text:
\section{Introduction}
	The fifth generation (5G) mobile network is currently attracting tremendous research interest from both industry and academia due to its significant benefits and huge market potential. Compared to the current 4G network, the 5G network is expected to achieve 1,000 times higher system throughput, 10 times higher spectral efficiency and data rates (i.e., the peak data rate of 10 Gb/s and the user experienced rate of 1Gb/s), 5 times reduction in end-to-end latency, and 100 times higher connectivity density~\cite{Wang2014Cellular}. In addition, different from 4G networks where all mobile users are served by a communication network, 5G networks need to tailor on diverse mobile services with different demands and requirements. Thus, network slicing technique has been emerging as an enabling solution that allows mobile 5G network providers to achieve such goals.

	Specifically, network slicing is a new network virtualization technique that splits a single physical infrastructure into multiple virtual networks, i.e., slices (as illustrated in Fig.~\ref{fig:Architecture}), with functionalities designed to serving specific demands and requirements~\cite{Nikaein2015Network}. The core idea of the network slicing is using software defined networking (SDN) and network functions virtualization (NFV) technologies for virtualizing the physical infrastructure and controlling network operations. In particular, SDN provides a separation between the network control and data planes, improving flexibility of network function management and efficiency of data transfer. NFV allows various network functions to be virtualized, i.e., in virtual machines. As a result, the functions can be moved to different locations and the corresponding virtual machines can be migrated to run on commoditized hardware dynamically depending on the demand and requirements. As such, SDN will play a significant role in the control of the NFV infrastructure resources (both physical and virtual) by enabling automatic network configuration and policy control.

	\begin{figure}[!]
		\begin{center}
			\epsfxsize=3.5 in \epsffile{Architecture}
			\caption{Architecture of 5G networks with slicing.}
			\label{fig:Architecture}
		\end{center}
		\vspace{-0.5cm}
	\end{figure}

	The key benefit of network slicing is to enable providers to offer network services on an as-a-service basis which enhances operational efficiency while reducing time-to-market for new services~\cite{Zhou2016Network}. However, orchestrate the slice requests and manage the network resources are open challenges. Thus, optimization techniques can be adopted to find decisions for the provider given the service demands and available resources. In this paper, we first introduce a system model which groups network slices based on their demands. Then, we formulate the cross slice admission control problem as a Markov decision process (MDP) and adopt the value iteration algorithm to find the optimal policy for the provider. Through simulation results, we demonstrate that the proposed model and solution can achieve the best performance in term of average reward. In addition, the simulation results also reveal impacts of parameters, e.g., arrival and departure probabilities of requests, to the system performance. This information is especially important to the provider in controlling quality-of-service as well as in maximizing its profits.

	\section{Related Work}
	\label{sec:Rel-Work}

	There are some research works related to designing, controlling, and orchestrating network slicing in 5G networks. In~\cite{Yoo2016Network}, the author discussed design issues of network slicing in 3GPP networks, and introduced a new network slicing architecture to address three design problems including standardization, network slice selection, and slice-independent functions. The core idea of the proposed architecture is based on the top-down design concept and the proposal of NextGen radio resource control. However, the proposed architecture has a high signaling overhead due to many exchanged messages.

	The authors in~\cite{Choyi2016Network} presented a framework for providing customized network slices in 5G networks based on Quality-of-Service identifier (QCI) and security requirements. In this framework, a network slice will be allocated to the requested user based on a service description document which contains details of the services and their corresponding QCI, e.g., latency, throughput, and security level. Moreover, this framework allows the user to negotiate with the service provider to choose the best service meeting the user's demands. Service-based slice selection was also studied in~\cite{Sama2016Service}. However, in~\cite{Sama2016Service} the network slice selection is based on the requirements of service groups rather than on the requirements of each individual user. In some cases in practice, the requirements from different users are overlapped, and thus the requirements can be naturally grouped into a service group (as illustrated in Fig.~\ref{fig:Architecture}). Under the proposed solution, network efficiency and revenue for the service provider can be greatly improved.

	Spectrum sharing among slices with the same air interface is a challenge because spectrum must be allocated not only to meet the users' demands, but also to achieve the best performance without interference between slices. Although frequency-division multiple access technique provides the best isolation, it may result in resource under-utilization due to the loss of statistical multiplexing gain~\cite{GENITechnical2006}. Therefore, the authors in~\cite{Soliman2016QoS} examined an approach using space-division multiple-access technique to share spectrum resource among slices according to the frequency and space dimensions, while taking into account the performance difference between frequency and spatial multiplexing. This solution can improve network throughput for the provider, but it requires precoding processes which may cause delay for providing services.

	The closest work with our paper is~\cite{Jiang2016Network} where the resource allocation problem for 5G networks using network slicing was studied. However, unlike~\cite{Jiang2016Network} where the authors just focused on spectrum resource allocation problem to meet the users' Quality-of-Services (QoSs), in this paper, we jointly consider the computing, storage, and spectrum resources in allocating slices to services. Moreover, different from~\cite{Jiang2016Network} where the resources of slices are fixed and predetermined, in this paper, we proposed a dynamic cross-slice admission control scheme to allow providers to supply flexible services according to the service demands. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first work which proposes using the MDP framework to find the optimal cross-slice orchestration policy in 5G networks.

	\section{System Model}
	\label{sec:System Model}

	Fig.~\ref{fig:System_Model} describes the system model of a 5G network with network slicing. In this model, when network service requests arrive at the Service Management block, they are mapped to slices with specific service requirements, then analyzed and classified into two types of requests, i.e., guaranteed QoS (GS) and best effort (BE) slices. For example, GS requests are related to virtual reality services, while BE requests are associated with more classical mobile broadband. The slice requests are then stored and transferred to the corresponding queues. At the end of each time slot, the requests that have not been sent to the queues will be removed from the buffer. Then, based on the requests in the two queues together with the current state of the available network resources, the Cross-Slice Resource Orchestrator makes a decision to choose the slice to be admitted in the system. This decision is sent to the Resource Controller that instantiates slices by allocating the required physical resources.
	\vspace{-0.3cm}
	\begin{figure}[!h]
		\begin{center}
			\epsfxsize=3.5 in \epsffile{SystemModel}
			\caption{Proposed System Model.}
			\label{fig:System_Model}
		\end{center}
		\vspace{-0.2cm}
	\end{figure}

	Based on the proposed system model, each time slot can be divided into three phases as illustrated in Fig.~\ref{fig:TimeFrameStructure}. At the beginning of each time slot, i.e., the decision making phase, based on the current states of the two queues, and the current available resources of the system, the Cross-Slice Orchestrator will choose the slice requests to admit. Then, in the second phase, i.e., the request processing phase, the Resource Controller will allocate network resources to the selected requests. Finally, in the last phase, i.e., the information updating phase, the Cross-Slice Orchestrator updates the information related to the active queues and available network resources.

	\begin{figure}[h]
		\begin{center}
			\epsfxsize=3.5 in \epsffile{TimeFrameStructure}
			\caption{Proposed Time frame structure.}
			\label{fig:TimeFrameStructure}
		\end{center}
	\end{figure}

	At each time slot, we assume that there are $n_g$ and $n_b$ slice requests for GS and BE services arriving at the system, respectively. We denote $n_g \in \mathcal{N}_g=\{0,1,\ldots,N_g\}$ and $n_b \in \mathcal{N}_b=\{0,1,\ldots,N_b\}$ where $N_g$ and $N_b$ are the maximum numbers of arriving requests for the GS and BE services in one time slot, respectively. In addition, we denote $p_n^g$ and $p_n^b$ as the probabilities that there are $n_g$ and $n_b$ requests arriving at the system in one time slot. Then, we have
	\begin{equation}
	\sum_{n=0}^{N_g} p_n^g = 1 \phantom{10} \text{and} \phantom{10} \sum_{n=0}^{N_b} p_n^b = 1.
	\end{equation}
	Similarly, we denote $p_l^g \in (0,1]$ and $p_l^b \in (0,1]$ as the probabilities which a running slice ends in the current time slot. Here, we note that after a slice life cycle is completed, its request will be removed from the system, and at the same time the corresponding resources will be released.

	\section{Optimization Formulation and Solution}
	\label{sec:Opt_For}

	In this section, we first formulate the cross-slice admission control and resource allocation optimization problem as an MDP, and then present the value iteration method to find the corresponding optimal policy.

	\subsection{State Space}

	The state space of the system, denoted by $\mathcal{S}$, includes the states of the two queues and the state of the available network resources, which are observed at the Cross-Slice Orchestrator, and is defined as follows:
	\begin{equation}
	\mathcal{S} \triangleq \mathcal{S}_g \times \mathcal{S}_b \times \mathcal{S}_p	,
	\end{equation}
	where $\mathcal{S}_g$, $\mathcal{S}_b$, and $\mathcal{S}_p$ are the state spaces of GS queue, BE queue, and network resources, respectively. If we denote $s_g$, $s_b$, and $s_p$ as the state of GS queue, BE queue, and network resources, respectively, the composite state of the system can be represented by $s=(s_g,s_b,s_p)$. Note that $s_g \in \mathcal{S}_g = \{0,1,\ldots, Q_g\}$ and $s_b \in \mathcal{S}_b = \{0,1,\ldots, Q_b\}$, where $Q_g$ and $Q_b$ are the maximum queue lengths of the GS and BE queues, respectively.

	In the system under consideration, the network resources include radio, computing, and storage resources. Thus, if we denote $r$, $c$, and $\delta$ as the states of the available radio, computing, and storage resources, respectively, we can define $s_p = (r,c,\delta)$. Let denote $R$, $C$, and $\Delta$ as the maximum number of available radio resource units, computing resource units, and storage resource units. We have $r \in \{0,1,\ldots,R\}$, $c \in \{0,1,\ldots,C\}$, and $\delta \in \{0,1,\ldots,\Delta\}$.

