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Sun, 23 Jun 2019 15:50:01 GMT
3: Ancient and Medieval India
[ "article:topic-guide", "license:ccbysa", "showtoc:no", "authorname:eberger" ]
Map: World History - Cultures, States, and Societies to 1500 (Berger et al.)
Contributed by Eugene Berger
Associate Professor (History) at Georgia Gwinnett College
3.1: Chronology of Ancient and Medieval India
3.2: Introduction - A Political Overview
The Indus Valley civilization (2600 – 1700 BCE) now stands at the beginning of India's long history. Much like the states of ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt, the foundations for that history were established by Paleolithic foragers who migrated to and populated the region, and then Neolithic agriculturalists who settled into villages. During the third millennium BCE, urban centers emerged along the Indus River, along with other elements that contribute to making a civilization.
3.3: Questions to Guide Your Reading
3.4: Key Terms
3.5: What is India? The Geography of South Asia
India's dynamic history, then, alternated between periods when the subcontinent was partially unified by empires and periods when it was composed of a shifting mosaic of regional states. This history was also impacted by influxes of migrants and invaders. In thinking about the reasons for these patterns, historians highlight the size of India and its diverse geography and peoples.
3.6: India's First Major Civilization - The Indus Valley Civilization ( 2600-1700 BCE)
A century of archaeological work in India that began in 1920 not only revealed a lost civilization but also a massive one, surpassing in size other major early riverine civilizations of Afro-Eurasia, such as ancient Egypt and the Mesopotamian states. In an area spanning roughly a half million square miles, archaeologists have excavated thousands of settlements. These can be envisioned in a hierarchy based on size and sophistication.
3.7: The Long Vedic Age (1700-600 BCE)
By 1700 BCE, Harappan Civilization had collapsed. In northwest India, scattered village communities engaging in agriculture and pastoralism replaced the dense and more highly populated network of cities, towns, and villages of the third millennium. The rest of northern India too (including the Ganges River), as well as the entire subcontinent, were similarly dotted with Neolithic communities of farmers and herders. That is what the archaeological record demonstrates.
3.8: Transition to Empire - States, Cities, and New Religions (600 to 321 BCE)
The sixth century begins a transitional period in India's history marked by important developments. Some of these bring to fruition processes that gained momentum during the late Vedic Age. Out of the hazy formative stage of state development, sixteen powerful kingdoms and oligarchies emerged. By the end of this period, one will dominate. Accompanying their emergence, India entered a second stage of urbanization, as towns and cities become a prominent feature of northern India.
3.9: The Mauryan Empire (321-184 BCE)
The kingdom of Magadha was the most powerful state in India when the Nanda Dynasty came to power in 364 BCE. Nine Nanda kings made it even greater, by improving methods of tax collection and administration, funding irrigation projects and canal building, and maintaining an impressive army of infantry, cavalry, elephants, and chariots.
3.10: Regional States, Trade, and Devotional Religion: India 200 BCE-300 CE
After the Mauryan Empire fell, no one major power held control over a substantial part of India until the rise of the Gupta Empire in the fourth century CE. Thus, for five hundred years, from c. 200 BCE to 300 CE, India saw a fairly rapid turnover of numerous, competing regional monarchies. Most of these were small, while the larger ones were only loosely integrated. Some developed along the Ganges. Others were of Central Asian origins, the product of invasions from the northwest.
3.11: The Gupta Empire and India's Classical Age (300-600CE)
The pattern of regional states characteristic of post-Mauryan times and the early centuries of the Common Era will persist in India until the sixteenth century. At any one time, India had many kings. But on occasion, one king might forge a substantial regional power and assume grand titles that elevated him over others. The political scene, therefore, consisted of not only a mosaic of royal powers but also a political hierarchy.
3.12: India's Early Medieval Age and the Development of Islamic States in India, 600-1300
3.13: Conclusion
3.14: Works Consulted and Further Reading
3.15: Links to Primary Sources
Thumnail: The Rajarani Temple is an 11th-century Hindu temple located in Bhubaneswar, the capital city of Odisha, India. Image used with permission (CC BY-SA 3.0; Lnm8910 via Wikipedia).
Eugene Berger
CC BY-SA
Show TOC


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'I Support Italian Fruit and Vegetables' Social Media Campaign Takes Off
Read more about 'I Support Italian Fruit and Vegetables' Social Media Campaign Takes Off
On Mar. 2, Italy's Associazione Nazionale Le Donne dell'Ortofrutta (National Women's Association of Fresh Produce) launched a new "I support Italian fruit and vegetables" social media campaign to reassure consumers of the quality and safety of Italian produce amid the current global concern surrounding COVID-19.
This campaign is intended to support the Italian fruit and vegetable sector by raising awareness of the fact that the quality and safety of fruit and vegetables are unaffected by the coronavirus.
"The message is simple, and it is also confirmed by EFSA, the European Food Safety Agency. There is no transmission of coronavirus via food," said Alessandra Ravaioli, the association's president. Ravaioli added that far from posing a health risk, the consumption of more fruit and vegetables provides a boost to the immune system and should be particularly encouraged in the current circumstances.
To this end, the association has created a profile picture filter available for use on both Facebook and Instagram to express support for the campaign. The campaign has received an enthusiastic response both in Italy and around the globe, with thousands of social media users participating within the first few hours of its launch.
According to the World Health Organization, the spread of the coronavirus currently involves Europe as a whole, and the outbreak in northern Italy is being countered by robust security measures. "For this reason, there is no point in restricting the export of Italian fresh products," added Ravaioli.
"In Italy there is the highest concern for public safety and health, and safety measures have been put in place immediately. This is a guarantee for everyone. We therefore ask for more precise information provided by the media and support from the government for the export of our fruit and vegetables."
Italy is Europe's second-largest producer of fresh fruit and vegetables. Owing to the country's climate and geography, Italian produce is renowned for its excellence in terms of quality, taste and safety. Italy has a long history of fruit production and is a pioneer of integrated agriculture.
The National Women's Association of Fresh Produce is an organization that promotes female entrepreneurship in the fruit and vegetable industry, providing support in the form of consumer education and the communication of accurate knowledge about the products it represents.
The association expressed its enormous confidence in the fruit and vegetables grown by its member companies: "they are grown with love and passion, processed and selected with the utmost attention to hygiene and environment, taking care of every little detail."
The "I support Italian fruit and vegetables" campaign can be found on Facebook and Instagram.

