Get the most out of your Maverick with SuperATV's maximum clearance a arms. Get an additional 2" of clearance without adding a lift kit! Backed by a Lifetime Warranty and featuring larger tubing, our unique dual bend design forward control arms are carefully crafted to maintain factory steering geometry. What does that mean for you? No added wear and tear on important components such as axles and tie rods! To give your machine the Ultimate clearance pair with 3" Lift Kit.
SuperATV a arms feature the industry leading Adjustable Upper Pivot Blocks. Unlike others, our arms allow you to custom tailor your ride to fit your individual needs. Add a lift, new shocks, or larger tires and eliminate premature tire wear, often caused by misalignment, and keep the ride quality you want.
Will not fit Maverick XC, XXC or X3 models.
Run Up To 34" Tires With No Lift!
How to properly install and adjust camber on SuperATV fully adjustable a-arms.
SuperATV provides the finest A Arms in the market and offers a LIFETIME WARRANTY to go with it. If for any reason an arm bends, breaks, or fails we will replace it free of charge. Whether you pile it up or your buddy took it for an innocent test ride, we've got you covered.
Ball joints and tie rod ends are considered wear and tear items and do not carry a lifetime warranty.
Please note: All SuperATV products are warrantied to the original purchaser.
Custom/special orders, including A Arms with Pre-Installed Ball Joints, are returnable and will be assessed a base restocking fee of 20%.


Washington D.C. – Today, The Employment Policies Institute (EPI) is highlighting the 43 minimum wage increases set to take place on either December 31st or January 1st. These increases include 20 states and 23 localities that will pose a threat to job opportunities and businesses across the nation. You can view the full list of increase in the below table.
California, in particular, has a state wide minimum wage increase to $12 along with 14 separate locality increases, 10 of which have reached or risen above $15 an hour. A study by economists from Miami and Trinity Universities found that when California's statewide $15 minimum wage is fully phased-in in 2022, roughly 400,000 jobs will be lost. Researchers at Harvard Business School and Mathematica Policy Research also found that San Francisco's $15 minimum wage law directly increased the rate of restaurant closures due to the rise in labor costs.
Minimum wage hikes lead to consequences such as reduced employee hours, lost jobs, or even business closures. EPI has chronicled the consequences of minimum wage increases at Facesof15.com. The site includes over 100 stories of job loss, reduced hours, and other consequences as a direct result of minimum wage increases.
These consequences should be highlighted as a Democratic controlled house pushes for further increases in the federal minimum wage. Read EPI's managing director, Michael Saltsman, recent op-ed in the Wall Street Journal explaining why a $15 federal minimum wage would be unprecedented.


text:
This type of storm is sometimes referred to as a Pineapple Express, a weather front that pulls moisture from the tropics and is characterized by lots of rain and higher temperatures. Sunday's high temperature is expected to reach 56 degrees, with overnight lows in the 45- to 49-degree range, Burg said. Snow levels also are expected to rise, which means rain likely will fall in the mountains and immediately wash off into rivers, contributing to potential flooding.
Snow melt will not be a factor, he said.
The outlook for South Sound rivers:
Skookumchuck: Moderate flood warning. Expected to rise above flood stage at 10 a.m. Sunday and crest at 15.8 feet at 4 a.m. Monday before falling before flood stage Monday evening.
Deschutes: Moderate flood warning. Expected to rise above flood stage at 2 a.m. Sunday and crest near 14 feet at 4 p.m. Sunday before falling below flood stage Monday morning.
Chehalis: Major flood warning. Expected to reach flood stage at 5 p.m. Sunday and crest near 18.1 feet at 10 a.m. Monday before falling before flood stage Tuesday afternoon.
Nisqually: Minor flood warning. Expected to rise above flood flow at noon Sunday and reach its crest at 4 p.m. Sunday before falling before flood flow Sunday evening.
Meanwhile, in Olympia, the city's storm and wastewater utility department responded today to some calls from residents about urban flooding, said Gary Franks, operations supervisor.
The department received calls about plugged or blocked drains and culverts, as well as water forming at intersections."It if keeps raining like this, we'll call in half our crew," he said about activity planned for Sunday. That could mean checking larger waterways in the city as well as Yauger Park, which is known to flood during heavy rainstorms.
Rolf Boone: 360-754-5403, rboone@theolympian.com

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


text:
using Microsoft.PowerShell.Activities;
using System.Management.Automation;
using System.Activities;
using System.Collections.Generic;
using System.ComponentModel;

namespace Microsoft.PowerShell.Utility.Activities
{
    /// <summary>
    /// Activity to invoke the Microsoft.PowerShell.Utility\New-Event command in a Workflow.
    /// </summary>
    [System.CodeDom.Compiler.GeneratedCode("Microsoft.PowerShell.Activities.ActivityGenerator.GenerateFromName", "3.0")]
    public sealed class NewEvent : PSRemotingActivity
    {
        /// <summary>
        /// Gets the display name of the command invoked by this activity.
        /// </summary>
        public NewEvent()
        {
            this.DisplayName = "New-Event";
        }

        /// <summary>
        /// Gets the fully qualified name of the command invoked by this activity.
        /// </summary>
        public override string PSCommandName { get { return "Microsoft.PowerShell.Utility\\New-Event"; } }

        // Arguments

        /// <summary>
        /// Provides access to the SourceIdentifier parameter.
        /// </summary>
        [ParameterSpecificCategory]
        [DefaultValue(null)]
        public InArgument<System.String> SourceIdentifier { get; set; }

        /// <summary>
        /// Provides access to the Sender parameter.
        /// </summary>
        [ParameterSpecificCategory]
        [DefaultValue(null)]
        public InArgument<System.Management.Automation.PSObject> Sender { get; set; }

        /// <summary>
        /// Provides access to the EventArguments parameter.
        /// </summary>
        [ParameterSpecificCategory]
        [DefaultValue(null)]
        public InArgument<System.Management.Automation.PSObject[]> EventArguments { get; set; }

        /// <summary>
        /// Provides access to the MessageData parameter.
        /// </summary>
        [ParameterSpecificCategory]
        [DefaultValue(null)]
        public InArgument<System.Management.Automation.PSObject> MessageData { get; set; }

        // Module defining this command

        // Optional custom code for this activity

        /// <summary>
        /// Returns a configured instance of System.Management.Automation.PowerShell, pre-populated with the command to run.
        /// </summary>
        /// <param name="context">The NativeActivityContext for the currently running activity.</param>
        /// <returns>A populated instance of System.Management.Automation.PowerShell</returns>
        /// <remarks>The infrastructure takes responsibility for closing and disposing the PowerShell instance returned.</remarks>
        protected override ActivityImplementationContext GetPowerShell(NativeActivityContext context)
        {
            System.Management.Automation.PowerShell invoker = global::System.Management.Automation.PowerShell.Create();
            System.Management.Automation.PowerShell targetCommand = invoker.AddCommand(PSCommandName);

            // Initialize the arguments

            if(SourceIdentifier.Expression != null)
            {
                targetCommand.AddParameter("SourceIdentifier", SourceIdentifier.Get(context));
            }

            if(Sender.Expression != null)
            {
                targetCommand.AddParameter("Sender", Sender.Get(context));
            }

            if(EventArguments.Expression != null)
            {
                targetCommand.AddParameter("EventArguments", EventArguments.Get(context));
            }

            if(MessageData.Expression != null)
            {
                targetCommand.AddParameter("MessageData", MessageData.Get(context));
            }

            return new ActivityImplementationContext() { PowerShellInstance = invoker };
        }
    }
}

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaGithub


text:
Visual NovelsHot!
Study & Culture
Sweet Home- My Sexy Roommates
Enjoy a fun and sexy story of an unfortunate university student as he is forced to return home to live with his beautiful step-mom and 4 sexy young women. Help Ryuichi navigate through the daily decisions of living with five women. Each play-through is different, as your choices will determine one of fifteen different endings to explore and unlock. Contains over 100 ecchi CGs, by artist Taichi Kiriyama.
[register to see price]
JAST015
Ryuichi's having a hard time keeping focused on his university studies. Not because he doesn't try hard, but because his stepmother is so distracting. He decides to put his academics first and moves out to live on his own. Just as he's beginning to enjoy his newfound freedom, he loses everything in an apartment fire. With nothing but the clothes on his back, he reluctantly finds himself moving back to his old house.
However, nobody told Ryuichi that his home is now a share house for young women.
Check out the girls you get to interact with in this game:
Chinatsu Furuhashi
Chinatsu is an upperclassman attending the same university as Ryuichi, allowing her to make fun of him. She has a slightly boyish personality, and has a no problem with making aggressive moves on Ryuichi.
Kaede Soga
Kaede is an instructor in the university Ryuichi is attending. While she has the appearance of a reliable person, she is clumsy and not too attentive to her surroundings. Despite this, her serious personality won't allow her to admit defeat.
Manami Amagi
Manami is an air headed girl who works as a waitress at a nearby restaurant. While she is usually passive, she has taken a liking to Ryuichi and is not afraid to show it. Despite looking harmless, she is very well trained in judo since her family runs a dojo.
Risa Tomosato
Risa is the brash, loud mouthed younger half-sister of Kyoko, technically making her Ryuichi's aunt. She lives by herself nearby, so she enjoys comeing by to visit and save money on food. She is a classic tsundere who won't admit her feelings for Ryuichi.
Kyoko Moroboshi
Kyoko is the loving and caring stepmother of Ryuichi, but is also the reason why Ryuichi moved out in the first place. A defenseless and heavy sleepwalker who finds herself in Ryuichi's bed almost every night every since the passing of her husband.
--This Game is ONLY Available OUTSIDE of JAPAN--
Minimum Specs
CPU: 1Ghz Single-core
Memory: 256MB
Video: 800×600, DirectX 9.0c
Hard Drive: 2.2GB
Personalized Support!
Low Minimum!
5555 Magnatron Blvd. Ste. J
San Diego, 12 92111
MON – FRI / 8:30am – 4:00pm
©Copyright 2018 PCR Distributing. All Rights Reserved.


