2007, with which we estimate variations of the following model, for state iat timet:
taxratesi;t = + (CA RR)i;t 1+ (CA N RR)i;t 1+ (X)i;t 1+ t+ i+ i;t: (10) In terms of notation,taxratesrepresents either statutory or average tax rates. Our primary focus, however, is on the former because it is independent of the tax base. In each case, we examine the three main types of state tax rates, namely income, corporate, and sales tax rates. The statutory versions are the top income and corporate tax rates and the given sales tax rates. The average versions are measured as the GSP share of the tax revenues levied from each tax type (income, corporate, or sales). For each case (statutory or average) we construct a baseline tax rate that incorporates the three separate tax rates. In e¤ect, this baseline version is a weighted average of the three, with the weights being the share of the tax revenues of each in their sum, in the initial year (1963).25 These weights represent the relative size of each tax base in each state. Constructing
This method is inspired by the methodology of Frankel and Romer (1999) and Raveh and Reshef (2016). More formally,CAi
t=FF V;ti ; however, sinceF VF V;tis estimated for eachiseparately,CArepresents their aggregate, across
alli. As an example, in the …rst stageF VF V;t is estimated separately for, e.g., Alabama (AL) and California (CA);
thereafter, in the second stageF VAL
F V;tandF VF V;tCA are aggregated intoCAit, which similarly includesF VF V;tfor alli.
As the earlier discussion suggests, states do not observe the revenue source of the federal expenditures. In e¤ect, states'reaction is to the federal expenditures, which they do observe and which are COWA-driven in the case ofCA.
them based on data in the initial year of the sample enables highlighting the general cross-state di¤erences while mitigating endogeneity related concerns. In addition, using the same weights in both the statutory and average cases ensures that both tax rates pertain to the same underlying tax base.
The variable CA denotes the treatment constructed previously. The measures RR and N RR are binary variables that capture the states included in each of these groups as described above. Their interaction is examined at t 1 because COWA collections are undertaken throughout the year and the vertical reactions, via taxrates, are expected to occur thereafter. Last, t and i are state and year …xed e¤ects that control for unobserved time-invariant state heterogeneity, and state-invariant within-year shocks. Importantly, the latter control for changes in the oil price, which as noted are tied to the COWA revenues yet may a¤ect local income more broadly (as indicated, for instance, by Acemoglu, Finkelstein, and Notowidigdo (2013)).
X is a vector that includes various relevant measures that are suggested by the model and previous research; these enter the model in t 1 to capture benchmark levels at the time the shock occurs.26 First, real GSP per capita, which controls for income di¤erences; importantly, this also captures income e¤ects manifested via changes in the oil price. Second, real per capita state expenditures, which controls for the demand for public goods. Third, real per capita inter-governmental transfers from the federal government to the states, which controls for transfer-driven state …scal behavior (Smart (1998)). Last, annual changes in states' real per capita capital stock (derived from Garofalo and Yamarik (2002) and its extension),27 and population to control for potential factor movements that may occur due to both COWA-driven and resource-driven changes in state tax rates.28
Some further points regarding the empirical model. Its form is motivated by condition (8), and the di¤erence-in-di¤erences approach.29 Note that the separate components of the interaction
state tax revenues from income/corporate/sales tax in 1963, respectively. Then, weight_x = x=sum, where
x 2 (inc63; corp63; sales63), represent the weights for each tax type, for 1963. Finally, the baseline tax rate at
yeartis de…ned as: Baseline_taxt= (inct weight_inc63) + (corpt weight_corp63) + (salest weight_sales63).
ComputingBaseline_tax1980for the case of New York as an example, in 1963 the shares of income/corporate/sales
tax revenues in their sum were0:48, 0:19, and 0:33, respectively. The statutory income/corporate/sales tax rates were0:14,0:1, and0:04, respectively. Therefore,Baseline_tax1980= 0:14 0:48 + 0:19 0:1 + 0:33 0:04 = 0:0994.
2 6Nonetheless, results remain qualitatively and quantitatively similar if these measures are considered in their
contemporaneous form.
2 7Speci…cally, Garofalo and Yamarik (2002) provide these data for the pre-1997 years. Post-1996 …gures are based
on their extension of their original data, available on the second author's homepage.
The model suggests, via its additional analysis in the Appendix, that changes in resource income may a¤ect
ti. This result was discussed in previous studies that examined tax competition settings with state-heterogeneity in
non-mobile endowments (Cai and Treisman (2005), Perez-Sebastian and Raveh (2016), Perez-Sebastian, Raveh, and Reingewertz (2016), and Raveh (2013)), and substantiated empirically by James (2014).
Condition (8) suggests examining the di¤erence in federal tax rate on the di¤erence in the state tax rate. The variableCAmimics the former, as it captures the federal expenditures triggered by the additional federal tax revenues