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Started by cvbn , Aug 08 2019 10:40 PM
#1 cvbn
A few weeks back, on holidays, we had our van broken into.
They took some iPods, some jewellery and toys and a very expensive flute.
I just had a phone call from someone who has purchased one of the iPods off of a mate.
It is locked (my son did it online, not sure how) and my number came up.
The chap sounded upset and offered to drop it off to me (not possible, we are interstate). I asked him to drop it at the police station and he wasn't keen to do that.
He offered to post it but said he didn't have any money this week.
He seemed keen to chat and I was feeling uncomfortable so I asked him to ring back tomorrow (DH is out on a tractor and I wanted to talk to him)
What do I do? Offer to pay postage? Ask if he saw a flute for sale? (It's a really nice, limited edition flute)
Any advice, it was so weird. What if it was the person who stole the things?
I will ring the police station tomorrow (we made a report) but I don't want to bother them at 10 pm.
Thank you for any advice.
#2 Ellie bean
Don't give him your address, it could be some kind of scam. Wait till you have the advice of the police.
#3 knottygirl
Don't give him your address. I don't know what kind of info Apple need to unlock an iPad but he might be just trying to get more info
#4 nasty snaugh
I third not giving your address, just talk to the police and see what they say
#5 *melrose*
Don't give address out sounds to suss.
#6 Ayr
I'd give a parcel locker address if he is offering to post it. Did a phone number come up when he called? Could pass that to police if so.
No, he withheld his number Ayr.
Thank you for your advice EB, I will ring the Police Station this morning.
I appreciate the help.
#8 can'tstayaway
Ditto what everyone has said.
If your son locked the iPod and then your number came up, it means it's been turned on. The location finder will be able to give an approximate location of where it is now or if it's turned off, the last location. The address might be known to the local police already.
I rang the station.
They agreed not to hand out our address. The officer suggested I encourage the chap to hand the iPod in, he could leave it in a envelope if he was worried, drop and run.
I have not heard back from him and doubt I will now.
Thanks for the support and advice, last night. I was a bit freaked out.
#10 luke's mummu
He's up to no good-an honest person would happily drop at a police station
#11 cvbn
I had 4 missed calls from a withheld number this afternoon.
He then left a message saying he wanted to talk to me.
Can I block a withheld number?
I am feeling quite uncomfortable, what do I say?
#12 onetrick
How weird. You have given him options. He could always post it to your local police station (give him that address instead of yours?).
I wouldnt answer the phone at this time of night, and you can explain when you speak to him next that you couldnt call him back when his number was withheld. I go all day without being able to answer your phone, that's not an unreasonable thing.
I hope you get your iPad (and hopefully other things!) soon!
#13 Christmas tree
cvbn, on 09 August 2019 - 07:16 PM, said:
No you can't. But there isn't any harm in having another conversation with him to give him the other options pp have suggested.
Alternatively is it possible to set up a click and collect. Don't know if it would require you to give out any further details.
He is presumably reluctant to drop off at the police as he is concerned he would get in trouble. I can kinda understand his concern
Edit to add I'm not sympathetic to him. But just think if he is at all genuine you need to find some middle ground that doesn't freak him out
Edited by Goldenash, 09 August 2019 - 07:33 PM.
Goldenash, I am sympathetic to him. If he is genuine (and he sounds it) he is quite upset.
The police said not give him our address , we are very rural so no local police station
It's hard to convey how awkward it was to get off the phone from him last night, I felt like I was comforting him and he was wanting me to fix the situation.
DH is going to answer if he rings again, it won't bother him like it is upsetting me.
#15 Neko NoNo
I hope you husband can take the call so you aren't further distressed.
If it does end up being you that speaks with him, write down what you are willing to say- that he can drop it at a police station, the street address of a police station, and thank you for contacting me- whatever it is that you are willing to say, basically write a script, and don't diverge from it. Even have a sign off- I can hear that this is causing you distress, however, I have told you all I am going to say, and end the call.
Good luck- hope its a good person who is just unusually persistent and demanding
#16 Luci
I don't really have any advice but a few years ago my bag was stolen from my car. It contained my purse, phone, and a special drink bottle that DD was given when she was born.
Back then we still had an ordinary home phone and the number was listed in the white pages. A couple of days later I had a call from a woman who said she had my purse. She had been able to find my number from the details on my license. I had cancelled all the credit cards and the license straight away but I asked her to take the purse to the police station. Unfortunately the reason for the call was to see if I was prepared to give her money in exchange for getting the purse back.
I said no and called the local police station. They advised me to stay well away from that sort of person and under no circumstances offer them any money. Anyway OP I know you have had several conversations with this person and they haven't asked for money. However he also doesn't sound like an honest person who is trying to return your property.
#17 Freddie'sMum
Hi OP
If he calls back again, you can say I have spoken to the police and they said to do X Y Z. If he persists, you can reiterate what the police told you and then simply hang up. I wouldn't engage with him further after that.
#18 No Drama Please
^ I'd do that as well. If you were genuine and the person you phoned told you "the police said do XYZ", you'd generally think "ok if the police said that it's probably the best way then".
If you were planning something dodgy, and you heard "I told police and they said do XYZ" you'd think "sh*t if the police know it's not worth trying anything" and you'd probably just move on to someone else.
Admittedly I'm a pretty cynical person anyway, but if someone kept insisting on my address and when I said no they kept phoning and insisting they wanted it, I would be pretty wary.
#19 Soontobegran
Perhaps he is the parent of the thief who has found the booty ? He is torn between dobbing his kid in to the police and doing the right thing by you.
Just thinking out loud.
#20 BECZ
Soontobegran, on 11 August 2019 - 10:30 AM, said:
This was my first thought too!
Unless it's a younger person that's calling and he got involved due to peer pressure and is now feeling guilty or sh*tting himself.
BECZ, on 11 August 2019 - 10:42 AM, said:
Did he sound like a younger person OP? Absolutely it is possible that it's the person who stole from you who is calling you out of fear / guilt etc. However IMO it would be a bit usual, if I was a petrified teenager I think I would be getting rid of the evidence and hoping the whole thing would just go away, rather than repeatedly phoning the person I stole from.
#22 Ellie bean
Scammers are pretty sophisticated and convincing though, identity theft is a big thing, it's best to be cautious
DH and I swopped phones for the last few days and there have been no further calls.
I would like to think he is someone who just got caught up in a dodgy situation.
I would hazard a guess that this fellow was between 20 and 30, the lad that broke into our vehicle was a young fellow on a bike (a neighbour saw him, gave chase and then woke us to tell us out van was open/lights were on)
Thank you all for your input, I am pretty naive so I wanted to get advice before I did something daft.
Edited by cvbn, 11 August 2019 - 12:17 PM.
#24 Inkogneatoh
Luci, on 11 August 2019 - 12:07 PM, said:
Unless he did genuinely buy if from a "friend" in which case his petrified as hes in possession of stolen goods. The "friend: may be some one he's close to he doesn't want to get into trouble, or a friend of a friend of a friend who he doesn't know enough to dob in. Either way he's actually forked out money, not necessarily with the knowledge of the origin, and is trying to get it unlocked as he's out the money other wise.
Inkogneatoh, on 11 August 2019 - 12:16 PM, said:
He told me her purchased it off Facebook, from a mate and then said mate blocked him.
When I initially asked him to drop it into the police station he said he wouldn't as 'he had had some issues with the police in his past' I didn't ask what.
He did seem genuine and didn't ask for money but did mention he had spent his last $150 on the iPod so he couldn't afford postage until payday.
Back to What Do You Think?


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Bidding & Construction
BUILT IN THE PAST. DESIGNING THE FUTURE.
California Education: Prop 51— NEWS
The Kindergarten Through Community College Public Education Facilities Bond Act of 2016, or Proposition 51, is a really big name for, "Let's help better educate our kids"!
On November 8, 2016, California voters will be faced with the decision to support a State-wide facility bond to continue funding the construction and modernization of K-12 and Community College projects throughout the State. Proposition 51 will provide $9 billion to fund school construction and modernization projects throughout California and provide for improved learning environments for nearly a half-million K-12 students and over two million community college students.
The last school facilities bond was passed by voters in 2006 and has been all but depleted. The state's fund to provide matching dollars to school districts that have already raised local funds for school construction projects has been allocated, leaving a backlog of more than $2.5 billion in school facilities applications, with more than $20 billion in identified need over the next ten years.
While some may argue that the State should not be funding school construction, California has a constitutional obligation through the Leroy F. Greene School Facilities Act (School Facilities Program), established in 1998, to provide safe secure schools. Local school districts are required to participate in a funding partnership with the State to match State funds to help maximize taxpayer investment. Local school districts have been doing their part. It is time for the State to catch up. Prop 51 does not change this partnership and further maintains school district authority to levy developer fees and other participation contributions to ensure they pay their fair share of the costs to build and maintain schools.
Since the inception of the School Facilities Program, California's successful partnership between local school districts and the State has overseen the construction of safe and secure classrooms for over 1.3 million students and modernized facilities for over 3.4 million more. Passing Proposition 51 will allow this vital program to continue and local districts will have the ability to upgrade aging facilities to meet current health and safety standards and educational needs. It will also allow communities to invest in community college facilities that support job-training programs, more classrooms with natural lighting and ventilation, better acoustics and provide for critical 21st century project-based learning space desperately needed to respond to the changing needs of today's youth and career opportunities.
Please join Nacht & Lewis in endorsing Proposition 51 and visiting your polling place on November 8th.
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According to CNN Money, keto is booming. We see it with keto's popularity on social media. And with it's dominance with Google searches. This helps spread the word, and ultimately brings better health to many more people, so this is good news.
The interest in keto is commercial, too. As a result, there are many more products available to help make carb restriction easier. Things like high fat, artificially sweetened treats and "meal in a bottle" shakes, too. Keto eaters have more options, which is great. But sometimes these easy options are not the best choice.
Sticking with real, whole food is almost always the best choice. Real food snacks are going to be a better choice than a packaged product. Real food keto meals are going to be a better choice than a meal replacement product.
We get it — sometimes convenience matters. Enjoy the packaged keto options when needed, preferably in moderation. But when you can, stick with whole foods.
Could you please do a review of Thin Slim bread, bagels, and snack products.
When you go on their website they state that all their products are tested for insulin spikes.
I saw you did a test with Jimmy Moore and a supposeably low carb bread.
These breads are ZERO carb!!!
Processed junk is processed junk, even if its low carb.
Stuff like LC bread still can promote wrong "snacking" eating behaviours.
When craving a sandwich, though, or toast with eggs occasionally, it's nice to have a slice of "no carb" bread. I ordered each type of ThinSlim bread and the only one I liked was their RYE. If there was splenda in their recipe it was too sweet and had an aftertaste for me.
I would like Diet Doctor to look at the ThinSlim bread, review their ingredients and its claim for zero carbs.
learn to make cloud bread. the buns with jalopeno sliders are so yummy.
I found Mug bread the other day, I find cloud bread to be a little too "eggy" for me, and I have to say ....it is rather yum ...apparently it works out to approx 3 gm carb, but the meals I have seen require the use of half a mug bread per meal, so Im thinking this can be ok when craving "bread" ?
I am totally loving mug bread - I have this baked in the oven loaded with butter and cheese, its a good stand in for a quick supper, I am so pleased I found this recipe. It totally fills you up too!


A man selling drugs from his vehicle' which was parked at a petrol station in Koeberg Road in Cape Town' spent the weekend behind bars - along with two accomplices.
Table View police made the arrest at the garage after being alerted to his actions at 11pm on Thursday. On searching the vehicle' the officers discovered cannabis hidden inside the glove compartment. A search warrant was then obtained for his residence to be searched.
"At the residence in Wemyss Crescent' Rugby (Milnerton)' members found large quantities of cannabis' sealed in vacuum packed plastic bags' as well as an undisclosed amount of cash."
The cannabis weighed over 43kg' with an estimated street value of R175'000.
The men' aged in their early twenties and late thirties' were charged with dealing in an illegal substance. They are due to appear in the Cape Town Magistrate's Court on Tuesday.


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Q: What is the difference between "struct" and lack of "struct" word before member of a struct I have to create simple List implementation. They guy who wants that put struct before member next of class Node. Why is there a struct word, what would be the difference without it?
struct Node{
    int value;
    struct Node *next;//what is this struct for?
};

struct List{
    struct Node *first, *last;
};

A: In your example, there is no need to use the struct keyword before the next declaration. It is usually considered a throw-back from C, where it is required. In C++, this would suffice:
struct Node{
    int value;
    Node *next;
};

However, if you had a member called Node, then you would have to use struct or class:
struct Node{
    int Node;
    struct Node *next; // struct or class required here
};

You would also require struct of class for a declaration of a type that is not yet defined (a forward declaration). For example
struct Foo {
    class Bar* bar_; // Bar defined later
};

where I used class to show it makes no difference in this scenario.

A: There is no need for struct before next.
That should be a simple pointer to Node object.