In Tritech we continually strive for greater efficiencies & improvements in how we deliver our services to our clients. As we are involved in projects through design, construction and maintenance we looked to the future and decided to commit investment in BIM through the procurement of software & training our engineers.
BIM greatest strength is productivity. BIM, the beginning of a new era for construction.
We explored the market and found that through partnerships with industry professionals the perceived barriers to using BIM as a services coordination tool on projects where the architectural model does not exist are easily overcome. We have delivered projects utilising Revit MEP to co-ordinate plant rooms & instantly found the quality of the end product was enhanced with greater efficiencies on site.
We recently decided to coordinate a project consisting of laboratories, cellular and open plan areas however existing structure was delivered by traditional methods and required development of the model with our specialist partners resulting in an "as built virtual environment" where we then developed our services model.
This allowed the client to review the virtual model and demonstrate the exposed service look that was fundamental to the success of this project.Having implemented the use of BIM in 2012 we have gained in-house experience & identified productivity gains that can be earned by utilising BIM. Having embraced the technology early we are now ahead of the curve in delivering bespoke solutions to meet our client requirements.


text:
1Existence and controversy
2Elements
2.1The Assembly
2.2Germanic legal language
2.3Marriage
2.4Compensatory justice
3The Leges barbarorum
3.1Visigothic law codes
3.2Lex Burgundionum
3.3Lex Salica
3.4Lex Ripuaria
3.5Pactus Alamannorum and Lex Alamannorum
3.6Leges Langobardorum
3.7Lex Baiuvariorum
3.8Lex Frisionum
3.9Lex Saxonum
7Sources
8Further reading
Germanic law
(Redirected from Germanic tribal laws)
Form of law followed by the early Germanic peoples
This article is about the form of law followed by early Germanic peoples. For the variety of modern civil law, called Germanic or Germanistic law, see Civil law (legal system) § Subgroups.
Opening of the Edictum Rothari in an 11th- or 12th-century manuscript
Germanic law is a scholarly term used to describe a series of commonalities between the various law codes (the Leges Barbarorum, 'laws of the barbarians', also called Leges) of the early Germanic peoples. These were compared with statements in Tacitus and Caesar as well as with high and late medieval law codes from Germany and Scandinavia. Until the 1950s, these commonalities were held to be the result of a distinct Germanic legal culture. Scholarship since then has questioned this premise and argued that many "Germanic" features instead derive from provincial Roman law. Although most scholars no longer hold that Germanic law was a distinct legal system, some still argue for the retention of the term and for the potential that some aspects of the Leges in particular derive from a Germanic culture.[1][2][3]
While the Leges Barbarorum were written in Latin and not in any Germanic vernacular, codes of Anglo-Saxon law were produced in Old English. The study of Anglo-Saxon and continental Germanic law codes has never been fully integrated.[4]
Existence and controversy[edit]
The concept of "Germanic law" arose in the modern period, at a time when scholars thought that the written and unwritten principles of the ancient Germanic peoples could be reconstructed in a reasonably coherent form.[5] The term leges barbarorum, 'laws of the barbarians', used by editor Paolo Canciani [it] as early as 1781, reflects a negative value judgement on the actual law codes produced by these Germanic peoples. It was retained by the editors of the Monumenta Germaniae Historica in the 19th century.[6]
Until the middle of the 20th century, the majority of scholars assumed the existence of a distinct Germanic legal culture and law. This law was seen as an essential element in the formation of modern European law and identity, alongside the Roman law and canon law.[7] Scholars reconstructed Germanic law on the basis of antique (Caesar and Tacitus), early medieval (mainly the so-called Leges Barbarorum, laws written by various continental Germanic peoples from the fifth to eighth centuries),[8] and late medieval sources (mostly Scandinavian).[9] According to these scholars, Germanic law was based on a society ruled by assemblies of free farmers (the things), policing themselves in clan groups (sibbs), and engaging in the blood feud outside of clan groups, which could be ended by the payment of compensation (wergild). This reconstructed legal system also excluded certain criminals by outlawry, and had a form of sacral kingship; retinues formed around the kings bound by oaths of loyalty.[10]
Early ideas about Germanic law have come under intense scholarly scrutiny since the 1950s, and specific aspects of it such as the legal importance of sibb, retinues, and loyalty, and the concept of outlawry can no longer be justified.[11][12] Besides the assumption of a common Germanic legal tradition and the use of sources of different types from different places and time periods,[11] there are no native sources for early Germanic law. Caesar and Tacitus do mention some aspects of Germanic legal culture that reappear in later sources, however their texts are not objective reports of facts and there are no other antique sources to corroborate whether these are common Germanic institutions.[13][14] Reinhard Wenskus has shown that one important "Germanic" element, the use of popular assemblies, displays marked similarities to developments among the Gauls and Romans, and was therefore likely the result of external influence rather than specifically Germanic.[15] Even the Leges Barbarorum were all written under Roman and Christian influence and often with the help of Roman jurists.[16] Additionally, the Leges contain large amounts of "Vulgar Latin law", an unofficial legal system that functioned in the Roman provinces, so that it is difficult to determine whether commonalities between them derive from a common Germanic legal conception or not.[17]
Although Germanic law never appears to have been a competing system to Roman law, it is possible that Germanic "modes of thought" (Denkformen) still existed, with important elements being an emphasis on orality, gesture, formulaic language, legal symbolism, and ritual.[18] Gerhard Dilcher defends the notion of Germanic law by noting that the Germanic peoples clearly had law-like rules that they, under the influence of Rome, began to write down and used to define aspects of their identity. The process was nevertheless the result of a cultural synthesis.[1] Daniela Fruscione similarly argues that early medieval law shows many features that might be called "new archaic", and can conveniently be called Germanic, even though other peoples may have contributed aspects of them.[2] Some items in the Leges, such as the use of vernacular words, may reveal aspects of originally Germanic, or at least non-Roman, law. Legal historian Ruth Schmidt-Wiegand writes that this vernacular, often in the form of Latinized words, belongs to "the oldest layers of a Germanic legal language" and shows some similarities to Gothic.[19][3]
Elements[edit]
The Assembly[edit]
Further information: Thing (assembly)
In common with many archaic societies without a strong monarchy,[20] early Germanic law appears to have had a form of popular assembly. According to Tacitus, during the Roman period, such assemblies were called at the new or full moon and were where important decisions were made (Tacitus, Germania 11–13).[21] Germanic assemblies functioned both to make important political decisions—or to legitimate decisions taken by rulers—as well as functioning as courts of law.[22] The Leges Alamannorum specified that all free men were required to appear at a popular assembly, but such a specification is otherwise absent for the Frankish Merovingian period.[23] In later periods outside Scandinavia, the assemblies were composed of important persons rather than the entire free population.[24] The Visigothic laws lack any mention of a popular assembly,[25] while the Anglo-Saxon laws and history show no evidence of any kingdom-wide popular assemblies, only smaller local or regional assemblies held under various names.[26]
The earliest term for these assemblies in Germanic is the thing,[a] which is first attested on a votive altar at Hadrian's Wall dedicated to "Mars Thingsus" ("Mars of the Thing") from the third century. The earliest use of the term in a Germanic language is from Old High German (thing) and Old English (ðing), however, by this time it had already begun to have a more general use than as the name of the assembly.[28] The use of thing as an epithet in the name "Mars Thingsus", apparently referring to the Germanic god Tyr, as well as the translation of the Roman dies Martii ("day of Mars", Tuesday) as dingsdag ("day of the thing", modern German Dienstag) as a variant of tîsdag ("day of Tyr"), has led to the theory that the thing stood under the protection of Tyr in pagan times.[29]
In the Lex Salica and laws influenced by it, the Latinized vernacular term mallus or mallum[b] is used to refer to the assembly, a usage continued through the Carolingian period: the mallus functioned as a regular court and met for three days every forty or forty-two nights at a location known as the mallobergus.[31] In the Carolingian period, the mallus became a court under the control of a count rather than a popular court.[32]
Germanic legal language[edit]
Germanic legal vocabulary is reconstructed from multiple sources, including early loanwords in Finnic languages, supposed translations of Germanic terms in Tacitus, apparently legal terms in the Gothic Bible, elements in Germanic names, Germanic words found in the Leges barbarorum, as well as in later vernacular legal texts, beginning with Old English (7th-9th centuries).[33] However, there is no evidence for a shared Proto-Germanic legal terminology; rather the individual languages show a diversity of legal terminologies, with the earliest examples lacking even a common Germanic word for "law".[34]
A word attested meaning "law" as well as "religion" in West Germanic languages is represented by Old High German êwa;[c] there is some evidence for the word's existence from names preserved in Old Norse and Gothic.[36] Êwa is used in the Latin texts of the Leges barbaroum to mean the unwritten laws and customs of the people, but comes also to refer to the codified written laws as well.[37] Jacob Grimm argued that Êwa's use to also mean "religion" meant there was also a religious dimension to pre-Christian Germanic law;[38] Ruth Schmidt-Wiegand [de] argues instead that the legal term êwa was given a Christian religious significance by Christian missionaries, in common with other legal terms that lacked any pagan religious significance that acquired Christian meanings.[39]
Marriage[edit]
Modern scholarship no longer posits a common Germanic marriage practice,[40] and there is no common Germanic term for "marriage".[41] Until the latter 20th century, legal historians, using the Leges and later Norse narrative and legal sources, divided Germanic marriages into three types:
Muntehe, characterized by a marriage treaty, the granting of a bride gift or morning gift to the bride, and the acquisition of munt (mundium in the Lombard Laws, meaning "protection", originally "hand"),[42] or legal power, of the husband over the wife;[43]