	\subsection{Action Space}

	In our considered system, at each time slot, the Cross-Slice Orchestrator has to decide how many GS and BE slice requests waiting in the queues will be admitted. Hence, if we denote $a_g$ and $a_b$ as the number of chosen GS and BE requests, action $a$ and the action space $\mathcal{A}$ of the Cross-Slice Orchestrator are defined as follows:
	\begin{equation}
	{\mathcal{A}} \triangleq \{a = (a_g,a_b) \} .
	\end{equation}

	The system state may change over the time slots, and thus the action at each time slot must be selected based on the current system state under the following constraints:
	\begin{equation}
	\label{eq:action_constrain1}
	a_g(t) \leq s_g(t) \phantom{10} \text{and} \phantom{10} a_b(t) \leq s_b(t)	,
	\end{equation}
	and
	\begin{equation}
	\label{eq:action_constrain2}
	a_g(t) d_r^g + a_b(t) d_r^b \leq r(t) ,
	\end{equation}
	\begin{equation}
	\label{eq:action_constrain3}
	a_g(t) d_c^g + a_b(t) d_c^b \leq c(t) ,
	\end{equation}
	\begin{equation}
	\label{eq:action_constrain4}
	a_g(t) d_{\delta}^g + a_b(t) d_{\delta}^b \leq {\delta}(t) ,
	\end{equation}
	where $d_r^g$, $d_c^g$, and $d_{\delta}^g$ are the number of units of radio, computing, and storage resources, respectively, required by a GS slice request. Similarly, $d_r^b$, $d_c^b$, and $d_{\delta}^b$ are the number of units of radio, computing, and storage resources, respectively, required by a BE slice request. Eq.~(\ref{eq:action_constrain1}) means that the number of admitted slices cannot exceed the number of requests waiting in the queues. The conditions in~(\ref{eq:action_constrain2}),~(\ref{eq:action_constrain3}), and~(\ref{eq:action_constrain4}) ensure that the resources required by the admitted slices do not exceed the current available resources of the system.

	\subsection{Transaction Probability Matrix}

	We first express the transition probability matrix given action $a \in {\mathcal{A}}$ as follows:
	\begin{equation}
	{\mathbf{P}}(a) \! =	\!  \left[\!	\begin{array}{c@{\hspace{0.3em}}c@{\hspace{0.3em}}c@{\hspace{0.3em}}c}
	{\mathbf{B}}_{0,0}(a)	&	{\mathbf{B}}_{0,1}(a) &	\ldots & {\mathbf{B}}_{0,Q_b}(a) 	\\
	{\mathbf{B}}_{1,0}(a)	&	{\mathbf{B}}_{1,1}(a)	&	\ldots  & {\mathbf{B}}_{1,Q_b}(a)	\\
	\vdots &	\vdots	&	\ddots	&	\vdots		\\
	{\mathbf{B}}_{Q_b,0}(a) & {\mathbf{B}}_{Q_b,1}(a)	&	\ldots	&	{\mathbf{B}}_{Q_b,Q_b}(a)
	\end{array}\!	\right]
	\begin{array}{l}	\! \leftarrow	b=0	\\	\! \leftarrow	b=1	\\	\vdots	\\	\! \leftarrow	b = Q_b \end{array}
	\label{eq:pmatrix_B}
	\end{equation}
	where each row of matrix ${\mathbf{P}}(a)$ corresponds to the number of requests in the BE queue. The matrix ${\mathbf{B}}_{b,b'}(a)$ represents the queue state transition probability from state $b$ in the current time slot to state $b'$ in the next time slot given action $a$. This probability depends on the BE request arrival and the selected action. For example, if $N_b=1$, the current state $s_b=0$ and action $a=0$ is taken (i.e., no request is accepted for using slices), then the state of BE queue will transit to $s_b=1$ with probability $p_n^b$ and stay at state $s_b=0$ with probability $(1-p_n^b)$.

	Similarly, we can define the matrix  ${\mathbf{B}}_{b,b'}(a)$ as follows:
	\begin{equation}
	{\mathbf{B}}_{b,b'}(a) =	\!  \left[\!	\begin{array}{c@{\hspace{0.3em}}c@{\hspace{0.3em}}c@{\hspace{0.3em}}c}
	{\mathbf{G}}_{0,0}(a)	&	{\mathbf{G}}_{0,1}(a) &	\ldots & {\mathbf{G}}_{0,Q_g}(a) 	\\
	{\mathbf{G}}_{1,0}(a)	&	{\mathbf{G}}_{1,1}(a)	&	\ldots  & {\mathbf{G}}_{1,Q_g}(a)	\\
	\vdots &	\vdots	&	\ddots	&	\vdots		\\
	{\mathbf{G}}_{Q_g,0}(a) & {\mathbf{G}}_{Q_g,1}(a)	&	\ldots	&	{\mathbf{G}}_{Q_g,Q_g}(a)
	\end{array}\!	\right]
	\begin{array}{l}	\! \leftarrow	g=0	\\	\! \leftarrow	g=1	\\	\vdots	\\	\! \leftarrow	g = Q_g \end{array}
	\label{eq:pmatrix_Q}
	\end{equation}
	where each row of matrix ${\mathbf{B}}_{b,b'}(a)$ corresponds to the number of requests in the GS queue, and ${\mathbf{G}}_{g,g'}(a)$ is defined by:
	\begin{equation}
	{\mathbf{G}}_{g,g'}(a) =	\!  \left[\!	\begin{array}{c@{\hspace{0.3em}}c@{\hspace{0.3em}}c@{\hspace{0.3em}}c}
	{\mathbf{R}}_{0,0}(a)	&	{\mathbf{R}}_{0,1}(a) &	\ldots & {\mathbf{R}}_{0,R}(a) 	\\
	{\mathbf{R}}_{1,0}(a)	&	{\mathbf{R}}_{1,1}(a)	&	\ldots  & {\mathbf{R}}_{1,R}(a)	\\
	\vdots &	\vdots	&	\ddots	&	\vdots		\\
	{\mathbf{R}}_{R,0}(a) & {\mathbf{R}}_{R,1}(a)	&	\ldots	&	{\mathbf{R}}_{R,R}(a)
	\end{array}\!	\right]
	\begin{array}{l}	\! \leftarrow	r=0	\\	\! \leftarrow	r=1	\\	\vdots	\\	\! \leftarrow	r = R \end{array}
	\label{eq:pmatrix_R}
	\end{equation}
	where each row of matrix ${\mathbf{G}}_{g,g'}(a)$ corresponds to the state of radio resources, and ${\mathbf{R}}_{r,r'}(a)$ can be defined as follows:
	\begin{equation}
	{\mathbf{R}}_{r,r'}(a) =	\!  \left[\!	\begin{array}{c@{\hspace{0.3em}}c@{\hspace{0.3em}}c@{\hspace{0.3em}}c}
	{\mathbf{C}}_{0,0}(a)	&	{\mathbf{C}}_{0,1}(a) &	\ldots & {\mathbf{C}}_{0,C}(a) 	\\
	{\mathbf{C}}_{1,0}(a)	&	{\mathbf{C}}_{1,1}(a)	&	\ldots  & {\mathbf{C}}_{1,C}(a)	\\
	\vdots &	\vdots	&	\ddots	&	\vdots		\\
	{\mathbf{C}}_{C,0}(a) & {\mathbf{C}}_{C,1}(a)	&	\ldots	&	{\mathbf{C}}_{C,C}(a)
	\end{array}\!	\right]
	\begin{array}{l}	\! \leftarrow	c=0	\\	\! \leftarrow	c=1	\\	\vdots	\\	\! \leftarrow	c = C \end{array}
	\label{eq:pmatrix_C}
	\end{equation}
	where each row of matrix ${\mathbf{R}}_{r,r'}(a)$ corresponds to the state of computing resources, and ${\mathbf{C}}_{c,c'}(a)$ can be defined as follows:
	\begin{equation}
	{\mathbf{C}}_{c,c'}(a) =	\!  \left[\!	\begin{array}{c@{\hspace{0.3em}}c@{\hspace{0.3em}}c@{\hspace{0.3em}}c}
	{p}_{0,0}(a)	&	{p}_{0,1}(a) &	\ldots & {p}_{0,\Delta}(a) 	\\
	{p}_{1,0}(a)	&	{p}_{1,1}(a)	&	\ldots  & {p}_{1,\Delta}(a)	\\
	\vdots &	\vdots	&	\ddots	&	\vdots		\\
	{p}_{\Delta,0}(a) & {p}_{\Delta,1}(a)	&	\ldots	&	{p}_{\Delta,\Delta}(a)
	\end{array}\!	\right]
	\begin{array}{l}	\! \leftarrow	\delta=0	\\	\! \leftarrow	\delta=1	\\	\vdots	\\	\! \leftarrow	\delta = \Delta \end{array}
	\label{eq:pmatrix_S}
	\end{equation}
	where each row of matrix ${\mathbf{C}}_{c,c'}(a)$ corresponds to the state of storage resources. Each element ${p}_{\delta,\delta'}(a)$ represents the state transition probability of the storage resource from state $\delta$ to $\delta'$ when action $a$ is taken at state $\delta$.

	Here, we note that different from matrices ${\mathbf{P}}(a)$ and ${\mathbf{B}}_{b,b'}(a)$ where transition probabilities depend on the arrival process of requests and the action of the Network Orchestrator, the transition probabilities of matrices ${\mathbf{G}}_{g,g'}(a)$, ${\mathbf{R}}_{r,r'}(a)$, and ${\mathbf{C}}_{c,c'}(a)$, depend on the departure process of requests and the action of the Network Orchestrator.

	\begin{figure*}[!]
		\begin{center}
			\epsfxsize=6.2 in \epsffile{Plot_Optimal_Policy}
			\caption{Cross-slice Orchestrator Optimal Policy as a function of the GS ($s_g$) and BE ($s_b$) queues for (a) m=0, (b) m=1, and (c) m=2 deployed slices.}
			\label{fig:Plot_Optimal_Policy}
		\end{center}
	\end{figure*}

	\subsection{Reward Function}
	The proposed solution aims to maximize the revenue of the provider in term of admitted slice requests. In particular, if we denote $r_b$ and $r_g$ as the rewards (e.g., monetary values) which the provider receives from the BE and GS services clients if the provider serves a BE and GS request, respectively. Then, the immediate reward function can be defined as follows:
	\begin{equation}
	R(t) = a_g(t) r_g + a_b(t) r_b	.
	\end{equation}

	The goal is to choose an optimal policy $\pi^*$ that maximizes the expected discounted sum over an infinite horizons:
	\begin{equation}
	\max_{\pi^*} \mathcal{R} = 	\sum_{t=0}^{\infty} \gamma^t R(s_t,\pi^*(s_t)) ,
	\end{equation}
	where $\gamma$ is the discount factor that satisfies $\gamma \in (0,1]$.