terms are excluded; this is because the average CA e¤ect is absorbed by the inclusion of both interactions, and the state-division variables (RR and N RR) are absorbed by the state …xed ef-fects. The inclusion of both interactions, in lieu of the average e¤ect, stands at the center of the decomposition analysis, as we further explain below. Nonetheless, as an initial analysis, we also examine a speci…cation in which the average e¤ect is included in lieu of theN RRinteraction term. Wherever possible, explanatory variables enter the analyses in their natural logarithm form to bet-ter account for potential outliers.30 Examining the e¤ects of a federal, common shock, we follow a relatively conservative two-way clustering approach and cluster the standard errors by state and year. Unless speci…ed otherwise, variables are derived from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis and the U.S. Census Bureau. Further sources and descriptions of all variables are outlined in the data Appendix. Table 1 provides descriptive statistics for the general sample; Appendix Table A4 provides the same, for the RRand N RRgroups separately.
Our main focus is on the coe¢ cients and , with a particular emphasis on the latter. Together they give the total di¤erence in di¤erences in the vertical tax reactions to CA. The total vertical response, which we seek to decompose, is the sum of common-pool and CS e¤ects. The basic insight employed is that the …scal reaction coming from N RR ( ) is driven by g G complementarities or substitutabilities, once factor movements are controlled for. Hence, is indicative of the CS channel. Importantly, its interpretation does not rely on additional assumptions, such as imposing equal complementarity patterns across the nation.
In turn, the …scal reaction coming from RR ( ) is driven by both g G complementarities or substitutabilities, and common-pool e¤ects. To be able to interpret as indicative of the common-pool e¤ect we require that the degrees of theg G CS e¤ect be similar across theRR and N RR groups. In such a case the common-pool-driven component can be isolated from by subtracting from it. Nonetheless, given this additional assumption we interpret the estimates of with more caution, and maintain a primary focus on .
The identi…cation strategy is based on various points. First, on the plausibly exogenous charac-teristics of COWA as described earlier, including its enactment, annual shocks, and repeal. Second, on the geographically-based nature of the state-division. Examining the list of N RR states and comparing it to the long averages of resource income that appear in Figure 3 we see that these states had almost no income from resources during all sample years. Based on this observation
collected each year, due to the change in the tax rate. The latter is applicable via the di¤erence-in-di¤erences approach. Hence, the baseline speci…cation examines the dependent variable in levels. Nonetheless, we show in a later sub-section that the main results are robust to the inclusion of a lagged dependent variable. In addition, as will be evident, in cases where each group is examined separately we control for a lagged dependent variable, to examine changes directly.
we assume that this resource scarcity is geographically entrenched, and hence plausibly exogenous. Last, on an identifying variation that relies on a common-trend between the treatment and control groups in non-treatment years, which we discuss next.
3.3 Initial analysis
The main speci…cation, namely equation (10), enables observing the reactions of RR and N RR. To motivate this form, within a di¤erence-in-di¤erences framework, and present a formal test of common trends in non-treatment years, we start with estimating the following, standard di¤erence-in-di¤erences speci…cation:
taxratesi;t= + (CA)i;t 1+ (CA RR)i;t 1+ (X)i;t 1+ t+ i+ i;t: (11)
The key di¤erence from the baseline speci…cation is the inclusion of CA in lieu of N RR CA. In this case, therefore, gives the total di¤erence in di¤erences (equivalent to – in the baseline model). Results appear in Table 2. Column 1 (2) represents the case in which taxrates is the baseline statutory (average) tax rate. The precisely estimated negative s indicate that the treatment yields a di¤erence in the di¤erences, in the expected direction. This result, in turn, motivates the decomposition of this observed di¤erence in the di¤erences in the following (main) analysis.
Within this initial speci…cation we can also test for common trends in non-treatment years. To do so, we consider the following model:
taxratesi;t = + (CA)i;t 1+ z[(CA RR)i;t 1 Y earz] + (X)i;t 1+ i+ i;t; (12) where z2 (1963;2007), and Y earz is a dummy for year z. In e¤ect, this speci…cation undertakes a generalized di¤erence-in-di¤erences estimation of equation (11), in which the total di¤erence (CA RR) in interacted with the sample years (1963-2007), t is excluded, and taxrates is the baseline statuary tax rate.31 The reference year is 1963. The results ( zs and their 95% con…dence interval bands) are plotted in Figure 6. As observed, z is negative and precisely estimated only in COWA years. Conversely, in pre-1980 and post-1986 years (i.e. non-COWA periods) its magnitude (in absolute value) and statistical preciseness signi…cantly drop.32 These patterns illustrate the common-trend in non-COWA years.
The latter point deserves further comment. A key factor in our identi…cation strategy is the 3 1The variableCAin this case is assigned a value of 1 in non-treatment years to identify the separate year e¤ects. 3 2
Notably, a plot of a generalized di¤erence-in-di¤erences version of the main speci…cation, presented in the following sub-section, points at a similar observation.