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Stickman Basketball 2017 delivers fast-paced take on basketball to the Windows Store. Available for Windows 10 PC and Mobile, the game has single and multiplayer modes, hundreds of basketball teams to choose from and four difficulty levels.
Graphics are colorful with lively animations. Controls are laid out simplistically to let you concentrate on the game at hand, and there are plenty of bonus items to unlock (ball styles, dunk techniques, etc.). Stickman Basketball is currently priced at $1.99 in the Windows Store and all in all, it is a slam dunk of a time waster.
Gameplay with Stickman Basketball 2017 is progressive with only the tutorial available when you first launch the game. Once you complete the tutorial, the primary menu slowly populates with additional gaming options such as quick games, party mode and seasons. You also have options to view rewards, achievements and accessing the game's settings.
Stickman Basketball has 115 different teams to choose from in playing games that span three fictitious leagues. The quick game and season modes are single player games. The party mode is a multiplayer game that supports up to four players who compete for the best game score. Each player competes against the computer in a quick match, and the one with the best overall game score wins. It's not the best multiplayer mode around but a decent way for you and your friends to burn a little down time.
Single player games include the quick game and season modes. The quick game is just as you would expect and the season mode offers a few options with regards to the length of the season. You can compete in a 9, 15 and 29 round season or a best-of-three styled season where you compete against 16 teams.
Gameplay is consistent throughout the game modes with an on-screen joystick to control the player's movement and aim and two control buttons to handle switching players, passing, jumping and shooting. There are game options that include difficulty levels (easy, normal, hard and pro), the period length (4, 6, 8 and 16 minutes) and running modes (manual and automatic). You also have a few uniform options for the players.
Basketball games follow the traditional rules as far as inbounding the ball, three-point shots and going out of bounds. There is no backcourt violations or other fouls, though. Gameplay does have a 24-second shot clock, but the pace of play is fast enough that rarely becomes a factor.
The joystick controls the player's movement and passing aim. A small arrow will appear beside the player to help you adjust your passes. On defense, the Switch Button toggles between your roster on the court to help with your defense. If a player gets near an opponent, who has the basketball, just tap the jump/block button to try to steal the ball.
Unlockable content is available that includes different basketball styles and slam dunk methods. Slam dunks are played out in slow motion for added emphasis, and it's kinda neat to see how aerobatic these little stickmen can get.
The game clock does zip along at a fast pace with a full game lasting only a few minutes. This makes Stickman Basketball 2017 ideal for short periods of time, or you can increase the quarter length for those occasions you want to spend more time with the game.
Players will become fatigued and slouch as they run down the court. This impacts their ball handling and shooting abilities. I would avoid passing the ball to these players until they catch their second wind and show a little more pep in their step.
All in all, Stickman Basketball 2017 is a fun sports game for Windows 10. Game controls are not overly difficult, and the graphics look good. Animations are lively, and the only gripe I have with the game's appearance is the wish for more distinction between the basketball court and sidelines. It would help reduce the number of times you accidentally dribble off the court.
Gameplay has a nice pace, easy controls and while the multiplayer mode isn't terribly appealing, the single player games provide a solid challenge. Stickman Basketball 2017 is available for Windows 10 PC and Mobile and currently priced at $1.99.


The New Zealand dollar continued to slide against the US dollar today, falling to a low of 82.70 US cents, its lowest level since February this year.
Westpac currency strategist Imre Speizer said that while the New Zealand dollar rose against the Euro today the strengthening United States economy is going to keep the downward pressure on the kiwi.
At 5.40pm Friday the kiwi was mixed at 82.84 US cents, 88.66 Australian cents, 50.77 British pence, 87.23 yen, 5.1 renminbi, and 0.6405 euro, up three-quarters-of-a-point, from the same time yesterday.
Meanwhile, the New Zealand sharemarket ended on a high note, following new election polling data that indicated there won't be a change in government.
The benchmark Top 50 Index gained 25 points to 5254.
First NZ Capital broker Angus Marks said the power-company shares rose on the latest election news.
Meridian Energy rose 5-cents to $1.30, Mighty River rose 6 cents to $2.39 and Genesis rose 4 cents to $1.84.
And shares in AWF Group rose 17 cents to $2.65, after the company forecast its sales should reach almost $100 million in the six months ended September.
The country's purchasing power with the rest of the world has risen for the sixth successive quarter up 0.3 percent in the three months to June - just below 1973's all time high.
Nervousness about the high New Zealand dollar and difficulty in finding staff are contributing to a decline in business confidence.
The New Zealand dollar fell about half a cent today from its overnight high following stronger than expected economic news out of the United States.
The New Zealand dollar is expected to drop further from recent highs, bringing relief to hard-hit exporters. The currency has dropped about 5.5 percent in the last month.


text:
Snøhetta completes ultra-efficient HouseZero at Harvard University
Jenna McKnight | 3 December 2018 Leave a comment
Rooftop photovoltaics and windows that automatically open and close are among the sustainable features in a small Harvard building, which Snøhetta, Skanska and university researchers have retrofitted.
The project involved an extensive overhaul of a pre-1940s home that serves as the headquarters for the Harvard Center for Green Buildings and Cities (CGBC) in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Situated on a residential street, the three-storey building has timber framing, cedar cladding and a pitched roof.
The renovated 4,600-square-foot (427 square metres) building is meant to serve as both a comfortable workspace and a living laboratory. Architecture firm Snøhetta was the lead architect on the project, with Skanska Teknikk Norway serving as the energy engineer.
"Paving the way for ultra-efficient retrofit strategies, HouseZero creates a blueprint for reducing energy demands and increasing cost savings for property owners," the team said in a project statement.
A primary goal of the project was to create a "highly configurable, data-driven infrastructure" that will allow the centre to conduct research and demonstrate what is possible, according to the centre's website.
A detailed description of the renovation was unveiled in 2017. Modifications made to the home include better insulation, a radiant heating system, and new windows – many of which are surrounded by protruding "shrouds" that provide shade.
Windows open and close automatically via an actuation system, although occupants can manually open them to ensure individual comfort. On the east side of the building, a glazed solar chimney acts as a vent, allowing better natural ventilation from the basement.
On the roof, the team installed photovoltaic panels to generate energy, and a solar thermal panel to meet the building's hot water needs.
"The design of HouseZero has been driven by radically ambitious performance targets from the outset," the team said. "The building is intended to produce more energy over its lifetime than was used to renovate it, and throughout its subsequent operation."
Architecture students use cross-laminated timber to build tiny classroom in Oregon forest
The interior features open-plan rooms, glass partitions and exposed timber beams. In a stairwell, faceted walls help muffle noise and reduce disturbances in the workplace. Materials include natural clay plaster and birchwood, which were chosen for their performance capabilities and local availability.
Tracking the building's performance is a key aspect of the project. Hundreds of sensors were embedded within the facility, allowing for continual monitoring by researchers.
"This sensory data will provide Harvard's researchers with an unprecedented understanding of complex building behaviour," the team said. "This data will, in turn, fuel research involving computational simulation, helping the CGBC develop new systems and data-driven learning algorithms that promote energy-efficiency, health and sustainability."
While HouseZero functions as an office building, it is intended to offer solutions for retrofitting existing homes.
"The US building stock is responsible for around 40 per cent of energy consumption, with housing nearly a quarter of that use," the team said. "Addressing the energy inefficiencies locked into this problematic building stock offers tremendous opportunity for curbing its impact on climate change."
Founded in 2014 by Harvard's Graduate School of Design, the CGBC aims to transform the building industry through the development of design-centric strategies and new processes, systems and products. The centre is led by Ali Malkawi, a professor of architectural technology.
Other recent green-building initiatives include a prefabricated tiny home by Gray Organschi Architecture and researchers at Yale University, which features a "micro-farming wall" and a roof covered in photovoltaics.
Photography is by Michael Grimm.
Ecological Living Module is a UN-backed, off-grid tiny home
Project credits:
Client: Harvard Center for Green Buildings and Cities
Lead architect, landscape architect and interior designer: Snøhetta
Energy and climate engineer: Skanska Teknikk (Norway)
Structural engineering: Silman Associates
MEP/FP engineering and lighting: BR+A
Civil engineering: Bristol Engineering
Construction manager: Columbia Construction
BAS, controls, natural ventilation system: WindowMaster
Acoustics: Brekke & Strand Akustikk
Code and accessibility: Jensen Hughes
Geotechnical engineering: Haley & Aldrich
Vertical transportation: Syska Hennesy
Specifications: Kalin Associates
BAS, controls, security systems: Siemens Building Technologies
Photovoltaic system: Solect Energy
Landscape architect, rear yard and surrounding properties: Reed Hilderbrand
Project management: Harvard Planning & Project Management & CSL Consulting
Operations support: Harvard Graduate School of Design Staff
More images and plans
Main entry plan
Ground floor plan
Mezzanine floor plan
Basement plan
North south section plan
East west section plan
Chimney section plan
Top architecture stories