	\subsection{Value Iteration Algorithm}
	To find the optimal cross-slice orchestration policy, we adopt the value iteration algorithm~\cite{Puterman1994MDP}. In particular, the value iteration algorithm is an iterative procedure which calculates the expected optimal value of each state. Value iterations stop when the values calculated on two successive steps are close enough, i.e.,
	\begin{equation}
	\max_{s} |\mathcal{V}_{k}(s) - \mathcal{V}_{k-1}(s)| < \epsilon, \forall s \in \mathcal{S}
	\end{equation}
	where $\epsilon$ is a predefined threshold value. The smaller $\epsilon$ is, the higher the precision of the algorithm is. The value iteration algorithm then can be expressed as in Algorithm~\ref{algorithm}:

	\begin{algorithm}
		\caption{Value iterative algorithm to obtain the optimal policy for the provider.}
		\label{algorithm}
		\textbf{1. Given:} \\
		\phantom{5}	1) Transition probability matrix ${\mathbf{P}}$ and reward function $R$. \\
		\phantom{5}	2) Initiate the state value vector $\mathbf{V}_{0}=\mathbf{0}$. \\
		\textbf{2. Iteration:} 	\\
		\textbf{Repeat} \\
		\phantom{5}		\textbf{For} each state $s$, do for each action $a$ \\
		\phantom{10}			$Q_{k}(s,a)$ = $R(s,a) + \gamma \sum_{s'} \mathbf{P}_{s,s'}(a) \mathbf{V}_{k-1}(s) $ \\
		\phantom{10}			$\pi_{k}^{*}(s)$ = $\argmax_{a} Q_{k}(s,a)$ \\
		\phantom{10}			$\mathcal{V}_{k}(s)$ = $Q_{k}(s,\pi_{k}^{*}(s))$ \\
		\phantom{5}		\textbf{end} \\
		\textbf{Until} $|\mathcal{V}_{k}(s) - \mathcal{V}_{k-1}(s)| < \epsilon, \forall s \in \mathcal{S}$	\\
		\textbf{3. Return:} 	\\
		$\pi^{*}=\big[\pi^{*}(1), \ldots, \pi^{*}(s), \ldots, \pi^{*}(|S|) \big]^{\top}$.
	\end{algorithm}

	In Algorithm~\ref{algorithm}, $\mathbf{V}_k=\big[\mathcal{V}_k(1), \ldots, \mathcal{V}_k(|S|) \big]^{\top}$, where $\mathcal{V}_k(s)$ is the value of state $s \in \mathcal{S}$ at loop-k, $|S|$ is the total number of states in the state space $\mathcal{S}$, and $^\top$ is the transpose function.

	\subsection{Performance Analysis}

	After obtaining the optimal policy $\pi^*$, we can derive the steady state probability of the system, i.e., $\phi$, by solving the following equation:
	\begin{equation}
	\phi {\mathbf{P}}(\pi^*) = \phi 	,
	\end{equation}
	where ${\mathbf{P}}(\pi^*)$ is the transition probability matrix of the system under the optimal policy $\pi^*$. Here, we note that $\phi = \big[\phi(1), \ldots, \phi(s), \ldots, \phi(|S|) \big]^{\top}$ and $\sum_{s \in \mathcal{S}} \phi(s) = 1$. Then, the average reward of the system and the dropping probabilities of requests can be calculated as follows.

	\begin{itemize}

		\item {\em Average reward:} The average reward of the provider can be obtained from
		\begin{equation}
		\mathcal{R} = \sum_{s \in {\mathcal{S}}}  \phi (s) R(s,\pi^*(s)).
		\label{utilization}
		\end{equation}

		\item {\em Dropping probability:} Dropping probability is the probability in which a slice request arrives to the system and is discarded because the queue is full. The dropping probabilities of GS and BE requests, i.e., $P_{d}^{g}$ and $P_{d}^{b}$, respectively, can be obtained as follows:
		\begin{equation}
		P_{d}^{g} = p_n^g \sum_{s \in \mathcal{S}_1} \phi (s)	, \phantom{5}
		P_{d}^{b} = p_n^b \sum_{s \in \mathcal{S}_2} \phi (s)	,
		\end{equation}
		where $\mathcal{S}_1$ and $\mathcal{S}_2$ are sets of states in which the GS and BE queues are full, respectively.
	\end{itemize}

	\section{Performance Evaluation}
	\label{sec:Per_Eva}

	\subsection{Parameter Setting}

	We consider a 5G network in which the maximum number of radio (R), computing (C), and storage ($\Delta$) resources are set at 4 units. Each request from both GS and BE queues will require d=2 units of radio, computing, and storage resources. The maximum number of arriving BE requests is  $N_b=1$, the maximum BE queue length is $Q_b= 4$, the arrival and departure probabilities of one BE request are set at $p_n^b=p_l^b= 0.85$, and the immediate reward to allocate one slice to one BE request is $r_b= 1$ unit. The maximum number of arriving GS requests is $N_g= 1$, the maximum GS queue length is $Q_g= 4$, the arrival and departure probabilities of one GS request are set equal to $p_n^g=p_l^g= 0.35$, and the immediate reward to allocate one slice to one BE request is $r_g= 1.553$ unit. In this way, we aim to model the fact that the GS requests are more sporadic than that of the BE ones, but they can potentially provide higher revenues to the provider. The arrival and departure probabilities of requests will be varied to evaluate the performance of the proposed solution under different circumstances. For the value iteration algorithm, the discount factor $\gamma$ is set at $0.9$.

	\begin{figure*}[!]
		\begin{center}
			$\begin{array}{ccc}
			\epsfxsize=2.0 in \epsffile{Vary_p_lbPlot_Average_Reward}    &
			\epsfxsize=2.0 in \epsffile{Vary_p_nbPlot_Average_Reward}    &
			\epsfxsize=2.0 in \epsffile{Vary_p_lqPlot_Average_Reward} \\ [-0.2cm]
			(a)  & (b) & (c)
			\end{array}$
			\caption{Average reward with the optimal and greedy policies as a function of the departure probability of BE requests, the arrival probability  of BE requests, and the departure probability of GS requests.}
			\label{fig:average_reward}
		\end{center}
	\end{figure*}

	\subsection{Numerical Results}

	\paragraph{Optimal Policy}

	In Fig.~\ref{fig:Plot_Optimal_Policy}, we show the optimal policy of the Network Orchestrator obtained by the Algorithm~\ref{algorithm}. Here, we denote $m$ as the current number of deployed slices. Given the parameter setting, the maximum number of slices is 2, and thus we have three cases corresponding to the cases when $m=0$, $m=1$, and $m=2$ (note that having the number of deployed slices corresponds to observe the resource availability). Since each slice request requires 2 units of radio, computing, and storage resources, and the maximum number of each of these resources is set to 4, we have $a_b, a_g \in \{0,1,2\}$. Thus, there are 6 actions in the action space in this case, i.e., $a=\{1,2,3,4,5,6\}$ corresponding to $(a_b,a_g)=\{(0,0),(0,1),(0,2),(1,0),(1,1),(2,0)\}$, respectively.

	In Fig.~\ref{fig:Plot_Optimal_Policy} (a), when $m=0$ (i.e., there is no active slice in the system), if the number of requests in the GS queue is large, e.g., $s_g=3$ or $4$, the Cross-Slice Orchestrator will accept requests waiting in the GS queue as many as possible ($a=3$). However, when the number of requests in the GS queue is small, e.g., $s_g=1$ or $2$, and the number of requests in BE queue is large, the Cross-Slice Orchestrator will accept one request from BE queue and one request from the GS queue ($a=5$). When the number of requests in the GS queue is very small and the number of requests in the BE queues is very large, the Cross-Slice Orchestrator will accept requests in the BE queue as many as possible ($a=6$). In Fig.~\ref{fig:Plot_Optimal_Policy} (b), when $m=1$ (i.e., there is one request using one slice in the system), the Cross-Slice Orchestrator will accept requests from the BE queue ($a=4$) only when the GS queue is empty or when there is only one request in the GS queue and there are more than 2 requests in the BE queue. Otherwise, the Cross-Slice Orchestrator will choose a request from the GS queue ($a=2$). Finally, in Fig.~\ref{fig:Plot_Optimal_Policy} (c), when $m=2$ (i.e., there are 2 active requests using slices in the system), the Cross-Slice Orchestrator will accept no request ($a=1$). As expected, the obtained optimal policy implies that the requests with higher rewards have greater opportunities to be allocated network resources.

	\paragraph{Performance Evaluation}

	\begin{figure*}[!]
		\begin{center}
			$\begin{array}{ccc}
			\epsfxsize=2.0 in \epsffile{Vary_p_lbPlot_Average_Dropping}    &
			\epsfxsize=2.0 in \epsffile{Vary_p_nbPlot_Average_Dropping}    &
			\epsfxsize=2.0 in \epsffile{Vary_p_lqPlot_Average_Dropping} \\ [-0.2cm]
			(a)  & (b) & (c)
			\end{array}$
			\caption{Request dropping probability with the optimal and greedy policies as a function of the departure probability of BE requests, the arrival probability  of BE requests, and the departure probability  of GS requests.}
			\label{fig:dropping_prob}
		\end{center}
	\end{figure*}

	We now vary the departure probability of GS requests, the departure probability of BE requests, and the arrival probability of BE requests to evaluate the performance of the Cross-Slice Orchestrator in terms of the average reward and the dropping probability of requests. In this case, we will compare the results obtained from the optimal solution with the results obtained from the greedy policy. For the greedy policy, the Cross-Slice Orchestrator chooses the action that maximizes its immediate reward.

	In Fig.~\ref{fig:average_reward} (a) and Fig.~\ref{fig:dropping_prob} (a), as the departure probability of BE requests increases, the average reward will increase and the dropping probability will decrease for both policies. When the departure probability of the BE requests is low, e.g., lower than $0.6$, the GS requests will have higher priorities since they have higher rewards, and thus the optimal policy is the same as the greedy policy, i.e., accept as many GS requests as possible. However, when the departure probability of BE requests is high, the BE requests will be preferable since given a fixed time period, more BE requests can be served than GS requests, yielding a higher overall reward for the provider. As a result, the average reward obtained by the optimal policy will be higher than that of the greedy policy when the departure probability of BE requests is high.

	In Fig.~\ref{fig:average_reward} (b) and Fig.~\ref{fig:dropping_prob} (b), we vary the request arrival probability of BE requests and evaluate the average reward and the dropping probability of the optimal policy. When the arrival probability of BE requests is lower than $0.3$, the optimal policy is the greedy policy because now the system is able to serve all requests arriving at the system, and thus the average rewards obtained by both policies are the same. However, when the arrival probability of BE requests is higher than $0.3$, the system does not have sufficient resources to serve all incoming requests. Thus, the average reward obtained by the optimal policy is greater than that of the greedy policy since the optimal policy can balance between the immediate and the long-term rewards.