oil price. On one hand, it provides plausibly exogenous variation for the treatment. On the other, however, it may be argued that it contributes to the di¤erential e¤ect observed in treatment years. Figures 1 and 6 deliver a central observation that addresses this issue. We see in Figure 1 that the oil price changes continuously throughout our sample period; nevertheless, it does not yield an observable di¤erence in the di¤erences during non-treatment years in Figure 6, even in periods of extreme changes such as during the 1970s. This, in turn, suggests that the magnitude of its di¤erent e¤ect on the RR and N RR groups is common throughout the sample. Hence, we can assume that it remains similar as well during treatment years. We consider further aspects of this issue in the empirical analysis, including controlling for time …xed e¤ects and undertaking placebo tests that examine pre-COWA years.
3.4 Benchmark results
Next, we present the results of the main analysis, which are outlined in Table 3. Column 1 estimates equation (10), in whichtaxratesis the baseline statutory tax rate. This represents our benchmark speci…cation. The estimated and provide the key empirical insights. Starting with the former, the precisely estimated positive , representing the portion of the response coming from N RR, points at a positive CS e¤ect. The positive sign suggests thatgandGare on average complements; an increase in federal expenditures, via the additional COWA federal tax collections, increases the tax rates in N RR states. Recall that this represents a net e¤ect, under a sub-sample of federal expenditures.33 Nonetheless, to interpret the magnitude, a one standard deviation increase in CA (28$) increases the baseline statutory tax rate by about 0:19 percentage points, or approximately one tenth of its standard deviation.34
Moving to the latter, under the additional assumption that the degree of complementarity is similar across state-groups, the signi…cant negative suggests that the common-pool e¤ect is negative. An increase in the COWA-driven federal expenditures decreases the baseline statutory tax rates in RR states due to a contraction in the oil-related tax base. By comparing to it can be deduced that the CS-driven vertical reaction comprises approximately 38% of the total reaction;35 the common-pool-driven portion accounts for the balance. To observe these patterns
Some federal expenditures items substitute state-level ones, while others complement it. We observe the aggregate, net e¤ect. In addition, as noted expenditure items that induce mechanic complementarity (i.e. matching grants) are excluded.
A one standard deviation inCA, 0.028 (thousand $), multiplied by the estimate on (0.067) is 0.0019, which is 0.19 percentage points, or about one tenth of the standard deviation of the baseline statutory tax rate, namely 0.02.
This is calculated in three steps. First, we subtract from ; this yields the magnitude of the common-pool e¤ect ( 0:041 0:067). Second, we take the common-pool measure in absolute value, and add to it (0:108 + 0:067); this gives the magnitude of the total vertical response. Last, we a divide by the latter (0:067=0:175); this provides the portion of the CS channel in the overall vertical …scal reaction.
graphically, Figure 7 plots the estimates obtained from estimating a version of equation (10), in which the treatment (CA) is interacted with the sample years (1963-2007), forRRand N RR, and the year …xed e¤ects are excluded. The negative (positive) impact inRR(N RR) during treatment years is clearly observed.36
In the next two columns we examine the two groups,RR and N RR, separately to observe the distinct e¤ects more directly, outside the scope of the di¤erence. Column 2 examines the restricted sample of the N RR states; Column 3 focuses on the remaining, RR states. Because this division does not focus on the di¤erence in di¤erences it yields a level regression that is inconsistent with condition (8). To correct for that we estimate a dynamic version of equation (10), by adding a lagged dependent variable. In addition, the interaction terms are excluded (CA RR and CA N RR) in lieu of the average e¤ect (CA) on which we focus. Last, to address the potential Nickell bias (Nickell (1981)) we follow the Arellano-Bond estimation procedure (Arellano and Bond (1991)) in which a …rst-di¤erence of equation (10) is examined (hence, state …xed e¤ects are dropped) and explanatory variables are instrumented using their lagged values.
The coe¢ cient on CA provides the expected result in both cases, supporting the patterns ob-served in Figure 6 during the years 1980-1986. In Column 2 (N RR case) it is positive, yet in Column 3 (RR case) it is negative. This distinction provides further clari…cation of the decompo-sition undertaken in the earlier cases. It is not the case that the observed positive e¤ect in the N RRgroup is relative to theRRone which experienced a steep fall; rather,N RRstates increased their tax rates as a response to COWA regardless of RR's behavior, pointing more directly at complementarity-driven vertical tax reactions.
Departing from the case of statutory tax rates, Columns 4-6 follow the speci…cations of Columns 1-3 with the dependent variable (taxrates) being the baseline average tax rates. The results are similar in sign, magnitude, and precision to those obtained under the statutory cases. Speci…cally, the CS (common-pool) is positive (negative), and accounts for approximately 40% of the total vertical response.
3.5 Tax disaggregation
A key question that emerges from the benchmark analysis relates to the underlying sources. How are the CS and common-pool e¤ects manifested? To address that we next follow a disaggregated approach to the main analysis, examining di¤erent types of state tax rates; speci…cally, those that comprise the baseline versions. Results appear in Table 4. We follow the benchmark speci…cations, as per Columns 1 and 4 of Table 3, wheretaxratesdenote categories of either statutory or average