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Home » Game Previews » GTA 5 PC Preview
GTA 5 PC Preview
March 29, 2015 May 11, 2015 1 Comment Game Previews
GTA 5 is finally coming to PC in April, and a lot of players have been waiting for the release for a very, very long time. Even though we've all seen Grand Theft Auto V on console, there's still a lot to be excited about with GTA V on the PC. In our preview, we take a look at what you can expect from the PC version of Rockstar's latest masterpiece.
1 Improved Graphics
2 Heists
3 New Content
4 Player Transfers
Improved Graphics
Perhaps the biggest improvement to the PC version of Grand Theft Auto V will be the improved graphics. The Xbox 360 and PS3 were holding back the game a little and putting it onto PC gives Rockstar the creative freedom to go wild with the game quality.
Whilst the PlayStation 4 and Xbox One versions of GTA V are already looking very nice, we expect that the PC version will be even better. We can expect to see more traffic, more wildlife, better attention to detail in the scenery and an increase in render distance. Grand Theft Auto V will also support up to 4K resolution.
Heists
Even though we had to wait months for the release of heists on the console versions of Grand Theft Auto V, they will be releasing on the PC version as soon as the game releases. Heists offer players an opportunity to work together to make big cash. In a similar fashion to the single player heists, online heists will require multiple people to fill out different rolls.
There is a lot of cash to be made from the heists, and players can earn varying rewards for completing all of the heists with the same team.
To say sorry for the wait, Rockstar has brought a range of new features to Grand Theft Auto V on the PS4 and the Xbox One and these features will be available on the PC version too. One of the new features is the awesome first person mode, allowing players to get a more immersive experience whilst playing the game.
Players will also be able to find new random events spread across the world, and by completing these challenges, they'll be able to unlock the legendary Dodo plane and an awesome new car named the Imponte Duke O' Death.
There is also a new mission for Michael that will take him on a murder mystery. Players will also be able to unlock the rail gun and the hatchet for use in both Online mode and the story mode.
Player Transfers
If you have played GTA Online on either of the consoles but don't want to lose your progress when moving to PC, don't worry. You will be able to log into your Rockstar social club account and play the characters you had on your Xbox or PlayStation.
All of your character's vehicles, weapons and apartments will be transferred over if you log in to your PC, you'll also still have all of the cash available on your console and your rank will be left untouched.
CD KEYS GTA 5 GTA 5 PC Preview
One thought on "GTA 5 PC Preview"
Matthew "vaggtables" Bischoff says:
yeah but when will the keys be made available?
Double the games on Xbox Live Games with Gold for April!
The Sims 4: Get To Work Review


Description: Hardwick Inn is ready for you to purchase, place your business on-site and manage the up to 18 units! One main floor retail/office space and one second floor office space are available for your use. This historic location has been well updated and managed since 2011 and offers you a downtown highly visible location! Pressed metal ceilings are in two spaces. The cupola now serves as a skylight on the third floor. The interior walls were insulated, rewired, sheetrocked, and plumbed with five half baths, an elevator plus stairs service all 3 levels plus the basement. An oil hot water boiler with 20 zones and a hot air furnace keep all warm. Financial details are available to a serious inquiry with tours by appointment. Hardwick offers you a vibrant village in northeastern VT to live and work in! State Routes 14, 15, or 16 let you travel to Newport/Canada, St. Johnsbury/New Hampshire or the Montpelier/Barre areas. Be at Burke Mountain or Stowe Ski Areas within an hour. Recreational opportunities abound as well in Craftsbury/Greensboro or via the VAST Trail that passes thru the village.


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Flood-prone community bound for greatness
A fire rescue vessel in operation in the aftermath of the flooding brought about by Hurricane Floyd in Bound Brook, N.J., in September 1999. Photo: New York District, USACE.
New Jersey flood-control projects cut insurance costs and encourage development.
By JoAnne Castagna, Ed.D.
In September 1999, before becoming mayor of the Borough of Bound Brook, N.J., Robert Fazen woke up to the sound of helicopters hovering over his house. He soon realized they were news helicopters televising the flood damage caused by Tropical Storm Floyd.
"Downtown Bound Brook was like a warzone with flooded businesses and apartments and out-of-control fires," said Fazen. "Police were in motor boats navigating the flooded streets rescuing residents from second story apartments, cars were floating down Main Street, and fire department boats were moored to street lamp poles, hosing down store fires.
"The rescue continued for days and the physical recovery took months," Fazen said. "The mental state of Bound Brook was changed. We all wondered if our downtown would ever recover."
Today, Fazen is pleased that Bound Brook has recovered. Recently, he, in collaboration with the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, New York District and partnering agencies, completed the Bound Brook portion of the Green Brook Flood Risk Management Project. This significant development will help protect residents from experiencing another Floyd, and will drastically reduce their flood insurance and improve Bound Brook's economy.
For the last century, Bound Brook and the surrounding region has been subjected to severe and sometimes devastating flooding, resulting in $2.5 billion (1996 dollars) in damages, widespread resident evacuations, injuries, and deaths.
Flooding on Main Street in Downtown Bound Brook in the Borough of Bound Brook, N.J., during Tropical Storm Floyd in 1999. Credit: USACE.
In 2000, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers began construction on the Green Brook Flood Risk Management Project. The Corps is working in collaboration with the New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection; Middlesex, Somerset, and Union Counties in New Jersey; the Green Brook Flood Control Commission; and other partnering agencies.
The project is expected to provide comprehensive flood protection to the entire Green Brook Basin that covers 65 square miles in north central New Jersey and includes 14 municipalities in Middlesex, Somerset, and Union counties. The basin is a depression in the land surface that experiences flooding from the Raritan River and its tributaries — the Middle Brook, Green Brook, Bound Brook, and Stony Brook — during heavy rain and storm events.
The most severe flooding has occurred in downtown Bound Brook, within the Borough of Bound Brook in Somerset County. Besides Floyd, the basin was flooded in Aug. 2, 1973 by a big storm and from April 15-17, 2007 by a Nor'easter.
The project includes constructing an elaborately engineered system of levees, flood walls, closure gates, and pumping facilities throughout the Green Brook Basin. In addition, channels are being modified; buildings are being flood proofed, voluntarily bought out, or demolished; bridges are being raised and demolished; and wetland mitigation is being performed.
A closure gate located on East Street in Downtown Bound Brook in the Borough of Bound Brook is working well during Hurricane Irene in 2011. Credit: USACE.
The project is designed to provide flood protection up to a 150-year storm event. The project as a whole is still in progress, but the Bound Brook portion is completed.
"To prevent water from the Raritan, Middle Brook, and Green Brook Rivers from flooding the Borough of Bound Brook, we constructed levees and floodwalls around the borough," said Robert Greco, project manager, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, New York District. "We also constructed an interior drainage system that includes pump stations and interior drainage pipes that will convey the water on the protected side to the pump stations during a rain event."
Floodwall located near Brook Industrial Complex in the Borough of Bound Brook, N.J., during Hurricane Irene in 2011. Credit: USACE.
In July 2016, flood insurance requirements changed in the Borough of Bound Brook. According to Fazen, approximately 500 properties will no longer be required to pay flood insurance and the value of those properties along with all the properties in the Borough of Bound Brook will increase 10 to 20 percent.
Reduced flood risk is bringing new business to the Borough of Bound Brook and increasing its economy. Greco said that this is evident by the presence of stable businesses moving onto Main Street in downtown Bound Brook and the development of two major apartment complexes.
Fazen said, "Potential flooding has always inhibited outside investment, and with the threat of flooding reduced, development is accelerating."
New development projects are also no longer burdened with state flood regulations and flood insurance costs, Fazen said.
Bound Brook residents like Alberto Torregroza, who has lived in the Borough of Bound Brook for 26 years and raised five children there, is satisfied with the work done in Bound Brook and the reduced flood insurance.
"This is great news that we have been waiting for years to hear," said Torregroza. "The significant reduction of our flood insurance will help us save money. The insurance may even be totally eliminated. Now we can improve the appearance of our homes and the entire town with continual maintenance and redevelopment plans."
Torregroza's family has been flooded out of their Bound Brook home several times since 1992. This included experiencing the devastation caused by Tropical Storm Floyd.
"The completion of this flood project will prevent us from seeing another major storm such as Floyd," said Torregroza. "When there are children involved in these difficult and trying situations as was the case with our family, it is an indescribable state of confusion, disbelief, and financial hardship that affects the entire family and everyone in the community."
Fazen said, "The residents of Bound Brook are ecstatic. We always had the threat of flooding in our minds. With this project, residents feel a sense of safety."
Torregroza added, "Bound Brook is a beautiful town and we are grateful to all the parties involved for their efforts and determination to get this done. We are really going to see this community prosper, grow, and improve its quality of life."
JoAnne Castagna, Ed.D., is a public affairs specialist and writer for the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, New York District. She can be reached at joanne.castagna@usace.army.mil.


I adjusted the model to fit on my printing bed (cut the back side off). You can re-enable printing the whole thing in the .scad.
Just print it. 10% infill or more and support (for the stand, not the drawer) are recommended. PLA does fine.
This page was last edited on 20 December 2018, at 14:57.