	In Fig.~\ref{fig:average_reward} (c), when the departure probability of the GS request is $0.1$, the average reward obtained by the optimal policy is nearly $2.8$ times greater than that of the greedy policy. The reason is that when the departure probability is very low, if the GS requests are always accepted, there will be no opportunity for BE requests to be served, and thus the dropping probability of BE requests is very high, i.e., 0.78 (as shown in Fig.~\ref{fig:dropping_prob} (c)). However, for the optimal policy, the Cross-Slice Orchestrator will balance BE and GS requests to achieve the best performance. As a result, the average reward obtained by the optimal policy is always greater than that of the greedy policy when the departure probability of GS requests is low, i.e., lower than 0.4. When the departure probability of GS is high, the optimal policy will accept GS request as many as possible, and thus the performances of the optimal policy and greedy policy are identical. Results from Fig.~\ref{fig:average_reward} and Fig.~\ref{fig:dropping_prob} reveal that arrival and departure probabilities of requests are also important factors which impact the optimal decision and the performance of the system.

	\section{Summary}
	\label{sec:Sum}

	In this paper, we have introduced a system model which allows the 5G network provider to provide slice-as-a-service in a dynamic fashion based on the service requirements and the resource availability. We have then formulated the cross-slice admission control and resource allocation optimization problem as the Markov decision process, and applied the value iteration algorithm to find the corresponding optimal policy. Simulation results have clearly shown that the proposed solution can help the provider to maximize its revenue given its resource constraints and the service requirements. In the future, we will study online learning methods with linear function approximation to deal with the curse-of-dimensionality and the curse-of-model problems in 5G networks.

	\bibliographystyle{IEEE}

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaArXiv


text:
Q: How To Fix Incorrect Name In Mod Glitch (Minecraft Bedrock) so I am creating an addon, but my blocks and items all the sudden are displaying the wrong names (Example: title.sepular_ore.name) I opened the en_US.lang file, and this is what I found:
"tile.pa:sepular_ore.name=Sepular Ore\nitem.pa:sepular_ingot.name=Sepular Ingot\nitem.pa:sepular_sword.name=Sepular Sword\nitem.pa:sepular_axe.name=Sepular Axe\nitem.pa:sepular_pickaxe.name=Sepular Pickaxe\nitem.pa:sepular_shovel.name=Sepular Shovel\nitem.pa:sepular_hoe.name=Sepular Hoe\ntile.pa:sepular_block.name=Sepular Block\nitem.pa:sepulant_tube.name=Sepulant Tube\nitem.pa:crushed_sepulant.name=Crushed Sepulant\ntile.pa:sepular_block_cracked.name=Cracked Sepular Block\nitem.pa:sepular_guard_suit.name=Sepular Guard Suit\nitem.pa:sepular_pearl.name=Sepular Pearl\ntile.pa:chiseled_sepular_block.name=Sepular Chiseled Block\ntile.pa:smooth_sepular_block.name=Smooth Sepular\nitem.spawn_egg.entity.pa:sepular_tnt.name=Sepular TNT\nentity.pa:sepular_tnt.name=Sepular TNT\ntile.pa:chiseled_sepular_slab.name=Chiseled Sepular Slab\ntile.pa:sepular_slab_cracked.name=Cracked Sepular Slab\ntile.pa:smooth_sepular_slab.name=Smooth Sepular Slab\ntile.pa:sepular_slab.name=Sepular Slab\ntile.pa:sepular_stairs.name=Sepular Stairs\ntile.pa:chiseled_sepular_stairs.name=Chiseled Sepular Stairs\ntile.pa:smooth_sepular_stairs.name=Smooth Sepular Stairs\ntile.pa:sepular_stairs_cracked.name=Cracked Sepular Stairs\ntile.pa:light_green_stained_glass.name=Sepulant Stained Glass\ntile.pa:sedimentary.name=Sedimentary\nitem.pa:sepular_nugget.name=Sepular Nugget\ntile.pa:sepular_flower.name=of the Sepular\ntile.pa:polished_sedimentary.name=Polished Sedimentary\ntile.pa:brick_sedimentary.name=Sedimentary Brick\ntile.pa:sedimentary_slab.name=Sedimentary Slab\ntile.pa:sedimentary_stairs.name=Sedimentary Stairs\ntile.pa:polished_sedimentary_slab.name=Polished Sedimentary Slab\ntile.pa:polished_sedimentary_stairs.name=Polised Sedimentary Stairs\ntile.pa:sedimentary_brick_slab.name=Sedimentary Brick Slab\ntile.pa:sedimentary_brick_stairs.name=Sedimentary Brick Stairs\ntile.pa:smooth_sepular_block_dyed.name=Dyed Smooth Sepular Block\ntile.pa:smooth_sepular_slab_dyed.name=Dyed Smooth Sepular Slab\ntile.pa:smooth_sepular_stairs_dyed.name=Dyed Smooth Sepular Stairs\nitem.spawn_egg.entity.pa:sepular_guard.name=Spawn Sepular Guard\nentity.pa:sepular_guard.name=Sepular Guard\nitem.spawn_egg.entity.pa:op_entity.name=Spawn OP Entity\nentity.pa:op_entity.name=OP Entity\nitem.spawn_egg.entity.pa:epic_trader.name=Spawn Epic Trader\nentity.pa:epic_trader.name=Epic Trader\nitem.spawn_egg.entity.pa:buddy.name=Spawn Buddy\nentity.pa:buddy.name=Buddy\nitem.pa:sepular_flower_seed.name=Seed of the Sepular\nitem.pa:sepular_flower_seed=Seed of the Sepular\n##

Sorry if that is messy. I looked up how to fix it but nothing came up for bedrock:

A: Solution
The issue is \n is literally written. Replace all instances of \n with a line break (Enter key) and it should work.
Why did this happen? (Speculation)
It looks like this was automated with some sort of program and some sort of error was made (accidentally escaping the backslash, accidentally using a verbatim string, etc.) which made what normally signifies a new line (\n usually means line break in almost every programming language) literally just saying backslash n.

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaStackExchange


text:
Home Celebrities Former Hollyoaks star in hospital with 'horrific' Covid
Former Hollyoaks star in hospital with 'horrific' Covid
Alex Glenn
6 July 2021 @ 11:28
Former Hollyoaks star in hospital with 'horrific' Covid Credit: Instagram
Former Hollyoaks star Stephanie Davis spent the weekend in hospital suffering from "horrific" Covid.
The 28-year-old actress was admitted to hospital on Friday and has been hooked up to an intravenous drip. She needed an oxygen mask and has been on painkillers too. She took social media to share a series of videos from hospital.
The star is considered to be at high risk as she has underlying asthma and was not able to be vaccinated against COVID due to allergies and the possible risk of anaphylaxis, explained her spokesperson.
Davis appeared in Hollyoaks from 2010 to 2019 and played Sinead O'Connor. She took to social media and posted from her hospital bed on Friday. "Last night I got a bit of a headache before bed and my sinuses – I woke up so ill and I had to call an ambulance basically", said Davis.
"I've tested positive for Covid. I feel like I've been run over. The worst part is that my skin – my front and back and my skin – I can't touch my skin and it's killing me.
"I'm in so much pain. Oh my God, this is horrible. It happens so quick. I basically woke up and I couldn't move."
Davis also gave an update to fans on Monday morning: "I think I'm anxious as well because I'm getting the camera put down today, hopefully that'll see what's causing me all the pain.
"I'm going to come off this [social media] now and I just want to get myself better. My messages have been crazy so thanks very much for that.
"I'm all right, I'm just in pain,"
"I'm just sick of being in pain now."
She also encouraged fans to stay safe. "Please stay safe, wear your masks, wash your hands. This is absolutely horrific" said Davis.
Thank you for reading, and don't forget to check The Euro Weekly News for all your up-to-date local and international news stories.
Alex Glenn is a reporter for Spain's largest English-speaking newspaper, Euro Weekly News. Formerly she worked in the NHS for 15 years until relocating to Spain in 2018. She loves the Spanish lifestyle, language and culture and spent several years learning Spanish before moving to Spain for a better quality of life. She has made her home in the mountains in Almeria, where she loves being part of a rural community that has a mix of both expats and Spanish residents. In her spare time, she enjoys hiking, reading and exploring the area where she lives.

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


text:
Mass amateurization refers to the capabilities that new forms of media have given to non-professionals and the ways in which those non-professionals have applied those capabilities to solve problems (e.g. create and distribute content) that compete with the solutions offered by larger, professional institutions. Mass amateurization is most often associated with Web 2.0 technologies. These technologies include the rise of blogs and citizen journalism, photo and video-sharing services such as Flickr and YouTube, user-generated wikis like Wikipedia, and distributed accommodation services such as Airbnb. While the social web is not the only technology responsible for the rise of mass amateurization, Clay Shirky claims Web 2.0 has allowed amateurs to undertake increasingly complex tasks resulting in accomplishments that would seem daunting within the traditional institutional model.

In addition to whole websites and applications, Web 2.0 has also birthed a variety of digital tools that facilitate organization and problem solving on a large scale. These tools include tags, trackbacks, and hashtags. These new forms of media became widely available during the first decade of the 21st century due in part to the fall of transactional costs of creating and distributing media. Mass amateurization is a social, cumulative and collaborative activity, wherein ideas will flow back up the pipeline from consumers and they will share them among themselves.

There is no institutional hierarchy in mass amateurization. There is only an informal group of collaborators working to solve a problem. Due to mass amateurization, amateurs are able to collaborate without the interference from the inherent obstacles associated with institutions. These obstacles include the costs that an institution incurs while educating, training, directing, coaching, advising, and organizing its members.

Background

Mass amateurization was first popularized by Clay Shirky in his 2008 book, Here Comes Everybody: The Power of Organizing without Organizations. Shirky notes that blogging, video-sharing and photo-sharing websites allow anyone to publish an article or photo without the need of being vetted by professionals such as news or photo editors. Mass amateurization is changing the definition of words like journalist and photographer to include non-professionals outside of the institutional realm. Furthermore, mass amateurization is changing the way news and other content is diffused and consumed by the public through various media outlets. George Lazaroui explains that mass amateurization "is a result of the radical spread of expressive capabilities," due to "an explosion of Internet tools designed to make media authoring easier" during the early 21st Century.

Circumventing institutional training
Mass amateurization can also be described as a technological and cultural phenomenon whereby ordinary people access information-disseminating technologies that were historically only available to professionals. Specifically, Shirky cites collaborative projects such as Wikipedia and  Linux. Here, the term "amateur", is not defined by the absence of money or skill, since the modern amateur can acquire consumer, prosumer, and professional-level technologies with increasing ease. Instead, an amateur can be described as a producer without traditional credentials or institutional training.