tax rates. In the former case, we test the cases of the top corporate and income tax rates, as well as the overall sales tax rates (Columns 1-3); in the latter case, we examine the cases of the average corporate, income, and sales tax rates (Columns 4-6).
Two key observations emerge from the estimations. First, the CS channel appears to be mani-fested primarily via sales and income taxation. This is suggested by the results of in each of the columns. Interpreting the sign and signi…cance, rather than magnitudes, only the cases of income and sales tax rates exhibit a precisely estimated, positive outcome. This suggests that as a response to a federal tax shock, the average N RR state …nds it most e¤ective to increase its tax revenues through the labor side. Second, the negative common-pool e¤ect appears to be triggered by a de-crease in both (RR) capital and labor taxation. This is suggested by the estimates of , which are constantly lower than in all cases. This is consistent with the notion that under the common-pool there is a general contraction of the tax base. Unlike the case of the CS e¤ect, in which state gov-ernments choose the source of …nance, in the case of the common-pool the contraction is apparent across the board.
3.6 g-G complementarities
The main analysis focuses on vertical tax reactions, and the role of the CS channel within them. The latter, however, operates through the production side via complementarities or substitutabilities between the federal and state expenditures. In this sub-section we examine this link more directly, in an attempt to shed further light on the nature of the underlying mechanism of the CS-driven vertical tax response.
The treatment e¤ect indicates how COWA collections are translated to federal expenditures. Next, we test its e¤ect on the overall state expenditures, as well as on the more speci…c, main expenditure categories, namely transportation, education, health, welfare, and safety. We do so by estimating a variation of equation (10) in which taxratesis replaced by the real per capita state expenditures in each of the categories.37 We undertake a separate estimation for each case. Results appear in Table 5. Column 1 presents the case of overall state expenditures, whereas Columns 2-6 examine the more speci…c expenditure categories.
As noted, the CS relationship is more clearly observed in the N RR states, hence similar to the previous cases our focus is on . The positive and precise s in Columns 1-3 indicate that g and Gare, on average, complements, and that this is primarily due tog Gcomplementarities in 3 7These variables enter the regressions in their natural logarithm form. This transformation enables mitigating
the impact of outliers, and is enabled in this case given that there are no zero expenditures in any of the categories. Nonetheless, similar patterns are observed in case the outcome variables enter the estimated model in levels.
transportation and welfare expenditures.38 This lends support to the initial motivating example, and indicates that federal expenditures related to these categories complement state public goods and thus induce increases in state expenditures. To interpret the magnitude, a one standard deviation increase in the treatment (28$) induces an increase of approximately1$in transportation-related state expenditures, and an additional 1$ in welfare-related state expenditures.39 In the remaining categories estimates point at an ambiguous CS relationship, where some complementarity may exist but nonetheless counteracted by some concurrent substitutability; interestingly, no clear substitutability e¤ect is apparent in any of the categories.
3.7 Robustness tests
To this point we presented the benchmark results on and . In this sub-section we undertake some robustness checks to examine whether the baseline patterns are robust to various modi…ca-tions. Speci…cally, we test additional speci…cations, sample restrictions, and resource abundance thresholds, as well as undertake placebo tests to further motivate the role of COWA in our results.
3.7.1 Speci…cations, state divisions, and sample restrictions
The baseline speci…cation, as per Column 1 of Table 3, followed the speci…cation of equation (10) due to the di¤erence in di¤erences framework that, as noted, maintains consistency with condition (8). We start by testing the robustness of the main results to adopting a framework that examines the di¤erence in di¤erences in the changes in the dependent variable. We do so by adding a lagged dependent variable to the speci…cation.40 To address the potential Nickell bias (Nickell (1981)), we follow the previously outlined Arellano-Bond estimation procedure (Arellano and Bond (1991)). Results appear in Column 1 of Table 6. The estimated and indicate that the main results are robust to this speci…cation.
Second, the baseline analysis examines the sample period of 1963-2007. One concern is that the relatively long pre-period may a¤ect the extent to which the null hypothesis is rejected. We address this in two ways. First, we consider a shorter time period; speci…cally, we limit the pre-event and post-pre-event periods to 10 years, hence restricting the sample to the overall period of 1970-1996. Second, following Bertrand, Du‡o, and Mullainathan (2004), we collapse the sample
This gains further support via the previously noted evidence (provided in the Appendix) on the translation of COWA collections to federal expenditures in these categories.
3 9Notably, this presents a lower-bound estimate. As noted, the treatment e¤ect excludes federal expenditure