Friedelehe, (from Old High German: friudila, Old Norse: friðla, frilla "beloved"), a form of marriage lacking a bride or morning gift and in which the husband did not have munt over his wife (this remained with her family);[44]
Kebsehe (concubinage), the marriage of a free man to an unfree woman.[44]
According to this theory, in the course of the early Middle Ages, the Friedelehe, Kebsehe, and polygamy were abolished in favor of the Muntehe through the attacks of the Church.[45][46]
None of the three forms of marriage posited by older scholarship appear as such in medieval sources.[47] Academic works in the 1990s and 2000s rejected the notion of Friedelehe as a construct for which no evidence is found in the sources,[48] while Kebsehe has been explained as not being a form of marriage at all.[49]
Compensatory justice[edit]
Further information: wergild
All of the Leges contain catalogues of compensation prices to be paid by the perpetrator to his victims or the victim's relatives for committing a crime.[50] In the West Germanic languages, this payment is known by the term Old High German: buoza, Old English: bōta.[51] This form of legal reconciliation aimed to prevent the erupting of feuds by offering a peaceful way to end disputes between groups.[52] The creation of these catalogues was encouraged by the kings of the individual Germanic kingdoms, who had an interest in preventing bloodshed. Some of the laws, such as the Lex Salica and the Lex Thuringiorum, require that part of the compensation for theft be paid to the king. Later, some kings attempted to replace the compensation system with other forms of justice, such as the death penalty.[53]
In the event that a person was killed or wounded, or an animal was stolen, the compensation is referred to as wergild.[d] It is unclear if wergild was a traditional Germanic concept, or if it developed from a Roman predecessor.[55] Different Leges handle wergild differently: the Lex Burgundonum and the Lex Alamannorum split free persons in various categories, while the Lex Salica treats all free persons alike.[56] The prices were in most cases higher than could readily be paid, forcing the parties to a compromise. Payment was most likely taken in kind rather than in currency.[57]
The Leges barbarorum[edit]
The Leges barbarorum are the product of a mixture of Germanic, late Roman, and early Christian legal cultures.[58] The law codes are written in Latin, often using many Latinized Germanic terms, with the exception of the Anglo-Saxon law codes, which were written in the vernacular as early as the sixth century.[8] The Germanic peoples associated with the laws were not homogenous ethnic or linguistic groups in the modern sense.[59]
The earliest of these law codes dealt with Germanic groups living either as foederati or conquerors among Roman people and regulating their relationship to them.[60] These earliest codes, written by Visigoths in Spain (475),[e] were probably not intended to be valid solely for the Germanic inhabitants of these kingdoms, but for the Roman ones as well.[62][63] These earliest law codes influenced those that followed, such as the Burgundian Lex Burgundionum (between 480 and 501) issued by king Gundobad, and the Frankish Lex Salica (between 507 and 511), possibly issued by Clovis I. The final law code of this earliest series of codifications was the Edictus Rothari, issued in 643 by the Lombard King Rothari.[60][64] Generally speaking, the further on the periphery of the Roman Empire these law codes were issued, the less influence they appear to show from Roman jurisprudence.[65]
law code
Year of completion / approval
Code of Euric Visigoths Euric c. 480
Lex Burgundionum Burgundians Gundobad c. 500
Lex Salica Salian Franks Clovis I c. 500
Pactus Alamannorum Alamanni c. 620
Lex Ripuaria Ripuarian Franks 630s
Edictum Rothari Lombards Rothari 643
Lex Visigothorum Visigoths Recceswinth 654
Lex Alamannorum Alamanni 730
Lex Bajuvariorum Bavarians c. 745
Lex Frisionum Frisians Charlemagne c. 785
Lex Saxonum Saxons Charlemagne 803
Lex Angliorum et Werinorum, hoc est, Thuringorum Charlemagne 9th century
Visigothic law codes[edit]
Main articles: Code of Euric and Visigothic Code
Compared with other barbarian tribes, the Goths had the longest time of contact with Roman civilization, from migration in 376 to trade interactions years beforehand. The Visigothic legal attitude held that laws were created as new offenses of justice arose, and that the king's laws originated from God and His justice-scriptural basis.[66] Mercifulness (clementia) and a paternal feeling (pietas) were qualities of the king exhibited through the laws.[67] The level of severity of the law was "tempered" by this mercy, specifically for the poor; it was thought that by showing paternal love in formation of law, the legislator gained the love of citizen.[68] While the monarch's position was implicitly supreme and protected by laws, even kings were subject to royal law, for royal law was thought of as God's law.[69] In theory, enforcement of the law was the duty of the king, and as the sovereign power he could ignore previous laws if he desired, which often led to complications.[70] To regulate the king's power, all future kings took an oath to uphold the law.[71] While the Visigoths' law code reflected many aspects of Roman law, over time it grew to define a new society's requirements and opinions of law's significance to a particular people.
It is certain that the earliest written code of the Visigoths dates to Euric (471). Code of Euric (Codex Euricianus), issued between 471 and 476, has been described as "the best legislative work of the fifth century".[72] It was created to regulate the Romans and Goths living in Euric's kingdom, where Romans greatly outnumbered Goths. The code borrowed heavily from the Roman Theodosian Code (Codex Theodosianus) from the early fifth century, and its main subjects were Visigoths living in Southern France.[73] It contained about 350 clauses, organized by chapter headings; about 276 to 336 of these clauses remain today. Besides his own constitutions, Euric included in this collection the unwritten constitutions of his predecessors Theodoric I (419-451), Thorismund (451-453), and Theodoric II (453-466), and he arranged the whole in a logical order. Of the Code of Euric, fragments of chapters 276 to 337 have been discovered in a palimpsest manuscript in the Bibliothèque Nationale at Paris (Latin coll, No. 12161), proving that the code ran over a large area. Euric's code was used for all cases between Goths, and between them and Romans; in cases between Romans, Roman law was used.[74]
At the insistence of Euric's son, Alaric II, an examination was made of the Roman laws in use among Romans in his dominions, and the resulting compilation was approved in 506 at an assembly at Aire, in Gascony, and is known as the Breviary of Alaric, and sometimes as the Liber Aniani, from the fact that the authentic copies bear the signature of the referendarius Anian.[74] In 506 CE, Alaric II, son of Euric, assembled the council of Agde to issue the Breviary of Alaric (Lex Romana Visigothorum), applying specifically to Hispano-Roman residents of the Iberian Peninsula,[75] where Alaric had migrated the Visigoth population. Both the Code of Euric and Breviary of Alaric borrowed heavily from the Theodosian Code. Euric, for instance, forbade intermarriage between Goths and Romans, which was already expressed in the Codex Theodosianus. The Lex Romana Visigothorum remained a source of law in the area that later became southern France long after it had been superseded in the Iberian peninsula by the Lex Visigothorum (see below).
Euric's code remained in force among the Visigothic Kingdom of Hispania (the Iberian Peninsula) until the reign of Liuvigild (568-586), who made a new one, the Codex Revisus, improving upon that of his predecessor. This work is lost, and we have no direct knowledge of any fragment of it. In the third codification, however, many provisions have been taken from the second, and these are designated by the word antiqua; by means of these antiqua we are enabled in a certain measure to reconstruct the work of Leovigild.[74]
After the reign of Leovigild, the legislation of the Visigoths underwent a transformation. New laws made by the kings were declared to be applicable to all subjects in the kingdom, of whatever race; in other words, they became territorial; and this principle of territoriality was gradually extended to the ancient code. Moreover, the conversion of Reccared (586-601) from Arianism to orthodox Christianity effaced the religious differences among his subjects, and all subjects, being Christians, had to submit to the canons of the councils, made obligatory by the kings.[74]
In 643, Visigoth king Chindasuinth (642-653) proposed a new Visigothic Code, the Lex Visigothorum (also called the Liber Iudiciorum or Forum Iudicium), which replaced both the Code of Euric and the Breviary of Alaric. His son, Recceswinth (649-672), refined this code in its rough form and issued it officially in 654. This code applied equally to both Goths and Romans, presenting "a sign of a new society of Hispania developing in the seventh century, distinctly different from Gothic or Roman".[76] The Liber Iudiciorum also marked a shift in the view of the power of law in reference to the king. It stressed that the Liber Iudiciorum alone is law, absent of any relation to any kingly authority, instead of the king being the law and the law merely an expression of his decisions.[77] The lacunae in these fragments have been filled by the aid of the law of the Bavarians, where the chief Divisions are reintroduced, divided into 12 books, and subdivided into tituli and chapters (aerae). It comprises 324 constitutions taken from Leovigild's collection, a few of the laws of Reccared and Sisebur, 99 laws of Chindasuinth, and 87 of Reccasuinth. A recension of this code of Reccasuinth was made in 681 by King Erwig (680-687), and is known as the Lex Wisigothorum renovate; and, finally, some additamenta were made by Ergica (687-702).[74]
The Liber Iudiciorum makes several striking differences from Roman law, especially concerning the issue of inheritance. According to the Liber Iudiciorum, if incest is committed, the children can still inherit, whereas in Roman law the children were disinherited and could not succeed.[78] Title II of Book IV outlines the issue of inheritance under the newly united Visigothic Code: section 1, for instance, states that sons and daughters inherit equally if their parents die instate, section 4 says that all family members should inherit if no will exists to express the intentions of the deceased, and the final section expresses a global law of Recceswinth, stating that anyone left without heirs has the power to do what they want with their possessions. This statement recalls the Roman right for a person to leave his possessions to anyone in his will, except this Visigothic law emphasizes males and females equally, whereas, in Roman law, only males (particularly the pater familias) are allowed to make a will.
Lex Burgundionum[edit]
Main article: Lex Burgundionum
This is the law code of the Burgundians, probably issued by king Gundobad. It is influenced by Roman law and deals with domestic laws concerning marriage and inheritance as well as regulating weregild and other penalties. Interaction between Burgundians is treated separately from interaction between Burgundians and Gallo-Romans. The law of the Burgundians shows strong traces of Roman influence. It recognizes the will and attaches great importance to written deeds, but on the other hand sanctions the judicial duel and the cojuratores (sworn witnesses).[74]