Emerging grassroots creativity
Media scholar Henry Jenkins writes in Convergence Culture: Where Old and New Media Collide, that "the story of American Arts in the twenty-first century might be told in terms of the public reemergence of grassroots creativity as everyday people take advantage of new technologies that enable them to archive, annotate, appropriate, and recirculate media content." This grassroots creativity is a form of mass amateurization because everyday people are creating interesting content that might not have been created by film or television institutions. In Jenkin's book one of the examples of is fan films, which are made possible thanks to the low transactional costs associated with making modern films. On the whole, individual amateurs suffer fewer costs when solving problems than institutions. Institutions have to buy land, construct buildings, recruit members or employees, and procure technologies so that their members can solve problems. Conversely,  amateurs do not require those steps because they presumably already have their own house and computer at their disposal. They simply do not have to put as much effort into solving a problem as an institution would and that allows them to be competitive.

Developing skills as a leisure
In his 1992 book Amateurs, Professionals, and Serious Leisure, Robert A. Stebbins refers to the phenomenon of mass amateurization as "serious leisure."

Stebbins views mass amateurization as a way to replace typical mundane employment as well as allow a person to increase their personal skills and value. He defines serious leisure as "the systematic pursuit of an amateur, hobbyist, or volunteer activity that is sufficiently substantial and interesting for the participant to find a career there in the acquisition and expression of its specials skills and knowledge." This amateurization often occurs within "free time, spare time, uncommitted time, (and) discretionary time." Stebbins notes that compared to their 'publics,' both amateurs and professionals are the more capable groups. Furthermore, "the good amateurs are better than the mediocre professionals." This is how amateurs are able to threaten professional institutions. Institutions only have the resources to gather a certain number of professionals. Alternatively, the amateurs of the world do not need to put forth any resources to gather themselves. That is, they already exist within the world, all that is left to do is work. And since the world is so large, amateurs outnumber professionals in many fields. For instance, even if there are only 1,000,000 amateurs in a field, that law of averages indicates that enough of them will be those "good amateurs" and therefore be able to compete with the limited number of "mediocre professionals" that make up most of the institutional space.

History
The concept of mass amateurization is not limited to Web 2.0 or other digital technologies. The phenomenon has occurred throughout history as certain technologies have become more readily available to the public thanks, in part, to low transactional costs.

Photography

As the costs of camera technology fell, more and more amateurs gained accessibility to photography technology. Now average people could shoot, develop and edit their own photographs in their own time. Previously anyone taking photographs would have to have relied on the institutional model.

Videography/film-making
A fall in the cost of consumer video recording technology in the early 1980s meant that amateurs were now free to make their own films at home. In Convergence Culture, Henry Jenkins examines how a fall in the cost of video recording technology led to the rise of amateur films, particularly fan film. Fan films mentioned by Jenkins include Kid Wars, The Jedi Who Loved Me, and Boba Fett: Bounty Trail. While discussing the Star Wars prequels filmmaker George Lucas once referenced mass amateurization by stating "Some of the special effects that we redid for Star Wars were done on a Macintosh, on a laptop, in a couple of hours.... I could have very easily shot the Young Indy TV series on Hi-8....So you can get a Hi-8 camera for a few thousand bucks, more for the software and the computer for less than $10,000 you have a movie studio."

Citizens band radio
The fall in costs of transmitter technology led to the spread of citizens band radio (CB radio for short). CB radio allowed amateurs to have control over certain frequencies in the radio spectrum that was previously reserved for use by the government or various broadcast corporations. Amateurs could tinker with equipment and use the frequencies for their own purposes.

Meteorology
As meteorological equipment and texts became more accessible, amateurs were able to scientifically monitor the weather by taking measurements with barometers and observing the skies.

Astronomy

Astronomy can now be performed by amateurs thanks to the availability of binoculars and telescopes. Many amateur astronomers make a contribution to astronomy by monitoring variable stars, tracking asteroids and discovering transient objects, such as comets. In fact, amateur astronomer Thomas Bopp is co-credited with discovering Comet Halle-Bopp.

Mass amateurization and the Internet
Internet technologies foster disintermediation and new forms of collaboration within the digital space.

Wikis
Wikis allow for the mass amateurization of encyclopedic authorship. They typically have a set of rules and guidelines that allow amateurs to navigate and contribute to a collection of knowledge. All that is typically necessary to edit a wiki is an email address. All that is required to remain a member of a wiki editor community is to obey the rules and guidelines of said wiki. This manifestation of mass amateurization allows amateur researchers and authors to directly compete with institutionally established encyclopedias and other collections such as Encyclopædia Britannica.

Examples of wikis include:
Wikipedia
Wikimedia Commons
WikiHow
Wiktionary
WikiVoyage
Wikibooks
Wookieepedia

Photo-sharing

Flickr allows amateur photographers to publish and share photographs at no cost. Flickr also allows users access to a community of photographers that might have previously been only accessible to those paying for photography classes at an institution. In this space, users can receive criticism and guidance from other photographers. In his 2005 TED talk, Clay Shirky illustrated how amateurs have used tags on Flickr to solve the problem of organizing photographs. His example problem is that he wants to find pictures of the Coney Island Mermaid Parade. In an institutional model, a photographer would be paid to go to the parade, take pictures, edit those pictures, and return those pictures to Shirky. But with the powers of mass amateurization and tags, Shirky is able to quickly assemble dozens of photos of the Mermaid Parade without putting forth much effort or spending any money.

See List of photo sharing websites for more examples like Flickr.

YouTube

YouTube represents the epitome of the mass amateurization of video. Amateur filmmakers and hundreds of other hobbyists can share videos with the world at no cost. The ability to publish videos and films was formerly reserved for those professionals who could afford to own and operate television stations and film studios.

Airbnb
Airbnb has allowed for the mass amateurization of the hospitality industry. Users of the site can find places to stay during their travels without having to patronize professional institutions.

See also CouchSurfing.

Citizen media
Citizen media refers to forms of content produced by private citizens who are otherwise not professional journalists and/or not associated with formal institutions.

Mass amateurization is considered to be "the principal threat" to all newspapers, as opposed to other, institutionalized newspapers. Other media industries in general have suffered from the fall of transactional costs and the advent of "communication tools that are flexible enough to match our social capabilities." In particular, the mass amateurization has led to an increase in international news reporting that would not be financially justifiable in the professional model of publishing.
Lazaroui points out that "Many people in the newspaper business missed the significance of the internet (the only threats they tended to take seriously were from other professional media outlets). The media industries have suffered from the recent collapse in communications costs. The future presented by the internet is the mass amateurization of publishing."

In some instances, there has been an overlap between professionals and amateurs where professional organizations will utilize media produced by amateurs.  One example of this is when a professional news outlet is sent firsthand footage of a "newsworthy" event that would otherwise be unavailable.

However, other crossovers are not always so useful.  In 2005, the Los Angeles Times attempted to offer its online readers access to its "Wikitorial", which allowed users to edit and contribute the website's editorial page. This led to widespread vandalism throughout the article and eventually its removal.

Examples of citizen media in the Web 2.0 space include Reddit and any blog wherein the author conducts original investigative journalism.

In March 2014, blogger and novelist James Wesley Rawles launched a web site that provides free press credentials for citizen journalists called the Constitution First Amendment Press Association (CFAPA). According to David Sheets of the Society for Professional Journalists, Rawles keeps no records on who gets these credentials.

Social media
In modern news, social media has become a major source of amateur reporting. The Arab Spring is believed to have been aided by citizen journalism that was reported using and disseminated by Facebook and Twitter.

The Top 15 Most Popular Social Media Sites range from 15 million users to 900 million users, and as their user base grows stronger, amateur reporting's base expands as well.

Editing and publishing
Sites like Writer's University have led to the mass amateurization of editing while hundreds of fanfiction sites have led to the amateurization of publishing. Amateur writing sites encourage "beta readers" to work with amateur authors in order to guide them and help them to improve their writing. Sites like these completely circumvent the need for formal editorial institutions. The advent of E-book readers has further allowed amateur authors to distribute their work.

Institutions vs. collaboration
One of the results of mass amateurization is that it often results in amateurs being able to compete with professional institutions. In a 2005 TED Talk, Shirky claimed that amateurs in a state of collaboration have great advantages over those who are members of an institution.

Concept
Institutions are created as answers to problems and they rely on a professional class of people to do work. These professionals are brought together, often to a single location and compensated to collaborate on problems. Merely assembling these professionals comes is costly. The institution often spends a great deal of time, effort and money seeking, gathering, educating, training, housing, advising, and organizing these professionals. In essence, a great deal of time and effort is spent to form a "monetary and organizational relationship" that will lead to the solution of a given problem.

Inevitably some people with the right professional skills will be missed by the institution because they could never hope to exert the effort and acquire the resources necessary to gather every professional on the planet. For example, photographers who are hired, paid, and gathered under the supervision of a larger, professional institution will be able to take a lot of good pictures. However, not all of the professional photographers in the world can be hired and therefore there is a limited amount of photography work that the institution can accomplish.

Institutions are also profit-driven.  Specific tasks must be completed by certain deadlines or the institution will lose money.  If a car company were to allow its workers to work on only what they wanted when they wanted, they would go out of business. In order to function, institutions must remain commercially viable. This is not the case with non-commercial collaborative efforts, which involves a less structured process. Within institutions, "professionals are often too busy polishing their technique...to find time to read about the history of their endeavor or about the forms, styles, periods, or persons beyond their immediate work." In contrast, amateurs have time to develop their work whenever and wherever they want. They can explore new areas of their work and have complete autonomy to carry out their work however they want. This flexibility is a large part of why amateurs can compete with and often surpass institutions.

The effectiveness of mass amateurization is made possible because "digital culture fosters community while at the same time can be fueled by isolation." That is to say that digital culture and the Web 2.0 digital space cut down on costs typically associated with operating an institution. Amateurs in this space do not need to physically meet in order to collaborate and solve problems.

Collaborators and power law

Amateurs, or collaborators, are not formally organized, they do not carry titles relating to their collaboration, and collaborators can have any level of skill. In Clay Shirky's example, users on Flickr fall into the definition of collaborators and they, without any institutional guidance, figured out how to solve the problem of organizing photographs. To further illustrate his point he references what is commonly known as the 80/20 rule; also known as power law distribution. By harvesting the efforts of multiple amateurs, one can end up with a more valuable result than if one had relied on the traditional institutional model. This distribution dictates that 20% of a group will produce 80% of the content.  With power law, the most active contributor is far more active than the second most active, who is far more active than the rest.  Here, most producers only contribute relatively minor additions.  In this distribution, the mean, median, and mode are typically very different in a power law curve. Due to this contrast in production among contributors, traditional hierarchy is replaced with a heterarchical format wherein distinct roles are blurred.

According to Leadbeater, "committed amateurs" can devise effective solutions so long as they get access to the knowledge and resources they need.  These resources are now more readily available today due to low transactional costs and recent technological innovations in media creation.