categories that are expected to induce mechanic complementarities with state expenditures (i.e. matching grants). An increase inCAmay therefore induce further CS-driven increases ingvia this mechanic, excluded channel.
This speci…cation is equivalent to one in which the dependent variable is the rate of change between periodt 1
into three periods that represent the averages of the pre-treatment, treatment, and post-treatment time intervals. Results appear in Columns 2 and 3 of Table 6, respectively. Both cases indicate that the sign, precision, and relative magnitude of are robust to these modi…cations.
Third, the benchmark results are dependent on the division of states into the two groups. The division is motivated by the model, but is speci…c to the case of having no resource income in COWA-years. To test whether the results are division-speci…c, we consider two di¤erent divisions. In the …rst, theN RRgroup includes all states that had no resource income over the whole sample period, 1963-2007, with the RR group accounting for the balance. In the second, the RR group includes the 8 states with the highest average share of severance tax income in total tax income during our sample period, as presented in Figure 3, with theN RR group accounting for the balance. The list of states under each division is presented in the Appendix. The results appear in Columns 4 and 5 of Table 6. In both cases the estimated and exhibit the same characteristics as those estimated in the benchmark case, indicating that the main results are robust to these changes. Interestingly, the magnitude of the common-pool e¤ect increases in the second case, due to the composition of theRR group (which unlike the baseline division, includes states with large resource endowments only); in this case, the CS e¤ect accounts for approximately29% of the vertical response.
Fourth, we test the case where 1980 is excluded from the sample. As noted, the Fi measure is provided by the U.S. Census starting in 1981; its expansion to 1980 was done manually, and required additional assumptions. To test the robustness of the main results to this expansion, in Column 6 of Table 6 we follow the baseline case (Column 1 of Table 3), with 1980 excluded from the sample. The estimated and are qualitatively and quantitatively similar to those estimated under the complete sample period.
Last, we examine the case where the COWA tax collections are assumed to be equally distributed across the nation. As noted, the constructed treatment, CA, implicitly assumes that the COWA revenues were allocated to states based on the relative allocations of other federal expenditures. Testing the robustness of the results to this approach, we next assume that these revenues were allocated equally on per capita terms. Hence, CAi;t in this case is COW At P opP opn;ti;t, where the numerator is state (i) population, and the denominator is the national (n) population, both in year t. The results in Column 7 of Table 6 indicate that this alternative allocative rule yields similar patterns.
3.7.2 Placebo tests
One concern that may arise from the empirical analysis lies in its relation to the oil price. Recall that the variation in COWA tax collections are primarily based on variation in the price of oil.
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https://apnews.com/article/2976e79c08074c7cbbd38c80370994bd
Rashon Nelson
Donte Robinson
The Latest: Starbucks pact with 2 men includes free college
May 2, 2018 GMT
PHILADELPHIA (AP) — The Latest on the case of two black men arrested at a Philadelphia Starbucks (all times local):
Starbucks says a settlement it reached with two black men arrested at one of its Philadelphia shops includes an offer of a free college education.
The coffee shop chain says the two can complete their degrees through a partnership it has with Arizona State University.
Starbucks and the men said Wednesday that the full terms of the financial settlement will remain confidential.
The announcement came the same day Rashon Nelson and Donte Robinson reached an agreement with Philadelphia. They will each get a symbolic $1 each from the city, and Philadelphia has pledged $200,000 to start a program for young entrepreneurs.
The men were led away in handcuffs from a Starbucks last month after the manager called police, saying they refused to buy anything or leave. They were released from jail with no charges filed.
Starbucks says it has reached a financial settlement with two black men arrested for sitting at a Philadelphia Starbucks without ordering anything.
The company says it is not yet disclosing the details.
The announcement came the same day the two men reached a settlement with the city of Philadelphia. Under that agreement, the two men will each get a symbolic $1 each and the city pledged $200,000 to start a program for young entrepreneurs.
The arrest of Rashon Nelson and Donte Robinson on April 12 touched off a furor around the U.S. over racial profiling.
They were led away in handcuffs after the manager called police, saying the men refused to buy anything or leave. After spending hours in jail, they were released and no charges were filed.
Starbucks CEO Kevin Johnson came to Philadelphia to personally apologize. He also announced Starbucks stores would close May 29 for training on bias.
Two black men arrested for sitting at a Philadelphia Starbucks without ordering anything have settled with the city for a symbolic $1 each and a promise from officials to set up a $200,000 program for young entrepreneurs.
The men's lawyer and Mayor Jim Kenney outlined the agreement to The Associated Press.
The men said they were waiting for a business meeting about a potential real estate deal.