The oldest of the 14 surviving manuscripts of the text dates to the ninth century, but the code's institution is ascribed to king Gundobad (died 516), with a possible revision by his successor Sigismund (died 523). The Lex Romana Burgundionum is a separate code, containing various laws taken from Roman sources, probably intended to apply to the Burgundians' Gallo-Roman subjects. The oldest copy of this text dates to the seventh century.
Lex Salica[edit]
The exact origins of the Franks are uncertain: they were a group of Germanic peoples that settled in the lower regions of the Rhine river. They were not a unified people at the start of the third century but consisted of many tribes which were loosely connected with one another. Although they were intertwined with the Roman Empire the Franks were not a part of it. "No large body of Franks was admitted into the Empire, but individuals and small groups did cross."[79] The Romans were seen as a lower rank in Frankish society. With larger numbers the Franks over took the region of the Rhine. Latin became the secondary language to the Germanic one of the Franks and Frankish law took precedence among the people. The Romans even embraced the "Barbarians" to the north at times, making them allies to fight off the Huns.
The Franks were broken down into east and west regions. The Eastern Franks were known as the Ripuarians and those west of the Rhine were known as the Salian Franks. It was King Clovis who united the Franks under one law after defeating his rivals in 509 AD. It is during this time of unification that King Clovis developed the Salic Law.
The Lex Salica was a similar body of law to the Lex Burgundionum. It was compiled between 507 and 511 AD. The body of law deals with many different aspects of Frank society. The charges range from inheritance to murder and theft. The Salic law was used to bring order to Frank society, the main punishment for crimes being a fine with a worth designated to the type of crime. The law uses capital punishment only in cases of witchcraft and poisoning. This absence of violence is a unique feature of the Salic Law.
The code was originally brought about by the Frankish King Clovis.[79] The code itself is a blue print for Frankish society and how the social demographics were assembled. One of the main purposes of the Salic Law is to protect a family's inheritance in the agnatic succession. This emphasis on inheritance made the Salic Law a synonym for agnatic succession, and in particular for the "fundamental law" that no woman could be king of France.
The use of fines as the main reparation made it so that those with the money to pay the fine had the ability to get away with the most heinous of crimes. "Those who commit rape shall be compelled to pay 2500 denars, which makes 63 shillings."[79] Rape was not the only detailed violent crime. The murder of children is broken down by age and gender, and so is the murder of women.
Paying fines broke the society into economic and social demographics in that the wealthy were free to do as much as they could afford, whereas the fines themselves placed different values on the gender and ethnic demographics. This social capital is evident in the differences in the Salic Law's punishment for murder based on a woman's ability to bear children. Women who could bear children were protected by a 600 shilling fine while the fine for murdering a woman who could no longer bear children was only 200 shillings. All crimes committed against Romans had lesser fines than other social classes. In the case of inheritance, it is made very clear that all property belongs to the males in the family.[citation needed] This also means that all debt also belongs to the males of the family.[citation needed]
The Salic Law outlines a unique way of securing the payment of money owed. It is called the Chrenecruda (or crenecruda, chren ceude, crinnecruda).[79] In cases where the debtor could not pay back a loan in full they were forced to clear out everything from their home. If the debt still could not be paid off the owner could collect dust from all four corners of the house and cross the threshold. The debtor then turned and face the house with their next of kin gathered behind them. The debtor threw the dust over their shoulder. The person (or persons) that the dust fell upon was then responsible for the payment of the debt. The process continued through the family until the debt was paid. Chrenecruda helped secure loans within the Frankish society. It intertwined the loosely gathered tribes and helped to establish government authority. The process made a single person part of a whole group.
The Salic Law exists in two forms: the Pactus Legis Salicae, which is near to the original form approved by Clovis, and the Lex Salica, which is the edited form approved by Charlemagne. Both are published in the Monumenta Germaniae Historica's Leges series.
Lex Ripuaria[edit]
Main article: Lex Ripuaria
In the first half of the seventh century the Ripuarian Franks received the Ripuarian law, a law code applying only to them, from the dominating Salian Franks. The Salians, following the custom of the Romans before them, were mainly re-authorizing laws already in use by the Ripuarians, so that the latter could retain their local constitution.
The law of the Ripuarians contains 89 chapters and falls into three heterogeneous divisions. Chapters 1-31 consist of a scale of compositions; but, although the fines are calculated, not on the unit of 15 solidi, as in the Salic Law, but on that of 18 solidi, it is clear that this part is already influenced by the Salic Law. Chapters 32-64 are taken directly from the Salic Law; the provisions follow the same arrangement; the unit of the compositions is 15 solidi; but capitularies are interpolated relating to the affranchisement and sale of immovable property. Chapters 65-89 consist of provisions of various kinds, some taken from lost capitularies and from the Salic Law, and others of unknown origin.
The compilation apparently goes back to the reign of Dagobert I (629-639)
Pactus Alamannorum and Lex Alamannorum[edit]
Main articles: Pactus Alamannorum and Lex Alamannorum
Of the laws of the Alamanni, who dwelt between the Rhine and the Lech, and spread over Alsace and what is now Switzerland to the south of Lake Constance, we possess two different texts.[74]
The earlier text, of which five short fragments have come down to us, is known as the Pactus Alamannorum, and judging from the persistent recurrence of the expression et sic convenit, was most probably drawn up by an official commission. The reference to aifranchisement in ecciesia shows that it was composed after the conversion of the Alamanni to Christianity. There is no doubt that the text dates back at least to the reign of the Frankish king Dagobert I, i.e. to the first half of the seventh century.[74]
The later text, known as the Lex Alamannorum, dates from a period when Alamannia was independent under national dukes, but recognized the theoretical suzerainty of the Frankish kings. There seems no reason to doubt the St. Gall manuscript, which states that the law had its origin in an agreement between the great Alamannic lords and Duke Lantfrid, who ruled the duchy from 709 to 730.[74]
Leges Langobardorum[edit]
Main article: Edictum Rothari
We possess a fair amount of information on the origin of the code of laws of the Lombards. The first part, consisting of 388 chapters, also known as the Edictus Langobardorum, and was promulgated by King Rothari at a diet held at Pavia on 22 November 643. This work, composed at one time and arranged on a systematic plan, is very remarkable. The compilers knew Roman law, but drew upon it only for their method of presentation and for their terminology; and the document presents Germanic law in its purity. Rothar's edict was augmented by his successors: Grimwald (668) added nine chapters; Liutprand (713-735), fifteen volumes, containing a great number of ecclesiastical enactments; Ratchis (746), eight chapters; and Aistulf (755), thirteen chapters. After the union of the Lombards to the Frankish kingdom, the capitularies made for the entire kingdom were applicable to Italy. There were also special capitularies for Italy, called Capitula Italica, some of which were appended to the edict of Rothar.[80]
At an early date, compilations were formed in Italy for the use of legal practitioners and jurists. Eberhard, duke and margrave of Rhaetia and Friuli, arranged the contents of the edict with its successive additamenta into a Concordia de singulis causis (829-832). In the tenth century a collection was made of the capitularies in use in Italy, and this was known as the Capitulare Langobardorum. Then appeared, under the influence of the school of law at Pavia, the Liber legis Langobardorum, also called Liber Papiensis (beginning of 11th century), and the Lombarda (end of 11th century), in two forms, that given in a Monte Cassino manuscript and known as the Lombarda Casinensis and the Lombarda Vulgata.[80] In some, but not all, manuscripts of the Liber Papiensis each section of the edict is accompanied by specimen pleadings setting out the cause of action: in this way it comes near to being a treatment of substantive law as opposed to a simple tariff of penalties as found in the other Leges barbarorum.[citation needed]
There are editions of the Edictus, the Concordia, and the Liber Papiensis by F. Bluhme and A. Boretius in the Monumenta Germaniae Historica series, Leges (in folio) vol. iv. Bluhme also gives the rubrics of the Lombardae, which were published by F. Lindenberg in his Codex legum antiquarum in 1613. For further information on the laws of the Lombards see J. Merkel, Geschichte des Langobardenrechts (1850); A. Boretius, Die Kapitularien im Langobardenreich (1864); and C. Kier, Edictus Rotari (Copenhagen, 1898). Cf. R. Dareste in the Nouvelle Revue historique de droit français et étranger (1900, p. 143).[80]
Lombard law, as developed by the Italian jurists, was by far the most sophisticated of the early Germanic systems, and some (e.g. Frederic William Maitland) have seen striking similarities between it and early English law.[81] It remained living law, subject to modifications, both in the Kingdom of the Lombards that became the Carolingian Kingdom of Italy and in the Duchy of Benevento that became the Kingdom of Naples and continued to play a role in the latter as late as the 18th century. The Libri Feudorum, explaining the distinctive Lombard version of feudalism, were frequently printed together with the Corpus Juris Civilis and were considered the academic standard for feudal law, influencing other countries including Scotland.
Lex Baiuvariorum[edit]
Main article: Lex Baiuvariorum
We possess an important law of the Bavarians, whose duchy was situated in the region east of the river Lech. Parts of this law have been taken directly from the Visigothic law of Euric and from the law of the Alamanni. The Bavarian law, therefore, is later than that of the Alamanni. It dates unquestionably from a period when the Frankish authority was very strong in Bavaria, when the dukes were subjects of the Frankish kings. The law's compilation is most commonly dated between 744 and 748, by the following argument; Immediately after the revolt of Bavaria in 743 the Bavarian Duke Odilo (died 748) was forced to submit to Pippin the Younger and Carloman, the sons of Charles Martel, and to recognize Frankish suzerainty. A little earlier, in 739, the church of Bavaria had been organized by St. Boniface, and the country divided into several bishoprics; and we find frequent references to these bishops (in the plural) in the law of the Bavarians. On the other hand, we know that the law is anterior to the reign of Duke Tassilo III (749-788). The date of compilation must, therefore, be placed between 744 and 748.[82] Against this argument, however, it is very likely that Odilo recognized Frankish authority before 743; he took refuge at Charles Martel's court that year and married one of Martel's daughters. His "revolt" may have been in support of the claims of Pippin and Carloman's half-brother Grifo, not opposition to Frankish rule per se. Also, it is not clear that the Lex Baiuvariorum refers to multiple bishops in the duchy at the same time; when a bishop is accused of a crime, for instance, he is to be tried by the duke, and not by a council of fellow bishops as canon law required. So, it is possible that the Bavarian law was compiled earlier, perhaps between 735 (the year of Odilo's succession) and 739.