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Bike Week 2020: Are UK Roads Safe for Cyclists?
Legal Articles, Case Studies & News
Simon Stanfield
Partner, Head of Road Traffic Accidents
This week is Bike Week, a national effort to promote the health benefits of cycling. As the UK aims to get back to work, more and more of us will be turning to cycling instead of public transport.
But according to Government figures, safety concerns are stopping many people from getting on bikes, with 77% saying cycling safety and infrastructure in towns and cities must improve before they start cycling.
Our Road Traffic Accident Solicitors regularly see the effects of devastating cycling accidents, both on the victims and their loved ones. So we hope recent Government pledges to improve cycling facilities mark a sea change in safety on our roads. Below we explain steps you can take to stay safe while cycling, which could be vitally important if you're injured in a cycling accident that's not your fault.
Don't Buy a Cheap Bike
We all love a bargain, but you get what you pay for, and that's particularly true with private transport. A cheap bike won't last if you're using it to commute to and from work every day, so you may be increasing your chances of being in an accident if you buy a cheap bicycle.
See the Bike Before Buying It
You probably wouldn't buy a car without seeing it in person and taking it for a test drive. So you should apply the same logic to buying a bike. Go to a specialist retailer if possible, and if it's safe to do so, so they can help you buy a bike that fits you, and you can be protected by their warranty and insurance policies.
Maintain Your Bike
The chances of being involved in a cycling accident can be reduced if your bike is in top condition, with working brakes, chains, gears and a suitable tyre pressure.
Of course, these measures can't completely take away the risk of an accident, and it's commonplace for cyclists to be injured in an accident that wasn't their fault. If that's the case, you may be entitled to claim compensation.
In any cycling accident claim that our No Win, No Fee Solicitors deal with, we carry out a thorough investigation to establish exactly what's happened. But if there's a dispute with the other person or party over liability (fault), it can help if you can demonstrate you were taking all the safety measures appropriate for the road conditions at the time of the accident.
In some cycling accident cases, claimants have had to settle for a lower amount of compensation because the other party has argued that they were only partly rather than wholly responsible for what happened. So the more evidence you can provide to support your case the better.
Use a Helmet Cam
Helmet cams can capture valuable evidence which can back up your version of what happened.
What's Being Done to Improve Cycle Safety?
Last month, the Government confirmed £250 million is being put into an active travel fund, to pay for measures including new cycle tracks and wider pavements. This forms part of a wider £2 billion plan to make it easier and safer for people to cycle and walk, rather than pile on public transport at a time when it looks as if social distancing measures will become the new norm.
While cycling is a very popular activity, it's not embedded in British culture in the same way it is in other nations. Indeed, official figures show that in 2016, just 2% of all journeys in the UK were made by bike, compared with 27% in the Netherlands.
But the coronavirus pandemic is having a big effect on people's attitudes to travel. For example, a recent survey by Ipsos Mori shows that 61% of Britons aren't comfortable about travelling by public transport when lockdown is lifted.
At the same time, major cycling retailers have seen sales of bikes and cycling equipment shoot up in recent weeks.
As a raft of inexperienced cyclists take to the roads, the potential for cycling-related accidents increases. We hope that with this investment in improved cycling infrastructure comes greater education on cycle safety, to reduce the chances of devastating cycling accidents happening on our roads.
For free legal advice call our Road Traffic Accident Solicitors
Monday to Friday 8:30am-7:00pm
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Social media platforms have become essential to many people around the world today. Many people are aware of the use of Facebook for their online social connection with others. In the recent past the use of Facebook pages has become common among many people who are doing business of different kinds. The use of social media provides an opportunity to present business activities to a large population. With the increased competition in the market today creating business awareness has become necessary. Many people are able to access internet on various devices which have led to great use of social platforms to connect with others. Many business activities today are conducted online which makes use of Facebook pages for your business ideal to win market. Many people get access to their Facebook accounts more often than they would do with a website hence providing a great chance to promote a business. From the following article you are going to find useful information about the advantage of using Facebook page for your business.
The use of Facebook pages allows for multi-level marketing through features such as liking and sharing. The multi-level marketing effected provided by the use of Facebook pages is vital to increasing traffic to a page. Having a wider market cover through great awareness is helpful to your business when it comes to dealing with completion in the market. The use of Facebook pages to market your firm ensures that you can obtain vital information which is sufficient to measure the effectiveness of your messages on the page at any given time to allow for proper decision making.
You can improve your customer service delivery to a great extent when you, make use of Facebook pages. Effective customer support is going to ensure that many people are satisfied with your business activities and eventually leads to potential sales for your business. Many customers today are searching for vital details about which firms to deal with online and your Facebook page is going to provide an essential means of availing useful information to your clients. Many customers in the market today are attracted to firms by great level of customer services.


Learn how to make honey, maple syrup, or a compost heap. Sample delectable local foods and learn about local farms, food crafters, orchards and wineries, plant nurseries, grocers, restaurants, and more.
Then stroll (or drive) a half mile to Warren Farm for a tour of a small New England farm on the verge of the summer season.
Indoor and outdoor (weather permitting) activities for whole family!


Fever-Tree has posted a sharp rise in annual sales and profits, helped by gin drinking during the World Cup and last year's royal wedding in the UK.
The premium mixer maker recorded a pre-tax profit rise of 34pc to £75.6m in 2018, while revenue jumped 40pc to £237.4m (€277m).
Fever-Tree said it was boosted by last summer's heatwave, as well as the World Cup and the marriage of British royals Harry and Meghan.
More gin was sold during the three months of the summer in 2018 than the summers of 2014 and 2015 combined, the firm added, with the category now worth £1.9bn in the UK.
Fever-Tree specialises in selling mixers such as tonic water, ginger beer and Sicilian lemonade.
Founder and chief executive Tim Warrillow said: "2018 was a significant year for Fever-Tree.
"In the UK, we strengthened our position as the leading mixer brand in the Off Trade.
"In the US, we successfully established our own operations and the business made real progress in deepening and widening its presence in multiple European regions.
"As the world's leading premium mixer brand with a strengthening global distribution network, we are well set to drive the international opportunity as the move towards the premium long mixed drink continues to gather momentum around the world."
The chief executive added Fever-Tree is trading in line with expectations.
In the UK, its fastest growing market, sales were up 53pc and there was 21pc growth in the US.
Fever-Tree is now hoping to replicate the group's UK success in the US.
Last year, the firm inked a distribution agreement with Southern Glazer's Wine & Spirits (SGWS), North America's largest distributor of wines and spirits.


GPS started well scoring early both teams playing some good football GPS were 2-0 up at the break. The second half started with both teams defending well GPS scoring 2 more with some good team play and a good set play. Gloucester scored a very good goal late on. Good game by both teams.


Pre-Entry forms are now available for your convenience. All entries received by 5:00 pm the Wednesday before the show will get a $5.00 credit toward the office fees for the weekend. Be sure to include a copy of your registration papers, APHA membership card(s) for both owner and all exhibitors, and current coggins report with your entry forms.
RETURNING FOR 2019: All entries received by 5:00 p.m. the Wednesday before the show will have their names put in a hat for a drawing for a FREE STALL. Entries submitted must be complete including copies of registration papers, negative coggins and all APHA membership cards. 1 free stall will be given away at each show.
NOTE: All horses, including futurity horses, MUST fill out an entry form.
Shavings must be paid for separately and directly to the vendor. You will not be able to put shavings on your show tab. No shavings will be delivered to stalls without payment in full.


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O  (Nawatl, Nawatlahtolli), também chamado de asteca ou mexicano, ( é uma língua pertencente à família uto-asteca, usada pelo povo náuatle e falada no território atualmente correspondente à região central do México desde pelo menos o século VII. No final do século XX, era falada por pouco menos de um milhão e meio de pessoas.

Na época da conquista espanhola e tlaxcalteca do México, no início do século XVI, era o idioma dos astecas, que dominavam o México central durante o fim do período pós-clássico da cronologia mesoamericana. A expansão e influência do Império Asteca fizeram com que o dialeto falado pelos astecas de Tenochtitlán se tornasse um dialeto de prestígio na Mesoamérica deste período. Com a introdução do alfabeto latino, o náuatle também se tornou uma língua literária e muitas crónicas, gramáticas, obras de poesia, documentos administrativos e códices foram escritos nos séculos XVI e XVII. Esta língua literária baseada no dialeto de Tenochtitlán foi chamada de náuatle clássico e está entre as línguas mais estudadas e bem-documentadas das Américas. Devido à popularidade da língua e, em parte, à expansão territorial por causa dos conquistadores, o rei Filipe II estabeleceu o náuatle como língua oficial do Vice-Reino da Nova Espanha.

Hoje em dia, os dialetos náuatles são falados em comunidades espalhadas na sua maior parte em áreas rurais. Existem diferenças consideráveis entre cada dialeto e alguns são mutuamente ininteligíveis. Todas sofreram diferentes graus de influência do castelhano. Nenhum dialeto moderno é idêntico ao náuatle clássico, mas aqueles que são falados no vale do México e em seus arredores são geralmente considerados como mais próximos, linguisticamente, a ele. Sob a Ley General de Derechos Lingüísticos de los Pueblos Indígenas ("Lei Geral de Direitos Linguísticos dos Povos Indígenas"), promulgada no México em 2003, o náuatle, assim como outras línguas indígenas do México foram reconhecidas como lenguas nacionales ("línguas nacionais") nas regiões onde são faladas, ostentando o mesmo statu que o castelhano.

O náuatle é um idioma com uma morfologia complexa, caracterizado por polissínteses e aglutinações, que permitem a construção de palavras longas, com significados complexos, a partir de diversos radicais e afixos. O náuatle foi influenciado por outras línguas mesoamericanas ao longo de séculos de coexistência, tornando-se parte da área linguística mesoamericana. Muitas palavras do náuatle foram apropriadas pelos idioma espanhol e passaram para centenas de outras línguas; em sua grande maioria, são palavras que designam conceitos nativos ao México central, que os espanhóis ouviram ser mencionados pela primeira vez em seus nomes náuatles, como, por exemplo, "tomate", "abacate", e "chocolate".

História

Período pré-colombiano

Em relação a origem geográfica, os linguistas do século XX concordaram que a família linguística uto-asteca é originária da Região Sudoeste dos Estados Unidos. Evidências arqueológicas e etno-históricas sugerem que os primeiros falantes dos idiomas náuatles migraram dos desertos mexicanos do norte para a região central do México, provavelmente em diversas ondas migratórias. Antes de atingir o platô central mexicano, estes grupos pré-náuatle provavelmente passaram um período em contato com as línguas coracolanas do noroeste do México (cora e huichol).

Estudos anteriores presumiram que o povo de Teotihuacán, uma cultura que floresceu entre 100 e 500 d.C., falavam o náuatle, e recentemente foram apresentadas evidências que sugerem uma presença náuatle anterior no México central, possivelmente em Teotihuacán. Porém, de acordo com a compreensão atual da pré-história náuatle, os falantes do proto-náuatle entraram na região mesoamericana em cerca de 500 d.C., coincidindo mais com o declínio de Teotihuacán que com sua ascensão. Na Mesoamérica, os náuatles tomaram contato com os falantes dos idiomas maias, otomangueanos e mixe-zoqueanos, que haviam coexistido durante milênios, e cujos idiomas haviam convergido até formar a área linguística mesoamericana. Os primeiros náuatles nômades adotaram diversos aspectos das culturas mesoamericanas, que fizeram com que o proto-náuatle desenvolvesse novos traços, similares aos de outras línguas mesoamericanas. Estes traços, que são comuns a todas as variedades do náuatle, porém estão ausentes das outras línguas uto-astecas faladas fora da Mesoamérica, datam deste período. Exemplos destes traços adotados incluem o uso de substantivos relacionais, o aparecimento de calques, e uma forma de construção possessiva típica das línguas mesoamericanas.