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


Brand-name shoes for CHF 49 instead of CHF 149 – a tempting offer. Internet bargain hunters may fall victim to fraudsters. The security experts at SWITCH warn that the number of fraudulent offers online has increased drastically in 2017. Together with the Swiss authorities, SWITCH is taking measures to fight this threat and has reported its first successes in combating e-commerce crime.
Internet users who visit fraudulent websites are exposed to several risks: they provide their credit card information along with email and postal addresses to criminal organisations. After making payment, they receive merchandise of inferior quality – if they receive anything at all.
To better protect internet users against threats when visiting .ch websites, the foundation has intensified its cooperation with the Federal Office of Police (fedpol) and other Swiss authorities, and has automated the processes for assisting the authorities. The security experts have also created a list of five tips for secure online shopping.
Legitimate online shops are protected by a secure web connection. When you arrive at the 'Checkout' process, at the very latest, you should be able to recognise a legitimate webshop by its security attributes, such as a green lock icon and use of https:// instead of http://. Both security attributes are visible in the address line of your browser.
Be suspicious of brand-name product offerings with unusually big discounts.
Have an overall look at the provider: does its name, logo and web address seem credible? If you are unfamiliar with the shop, ask around to see whether other people have had a good experience with it. Fraudsters like to use web addresses of legitimate, albeit defunct, websites. This allows them to exploit the recognition factor and a better Google ranking.
Switzerland requires websites to include an imprint (Impressum). Websites that offer merchandise, works or services must disclose their identity with a name and contact address. The link to the imprint is usually found at the bottom of a website. Be suspicious if a link, such as in this example, is missing or if the information provided does not seem credible. If in doubt, check the website address with www.nic.ch; this website operated by SWITCH lists the contact address given by the holder of the domain name when it was registered. But beware: this address may be fictitious. Avoid a webshop if this information seems dubious to you.
If a Swiss authority (e.g. fedpol, MELANI, Comlot, ESBK, SECO, Swissmedic) comes across a .ch website that is potentially in violation of the law in the course of its work, it attempts to contact the owner of the .ch domain name. This requires a contact address in Switzerland. If the domain name owner has registered an invalid address or an address outside the country in the SWITCH database, the authority contacts SWITCH. The foundation then gives the owner 30 days to provide a valid address in Switzerland. If the deadline passes without a response, SWITCH deletes the domain name and the fraudulent website is no longer accessible. This procedure is in line with the Federal Ordinance on Internet Domains (IDomsO).
The security experts at SWITCH have been very proactive in fighting cybercrime for several years now, particularly in the case of malware and phishing. As a result, .ch has become Europe's most secure domain ending. Together with partners in the Swiss internet industry, SWITCH also started the Safer Internet initiative. SWITCH is also working closely with the Swiss authorities in the area of white-collar crime. The goal is always the same: to offer Swiss internet users maximum protection against threats.


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U.S. Department of Transportation Requests Public Input on Rural Infrastructure
Home News & Publications News U.S. Department of Transportation Requests Public Input on Rural Infrastructure
U.S. Secretary of Transportation Elaine L. Chao today announced a Request for Information (RFI) to receive feedback from the public and stakeholders on rural transportation needs and opportunities. The RFI is part of the U.S. Department of Transportation's (DOT) Rural Opportunities to Use Transportation for Economic Success (ROUTES) Initiative.
"We want to hear from rural communities how the Department of Transportation can better support their critical transportation infrastructure," said U.S. Transportation Secretary Elaine L. Chao. "In addition to the data and experience DOT already has, the ROUTES Council will review and use public input to guide the evaluation of rural projects and improve funding options," said Acting Under Secretary of Transportation for Policy Joel Szabat. Rural communities and their transportation networks are critical for the success of the American economy. They are instrumental in building and supplying essential goods to all communities across our Nation.
Yet rural transportation infrastructure has significant challenges. Although only one-fifth of Americans live in rural America, traffic fatalities are disproportionately high on rural roadways, totaling 46% of fatalities in 2018. Maintaining the large network of rural roads – which comprise 70% of America's road miles – is challenging for rural communities who have significantly strained financial resources. The new ROUTES Initiative addresses these national transportation challenges by assisting rural stakeholders to better understand how to access DOT grants and financing products and developing data-driven approaches to assess needs and benefits of rural transportation projects. Secretary Chao established a Departmental Order that created a new internal deliberative body at the Department, the ROUTES Council, to oversee the Initiative. It is led by the Acting Under Secretary of Transportation for Policy and is comprised of DOT leadership including Administrators of modes across DOT.
The RFI seeks input on concerns with rural infrastructure safety, condition, and usage, as well as stakeholders' experiences using DOT discretionary grant and finance programs. To learn more about the ROUTES Initiative, visit www.transportation.gov/rural.
U.S. Department of Transportation Requests Public Input on Rural Infrastructure2019-12-202019-12-20https://test-ru-cait.pantheonsite.io/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/logo.svgRutgers CAIThttps://cait.rutgers.edu/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/lvkahtnp_400x400.jpg200px200px


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Salihorsk authorities issue warning to candidate Viktar Malochka
On 6 September, the election commission of Salihorsk-based constituency No. 68 issued a warning to candidate Viktar Malochka for a number of violations of election campaigning rules.
In particular, Viktar Malochka was warned for moving his election picket. The election commission said the move was "a street manifestation", which had to be applied for two days before its conduct.
Apart from that, the candidate was accused of illegal distribution of election leaflets, including those having the logo of the "For Free Elections" campaign. Meanwhile, Mr. Malochka says he and his campaign team have nothing to do with the production and distribution of the printed materials.
The candidate has already submitted a complaint to the constituency election commission, saying that the warning was illegal.


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Home / Sports Memorabilia / Texas Sports Hall of Fame Museum Grand Prairie Texas 1982 Brochure
Texas Sports Hall of Fame Museum Grand Prairie Texas 1982 Brochure
1982 full color quad-fold brochure for the Texas Sports Hall of Fame museum on East Safari Parkway in Grand Prairie Texas. The museum opened in Grand Prairie in 1981 and closed in 1986 (it was dormant for 7 years and then later reopened in a new location in Waco in 1993).
The brochure includes a description of the museum exhibits and photos of attractions and displays. The back cover has the 1982 hours, general information, and a location map.
The brochure is in very good condition.