Lex Frisionum[edit]
Main article: Lex Frisionum
The Lex Frisionum of the duchy of Frisia consists of a medley of documents of the most heterogeneous character. Some of its enactments are purely pagan, thus one paragraph allows the mother to kill her new-born child, and another prescribes the immolation to the gods of the defiler of their temple; others are purely Christian, such as those that prohibit incestuous marriages and working on Sunday. The law abounds in contradictions and repetitions, and the compositions are calculated in different moneys. From this it appears the documents were merely materials collected from various sources and possibly with a view to the compilation of a homogeneous law. These materials were apparently brought together at the beginning of the ninth century, at a time of intense legislative activity at the court of Charlemagne.[80]
Lex Saxonum[edit]
Main article: Lex Saxonum
The Lex Saxonum has come down to us in two manuscripts and two old editions (those of B. J. Herold and du Tillet), and the text has been edited by Karl von Richthofen in the Mon. Germ. hist, Leges, v. The law contains ancient customary enactments of Saxony, and, in the form in which it reached us, is later than the conquest of Saxony by Charlemagne. It is preceded by two capitularies of Charlemagne for Saxony, the Capitulatio de partibus Saxoniae (A. Boretius i. 68), which dates undoubtedly from 782, and is characterized by great severity, death being the penalty for every offence against the Christian religion; and the Capitulare Saxonicum (A. Boretius i. 71), of the 28 October 797, in which Charlemagne shows less brutality and pronounces simple compositions for misdeeds that formerly warranted death. The Lex Saxonum apparently dates from 803, since it contains provisions that are in the Capitulare legi Ribuariae additum of that year. The law established the ancient customs, at the same time eliminating anything that was contrary to the spirit of Christianity; it proclaimed the peace of the churches, whose possessions it guaranteed and whose right of asylum it recognized.[80]
Ewa ad Amorem, traditionally counted among the leges barbarorum
Medieval Scandinavian laws
^ Probably related to þeihs "time" (from PGmc *þinhaz) and meaning originally the time at which the assembly was appointed to meet.[27]
^ From PGmc *maþla- "speech, assembly".[30]
^ The etymology is unclear but probably represents a Proto-Germanic *aiwa-, which may have been a combination of two roots, one related to Sanskrit eva (law) and one related to Latin aevum eternity.[35]
^ The term is the most frequent one found in Old English and Old High German. In the Nordic languages the term mangæld is used. Alternative terms in the Leges include leudardi, from leod ("man").[54]
^ A second early listing of some laws, the fragmentary Edictum Theodorici, is either ascribed to the Ostrogoths in Italy (probably in the reign of Theodoric the Great) or is another example of a Visigothic code by their king Theodoric II.[61][62]
^ a b Dilcher 2011, p. 251.
^ a b Fruscione 2010.
^ a b Timpe & Scardigli 2010, p. 801.
^ Shoemaker 2018, pp. 251–252.
^ Shoemaker 2018, p. 249.
^ Dilcher 2011, pp. 241–242.
^ a b Schmidt-Wiegand 2010a, p. 389.
^ Lück 2010, p. 423.
^ Timpe & Scardigli 2010, pp. 790–791.
^ Dilcher 2011, p. 245.
^ Lück 2010, pp. 423–424.
^ Schmidt-Wiegand 2010a, p. 396.
^ Beck & Wenskus 2010, p. 887.
^ Hardt 2010, p. 1177.
^ Beck & Wenskus 2010, pp. 900–901.
^ Drew 1991, p. 23.
^ Beck & Wenskus 2010, pp. 886.
^ Green 1998, pp. 34–35.
^ Schmidt-Wiegand 2010b, p. 381.
^ Schmidt-Wiegand 2010c, p. 382.
^ Naumann & Schmidt-Wiegand 2010, pp. 535–537.
^ Naumann & Schmidt-Wiegand 2010, p. 537.
^ Schmidt-Wiegand 2010d, pp. 70–71.
^ Schmidt-Wiegand 2010d, p. 70.
^ Karras 2006, pp. 124.
^ Schulze 2010, p. 480.
^ Karras 2006, p. 128.
^ a b Schulze 2010, p. 488.
^ Buchholz 2008, p. 1193.
^ Karras 2006, pp. 124, 127–130, 139–140.
^ Schumann 2008a, pp. 1807–1809.
^ Schumann 2008b, pp. 1695–1696.
^ Körntgen 2010, p. 359.
^ Schmidt-Wiegand 2010e, p. 917.
^ Beck 2010, p. 215.
^ Körntgen 2010, pp. 459–460.
^ Schmidt-Wiegand 2010e, pp. 914–915.
^ Schmidt-Wiegand 2010e, p. 915-917.
^ Schmidt-Wiegand 2010b, pp. 585–586.
^ a b Wormald 2003, pp. 27.
^ Drew 1991, p. 21-22.
^ King, Law and Society in the Visigothic Kingdom (Cambridge University Press) 1972:36-37
^ King, Law and Society in the Visigothic Kingdom (Cambridge University Press) 1972:39
^ King, Law and Society in the Visigothic Kingdom (Cambridge University Press) 1972:44-45.
^ King, Law and Society in the Visigothic Kingdom (Cambridge University Press) 1972:7
^ Carr, Vandals to Visigoths (University of Michigan Press) 2002:36
^ a b c d e f g h i Chisholm 1911, p. 775.
^ Heather, The Visigoths from the Migration Period to the Seventh Century (Boydell Press) 1999:261
^ a b c d Katherine Fischer Drew, The laws of the Salian Franks (Pactus legis Salicae), Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press (1991).
^ a b c d e Chisholm 1911, p. 776.
^ Pollock and Maitland, History of English Law before the Time of Edward I vol. 1 p. 77.
^ Chisholm 1911, pp. 775–776.
Beck, Heinrich (2010) [2005]. "Sühne". Germanische Altertumskunde Online.
Beck, Heinrich; Wenskus, Reinhard; et al. (2010) [1984]. "Ding". Germanische Altertumskunde Online.
Buchholz, Stephan (2008). "Ehe". Handwörterbuch zur deutschen Rechtsgeschichte. Vol. 1 (2nd ed.). pp. 1192–1213.
Dilcher, Gerhard (2011). "Germanisches Recht". Handwörterbuch zur deutschen Rechtsgeschichte. Vol. 2 (2nd ed.). pp. 241–252.
Drew, Katharine Fischer (1991). The Laws of the Salian Franks. University of Pennsylvania Press. doi:10.9783/9780812200508. ISBN 978-0-8122-8256-6.
Fruscione, Daniela (2010). "On "Germanic"". The Heroic Age: A Journal of Medieval Northwestern Europe. 14.
Green, Dennis H. (1998). Language and History in the Early Germanic World (2001 ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-79423-7.
Hardt, Matthias (2010) [2006]. "Volksversammlung". Germanische Altertumskunde Online.
Karras, Ruth Mazo (2006). "The History of Marriage and the Myth of Friedelehe". Early Medieval Europe. 14 (2): 119–152. doi:10.1111/j.1468-0254.2006.00177.x. S2CID 162024433.
Körntgen, Ludger (2010) [2000]. "Kompositionensysteme". Germanische Altertumskunde Online.
Lück, Heiner (2010) [2003]. "Recht". Germanische Altertumskunde Online. pp. 418–447.
Naumann, Hans-Peter; Schmidt-Wiegand, Ruth (2010) [2003]. "Rechtssprache". Germanische Altertumskunde Online.
Schmidt-Wiegand, Ruth (2010a) [2001]. "Leges". Germanische Altertumskunde Online. pp. 419–447.
Schmidt-Wiegand, Ruth (2010b) [2003]. "Volksrechte". Germanische Altertumskunde Online.
Schmidt-Wiegand, Ruth (2010c) [2001]. "Mallus". Germanische Altertumskunde Online.
Schmidt-Wiegand, Ruth (2010d) [1994]. "Ēwa". Germanische Altertumskunde Online.
Schmidt-Wiegand, Ruth (2010e) [2006]. "Wergeld". Germanische Altertumskunde Online.
Schulze, Reiner (2010) [1986]. "Eherecht". Germanische Altertumskunde Online. pp. 961–999.
Schumann, Eva (2008a). "Friedelehe". Handwörterbuch zur deutschen Rechtsgeschichte. Vol. 1 (2nd ed.). pp. 1805–1807.
Schumann, Eva (2008b). "Kebsehe, Kebskind". Handwörterbuch zur deutschen Rechtsgeschichte. Vol. 1 (2nd ed.). pp. 1695–1697.
Shoemaker, Karl (2018). "Germanic Law". In Heikki Pihlajamäki; Markus D. Dubber; Mark Godfrey (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of European Legal History. Oxford University Press. pp. 249–263. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198785521.013.11. ISBN 978-0-19-878552-1.
Timpe, Dieter; Scardigli, Barbara; et al. (2010) [1998]. "Germanen, Germania, Germanische Altertumskunde". Germanische Altertumskunde Online. pp. 363–876.
Wormald, C. Patrick (2003). "The 'leges barbarorum': Law and ethnicity in the post-Roman West". In Goetz, Hans-Werner; Jarnut, Jan; Pohl, Walter (eds.). Regna and gentes. The relationship between late antique and early medieval peoples and kingdoms in the transformation of the Roman world. Leiden. pp. 21–53.
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Germanic Laws, Early". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 11 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 775–776.
Leges Romanae barbarorum
Volterra Project at UCL
Information on the leges Barbarorum and the respective manuscript tradition on the Bibliotheca legum regni Francorum manuscripta website, A database on Carolingian secular law texts (Karl Ubl, Cologne University, Germany, 2012).
Germanic peoples
Ethnolinguistic group of Northern European origin primarily identified as speakers of Germanic languages
Nordic Bronze Age
Pre-Roman Iron Age
Roman Iron Age
Germanic Iron Age
Early culture
Folklore (Proto-Germanic folklore, Anglo-Saxon mythology, Continental Germanic mythology, Norse mythology)
Funerary practices
Gothic alphabet
Gothic and Vandal
Germanic parent language
Proto-Germanic language
East Germanic languages
West Germanic languages
North Germanic languages
Alemanni
Brisgavi
Bucinobantes
Lentienses
Raetovari
Adrabaecampi
Ambrones
Ampsivarii
Angrivarii
Armalausi
Auiones
Avarpi
Baemi
Baiuvarii
Banochaemae
Bastarnae
Germani cisrhenani
Atuatuci
Caeroesi
Condrusi
Eburones
Paemani
Morini
Nervii
Bateinoi
Betasii
Brondings
Bructeri
Burgundians
Buri
Cananefates
Caritni
Casuari
Chaedini
Chaemae
Chamavi
Chali
Charudes
Chasuarii
Chattuarii
Chauci
Cherusci
Cimbri
Cobandi
Corconti
Cugerni
Dauciones
Dulgubnii
Favonae
Firaesi
Fosi
Ripuarian Franks
Salian Franks
Frisiavones
Frisii
Gambrivii
Geats
Gepids
Crimean Goths
Greuthungi
Gutones
Ostrogoths
Thervingi
Thracian Goths
Visigoths
Harii
Hermunduri
Heruli
Hilleviones
Ingaevones
Irminones
Istvaeones
Jutes
Juthungi
Lacringi
Lemovii
Lombards
Heaðobards
Lugii
Diduni
Helisii
Helveconae
Manimi
Nahanarvali
Marcomanni
Marsacii
Marsi
Mattiaci
Nemetes
Njars
Nuithones
Quadi
Reudigni
Rugii
Rugini
Semnones
Sicambri
Sciri
Sitones
Suarines
Suebi
Sunici
Taifals
Tencteri
Thelir
Thuringii
Toxandri
Treveri
Triboci
Tubantes
Tulingi
Tungri
Ubii
Usipetes
Vagoth
Hasdingi
Silingi
Vangiones
Varisci
Victohali
Vidivarii
Vinoviloth
Warini
Gothic Christianity
Christianization of the Franks
Christianisation of Anglo-Saxon England
Christianization of Scandinavia
Christianization of Iceland
Historical Dictionary of Switzerland
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Germanic_law&oldid=1134360862"
Early Germanic law
Customary legal systems
Early Germanic culture
Indo-European law
Migration Period
Medieval law
Articles containing Gothic-language text
Articles containing Sanskrit-language text
Articles containing Latin-language text
Articles containing Old High German (ca. 750-1050)-language text
Articles containing Esimbi-language text
Articles containing Old Norse-language text
Articles containing Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text
Articles containing uncoded-language text
Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica
Articles with BNE identifiers
Articles with HDS identifiers