O primeiro ramo a se separar do grupo principal das línguas proto-náuatles foi o pochuteca, cujos falantes se estabeleceram em Oaxaca, na costa do oceano Pacífico, aproximadamente em 400 d.C., tendo chegado à Mesoamérica alguns séculos mais cedo que o resto dos povos náuatles. Acredita-se que as primeiras migrações correspondam aos dialetos periféricos da atualidade, que são relativamente conservadores e não apresentam influências dos dialetos centrais. Alguns grupos náuatles migraram para o sul, seguindo pelo istmo centro-americano, atingindo o território dos atuais El Salvador e Panamá; seriam os ancestrais dos povos que falam o pipil. No início do século VII os falantes náuatles assumiram o poder no México central, a partir de onde se expandiram para áreas ocupadas anteriormente por povos que falavam os idiomas otomangueanos, totonacanos e huastecas. Acredita-se que os toltecas de Tula, Hidalgo, que dominaram o centro do México no século X, falassem o náuatle, e os traços associados com estes dialetos centrais teriam se espalhado pelo território central do México durante as migrações do período epi-tolteca.

Já no século XI os falantes de náuatle dominavam o vale do México e até territórios mais além, com centros como Azcapotzalco, Culhuacán e Cholula tornando-se proeminentes. Sucessivas migrações náuatles do norte para esta região continuaram até o período pós-clássico. Um dos últimos grupos a empreender estas migrações e chegar no vale se estabeleceu numa ilha no lago Texcoco, onde acabaram por subjugar as tribos locais; estes eram os mexicas, que ao longo dos três séculos seguintes fundaram um império baseado em Tenochtitlán, nome que deram a esta ilha onde se localizava sua capital. Sua influência política e linguística atingiu a América Central, e já está bem documentado que entre diversos grupos étnicos não-náuatles, como os maias quichés, o náuatle se tornou uma língua de prestígio, utilizada para o comércio de longa distância e falado pelos grupos de elite.

Período colonial
Com a chegada dos espanhóis em 1519 o náuatle perdeu espaço e um novo idioma, o castelhano, se tornou dominante. No entanto, pelo fato dos espanhóis terem se aliado com os falantes de náuatle de Tlaxcala, e posteriormente com os astecas conquistados, o idioma náuatle continuou a se espalhar através da Mesoamérica por décadas depois da conquista, quando expedições de centenas de soldados náuatles liderados pelos espanhóis conquistaram novos territórios. As missões jesuíticas fundadas no norte do México e no sudoeste dos Estados Unidos frequentemente incluíam um barrio de soldados tlaxcaltecas que ali permaneciam para guardar a missão. Por exemplo, cerca de catorze anos depois da fundação, em 1577, da cidade de Saltillo, uma comunidade tlaxcalteca foi relocada para uma vila próxima (San Estebán de la Nueva Tlaxcala), para cultivar a terra e auxiliar os esforços de colonização que haviam fracassado diante da hostilidade local à colonização espanhola. As conquistas espanholas no sul do México também incluíam frequentemente aliados tlaxcaltecas e outros povos falantes do náuatle.

Como parte de seus esforços missionários, membros de diversas ordens monásticas (principalmente franciscanos, dominicanos e jesuítas) introduziram o alfabeto latino aos náuatles, que estavam ansiosos por ler e escrever, tanto em espanhol quanto em seu próprio idioma. Apenas vinte anos depois da chegada dos espanhóis, já havia textos preparados na língua náuatle utilizando-se dos caracteres latinos. Também neste período foram fundadas instituições de aprendizado, como o Colégio da Santa Cruz de Tlatelolco, inaugurado em 1536, que ensinava tanto os idiomas indígenas quanto as línguas europeias clássicas para índios e padres. Gramáticos missionários se encarregavam do preparo das gramáticas dos idiomas indígenas para o uso dos padres. A primeira gramática náuatle, escrita por Andrés de Olmos, foi publicada em 1547, três anos antes da primeira gramática francesa. Em 1645 outras quatro haviam sido publicadas: uma por Alonso de Molina em 1571, uma por Antonio del Rincón em 1595, uma por Diego de Guzmán em 1642 e, em 1645, aquela que é considerada hoje em dia a mais importante gramática náuatle, de Horacio Carochi.

Em 1570 o rei Felipe II da Espanha decretou que o náuatle deveria se tornar o idioma oficial das colônias da Nova Espanha, para facilitar a comunicação entre os espanhóis e os nativos. Os missionários ensinaram então o náuatle a indígenas que falavam outros idiomas indígenas, nos territórios ao sul que correspondem aos atuais Honduras, Guatemala e El Salvador. Durante os séculos XVI e XVII, o náuatle clássico foi utilizado como língua literária, e um grande corpus de textos deste período ainda existe nos dias de hoje. Entre estes textos estão histórias, crônicas, poesia, peças teatrais, obras canônicas cristãs, descrições etnográficas e uma grande variedade de documentos mundanos e administrativos. Os espanhóis concederam ampla autonomia às administrações locais das cidades indígenas durante este período, e em diversas cidades onde se falava o náuatle o idioma foi a língua administrativa de facto, tanto na forma escrita como falada. Boa parte da literatura náuatle foi produzida nesta época, incluindo o Códice Florentino, um compêndio de doze volumes sobre a cultura asteca compilado pelo franciscano Bernardino de Sahagún; a Crônica Mexicayotl, uma crônica sobre a linhagem real de Tenochtitlán, de autoria de Fernando Alvarado Tezozómoc; os Cantares Mexicanos, uma coleção de canções em náuatle; um dicionário náuatle-espanhol compilado por Alonso de Molina; e o Huei tlamahuiçoltica, uma descrição em náuatle da aparição de Virgem de Guadalupe.

Gramáticas e dicionários de boa parte dos idiomas indígenas foram compostos durante o período colonial, porém de uma maneira geral sua qualidade foi decaindo desde o período inicial até o final do século XVII. Na prática, os frades aprenderam que seria impossível aprender todas as línguas indígenas e passaram a se concentrar no náuatle. A situação linguística da Mesoamérica permaneceu relativamente estável por algum tempo, porém em 1696 o rei Carlos II publicou um decreto que baniu o uso de qualquer idioma além do espanhol em todo o Império Espanhol. Em 1770, outro decreto, com o propósito assumido de eliminar os idiomas indígenas, foi promulgado pela Real Cédula, desferindo um golpe fatal no náuatle como língua literária do período.

Período moderno

Ao longo do período moderno a situação das línguas indígenas acabou acabou por ficar gradativamente precária, ao mesmo tempo que o número de falantes de virtualmente todas as línguas indígenas foi diminuindo. Embora o número absoluto de falantes do náuatle tenha aumentado no último século, as populações indígenas tornaram-se cada vez mais marginalizadas na sociedade mexicana. Em 1895 o náuatle era falado por mais de 5% da população do país; em 2000, esta proporção havia caído para 1,49%.

Dado este processo de marginalização, combinado com a onda de migrações para as áreas urbanas e para os Estados Unidos, alguns linguistas têm alertado sobre o perigo de uma morte do idioma. No presente o náuatle é falado majoritariamente nas áreas rurais por uma classe empobrecida de agricultores de subsistência. Desde o início do século XX e até recentemente, as políticas educacionais no México se focaram na "hispanificação" das comunidades indígenas, ensinando-lhes apenas o espanhol e desencorajando o uso do náuatle.
O resultado foi que hoje em dia nenhum grupo de falantes do náuatle é alfabetizado no idioma, enquanto a sua taxa de alfabetização em espanhol também permanece bem mais baixa do que a média nacional. Ainda assim, o náuatle continua sendo falado por mais de um milhão de pessoas, dos quais cerca de 10% são monolíngues. O náuatle como um todo não está em perigo iminente, porém alguns de seus dialetos estão seriamente ameaçados, e outros já se tornaram extintos nas últimas décadas do século XX.

Políticas governamentais mais recentes têm encorajado o estabelecimento de escolas bilíngues, onde pelo menos alguma parte do ensino seja feita em náuatle. Embora ainda existam problemas, como a falta de livros de ensino no náuatle de determinadas regiões, ou de professores que falam o dialeto específico de uma região e que são enviados para ensinar o idioma a crianças de outras regiões, existe pelo menos algum movimento em direção ao aumento da alfabetização em náuatle, e do seu uso na forma escrita.

A Ley General de Derechos Lingüísticos de los Pueblos Indígenas ("Lei Geral de Direitos Linguísticos dos Povos Indígenas"), promulgada em 13 de março de 2003, reconheceu todos os idiomas indígenas do México, incluindo o náuatle, como um "idioma nacional", e deu aos povos indígenas o direito de utilizá-las em todas as esferas das vidas pública e privada. Emissões patrocinadas pelo governo em náuatle também são realizadas pela estações de rádio da Comissão Nacional pelo Desenvolvimento dos Povos Indígenas.

No entanto, nos últimos anos, o idioma está ganhando cada vez mais popularidade, fato que levou a um aumento no conteúdo da Internet no idioma e na tradução de sites como Wikipedia e aplicativos como Telegram Messenger para o náuatle. Em fevereiro de 2008 o prefeito da Cidade do México, Marcelo Ebrard, lançou um movimento para que todos os funcionários governamentais aprendessem o náuatle. Ebrard afirmou que continuaria a institucionalizar o náuatle, e que era importante para o México recordar sua história e sua tradição. Em 2020, a Câmara dos Deputados aprovou o parecer com um projeto de decreto que reconhece o espanhol, o mexicano e outras línguas indígenas como línguas oficiais, que têm a mesma validade nos termos da lei.