The Prophet Joel said the Day of the Lord is coming! Is this just some ancient wacko prophet? Or does he have something to tell us? And if the Day of the Lord is coming, what should you do?
Joel says to repent. We usually think of repentance as getting "right with God," but for the prophets repentance is also about "getting right" with our fellow human beings.
Joel says that we often act like a destructive swarm of locusts, uniting with one another against a common enemy. Joel invites us to repent from that way of life because the Day of the Lord is coming! But is the Day of the Lord something we should fear? Watch the latest video in the Bible Matters series below as I explore these questions about this fascinating book in the Bible.
For more in the Bible Matters series, click here!


Does the movie producer really want a movie lawyer or entertainment legal professional as a matter of skilled follow? 29. Acrobats provide a energetic addition to an occasion. There are quite a few websites providing online movies, a few of them are free too and some charge a tiny cost. Select from our large library of entertainment, plus live TELEVISION channels like CNN Worldwide, CNBC, BBC World Information and Sport 24. Nigel Ferreira started playing the guitar at age 14. In 1976, together with pals, he fashioned the extremely popular 5-member group Colonel & Firm, by which he was the lead singer and rhythm guitarist.
Typically you need the adrenalin rush and action comparable to what the Black Panther movie brings to see the brighter side of life" – said a film lover, Audrey as she walked out of the Silverbird Cinemas at the Accra mall after having fun with an unique pre-screening of the Black Panther. Based in 1973 as retail music distributor Records on Wheels, 12 by 2003 the company had begun to increase into house entertainment distribution, and worldwide movie and television acquisition and production by means of the acquisition of Alliance Films , along with other distributors and studios.
However consider this: if the film producer sells or choices the undertaking, one of the first things that the movie distributor or film buyer (or its personal movie and entertainment attorney counsel) will want to see, is the "chain of title" and growth and manufacturing file, complete with all signed agreements. Blockbuster movies are launched in almost a hundred different languages and finally the income collection is solely through the roof.
What the main drawback with specializing in nothing however entertainment-associated "news" is, is the fact that our society is not holding itself informed about the main issues and current events in our society when they're continuously bombarded with nothing but entertainment industry "information." The complacency with which most have ALLOWED this to happen is the saddest a part of this, as a result of the common person now not cares about major issues or world occasions.
The movie production's agreements needs to be drafted with care by the entertainment lawyer, and ought to be personalized to embody the particular characteristics of the production. Plenty of websites present on-line music, protecting virtually all the languages available on the internet. As an illustration music concerts, stay TELEVISION exhibits, reside sports activities, theatres and any other activity that you could possibly consider that is aimed to amuse individuals.


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2 September 2008 Diversity and cold adaptation of microorganisms isolated from the Schirmacher Oasis, Antarctica
Nazia Mojib; Asim K. Bej; Richard Hoover
Nazia Mojib,1 Asim K. Bej,1 Richard Hoover2
1Univ. of Alabama at Birmingham (United States)
2National Space Science and Technology Ctr., NASA (United States)
Proceedings Volume 7097, Instruments, Methods, and Missions for Astrobiology XI; 70970K (2008) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.795394
We have investigated the feasibility of the PCR amplification of the 16S rRNA genes from eubacteria and Archea on samples collected on Whatman FTA filters from Schirmacher Oasis for the study of culture-independent analysis of the microbial diversity. Both conventional PCR and real-time TaqmaTM PCR successfully amplified the targeted genes. A number of diverse groups of psychrotolerant microorganisms with various pigments have been isolated when cultured on agar medium. 16S rRNA gene analysis of these isolates helped us to identify closest taxonomic genus Pseudomonas, Frigoribacterium, Arthrobacter, Flavobacterium, and Janthinobacterium. It is possible that the pigments play protective role from solar UV radiation, which is prevalent in Antarctic continent especially during Austral summer months. Study of the expression of cold adaptive protein CapB and ice-binding protein IBP using western blots showed positive detection of both or either of these proteins in 6 out of 8 isolates. Since the CapB and IBP protein structure greatly varies in microorganisms, it is possible that the 2 isolates with negative results could have a different class of these proteins. The expression of the CapB and the IBP in these isolates suggest that these proteins are essential for the survival in the Antarctic cold and subzero temperatures and protect themselves from freeze-damage. The current study provided sufficient data to further investigate the rich and diverse biota of psychrotolerant extremophiles in the Antarctic Schirmacher Oasis using both culture-independent and culture-based approaches; and understand the mechanisms of cold tolerance.
Nazia Mojib, Asim K. Bej, and Richard Hoover "Diversity and cold adaptation of microorganisms isolated from the Schirmacher Oasis, Antarctica", Proc. SPIE 7097, Instruments, Methods, and Missions for Astrobiology XI, 70970K (2 September 2008); https://doi.org/10.1117/12.795394
Tolerancing
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Nazia Mojib, Asim K. Bej, Richard Hoover, "Diversity and cold adaptation of microorganisms isolated from the Schirmacher Oasis, Antarctica," Proc. SPIE 7097, Instruments, Methods, and Missions for Astrobiology XI, 70970K (2 September 2008); https://doi.org/10.1117/12.795394


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Jaylen Maurice Barford (Jackson, Tennessee, ) es un baloncestista estadounidense que pertenece a la plantilla del Lokomotiv Kuban de la VTB League. Con 1,91 metros de estatura, juega en la posición de base.