Opposition
Within Web 2.0, amateurs have now become a legitimate threat to powerful corporations and institutions. There is an understanding that "institutions will try to preserve the problem for which they are the solution." This is referred to as the "Shirky principle."
It can be inferred that institutions will oppose any mass amateurization that threatens their way of business.

Criticisms

Availability
While mass amateurization enables the multiplication and overabundance of content, the societal capacity to process and digest this content is all but certain. Lazaroui notes that "material published in a content-rich environment is destined to remain obscure" and therefore the benefits of mass amateurization are not as accessible to society as they could be.

Originality
Lazaroui makes the case that most amateurs are not doing any original research. Instead they rely on professional institutions to report the news and then simply "amplify" the story. He also points out that formal news-gathering institutions have grown aware of the value of original reporting that does happen and are harnessing that power for their own use. An example of this would be CNN's iReport. He charges that amateur reporters "need to focus on making this content accessible and interesting to new audiences," rather than aiding professional institutions in their news monopoly.

Reliability
In 2004, Encyclopædia Britannica editor Robert McHenry referred to Wikipedia, which allows anyone to edit its articles and refers to itself as a "faith-based encyclopedia".  Citing an article on Alexander Hamilton, McHenry argues that however reliable an article may be, it is always open to be altered by someone who is uninformed.

Quality
Mass amateurization is a multi-faceted phenomenon that works under different conditions than professional organizations.  In most cases, those who contribute content do so voluntarily and without monetary compensation.  At the same time, amateur productions are often not high quality compared to their professional counterparts.  This can be seen by comparing an amateur blog on blogspot to one created by a staff writer for the New York Times.  This is similar to the criticism by McHenry when comparing Wikipedia to Britannica.  While amateur media is often faster and more public, professional media is seen as higher quality. However, while amateur content may not always favorably compare to its professionally produced counterpart, both play a major role in modern media.

Henry Jenkins admits that "most of what the amateurs create is gosh-awful bad," but he is quick to admit that "a thriving culture needs spaces where people can do bad art, get feedback, and get better.

Copyright infringement
The mass amateurization of film making has led to multiple cases of copyright infringement. Henry Jenkins uses the infringement upon Lucasfilm properties as an example.

Exploitation of amateurs

Institutions have been known to harness the power of mass amateurization for their own profit thereby turning the efforts of everyday people into free labor. For example, news corporations who ask ordinary citizens to report news for them (e.g. CNN's iReport) and websites that publish amateur-generated content in place of original, professional content creation (e.g. CNN's article about the Funniest Tweets of the Final Presidential Debate).

See also
Power Law
Produsage
Commons
Clay Shirky
Citizen Journalism
Barefoot College
Amateur professionalism
Crowdsourcing

References

Bibliography
 Endfield, Georgina H.; Morris, Carol (February 2012). "Exploring the role of the amateur in the production and circulation of meteorological knowledge". Climate Change 2012 (113): 77.
 Glaister, Dan (21 June 2015). "LA Times 'wikitorial' gives editors red faces publisher = The Guardian". Retrieved 19 February 2013.
 Lazaroui (2010). "The Creation and Communication of a Shared Social Reality". Economics, Management, and Financial Markets 5 (3): 257-265.
 Leadbeater, Charles. We-think. London: Profile, 2008. We Think. Web. 27 Feb. 2013.
 McHenry, Robert (15 November 2004). "The Faith-Based Encyclopedia". TCS Daily. Retrieved 19 February 2013.
 Shirky, Clay (2005). Clay Shirky: Institutions vs. collaboration (Video). TEDTalksDirector. Retrieved February 18, 2013.
 Shirky, Clay (2008) "Here Comes Everybody: The Power of Organizing without Organizations"
 Shirky, Clay (December 2011). "Institutions Confidence and the News Crisis". Retrieved February 27, 2013.
 Shirky, Clay (April 2010). "The Collapse of Complex Business Models". Retrieved April 1, 2013.
 Shirky, Clay (June 2009). Clay Shirky: How Social Media Can Make History (Video). TEDTalksDirector. Retrieved April 1, 2013
 Stebbins, Robert (1992) "Amateurs, Professionals, and Serious Leisure"
 Wolske, Martin, Eric Johnson, and Paul Adams. "Citizen professional toolkits: empowering communities through mass amateurization." (2010).

Internet culture
Web 2.0

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


The region of Kaliningrad, a Russian exclave squeezed in between Poland and Lithuania and without a land or maritime border with Russia, has been receiving natural gas supplies via the Minsk – Vilnius – Kaunas – Kaliningrad transit gas pipeline. Due to the region's location, Russia's gas giant Gazprom has been building the Kaliningrad LNG import, storage, and regasification terminal. LNG regasification will be carried out with a floating LNG unit (FLNG), according to Gazprom's plans.
According to S&P Global Platts vessel tracking and to shipping data provider VesselsValue, a newly built Floating Storage Regasification Unit (FSRU), named Marshal Vasilevskiy, loaded a cargo of LNG at Singapore earlier in November and is heading for delivery.
This Asia-Europe LNG trade flow is a reversal of the typical Atlantic basin-Asia LNG flows. Gazprom must have procured the LNG cargo at an attractive price in order to make the arbitrage from Asia to Europe viable, traders based in Singapore told Platts.
Platts Analytics assumes that the Kaliningrad FSRU will begin operations in January 2019, senior gas analyst Andre Lambine said.
According to Gazprom, the Kaliningrad Region will be able to receive up to 2.7 billion cubic meters of gas per year thanks to the LNG import terminal, which will bolster the region's energy security and make it self-sufficient with natural gas if need be.
Ironically, Kaliningrad's two land neighbors—Poland and Lithuania—are striving for their own energy security by lessening their dependence on Gazprom's pipeline gas. Poland and Lithuania are among the European Union's (EU) most vocal opponents to the Gazprom-led pipeline project Nord Stream 2 from Russia to Germany via the Baltic Sea, and have signed LNG supply deals to import LNG from the United States.


The authors behind a recent study that found evidence of racial bias in Amazon's facial recognition system also question why the company isn't doing more to ensure safe use of its own product. In that time it has become a poster child for the controversies surrounding the tech because it provides Rekognition to some law enforcement agencies in the US.
The company also offered its support for the development of independent standards for facial recognition by organizations like the National Institute of Standards and Technology.
Last July, Microsoft called for United States lawmakers to rein in facial-recognition technologies before they can abused.
AWS VP of Global Public Policy Michael Punke writes that the company has demonstrated how its Rekognition service was improperly used in each of a series of controversial tests by third parties, and shown the accuracy and impartiality of the technology with re-creations of those tests.
In cases where AI is used to identify people for investigative purposes, he said the confidence threshhold should be set to 99 percent.
Speaking of the benefits of the technology, the Microsoft President mentioned that police in New Delhi recently trialed facial recognition technology and identified nearly 3,000 missing children in four days.
All use of facial recognition should comply with existing laws and civil rights.
In Thursday's blog post, Punke said the company came up with a legislative outline after discussing facial recognition with customers, researchers and policymakers over several months.
Microsoft President Brad Smith has shot down calls to stop selling facial recognition software to government agencies, saying the move would be "cruel" as it could hamper good work such as diagnosing rare diseases. Academics, civil rights advocates, and even the company's investors are concerned the technology will make mistakes and discriminate against people of color. The Seattle-based tech giant also would not say if the videos are processed by its Rekognition facial recognition technology, if a seller can remove video proof of identity from Amazon's servers, and whether or not it has updated its seller agreements and privacy policies to address the collection and storage of biometric data.
"When facial recognition technology is used in law enforcement, human review is a necessary component to ensure that the use of a prediction to make a decision does not violate civil rights".
"Our view is that facial recognition technology and video/photo surveillance should be covered by the same notice framework", Punke noted.
Southampton , now 16th in the league table, host Cardiff , knowing a win would see them move five points clear of the drop zone. He's an experienced leader that has proven to be a consistent performer at St Mary's in recent times and can improve the team.
The 31-year-old Sale flyer knows France well, having returned to England from Top 14 club Toulon before the start of this season. Mathieu Bastareaud has been recalled by France to try to counter the physical threat of Manu Tuilagi.
Morelos will sit out three games in total after a panel convened by the Scottish Football Association threw out a wrongful dismissal claim.
On social media it gained 3m followers on Instagram, had 27m fan interactions on Twitter and had 14% growth across all channels. Turnover was up by £90m to £455m during the year to 31 May 2018, while pre-tax profits increased from £40m to £125m.
Ranaut had accused Bollywood of ganging up against her because of her outspokenness about nepotism in the film industry. During an event related to the film, Kangana was asked about lack of support to her during film's promotions.
Instead, Paul George made two free-throws down the other end to ice the 117-112 win at the Toyota Center in Houston on Sunday. On the following possession, Harden missed a 3-pointer, and George got the rebound and was fouled with 3.4 seconds left.
In Rome, tens of thousands of people took to the streets to protest the course of Italy's populist government. Government and opposition politicians have condemned the attacks.


Hi, and welcome to my website. I built this over the summer after my graduation from college in an attempt to show off a lot of the cool stuff I've done. I don't think I really had an intention when building the website outside of having a place to show off a lot of the stuff about which I feel extremely proud to have accomplished. The website is split into a few separate categories of stuff important to me, ranging from the games I've created to awesome projects I've completed. Anyway, feel free to explore my website and see all the things I've done. Comments are always appreciated and I can be easily contacted through my phone or email, both of which can be found on my Contact Me page.