Distribuição geográfica

Uma gama de dialetos náuatles são falados atualmente na área que se estende do estado do norte do México de Durango até Veracruz, no sul. O pipil (também conhecido como nawat), a língua náuatle localizada mais ao sul, é falada em El Salvador por um pequeno número de indivíduos. Outro idioma náuatle, o pochuteca, foi falado na costa de Oaxaca até cerca de 1930.

Baseado nos números acumulados pelo Instituto Nacional de Estatística, Geografia e Informática (INEGI) no censo nacional realizado em 2000, estima-se que o náuatle seja falado por 1,45 milhões de pessoas, dos quais cerca de 198.000 (14,9%) são monolíngues. Há uma disparidade no monolinguismo entre os homens e as mulheres, com as mulheres representando quase dois-terços do total. Os estados de Guerrero e Hidalgo têm as taxas mais altas de falantes monolíngues do náuatle, estimados em 24,2% e 22,6%, respectivamente. A proporção de monolíngues na maioria dos outros estados é de menos de 5%.

As maiores concentrações de falantes do náuatle podem ser encontradas nos estados de Puebla, Veracruz, Hidalgo, San Luis Potosí e Guerrero. Populações significantes também podem ser encontradas nos estados do México, Morelos, e no Distrito Federal Mexicano, com comunidades menores em Michoacán e Durango. O náuatle foi falado anteriormente nos estados de Jalisco e Colima, onde se tornou extinto durante o século XX. Como resultado das migrações internas pelo país, todos os estados mexicanos têm, hoje em dia, bolsões isolados onde o idioma é falado. O influxo atual de trabalhadores e famílias mexicanas para os Estados Unidos resultou no estabelecimento de pequenas comunidades de falantes do náuatle no país, especialmente nos estados de Nova Iorque e Califórnia.

Classificação
A terminologia utilizada para se descrever as diversas variedades do náuatle falado é aplicada inconsistentemente. Muitos termos são utilizados por diferentes significados, ou então os mesmos grupos recebem nomes diferentes. Por vezes termos mais antigos são substituídos por novos termos, ou pelos termos utilizados no próprio idioma, para designar determinada variedade específica. A própria palavra nahuatl é uma palavra náuatle, derivada de nāwatlahtolli ("língua clara"). O idioma também é chamado de "asteca", por ter sido falado pelos astecas, que, no entanto, não chamavam a si mesmos de astecas e sim de mexica, e ao seu idioma de mexicacopa. Hoje em dia o termo é pouco usado para descrever os idiomas náuatles modernos, porém o termo é utilizado para descer as línguas e dialetos náuatles quando descritos como a segunda parte constituinte da família linguística uto-asteca. (O grupo também é chamado de "nauano"). O termo "asteca geral" é utilizado por alguns linguistas para se referir às línguas astecas, com a exceção do pochuteca.

Os próprios falantes do náuatle frequentemente se referem à sua língua como mexicano ou uma palavra derivada de mācehualli, o termo em náuatle para "plebeu". Um exemplo é o caso do náuatle falado em Tetelcingo, no estado de Morelos, cujos falantes chamam de mösiehuali. O pipil de El Salvador não é chamado por seus falantes de "pipil", como é feito pela maioria dos linguistas, mas sim de nawat. Os náuatles de Durango chamam o seu idioma de mexicanero. Já os falantes do náuatle no istmo de Tehuantepec chamam seu idioma de mela'tajtol ("a língua direita"). Algumas comunidades de falantes também usam o termo nahuatl como o nome de seu idioma, embora esta pareça ser uma inovação recente. Alguns linguistas identificam comumente os dialetos mais específicos do náuatle adicionando palavras que qualifiquem o nome da vila ou área onde aquela variedade é falada (por exemplo, "náuatle de Acaxochitlán").

Genealogia

As línguas náuatles pertencem à família linguística uto-asteca, que é uma das maiores e mais bem estudadas famílias linguísticas das Américas. Os idiomas náuatles (incluindo o pipil e o pochuteca são os únicos membros do subgrupo "asteca" ou "nauano" do uto-asteca. A divisão em subgrupos dos dialetos e línguas náuatles tem sido tema de discussões entre linguistas nos últimos cinquenta anos. As primeiras classificações se baseavam na suposição de que a divisão básica das línguas náuatles estaria entre os idiomas que tinham o som /tl/ e os que o trocavam por /t/ . Esta suposição foi refutada por Lyle Campbell e Ronald Langacker em 1978, que mostrou que todos os idiomas astecas compartilhavam o desenvolvimento de */t/ para /tl/, mas que subsequentemente alguns dialetos mudaram o /tl/ de volta para /t/ ou /l/ .

As classificações acadêmicas mais recentes das línguas náuatles foram feitas por Yolanda Lastra de Suárez e Una Canger. Ambos estes enfoques basearam-se em pesquisas dialectológicas que priorizaram o delineamento de isoglossas, ou fronteiras linguísticas, baseadas nas diferenças na fonologia, gramática e vocabulário. Ambas classificações definem a divisão básica como sendo entre os dialetos centrais e periféricos. A hipótese apresentada é a de que os falantes dos dialetos periféricos foram os primeiros indivíduos a falar o náuatle que chegaram na Mesoamérica, e que por isso mesmo estes dialetos mantiveram certos aspectos mais arcaicos. Já os falantes dos dialetos centrais, que chegaram posteriormente, entre eles os astecas, introduziram inovações linguísticas que acabaram se espalhando para fora do vale do México com a expansão do prestígio e da hegemonia asteca. As duas classificações são amplamente similares, porém diferem no seu tratamento dos dialetos da região de La Huasteca: enquanto Canger classifica estes dialetos no grupo central, Lastra de Suárez coloca-os em um grupo separado. A classificação abaixo basea-se na de Lastra de Suárez, combinada com a classificação de Lyle Campbell para os grupos "superiores"

 *Data da divisão estimada pela glotocronologia
 **Alguns estudiosos continuam a classificar os grupos asteca e somorano juntos em um grupo à parte (chamado de "sonorenho", "mexicano" ou "uto-asteca do sul"). Existem cada vez mais evidências de que qualquer o grau de semelhança adicional que possa existir entre o grupo asteca e o sonorenho quando comparados com o grupo shosheano, isto se deve provavelmente ao contato pela proximidade, e não por um parentesco com outro agrupamento linguístico que não seja o uto-asteca.

Fonologia
O grupo nauano é definido como um subgrupo do uto-asteca por ter sofrido uma série de mudanças compartilhadas com a protolíngua uto-asteca desde que os falantes originais do nauano se separaram do grupo principal uto-asteca. Estas mudanças, presentes em todas as línguas nauanas, formam a base para a reconstrução de um estágio intermediário chamado proto-nauano, do qual as línguas nauanas modernas se desenvolveram desde então.

A tabela abaixo mostra o inventório fonêmico do náuatle clássico, um exemplo de um típico idioma nauano. Muitos dialetos modernos sofreram mudanças desde o proto-nauano, que resultaram em diferentes inventórios fonêmicos. Por exemplo, alguns dialetos não possuem o fonema , tão comum no náuatle clássico, mas que mudou para , por exemplo, no náuatle do istmo, no mexicanero e no pipil, ou para  no náuatle de Pómaro, em Michoacán. Muitos dialetos não distinguiem mais entre vogais curtas e longas. Outras introduziram qualidades completamente novas às vogais, como maneira de compensar a perda, como é o caso do náuatle de Tetelcingo. Já outras desenvolveram um acento tonal, como o náuatle de Oapan, em Guerrero. Em muitos dialetos modernos também se introduziram, sob a influência do espanhol, novos fonemas, como .

Sons

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 * O fonema glotal, chamado de "saltillo", só ocorre depois de vogais. Em muitos dialetos modernos ele é pronunciado como um [h], porém no náuatle clássico e em outros dialetos modernos ele tem o papel da oclusiva glotal .

O náuatle geralmente tem o acento tônico na penúltima sílaba de uma palavra, mas algumas variedades alteraram este fato. O náuatle mexicanero, de Durango, perdeu muitas sílabas não-tônicas e agora possui uma tônica fonêmica, e o pochuteca tinha o acento tônico na última sílaba das palavras.

Alofonia
A alofonia, no náuatle, não é muito rica na maioria dos dialetos: em muitos as consoantes sonoras frequentemente são alteradas quando estão em posições finais ou em grupos consonantais: o fonema /j/ se transforma na sibilante palatoalveolar surda //, /w/ na fricativa glotal surda [h] ou na aproximante velar labializada surda , e /l/ na lateral alveolar surda []. Em alguns dialetos a primeira consoante, quando localizada em um grupo consonantal, se torna [h]; em outros ocorre uma abrandamento das consoantes surdas, quando entre vogais, para suas equivalentes sonoras. As consoantes nasais são normalmente assimiladas ao local de articulação da consoante seguinte. A africada lateral surda  é assimilada, quando se segue a um /l/, e é pronunciada como [l].

Fonotática
O náuatle clássico e a maioria de suas variedades modernas têm sistemas fonológicos razoavelmente simples, que permitem apenas sílabas que tenham no máximo uma consoante inicial e uma final. Grupos consonantais ocorrem apenas no meio das palavras, e em sílabas diferentes. Alguns morfemas têm duas formas alternativas, uma com a vogal i para prevenir os grupos consonantais, e outra sem. Por exemplo, o sufixo absolutivo têm as formas variantes -tli, utilizada depois das consoantes, e -tl, utilizada depois de vogais.

Algumas variedades modernas, no entanto, formaram grupos consonantais complexos devido à perda de vogais. Outras contraíram sequências de sílabas, causando uma mudança nos acentos ou fazendo com que as vogais se alongassem.