Trayectoria deportiva

Universidad
Barford comenzó su carrera universitaria en el Motlow State Community College, donde promedió 20,6 puntos, 7,1 rebotes, 5,1 asistencias y 2,4 robos de balón por partido como freshman. Fue elegido en el mejor quinteto de la TCCAA. En su temporada sophomore lideró a todos los jugadores de junior college del país, promediando 26,2 puntos por partido, siendo incluido en el mejor quinteto All-American de la NJCAA.

Tras esas dos exitosas temporadas fue transferido a los Razorbacks de la Universidad de Arkansas, donde jugó dos temporadas más, en las que promedió 15,6 puntos, 3,8 rebotes, 2,3 asistencias y 1,1 robos de balón por partido. En su última temporada fue incluido por los entrenadores en el mejor quinteto de la Southeastern Conference y en el segundo por Associated Press.

Estadísticas

Estadísticas universitrarias sólo de sus dos años en Arkansas.

Profesional
Tras no ser elegido en el Draft de la NBA de 2018, disputó las Ligas de Verano de la NBA con los Minnesota Timberwolves, promediando 3,5 puntos y 1,5 rebotes en dos partidos. en el mes de julio formó con los Charlotte Hornets para disputar la pretemporada, pero fue cortado en octubre, pasando a formar parte poco después de su equipo dilial en la G League, los Greensboro Swarm.

El 8 de febrero de 2021, se compromete con el Vanoli Cremona de la Lega Basket Serie A, la primera categoría del baloncesto italiano.

En la temporada 2021-22, firma por el B.C. Astana para disputar la Liga Nacional de Baloncesto de Kazajistán y la VTB League.

En febrero de 2022, firma por el Lokomotiv Kuban de la VTB League.

Referencias

Enlaces externos
 Bio en arkansasrazorbacks.com
 Estadísticas en la NCAA
 Ficha en Realgm.com
 Ficha en gleague.nba.com

Redes sociales

Baloncestistas de Tennessee
Baloncestistas de los Arkansas Razorbacks
Baloncestistas de los Greensboro Swarm
Baloncestistas del Victoria Libertas Pesaro
Baloncestistas del Pallacanestro Virtus Roma
Baloncestistas del Guerino Vanoli Basket
Baloncestistas del B.C. Astana
Baloncestistas del Lokomotiv Kuban

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


Mission Bay Parks Open Spaces. Green Places. On the Edge of SF Bay.
The Mission Bay Parks Calendar is updated frequently with new events. Please check back often.
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text:
Quartet Of Actors Join Clive Owen In Steven Soderbergh's Cinemax Series 'The Knick'
By Nellie Andreeva
Nellie Andreeva
Co-Editor-in-Chief, TV
@DeadlineNellie
More Stories By Nellie
'Riverdale' Midseason Return On the CW Delayed By Critics Choice Awards Move
Peak TV: Scripted Originals Rebounded In 2021 To Hit New Record Despite Pandemic, FX Tally Reveals
EXCLUSIVE: Andre Holland (42), Juliet Rylance (Sinister), Eve Hewson (Enough Said) and Michael Angarano (Empire State) are set to co-star opposite Clive Owen in Cinemax's 10-part series The Knick, directed by Steven Soderbergh. Oscar winner Soderbergh is set to direct all 10 episodes of the project, written by Jack Amiel and Michael Begler. Set in downtown New York in 1900, The Knick centers on Knickerbocker Hospital and the groundbreaking surgeons, nurses and staff who push the bounds of medicine in a time of astonishingly high mortality rates and zero antibiotics. Holland, repped by Paradigm and Brookside Artist Management, will play Algernon, a gifted, black Harvard-trained surgeon who fights for respect in the hospital while trying to navigate his way through the racially charged turn-of-the-century NYC. (more…)
This article was printed from	https://deadline.com/2013/08/quartet-of-actors-join-clive-owen-in-steven-soderberghs-cinemax-series-the-knick-562670/


We were so thrilled with the outreach from our audience for our 2016 Spa Insight Snapshot that we wanted to share some of the results our readers.
We agree these are areas that require diligence, planning and follow through. The results also indicated that spa owners and managers are focused on Meeting Budget Goals as well as Increasing Marketing and Promotions which are goals and challenges in many of our clients' spas.
Not surprisingly, retail sales continue to be a challenge for most: 42% report that it is 'somewhat challenging' to get staff to sell and another 23% say it is 'difficult'.