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Guest column by Karen Bellavance-Grace and Nural Mohammed in the Daily Hampshire Gazette, December 10, 2019
Today is Human Rights Day, celebrated annually in honor of the Dec. 10, 1948 signing of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. That declaration, endorsed by 58 nations assembled in Paris by the United Nations General Assembly, outlined a set of foundational human rights all nations would adhere to. It's a stunning document that has been translated into 500 languages.
Here in Northampton, the Human Rights Commission uses this aspirational declaration to guide its work in educating the community and promoting human rights, decency and compassion in our city.
Created in the aftermath of World War II, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights was championed by former first lady Eleanor Roosevelt, a delegate to the UN and fierce advocate for human rights for all people. As chairwoman of the UN Commission on Human Rights, she worked with an international group to define the essential, universal human rights approved by the UN General Assembly.
In the words of Eleanor Roosevelt, the document "is a declaration of basic principles of human rights and freedoms, to be stamped with the approval of the General Assembly by formal vote of its members, and to serve as a common standard of achievement for all peoples of all nations."
The proclamation, at 1,775 words, is too long to reprint in its entirety in the newspaper today. But in celebration of Human Rights Day and as part of our mission to educate the community, we members of the city's Human Rights Commission would like to call attention to the preamble:
"Whereas recognition of the inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable rights of all members of the human family is the foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the world,
Whereas disregard and contempt for human rights have resulted in barbarous acts which have outraged the conscience of mankind, and the advent of a world in which human beings shall enjoy freedom of speech and belief and freedom from fear and want has been proclaimed as the highest aspiration of the common people,
Whereas it is essential, if man is not to be compelled to have recourse, as a last resort, to rebellion against tyranny and oppression, that human rights should be protected by the rule of law,
Whereas it is essential to promote the development of friendly relations between nations,
Whereas the peoples of the United Nations have in the Charter reaffirmed their faith in fundamental human rights, in the dignity and worth of the human person and in the equal rights of men and women and have determined to promote social progress and better standards of life in larger freedom,
Whereas Member States have pledged themselves to achieve, in cooperation with the United Nations, the promotion of universal respect for and observance of human rights and fundamental freedoms,
Whereas a common understanding of these rights and freedoms is of the greatest importance for the full realization of this pledge,
Now, therefore,
The General Assembly, Proclaims this Universal Declaration of Human Rights as a common standard of achievement for all peoples and all nations, to the end that every individual and every organ of society, keeping this Declaration constantly in mind, shall strive by teaching and education to promote respect for these rights and freedoms and by progressive measures, national and international, to secure their universal and effective recognition and observance, both among the peoples of Member States themselves and among the peoples of territories under their jurisdiction."
The document then goes on to list 30 specific articles that affirm equality and dignity of all people, proclaim each person's right to life and liberty and a home country, prohibiting practices counter to those principles, such as discrimination, slavery and torture.
So what can we do on the local level to uphold the principles in this visionary document? Cities don't wage war, engage in torture, deprive people of their right to free speech or strip them of their liberty without due process.
Yet, the drafters of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights knew that even once nations had signed on, it would take individuals across the world to rally around and bring its principles to life, stating, "every individual and every organ of society, keeping this Declaration constantly in mind, shall strive by teaching and education to promote respect for these rights and freedoms."
They also knew it would be an ongoing process to ensure those rights were upheld. And even so, the world would fall woefully short, as human history shows. But that doesn't mean we shouldn't keep trying to uphold the principles outlined in the declaration.
We invite all residents of Northampton to join us in promoting respect for the basic human rights and freedoms set forth in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Our world, our country, our state, our city, and each of us as individuals, will be so much better for it.
The authors are members of the Northampton Human Rights Commission. Other members who co-authored this piece are Davina Miller, Megan Paik, Booker Bush, Rachel Maiore and Laurie Loisel.
Sign the Dignity & Civility Pledge here!
Link to the pledge form in English
Link to the young students form in English
Enlace a la promesa en español:
Enlace a la promesa por jóvenes estudientes en español:
View frequently asked questions about the pledge (PDF).
Excerpt from the Mayor's Administrative Code:
There shall be a human rights commission consisting of nine members. Membership shall, as far as it is practicable, be selected so as to ensure representation from those classes protected under state and federal law, including but not limited to, race, color, religious creed, national origin, sex, age, disability, veteran status, ancestry, sexual orientation or public benefit status.
Authorities and Responsibilities
The human rights commission shall act to promote human rights in the city of Northampton. The commission shall advocate and be an information resource for the rights guaranteed pursuant to local, state, and/or federal law on the basis of race or color, gender, physical or mental ability, religion, socio-economic status, ethnic or national origin, sexual identification or orientation, or age for all persons within the city of Northampton. The mayor and city council may refer issues pertaining to human rights to the commission for review and recommendation. The commission may organize programs and events to educate about human rights.
The Human Rights Commission is an advisory multiple-member body of the city.
Generally meetings are held:
The fourth Wednesday of each month
Puchalski Municipal Building, 212 Main Street, Council Chambers
Commissioners are community volunteers appointed by the Mayor with confirmation by the City Council. Anyone residing in Northampton may apply. The commission can have as many as nine members.
Nural Mohammed
Karen Belleavance- Grace- Co-Chair
Term ends June 2022
Davina Miller
Laurie Loisel Co-Chair Term ends June 2020
Booker Bush
Megan Paik Term ends June 2022
Massachusetts Commission Against Discrimination (MCAD)
Local Housing and Human Resources
Office of Mayor David Narkewicz
Email the Mayor
Sanctuary City Resolution
On November 30th, 2016, the Northampton Human Rights Commission approved of a resolution supporting Northampton's re-commitment to its Sanctuary City status, and the values of a Democratic nation. In 2014, Mayor David J. Narkewicz adopted an Executive order declaring Northampton a Sanctuary City.
View the Sanctuary City Resolution (PDF)
Results from the HRC Sponsored Community Conversations on Human Rights, December 10-13, 2018
HRC reports, HRC Human Rights Day conversations 2018
Daley & Halligan Commemoration
Darfur Resolution
Jason Vassell Case
Massasoit Street - Letter to the Editor
Sojourner Truth Day Speech


text:
Haematobosca alcis, the moose fly, is a species of blood-feeding muscidae in the family Muscidae. It is found in Europe.The moose fly, Haematobosca alcis (Snow) is abundant in Yellowstone National Park

References

Muscidae
Articles created by Qbugbot
Insects described in 1891


text:
The Aware News > News > News > A guy was injured at a far-right Patriot Front protest in Boston on the Fourth of July.
NewsPoliticsWorld
A guy was injured at a far-right Patriot Front protest in Boston on the Fourth of July.
July 3, 2022 Add Comment
Shinzo Abe, the 67-year-old former prime minister of Japan, was shot in the chest while campaigning in Nara.
On Saturday, dozens of activists of the far-right Patriots Front marched through Boston.
The group is recognized for organizing marches around key US holidays, like the 4th of July.
According to the reports of ADL, Patriot Front is a white supremacist organization dedicated to maintaining the United States' European-American identity.
Many far-right Patriot Front activists selected the 4th of July day to march throughout downtown Boston on Saturday.
In social media footage, the masked protesters march to the rhythm of a drum, holding a flag with the group's logo and shields and dressed in their distinctive khaki slacks, navy polo shirts, and baseball hats.
Most demonstrators wore sunglasses and white fabric wraps over their noses and lips.
As per the Boston Herald, the event drew roughly 100 people.
About 100 members of the white supremacist group Patriot Front marched through the heard of Boston today https://t.co/1ZCXAwVTyA
pic.twitter.com/xT6QtJrUNl
— philip lewis (@Phil_Lewis_) July 2, 2022
Who are these protesters, according to ADL?
The Anti-Defamation League identifies Patriot Front as a white supremacist organization dedicated to maintaining America's European-American identity.
"The Patriot Front walking beside the Freedom Trail over the 4th of July holiday is an insult to anyone who died for freedom, equality, and justice," ADL New Director Robert Trestan tweeted.
Patriot Front is known for organizing marches around major American festivals, such as the Fourth of July.
According to The Boston Herald, the marchers arrived at 12:30 pm and began unloading shields and flags from a truck.
Along with their brand flags, many held Betsy Ross flags, which had only 13 stars in a circle to honour the original 13 colonies of the United States.
Some hoisted American flags upside down, implying the country was in crisis.
In one of the social media videos, a Patriot Front speaker can be seen using a megaphone to address the audience.
Police have confirmed the injury of a guy
The Boston Herald photographed suspicious gang members fighting with a guy at one point. According to the reports, police-reported one adult guy being hurt during an altercation.
In a tweet, Boston Mayor Michelle Wu addressed the group: "To the white supremacists that rushed through downtown today: we don't cover our faces when we march. Your hatred is cowardly and nasty, contradicting everything Boston stands for."
After the infamous "Unite the Right" demonstration in Charlottesville, Virginia, in 2017, which ended in the murder of counter-protester Heather Heyer, Patriot Front split from the white nationalist organization Vanguard America.
The organization often marches through cities around the country and frequently appears at anti-abortion rallies.
Last month, 31 radical Patriot Front organization members were apprehended outside an Idaho Pride event after being observed piling into a U-Haul like "a small army."
Tags: activists boston patriot front patriot front protest in boston us
Daniel Hardy July 3, 2022
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Microneedling is a great way to reduce fine lines and wrinkles which amazingly make you look younger. The process includes little needles attached to a roller that is rolled over your skin to create micro injuries that enables the skin to fill the wounds with new collagen and elastin. It does not involve any major side effects and refreshes your look and gives your skin a boost. It is a short time process and has been successfully done by many people including celebrities. Contact us to get the best solana beach microneedling services!
With the passage of time your skin loses its elasticity and collagen which results in sagging and wrinkly skin. No one wants to look old, and with this safe and easy process you will visibly see the difference as it will look tighter, fresher and younger looking than before.
The one main reason why people prefer this technique is because it is an effective way of making them look younger at least ten years. The process is light on budget as compared to other surgeries, light and lasers treatments.
Our Solana Beach microneedling treatment takes about an hour for the best results. Do not be afraid of blood as the bleeding will be very minor and is a good thing. The needles pinprick your skin and regrow the elastic and collagen. Your skin will experience redness or bleeding for a day or two but after that the changes will be immediate. You will see clear difference in your skin after the treatment and will be satisfied with the results. It will plump your skin and create that natural elasticity that you normally have in youth.
Many women face acne and marks that are very difficult to get rid of in life. These can be easily cured with microneedling also known as skin needling. When a person develops any kind of scarring in their skin the body naturally goes through a process called fibrosis which is a type of healing. This healing has "glue" beneath the skin and is so strong that it pulls the skin downwards creating deep pock marks. Microneedling helps the skin to break away from this glue and release itself from the suction.
Have you always struggled with blackheads? They can be quite irritating. Microneedling gives you another benefit of reducing these blackheads as this process takes out all the dirt in your skin. You will also visibly notice smaller pores after the treatment.
Exfoliation means taking out the dead cells in your skin and making you look more refreshed and active. The microneedling process will automatically take the dead cell layer of your skin out and make you look fresh instantly.
Hyperpigmentation can be caused by black heads, white heads, inflammation or other reasons. It can be the slight discoloration in your skin which can be treated with skin needling. This will automatically even your skin tone and give you a beautiful skin.
As mentioned before, the skin will feel very smooth and you can do it by running a hand over your skin (after the treatment that is). The improvement will be immediate almost after one and a half days.
It not only treats the marks but will also make your skin get rid of those never ending pimples. It reduces the oil and sebum production.
What's the best part about micro-needling? You will definitely look younger and receive self-satisfaction! It will get that glow back and make you look fresher as well.