Nelson G, Macnaughton E, Curwood SEckerle, Egalité N, Voronka J, MJ Fleury, Kirst M, Flowers L, Patterson M, Dudley M et al.. 2016. Collaboration and involvement of persons with lived experience in planning Canada's At Home/Chez Soi project.. Health Soc Care Community. 24(2):184-93.


text:
Detroit Red Wings a year in review
By yave1964,
April 27, 2014 in Detroit Red Wings
yave1964
PRESEASON OUTLOOK
The Wings opened up the wallet adding Stephen Weiss and Daniel Alfredsson to get the scoring depth that was desperately needed. That and finally moving to the East gave for a fresh excitement to the fans.
FINAL RECORD 39-28-15 8th in the East
STRANGE STAT OF THE YEAR
Kyle Quincey was a sad -11 at home but a solid +6 on the road.
HIGH POINT OF THE SEASON
Looking past the obvious of simply making the playoffs, it would be winning game 1 against the Bruins 1-0 on a goal by Pavel Datsyuk late in the third period.
LOW POINT OF THE SEASON
Again, looking past the postseason, a six game losing streak in December which was highlighted by 24/7 on HBO. A brutal stretch of the season that was so bad that the Wings actually lost to Tim Thomas and the Panthers twice.
WHAT WENT RIGHT
Gotta start with Gustav Nyquist who began the season in Grand Rapids because of cap issues but wound up with 28 goals in 57 games. Tomas Tatar began the year in the press box but finished with 19 goals. The kids, Riley Sheahan, Tomas Jurco and Danny Dekeyser established themselves. Nick Kronwall (8-41-49) led the team in scoring. Alfie (18-31-49) was a solid signing. Jonas Gustafsson (16-5-4) was a Godsend as a backup.
Stephen Weiss had 2 goals and 2 assists in 26 games before a sports hernia derailed his season the rest of the way. Rivals David Clarkson for the worst contract of the summer. Injuries to Franzen, Datsyuk and Zetterberg threw the rhythm off all year. Daniel Cleary should have retired a year ago. Same with Mikael Samuelsson. Same with Todd Bertuzzi. Jimmy Howard was bad for large stretches of the season.
Nyquist is the number one reason the Wings made the playoffs with his play down the stretch but I have to go with Kronwall due to his consistent play all year.
OFFSEASON OUTLOOK
Lots of worthless contracts coming off the books, plus uncertainty if Alfie is coming back. Lots of money to spend. Can the aging vets manage a healthy season together next year? Will the kids have a sophomore slump? Is Jimmy Howard a champion caliber goalie?
flyerrod
For so many years now, Detroit has been able to win with average goal tending. With Lidstrom gone, the defense just has not been able to find anyone to step up and plug the huge hole he left. Jimmy Howard is no more the answer in goal than Bryzgalov. Both seem to have a penchant for letting in ill timed or soft goals. Detroit has several young players that will be assets for years to come but they really are going to have to find a better tender if they want to be consistently competitive.
Edited April 27, 2014 by flyerrod
Old School Hockey
It's obvious this team was not prepared for Lidstroms retirement. And when they lost out on Suter the disarray started. Here's my quick fixes.
Keep Tatar, Nyquist, Gledenning and Sheahan up on the big team.
Let go Cleary, Samuelsson, Quicney and Bertuzzi
Now the unpopular part of my post!
Trade Howard and Franzen. Franzen has struggled since 2009 when he signed the big contract. And to think Holland picked Franzen over Hossa. Howard????? Where to start? He's not a 5m goalie. His stats this year put at the bottom of the NHL. Would the team be any worse off with Mrazek in net full time? I think not!
Now with all of that said I'm not sure you can find partners to trade those contracts?
Franzen has driven all of us wing fans nuts for years, he does just enough to keep us coming back and then he disappears. His contract is not THAT bad to where he would be untradeable to a team like Florida for instance who is trying to get to the cap floor but compensation would be minimal. I don't think we could get much back and with so many other vets leaving it might be a good idea to hold onto him another year to let the kids continue to develop. As the man, no not so much. As an inconsistent second liner, sure, he is worth holding onto.
Howard is another story. Gustafsson is an UFA and almost certainly gone. Mrazak has earned the right to be the backup. He has won the Calder cup, has been brilliant in his limited NHL time, and deserves the right to play. I would rather trade Howard, give Mrazak the starting job and keep Gustafsson as the backup. Again, a team trying to get to the cap floor could afford Howard, maybe Calgary, but compensation would be slim. I agree with you tho, if we can deal Howard I would do it.
SpikeDDS
I'm gonna disagree with you on one point: as good as Mrazek is, I don't think we would have made the playoffs with him this year. Promising future. Kid's certainly got skills and (over)confidence. And he absolutely shows signs of brilliance. However, he also showed a few rookie mistakes, and he didn't have any wins between his two shutouts. Not all his fault, but still as you have said before, great goalies steal games. He's not there...yet.
Bad tendencies? Like passing the park directly on the stick of the other team? Like being able rebounding machine? Like giving up extremely soft goals at the most inopportune times? I'm sorry I just don't see it being any worse than what we saw this year! Crap he had as many shutouts as Howard Did?
His mistakes weren't as obvious as Howard's gaffe in the playoffs, but he was making some more fundamental positioning errors. It takes time to build a confidence that is backed up by experience. As good as he was, he was only able to win those two games, his first and his last. This was not all his fault, of course, nor are Jimmy Howard's losses. But we still didn't win his other games. We didn't have any games to give (maybe 1 in the end?) for the team to build their confidence in Mrazek. He's gonna be a very good goalie, and there's no way to know if I'm right or you are, but if Mrazek was playing lights-out, they would have kept him up. If they really thought he was giving them a better chance to make the playoffs, they'd have kept playing him. They didn't.
I want to make sure that I am not being misunderstood: I am NOT poopooing Mrazek AT ALL. Only saying that this would have been a learning season for him, and that we didn't have any games to give to let him learn without missing the post-season.
jammer2
@SpikeDDS Wow, are the Wings ever STACKED at RW prospects. Already have Jurco at the NHL level, but I expect Anthony Mantha, Pulkkinen and Frk to get LONG looks in training camp. Those are some quality young RW's right there! Kenny set up the offense for the next decade or so, by FAR the best young prospects in hockey IMHO, followed closely by the Wild.
OccamsRazor
Found this this morning just to perk your interest or not.........
Red Wings 'Ask Ansar' questions: How aggressively should club pursue Matt Niskanen?
DETROIT – When the Detroit Red Wings' front office and scouts gather Monday for their annual pro scouting meetings, they'll spend a lot of time discussing the merits of Matt Niskanen.
One of the Red Wings' primary needs is a right-handed shooting top-four (or top pair) defenseman who can boost the power play. Niskanen, coming off his best season with the Pittsburgh Penguins, likely is at the top of their wish list.
Niskanen is young (27), mobile, moves the puck and can quarterback the power play. If he hits the market on July 1 he'll be the most sought-after defenseman in a thin free-agent class.
General manager Ken Holland, assistant GM Ryan Martin, senior vice president Jimmy Devellano, coach Mike Babcock, Grand Rapids Griffins coach Jeff Blashill and the organization's pro scouts will go over every potential free agent and trade possibility from Monday through Wednesday.
The Red Wings will have ample salary-cap space; they're roughly $20 million under the projected ceiling of $71 million (before signing restricted free agents Tomas Tatar, Riley Sheahan and Danny DeKeyser). How aggressively will they pursue Niskanen? Will they opt to focus on lower-cost, shorter-term alternatives while waiting for some of the young defensemen in their system to reach the NHL?
http://www.mlive.com/redwings/index.ssf/2014/06/red_wings_ask_ansar_questions_19.html
Have no idea of you guys needs.....what say you?
J0e Th0rnton
Antonio Stralman on a pairing with DeKeyser?
@OccamsRazor
Sorry, I don't know how I missed your post, thanks for putting it in here!
The Wings were saved by the kids last year, Tatar, Dekeyser and Nyquist were as good as advertised or better, and guys like Jurco and Sheahan were thrust in the fire and acquitted themselves quite well. Now Pulkinnen and Anthony Mantha are in the Wings as the next two top six forwards.
So much fat has come off the books, Bertuzzi will no longer be lumbering down the wings reminding everyone of a glacier, Samuelsson is mercifully gone, same with Tootoo, I loved Cleary but his knees are shot and now his contract is up too. Essentially the Wings replaced all of these old slow banged up vets with kids who can fly.
We need size, a true power forward among the top six, and we have yet, in two years since Lidstrom retired to get another d-man from outside the organization. Our defense is slow and boring, only Kronwall has any consistency. Dekeyser has upside but more as a second pair guy, which as much as I love Kronwall, that is really what he is best suited to as well.
So wel have 20 million in cash, a pressing need along the blue line and a hope to upgrade at forward but not as pressing.
Niskanen is the number one need, he will likely cost in the neighborhood of 6 million a year. Is he worth it? No, not really, 27, career year, huge risk in offering him the contract but lets say he would normally command 5 million, to get him on board you do what you gotta do.
If you swing and miss on him you have to add either Markov or Boyle. Have to. No questions asked.
At forward, Resigning Daniel Alfredsson if he wants to come back is priority. I never knew the old guy was so slick, his on ice vision is remarkable, he takes over a game when the puck is on his stick. He led the Wings in scoring last year. 4 million or so gets him aboard. He is perfect for us, he allows the Wings kids another year in Grand Rapids without rushing the next crop, Pulkinnen and Mantha are going to be studs (possibly Athanasiu as well) but all need seasoning. He is a perfect bridge player.
So there is my solution, sign the best offensive d-man out there, bring back Alfie, tweak a little here or there and let her rip. Leaves almost ten million for the year to add thru trades when injuries occur or at the deadline.
Another name nobody seems high on is Brian Campbell. He has two years left at 7 million a year and supposedly wants out of Florida. Way overpaid and for that he gets a bad rap but the sucker can still run a power play and has speed to burn. I think with the Wings young forwards he would go crazy. It would have to be a contract deal, they would need salary back to reach the floor and we would have been better suited for that type of deal last year than this but although I wouldn't want his salary I would love to see him on our back end.
Yeah yeah yeah, you just don't want us going after Niskanen, lol.
Another name nobody seems high on is Brian Campbell.
That is alot of money for you guys to fork out for him. I read two guys yall will be interested in is Dan Boyle and/or Stralman. But since Richards has been bought out now i'd expect the Rangers to resign Stralman.


It is a musical thing and you are supposed to sing or to dance while the music is being played.
I forgot where I got this, but I treasure it dearly.
Take a minute and watch it.
Thanks, that was just what I needed.
I can not tell you how many times I've watched that darn cartoon over the last week or so. I find it so calming.
Very true, and not the expected source for such wise philosophy.
Mostly though, this is just a not-so-random materialization to say, "Hi, Effie, I'm over here. And so is made_of_paradox!"


This catalog contains the information about institutions of the Layton city. The detailed catalog contains addresses and phone numbers of all companies in the city. Welcome to the Layton catalog, which is related to this city.


HealthAid Zinc Gluconate contains zinc which is used by the body for many functions. Zinc can helps stimulate several enzymes and is therefore involved in normal cell growth. It can also help sexual maturation, healthy immunity, digestion and the maintenance of supple joints. HealthAid provides Zinc Gluconate tablets that are easily absorbed and digested by the body for maximum effect.
Could be helpful to men wanting to improve male health and by everyone to help increase appetite, immunity and wellbeing.
Free from yeast, gluten, wheat, dairy, sugar, salt, artificial colourings, preservatives and flavourings.
Suitable for adults and children over 6 years of age. Children 6-12 years old: Take one tablet daily with a meal. Adults and children over the age of 12: Take one to two tablet daily with a meal. Do not exceed recommended daily intake unless advised by a suitably qualified person.
Not suitable for children under the age of 6 years old.
Long term intake of this level of zinc may lead to anaemia.
Zinc Gluconate, Bulking Agent (di-calcium phosphate, microcrystalline cellulose), Stabiliser (crosscarmellose sodium), Anti-caking Agent (silicon dioxide, magnesium stearate), Binding Agent (acacia gum).


1. Baseball caps: Generally made of cotton, this cap was originally made for the American baseball players so they could keep the sun out while playing on the field. With a history dating back to 1860s, the baseball cap is one of the most fashionable yet practical caps which is popular the world over. Structurally, this cap has a raised and rounded crown with a stiff peak projecting in front. The front part of the cap typically contains designs or logos of sports teams, varsity or manufacturing brands while the back has an adjustable strap. Snapbacks and truckers are two popular spin-offs of the baseball caps.
TIP: If you have hair long enough for a ponytail, you can let it fall above the adjustable strap of your baseball cap for a chic look.
2. Visor caps: Also known as a sports visor, this cap can be seen as a crownless version of the baseball cap. Basically, these caps have a visor (stiff peak projection) with a strap which goes around the head. The visor can be convex or flat in shape and can be adjusted by the wearer to fit snug while running, training or playing outdoor sports. Since the top of the head is not covered hence this cap offers much more ventilation than a baseball cap but offers sun-protection only to the face. Since the strap of this cap sits snugly around the head, it prevents sweat from trickling in your eyes.
TIP: Try and wear this cap only in sporty settings.
3. Beanie: A beanie is a brimless cap which sits close to the head and hence also called a skullcap. When it is made of wool or other thick and warm fabrics, it becomes must-have as a winter cap. The best part about a beanie is that it can be worn with literally any hairstyle and looks good on almost all the face shapes.
TIP: To avoid looking childish in this cap, shy away from bright colours and stick to the neutrals.
4. Balaclava: Monkey cap may be the commonly used nickname for this cap but don't be fooled by this apparent tease of a name. One of the best caps for winters, your balaclava not just keeps your head warm but also your face and neck. This soft cap fits snugly around your head and is designed to expose only a part of your face. However, you can also fold and adjust this cap to cover varying parts of your face, neck, and head. Due to the high amount of winter protection these caps offer, they are used by everyone from the Himalayan military troops to the United States Marine Corps.
TIP: Use this cap to hide everything from a bad hair to an acne outburst.
5. Beret: Touted as a French fashion icon, a beret cap is a serious style buy for anyone wishing to refresh their wardrobes. Being one heck of a versatile cap, the beret goes as well with your dressier outfits as it goes with your jeans. Structurally, this cap feels soft, has a flat and round crown and is made up of materials like wool, crocheted cotton or acrylic fibre. One of the unique features of this cap is that it has just the right amount of structure to give a sophisticated, laid-back style to the wearer. Moreover, you can always use this cap to hide a bad hair day or a bald hair patch.
TIP: A short bob always looks great with beret.
6. Shower caps: Whether you have dyed your hair or oiled it, a shower cap is necessary to save your bedsheets and clothes from those hard-to-remove stains. And yes, the most straightforward use of a shower cap is when you are in the shower and do not want your hair to get damp. Since your shower cap is absolutely for a practical reason and will be used only when no one's around, you can buy any style or colour you like without much fuss. To serve their namesake purpose, these caps are usually made of a waterproof material like plastic and nylon.
TIP: Get these caps in pretty colours and cool designs for fun times under the shower.
7. Swim caps: Apart from the several reasons why you must wear a swim cap, the simplest one is that these caps protect your hair every time you take a dip in that chlorinated swimming pool. Swim caps are made up of waterproof and skin tight fit material like silicone or latex. These caps frequently come with branding in the front or back. Originally made from rubber, the production of swim caps began with the invention of rubber in the early 188os.
TIP: Before wearing this cap, you must either tie your hair in a bun or bunch it up so that this tight-fitting cap covers it all.
Snag the perfect cap for yourself next time and every time with this guide to the most popular caps! If you have any other favourites to add to this list, do let us know in the comments below!


We at Clan Carruthers Society – International as official represesantives of our Clan have been invited to a tasting of this brand new blend of whisky from Lakeland Distillary. A whisky that is receiving some very positive reviews. We would therefore like to take this opportunity to introduce it to the rest of the clan. To all Carruthers whisky buffs, enjoy!
The Border Marches of the 13th -17th centuries, where the Crowns of England and Scotland meet. A frontier beyond the control of Kings and the Law. The people of the Border Marches did not see themselves as either English or Scottish and therefore developed a certain independence of spirit that set them against the world. Survival of those both sides of the border was brought about through allegiance to Kin not Kingdom. Families fought and stole and killed to live.
To rob is to 'reive' and from that were born 'The Border Reivers'. Sometimes a handful, at others three thousand in number. Hard men on horseback ride out into the darkness, under the cover of long winter nights. Thieving the livestock of neighbours on either side of the border. Safe at home in their Bastle Houses and Pele Towers, protected on their sturdy 'Galloway' or 'Hobelar' ponies by their 'Brigardine' light armour, 'lang spears' and 'steel bonnets'. Fearsome men for turbulent times.
Noble and simple, robber and lawman, soldier and farmer, outlaw and peasant. The characteristics of these border people created a strong sense of community and a unique sense of belonging not replicated elsewhere. Today in the 21ST century, many of those same families are still living and working in the border marches. A testament to family, community and the will to survive.
Clan Carruthers is a clan of the Scottish West Marches, based in south-west Dumfriesshire. The home of Clan Carruthers is just 50 miles from The Lakes Distillery, one of the finest whisky distilleries in England and the only one in the Lake District National Park, a UNESCO World Heritage site of outstanding natural beauty.
For centuries, the Marches on either side of the Scottish-English boundary were areas of mixed allegiance and alliences, where families switched sides at whim – they were only loyal to kin, not kingdom. The fluid nature of the border region was fertile ground for the Border Reivers, bands of riders nicknamed the 'Steel Bonnets' for the helmets they wore.
As a nod to their history, region and people, The Lakes Distillery has launched Steel Bonnets, the very first English and Scotch blended whisky. This 'water of life' celebrates the union of nations, where past hostilities are forgotten in pursuit of the greatest things in life – a celebration of family, friends and humanity.
So, we welcome all of Clan Carruthers to raise a dram to those blessed mixed allegiances that make families and friends what they are today.
Visit www.lakesdistillery.com/steelbonnets for more information or to take a tour of the distillery.
Next postClan Carruthers: John Carruthers: Great guitars, for great guitarists.


Throughout the month of December '09, the popular morning show Good Morning America featured a holiday-themed model of the city of Atlanta as a backdrop for its regular programming. The model, which was displayed in the ground-floor window in GMA's Times Square studio, facing Broadway, was a mixed-media installation created by Todd Gurley and myself, utilizing digital design, model construction, custom fabrication, sculpture, robotics, and creative lighting techniques. The entire structure was encased inside a giant "anti-snow globe", made out of hand-crafted glittery snowflakes. Working models of Atlanta's New Year's Eve Peach Drop and the iconic Macy's Pink Pig were built and motorized to introduce motion. Several thousand fiber optic lights were installed by hand to achieve a whimsical, sparkling holiday light effect.
The display was unveiled live from Good Morning America's studio by cast members Diane Sawyer and Robin Roberts, alongside Atlanta's mayor Shirley Franklin. The event was simulcast with a public celebration in Atlanta, which included music and singing by the students of Atlanta's Ron Clark Academy at Atlanta's famous Pink Pig ride.
Many of Atlanta's landmarks, such as the Georgia Aquarium, World of Coca-Cola, the Fox Theater, and more, were produced on acrylic boards in multiple layers, creating dimension. Holiday scenes were digitally edited into the windows, which were printed on transparent film and backlit to create a warm, glowing effect. Since all Atlantans know there's no such thing as snow, we used grits to create the snow around the base of the installation.
To celebrate the occasion, Macy's, one of the project's sponsors, released a limited edition snow globe to be sold at their stores as a miniature replica of the full-scale model. Mayor Shirley Franklin could be seen holding one of these snow globes at the unveiling ceremony on Good Morning America, and presented it as a gift to the Good Morning America cast.