text:
//------------------------------------------------------------------------------
// <auto-generated>
//     This code was generated by a tool.
//
//     Changes to this file may cause incorrect behavior and will be lost if
//     the code is regenerated.
// </auto-generated>
//------------------------------------------------------------------------------

namespace PaymentsSdk.TwoCheckout.WebFormsSample {

    public partial class PaymentResult {

        /// <summary>
        /// form1 control.
        /// </summary>
        /// <remarks>
        /// Auto-generated field.
        /// To modify move field declaration from designer file to code-behind file.
        /// </remarks>
        protected global::System.Web.UI.HtmlControls.HtmlForm form1;

        /// <summary>
        /// responseLabel control.
        /// </summary>
        /// <remarks>
        /// Auto-generated field.
        /// To modify move field declaration from designer file to code-behind file.
        /// </remarks>
        protected global::System.Web.UI.WebControls.Label responseLabel;
    }
}

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaGithub


Car Insurance in Brazos County – Service Insurance Group Company.
Need Car Insurance In Brazos County?
Service Insurance Group Can Be Your Best Option For Car Insurance!
Everyone experiences perilous events in everyday life, dangers that could definitely be physically detrimental and economically disastrous. It is simply because of this , that personal lines of insurance can be found, policies which can be developed to make available Car Insurance in Brazos County that will preserve families from the majority of risky exposures. Just what forms of insurance policies are considered personal insurance?
Vehicle Insurance - Help safeguard the vehicles you drive!
Homeowners Insurance - Shield the place you refer to as your residence!
Umbrella Insurance - Protect personal belongings from business threats!
Being aware of what an insurance plan does and does not address can be astounding - hardly anyone can expect the consumer in Brazos County to always be aware of their need for Car Insurance. Thankfully, there are many insurance agencies and insurance brokers to help us walk through the labyrinth of insurance policies and coverages to find the Car Insurance can supply the greatest private insurance protection to meet our personal needs.
They can consult with many different insurance providers!
They are fully aware the kind of personal insurance protection should fit your needs!
They appreciate financial budgets and they will try hard to find the best private accidental injury insurance protection at the most competitive rates!
The dangers of everyday life are something every person experiences regularly - and aftermaths could possibly be devastating if you're not equipped. If you must find Car Insurance in Brazos County, you need to depend on the experienced, devoted, and patient professionals with Service Insurance Group to choose the right private insurance protection and insurance policy to set your mind at ease. We all deal with numerous remarkable insurance companies that will give the Car Insurance that you need!
Looking in Brazos County For Car Insurance?
Select Service Insurance Group As Your Preferred Individual Insurance Firm!


text:
Michigan State Basketball Coach Tom Izzo Tests Positive for COVID-19
Published: 11/9/2020
EAST LANSING, MI - Michigan State Basketball Coach Tom Izzo revealed Monday afternoon that he tested positive for COVID-19, and announced his diagnosis through the team's social media channel. The school released a statement saying that the coach is facing mild-symptoms and remains in good health and received a presumptive positive test that was confirmed by a PCR test.
Izzo is one of millions of Americans who have been affected personally by contracting COVID-19 amidst the ongoing global pandemic, and contracting the virus for him comes at a time when Michigan in particular is experiencing a rise in cases.
Izzo gave a statement and said, "I've been extremely diligent for many months now, wearing my mask in public and around the office, while adhering to social distancing guidelines. I've been racking my brain, trying to figure out if there was a time where I let my guard down for just an instance. And while I haven't identified any area of exposure, what I have determined is that this shows the power of the virus. You'd be hard pressed to find a coach who's taken more precautions than I have, following all the protocols put in place by our medical team, and yet I still contracted the virus."
Izzo said he will continue to stay connected with his coaching staff and players virtually as he fights the virus and added, "I appreciate the support from my family, my team and the Michigan State fan base, but if I could ask for one favor, I'd urge everyone to continue to listen to the medical experts and follow their advice. I'm proof that no one is immune, but I still believe that there are steps everyone can take to reduce their chances of contracting the virus."
Associate Head Coach Dwayne Stephens will lead the Spartans' practices while Izzo is in isolation for 10 days and can return to the team in-person on Tuesday, Nov 17 at the earliest.
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Navigant Managing Director Jim Smith and Associate Director Janet Munroe discuss the rapidly growing Medicare Advantage marketplace. Ongoing uncertainty around the Affordable Care Act's individual market has contributed to financial losses for commercial payers and an exodus of some from that market. In response to this, and a growing baby boomer population, many private payers are expanding or shifting their focus to Medicare Advantage.


Creation science is a study of science from the presupposition that God created the universe and life on earth as described in Bible. However, the debate between atheistic and theistic scientists involves more than just the origin of life. The Bible clearly states that God created humans, and yet the scientific community adamantly teaches that man evolved from apes. Creation science does not just challenge abiogenesis, but the origin of the fossil record as well. The Biblical creation account clearly teaches that the world was created with a functional ecosystem in 6 days, and according to Biblical chronology the earth is almost exactly 6000 years old. The Bible also teaches that a global flood-driven catastrophe destroyed the earth about 4500 years ago, and was so severe not even man could survive the event without divine intervention. The geological community recognizes neither the mature creation nor the Noachian flood, and therefore has failed to take these factors into consideration when deliberating as to the earth's age.
If the Bible is correct, then the scientific community is simply unable to interpret the history of our world because supernatural effects would be assigned natural explanations. Evolution is a well thought theory, but the Bible says there was a floodthat no animal could survive. If this event occurred, our scientific community could never interpret the evidence left behind because many of the animals in the fossil record are still alive today, and the scientific community must explain their presence naturally. Although the entire earth is covered in hundreds of feet of flood sediment, a naturalist must say the sedimentary deposits which comprise the geological column must have accumulated at a rate modern animals could have survived naturally, but the Bible says there was a global flood no animal could survive without divine intervention.
The old-earth perspective of the fossil record was derived from uniformitarian theory which is in opposition to catastrophism. The entire world is covered in massive layers of sediments known as the geological column, which were originally interpreted by geologists to be the result of catastrophes such as the great Biblical flood of Noah. However, early in the 1800s, Charles Lyell and others revolutionized geology by introducing the notion of the uniformity of known causes or processes throughout time. Uniformitarianism basically assumes that conditions on earth have remained essentially constant.
Although the earth is completely covered in hundreds of feet of flood sediment, it is now believed by geologists that these layers have accumulated gradually over millions of years. The ages of the various layers in the geological column were assigned dates using relative age dating techniques that compared current environmental rates of accumulation to the quantities of sediment that cover the earth. However, it has become clear that stratified layers such as those in the geological column are deposited rapidly under catastrophic flood conditions, and in fact many of these layers are now believed to have been the result of repeated catastrophes. Although it is now well recognized that catastrophes have occurred in earth's history, it is assumed because life exists, that no catastrophe was capable of destroying all life on earth as described in the Bible.
Given the extensive volumes of sedimentary deposits that cover the earth, it is plainly obvious the world has been destroyed by floods. Sedimentary rock hundreds of feet thick is all around us, but secular geologists claim they are not the result of a single massive flood. If the flood occurred as described in the Bible, the fossils in the geological column have been misinterpreted and erroneously dated. The position of fossils in relation to one another is likewise not an indication of the relative time in earth's history when they lived, but rather the sequence of events in an unrecognized global catastrophe that entombed them forever in tons of sediment.
If the flood occurred as described in the Bible it would be absolutely impossible for a naturalist to interpret the geological evidence as being formed by a single global catastrophe because modern animals are only here as a result of supernatural intervention via the ark. A great many of the animals entombed in sedimentary deposits are still alive today, and their presence must be explained naturally by modern scientists. Therefore a philosophical necessity exists among modern scientists for the geological column to have accumulated at rates that could be survived naturally.
However, the Bible has given us another explanation for the geological column. If the flood occurred as described in the Bible, the event would have deposited the sediments of the geological column much more rapidly than is theoretically possible from a naturalistic perspective. Techniques used to date fossiliferous sediments have been accepted or rejected based on their adherence to the theoretic necessity of gradual accumulation. Any naturalistic interpretation of the strata known as the geological column is erroneous because of the philosophical inability to accept the massive global catastrophe which required supernatural intervention for life to exist today. This philosophical inability has led to excessive age determinations when performing radiometric dating of these layers in accordance with standing presuppositions.
The evolutionary theory owes its' inception to the existence of the fossil record and the fact that organisms evolve through time. The fossil record convinced early scientists that the earth was much older than previously thought, and animals have changed so tremendously that theoretically anything is possible. God has provided all organisms with the mechanisms necessary to modify their own genomes so they may adapt to almost any possible habitat. The evolution that has occurred, did so through cellular performed genetic recombination which functions by design. However, we do not yet understand these rearrangements well enough to limit their ability, nor the extent mutations may be tolerated as a source for new information. The molecular machinery is still largely beyond our comprehension, and the evolutionary potential exhibited through classic breeding has demonstrated a range that makes it truly difficult to specifically determine the Biblical kinds.
A significant amount of evolution has occurred, but life on earth requires the simultaneous coexistence of numerous types of organisms, which is exactly what the Bible says God created. It is generally accepted by creationists that the species common to any particular mammalian Family have evolved through basic genetic recombination and selection. Each species released from the ark has essentially evolved into many unique genera with several species each. This quantity of evolution is what the evolutionists refers to as macroevolution because taxonomic groups above the species have developed. However, the fossil record does not itself offer proof of evolution beyond that evident in living population. These layer have most certainly been misinterpreted, and without their evidence, nothing more than variations within the Biblical kinds has been established.
If the evolutionist is correct, then we are just another animal. But it is possible we are the result of a special creation, and destined to live toward a much greater goal. Examine this issue carefully, and recognize that all secular scientific theory has a presuppositional basis in atheism which at times forces a conclusion against the obvious. This debate is ultimately between a naturalist and a super-naturalist with the former demanding the presentation of only naturalist evidence. The creation position begins with Biblical insight and supernatural events which the scientific community must reject as possible explanations. They will never determine the truth because they will only accept natural history of a world that has a supernatural past.
How old would the world appear after being created fully formed only a moment ago? Since the world was created with a functional ecosystem, our inability to properly assign ages to the earth independently of Biblical insight is not unexpected. The scientific community has also failed to recognize the flood occurred as described in the Bible, therefore their age calculation of these layers must be highly erroneous as is the evolutionary theory which relies upon the fossils for evidence.
In the book of Genesis, God described the creation in phases that were defined by specific lengths of time, and according to this account, the earth was created mature in six of our days. Today our world requires the simultaneous coexistence of many kinds of organism and the Bible says god created many such kinds at the same point in time, including humans. If God created humans then we are not just another animal. We may indeed be the spiritual beings the Bible describes us to be, and the world was instead created specifically for us. We may indeed be here for a purpose much greater than anyone realizes.