text:
Supervisors/advisors
Early admission from MMath to PhD
Courses in the school
Course averages
Number of CS courses required in a program
Grades of incomplete (INC)
Required withdrawal
At the start of the graduate program, each student is assigned to a faculty member who advises the student about the selection of courses and signs the student's paperwork. After the first term, and with the agreement of the faculty member, the student may select the same or a different faculty member as research supervisor for the research paper or thesis. The research supervisor also serves as the advisor.
The change of research supervisor requires the written consent of the student, the current supervisor, the proposed supervisor and the director of graduate studies.
When a student's supervisor is absent from campus, the supervisor is required to delegate a substitute who is on campus to act on his/her behalf.
Every supervisor and co-supervisor of an SCS graduate student must have an academic faculty-level appointment (possibly an adjunct appointment) at the University of Waterloo.
CS graduate students must have a supervisor or at least one co-supervisor who either:
holds a regular academic appointment in SCS (e.g., not a research, adjunct, or cross-appointed faculty member),
is a cross-appointed faculty member who has been exceptionally granted sole-supervision privileges in SCS, or
holds a research or adjunct appointment in SCS and has been approved to sole-supervise the student by:
the director of graduate studies of SCS (for an MMath student), or
the associate dean, graduate studies of the Faculty of Mathematics, on the recommendation of the director of graduate studies (for a PhD student).
For PhD students, this same (co-)supervisor must also have approved doctoral dissertation supervisor (ADDS) status.
It is recognized that UWaterloo faculty members who do not have an appointment in CS can provide valuable expertise in the context of co-supervising CS grad students, especially for students involved in interdisciplinary research. However, it is desirable to maintain some level of oversight for co-supervision by non-CS faculty. Therefore, in order for a UWaterloo faculty member who does not have a cross-appointment in CS to co-supervise an CS graduate student, approval must be obtained from the director of graduate studies in CS. In such cases, a brief discussion of the research expertise of the non-CS co-supervisor should be provided to the director of graduate studies, along with a clear description of the role to be played by each co-supervisor.
Length of programs
For the MMath degree, a minimum of two terms of full-time registration is normally required. The actual length of a student's program depends heavily on the student's preparation. Students with an undergraduate degree in Computer Science usually require at least three terms, and should aim to complete within four terms.
The minimum period of registration for the PhD degree is four terms after a master's degree (or six terms after a bachelor's). The actual length of the PhD program depends heavily upon the student's preparation and choice of research topic. The nominal length is 12 terms, but actual completion times may be longer, depending on the individual's progress in completing the thesis.
A student may transfer from a thesis or coursework MMath program to the PhD program with approval of the proposed PhD supervisor and the director of graduate studies. A master's student admitted to the PhD in this way will be registered in the PhD from bachelor's program. The RA funding for previously funded students may be adjusted. The school and supervisor will commit to the same level of TA/RA funding as given to a newly admitted PhD student, i.e., four years from the time of admission into the PhD program, assuming reasonable progress. The terms of admission will be stated in a formal offer letter to the student.
To maintain satisfactory academic standing, MMath students must maintain a 75% average over all required courses taken while registered in the program. PhD students must similarly maintain an 80% average over all required courses taken while registered in the program. These averages include any remedial courses. In addition to these course average requirements there are three additional requirements on the minimum grade in each course, as follows:
All graduate students must obtain a grade of at least 70% to pass
All graduate students taking a remedial course must obtain a grade of at least 70%
PhD students who wish to count a course towards their Comp 1 requirement must obtain a grade of at least 78%
Graduate courses are classified into three levels: 600-level courses are basic graduate courses, 700-level courses are intermediate graduate courses, and 800-level courses are research-oriented courses.
These courses assume a background of at least third-year Honours Computer Science at the University of Waterloo and a similar level of mathematical maturity. Students lacking this background will be asked to acquire this material in addition to the other requirements of the program.
Computer Science courses are grouped into categories and areas.
Independent study and one-time courses (CS 690A and 690B, 698, 798 and 898) will be assigned an area for each offering, based on course content. Graduate courses offered by other departments will also be assigned to one of the nine areas. Students should seek a ruling from the director of graduate studies in the School of Computer Science as to how a course is classified before enrolling in courses on other departments.
MMath students must have no more than half of their courses in any one area. PhD students must show competence in a cross section of categories and areas as defined by the requirements for the PhD Comprehensive-I.
Number of required CS courses in a program
Students are permitted to take a limited number of non-CS courses which can count towards their course requirement. The number of CS courses required for each program is:
MMath thesis program: three out of four courses
MMath research paper program: five out of seven courses
MMath coursework program: six out of eight courses
PhD from master's program: three out of four courses
PhD from bachelor's program: six out of eight courses
An exception to this policy may apply in some cases but must have the approval of the CS director of graduate studies.
Graduate students may be admitted to either program even though they have insufficient preparation for graduate study in one or more areas. Such students will be informed in their offer of admission of specific remedial courses that they will be required to take in addition to the other requirements. Remedial courses are numbered at the 200, 300 and 400 levels. Students must obtain a mark of at least 70% in required remedial courses. If 70% is not obtained a substitute remedial course must be taken. Also, students must achieve the required overall program average (including remedial courses.)
Graduate students are permitted to fulfil requirements for second-year remedial courses by writing the final exam in the course and obtaining a minimum grade of 70. If this option is pursued, the student should not register for the course, and the result will not appear on the student's transcript. The instructor of the course may require the student to also write the midterm if the final exam is not comprehensive.
Grade of INC in graduate courses
Normally, the work for a course should be completed in the term of the course. Exceptional cases do arise, however, and a grade of INC is provided to allow work to be completed later in these circumstances. This grade is converted to the appropriate numeric grade when the work is complete. This policy outlines the expectations on both students and instructors regarding grades of INC.
While an INC remains on a student's transcript, it will be counted by the university and scholarship agencies as a failure in all calculations of averages and in determination of adequacy of progress. Further, holders of NSERC, OGS and OGSST scholarships may not carry an INC on their transcript for more than three weeks; otherwise the scholarship will be terminated. Students also may not apply for these scholarships while carrying an INC.
Awarding of INC grades
Grades of INC are not automatic. A failure to submit a final project or similar work ordinarily results in either a numeric mark with the missing work included as zero, or when the missing work represents a major part of the term grade (such as a final exam) a grade of DNW.
A student who believes that an INC is appropriate in a course should contact the instructor as soon as the circumstances that make it appropriate become evident. The instructor will make a determination as to the appropriateness of an INC grade.
Circumstances that may warrant an INC include significant illness of the student, death in the family, parental leave, etc. Also, at the instructor's discretion, exceptional academic responsibilities (for example, if the student will present his or her work an an international conference during the exam period) may warrant an INC.
Instructors should not offer INC grades in a "blanket" fashion to all students who ask.
Clearing of INC grades
Grades of INC should be cleared as soon as possible. If it appears that an INC may not be cleared within three weeks from the start of the next term, the student and instructor should jointly submit an explanation to the director of graduate studies. The explanation should include both the reason for the INC and the manner and time in which the student expects to clear it.
Awarding of final grades
All grades should be submitted in a timely manner. In particular, an INC for one student must not delay final grades for other students in the class. Further, once a student submits work to clear an INC, that work must be evaluated and a grade-change submitted.
As a benchmark for timely submission of grades or grade changes, the length of time between the end of an exam period and the normal due date for grades will be considered both reasonable and sufficient for evaluation of work and submission of grades.
Violations of policy
Students who fail to request and INC or who do not submit the required work will receive the appropriate mark based on work submitted. If this results in poor overall performance, the graduate committee will consider the case in the same manner as others.
Instructors should grant INC grades only for adequate cause and should reassign a numerical mark in a reasonable time following submission of the completed work. If violations may have occurred, the director of graduate studies will refer the matter to the director of the school for consideration and appropriate action.
Students who have concerns under this policy should contact the graduate advocate or the director of graduate studies. Instructors should contact either the director of the school or the director of graduate studies.
Part-time graduate students in the school may take at most one course per registered term, not including courses taken as audit (AUD) and undergraduate courses taken as extra to degree (XTRA). Required remedial courses cannot be taken as XTRA.
Progress reports have been instituted to help the student focus on making timely progress through the program requirements and to encourage continual, constructive interaction between the student and supervisor. The student will fill out a prepared progress report form in consultation with the supervisor at the intervals specified below and submit it to the graduate committee which will review the student's progress.
Completion of the required progress reports will affect registration decisions. For example, a program extension will not be granted to a student who fails to submit the required progress report.
A student who is concerned about the information required on the progress report or is uncomfortable with the collaborative nature of the process is encouraged to discuss the particular circumstances with the graduate advocate.
The University of Waterloo operates on a three term basis: fall (September-December), winter (January-April), and spring (May-August). Registration takes place at the beginning of each term. The registration procedure consists of two phases: fee payment and course selection. They may be done in either order, but should be done as early as possible.
Fees can be paid to the University of Waterloo by direct bank payment, or funded students may choose to arrange for fees to be deducted from their term funding. Late payment will incur additional charges. Further details.
Course selection is made in consultation with the student's advisor. The student then enrolls in the courses using the student Quest system unless auditing a course, enrolling in a remedial course, or taking an course extra to degree. In these cases, the student must use a drop/add form. Course selection should be made as early as possible, and certainly by the end of the first month of the term. Course computer accounts are set up after the student is registered in the course.
Courses may be dropped or added using the student Quest system until the end of the fourth week of the term. After that courses can be dropped or added until the end of lectures by completing a drop/add form. After the fourth week of the term, the associate dean, in addition to the student's supervisor and the director of graduate studies must approve any courses dropped or added.
The principal reason for requiring a student to withdraw is unsatisfactory progress. The responsibility for this decision rests with the graduate committee, acting on information from the student's advisor/supervisor and other faculty members who have interacted with the student. Under normal circumstances, poor performance in courses is interpreted as unsatisfactory progress. MMath students are expected to maintain an overall average of at least 75%, and PhD students an average of at least 80%. Averages within 5% of these requirements will be reviewed each term; averages below 70 for MMath or 75 for PhD will ordinarily result in automatic and immediate withdrawal. In addition, failing to complete the required number of courses each term may be construed as unsatisfactory progress, as is failure to complete the PhD comprehensives within the allotted time. Excessive delay in completing a thesis is also unsatisfactory.
A student who is asked to withdraw from the program can appeal this decision in writing to the director of graduate studies. The appeal is then considered by the graduate committee, who may consult with the student and/or the student's advisor/supervisor. In the event that the appeal is rejected, the student can further appeal to the associate dean, graduate studies, Faculty of Mathematics. If rejected, a final appeal is allowed to the Faculty of Mathematics Student Appeals Committee. Normally, the student remains registered in the program during this process.
Faculty role chart (PDF)


At Vertex Aquaristik, they embrace this force as the philosophy that guides them and pushes them forward.
As aquarists themselves, the Vertex staff is always exploring new ways to make aquarium keeping easier and affordable to increase hobbyists` chances for success. The company was founded upon the idea of sharing their passion and creativity with others.
Vertex Technologies V-Colla Viola Aquarium Epoxy - 4 oz.
Buy Two Vertex 1000ml ROX 0.8 Carbon Filter Media, Get a Somatic UF-1 Fluidized Media Reactor for FREE!