Reduplicação
Muitas variedades do náuatle possuem reduplicações produtivas. Ao reduplicar a primeira sílaba de um radical uma nova palavra é formada. O processo é utilizado frequentemente para formar o plural de substantivos, como, por exemplo, / tla:katl / ("homem") > / tla:tla:kah / ("homens"), mas também, em alguns dialetos, para formar diminutivos, formas de tratamento, ou para derivações.
Nos verbos, a reduplicação é utilizada, frequentemente, para formar uma reiteração (expressando uma repetição), ou para intensificar o significado do verbo. Ex.: / kitta / ("ele olha"), / kihitta / ("ele olha repetidamente") e / ki:itta / ("ele encara").

Gramática
Os idiomas náuatles são aglutinantes e polissintéticos, fazendo uso extensivo de compostos, incorporações e derivações - ou seja, podem acrescentar diferentes prefixos e sufixos a um radical, formando palavras extremamente longas. Por vezes uma única palavra pode constituir uma sentença inteira.

O seguinte exemplo mostra como um verbo é alterado a partir de seu sujeito, paciente, objeto direto e indireto:

 ni-mit͡s-te:-t͡la-maki:-lti:-s
 Eu-você-alguém-algo-dar-FUTURO-CAUSATIVO
 "Eu farei alguém dar algo a você" (náuatle clássico)

Substantivos
O substantivo náuatle é relativamente complexo, com algumas categorias flexionais. É obrigatoriamente flexionado de acordo com o número e a posse. Compostos substantivais são formados comumente ao se combinar dois ou mais radicais de substantivos, ou ao se combinar o radical de um substantivo com os radicais de adjetivos ou verbos. O náuatle não tem casos ou gêneros, porém o náuatle clássico e alguns dialetos modernos distinguem entre substantivos animados e inanimados, que se comportam de maneira diferente de acordo com a pluralização.

Na maioria das variedades do náuatle muitos substantivos, na forma singular não-possuída, levam um sufixo chamado tradicionalmente de "absolutivo". As formas mais comuns do absolutivo são -tl depois de vogais, tli depois de consoantes que não sejam l, e -li depois de l.

O náuatle distingue apenas entre as formas singular e plural dos substantivos. As formas plurais são formadas, normalmente, ao se adicionar um sufixo, embora algumas palavras formem plurais irregulares usando reduplicação. No náuatle clássico apenas os substantivos animados levam a forma plural, enquanto todos os substantivos inanimados são incontáveis (como as palavras inglesas bread e money). Hoje em dia muitos dialetos não mantêm esta distinção e permitem que todos os substantivos sejam pluralizados, embora a maioria dos substantivos inanimados e, por vezes, os animados, sigam frequentemente o padrão comum para os números, ou seja, sua forma absolutiva pode ser interpretada tanto como singular ou plural.

Substantivo no singular:

 coiote-ABSOLUTIVO
 "coiote" (náuatle clássico)

Substantivo animado no plural:

 coiote-PLURAL
 "coiotes" (náuatle clássico)
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O náuatle distingue entre as formas possuídas e não-possuídas dos substantivos. Como foi mencionado acima, o sufixo absolutivo não é utilizado nos substantivos possuídos. Em todos os dialetos os substantivos possuídos recebem um prefixo que concorda com o número e a pessoa de seu possuinte.

Substantivo absolutivo:

 casa-ABSOLUTIVO
 "casa" (náuatle clássico)

Substantivo possuído:

 minha-casa
 "minha casa" (náuatle clássico)
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O náuatle não tem casos gramaticais, porém sempre utiliza-se do que é chamado de substantivo relacional para descrever relações espaciais (além de outras). Estes morfemas não podem aparecer sozinhos, mas devem ocorrer sempre depois de um substantivo ou de um prefixo possessivo. São frequentemente chamados também de posposições ou sufixos locativos. De certa maneira estas construções locativas lembram, e podem ser encaradas como construções no caso locativo. A maioria dos dialetos modernos incorporou preposições do espanhol que ou competem com, ou tomaram o lugar dos substantivos relacionais.

Usos do substantivo relacional/posposição/locativo -pan com um prefixo possessivo:

 meu-em/sobre
 "em/sobre mim" (náuatle clássico)

 seu-em/sobre
 "em/sobre isso" (náuatle clássico)

 seu-na casa-ABSOLUTIVO
 "na casa" (náuatle clássico)

Uso com um radical de substantivo precedendo:

 casa-em
 "na casa" (náuatle clássico)
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Pronomes
O náuatle geralmente distingue três pessoas - tanto nos números singular e plural. Em pelo menos um dialeto moderno, o náuatle de Macayapan, desenvolveu-se uma distinção entre as formas inclusivas (eu/nós e você) e exclusivas (nós porém não você) da primeira pessoa do plural:

Pronome da primeira pessoa do plural no náuatle clássico:

  "nós"

Pronomes da primeira pessoa do plural no náuatle de Mecayapan:

 nejamēn () "Nós (sem você)"
 tejamēn () "Nós, eu e você (e outros)"
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Muito mais comum é uma distinção honorífica ou não-honorífica, aplicada habitualmente às segunda e terceira pessoas, porém não à primeira.

Formas não-honorífica:
  "tu"
  "vós"
  "ele/ela/isto"

Formas honoríficas:

  "tu (honorífico)"
   "vós (honorífico)"
   "ele/ela (honorífico)"
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Verbos
O verbo náuatle é complexo, e declina de acordo com muitas categorias gramaticais. O verbo é composto de um radical que pode receber prefixos e sufixos. A pessoa do sujeito, e a pessoa e o número do objeto direto e do objeto indireto são expressos pela concordância dos prefixos, enquanto o tempo, o aspecto, o modo e o número do sujeito são expressos através de sufixos.

A maioria dos dialetos náuatles distinguem entre os tempos presente, passado e futuro, e os aspectos perfectivo e imperfectivo. Algumas variedades têm aspectos progressivos. Quanto aos modos, todos os dialetos distinguem entre os modos imperativos e indicativos, e alguns também apresentam os modos optativos e vetativos.

A maioria das variedades do náuatle possuem um grande número de maneiras de alterar a valência de um verbo. O náuatle clássico tinha uma voz passiva, mas isto não é mais encontrado nas variedades modernas do idioma. No entanto, as vozes aplicativa e causativa podem ser encontradas em muitos dialetos modernos. Muitas variedades do náuatle também permitem a formação de compostos verbais com duas ou mais raízes verbais.

A seguinte forma verbal possui duas raízes verbais e é declinada pela voz causativa e tanto um objeto direto quanto um indireto:

 Eu-eles-algo-comer-CAUSATIVO-FUTURO-querer
 "Eu quero alimentá-los" (náuatle clássico)

Algumas variedades do náuatle, notadamente o clássico, podem declinar o verbo de maneira a mostrar a direção da ação verbal ao se afastar ou se aproximar do interlocutor. Algumas também possuem categorias flexionais específicas que mostram o propósito e a direção de noções complexas, como "ir com a intenção de" ou "vir com a intenção de", "ir, fazer e retornar", "fazer enquanto se está indo", "fazer enquanto se está vindo", "fazer assim que se chegar", ou "sair fazendo".

O náuatle clássico e muitos dialetos modernos gramatizaram maneiras de se expressar educação para com o interlocutor, ou mesmo para com pessoas ou coisas que estiverem sendo mencionadas, utilizando-se de formas verbais e certos "sufixos honoríficos" especiais.

Forma verbal tradicional:

 você-você mesmo-corre-PRESENTE
 "você corre" (náuatle clássico)

Forma verbal honorífica:

 você-você mesmo-corre-HONORÍFICO-PRESENTE
 "Você corre" [dito com respeito] (náuatle clássico)
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Sintaxe
A sintaxe do náuatle moderno e do clássico tem sido assunto de numerosos estudos. Alguns linguistas, mais especificamente Mark Baker, argumentaram que o náuatle apresenta as propriedades de um idioma não configuracional, ou seja, a ordem das palavras é basicamente livre. Ele ainda nota que o náuatle permite todas as inversões possíveis dos constituintes básicos de uma oração, permite a omissão de todos os argumentos diretos de um predicado, e que certos tipos de expressões sintaticamente descontínuas são permitidas.

A conclusão mais amplamente aceita é que o náuatle tinha originalmente uma ordem de palavras básica que era iniciada pelo verbo, porém com uma liberdade relativa para variações, que acabou sendo usada para transmitir funções pragmáticas tais como o foco e o tópico. Por exemplo, na maioria das variedades os pronomes são utilizadas apenas para ênfase.

 newal no-nobia
 Eu minha-noiva
 "Minha noiva" [e de mais ninguém] (náuatle de Michoacán)

Alguns estudiosos do náuatle, como Michel Launey e J. Richard Andrews argumentaram que a sintaxe do náuatle clássico é melhor caracterizada pelo que Launey chama de "onipredicatividade", ou seja, qualquer substantivo ou verbo no idioma é, na realidade, uma oração predicativa completa. Esta é uma interpretação radical da tipologia sintática do náuatle, que ainda assim parece solucionar muitas de suas peculiaridades, como por exemplo porque os substantivos também devem carregar prefixos em concordância com os prefixos verbais, e porque os predicados não necessitam de nenhuma oração substantiva para funcionar como seus argumentos. Por exemplo, a forma verbal "tzahtzi" significa "(ele/ela) grita" e, com o prefixo da segunda pessoa titzahtzi, significa "(tu) gritas". Os substantivos são flexionados da mesma maneira: o substantivo "konētl" significa não apenas "criança", mas também "ele/ela é uma criança", e tikonētl significa "és uma criança". Isto força uma interpretação onipredicativa que sugere que todos os substantivos são também predicados, e que uma frase como "tzahtzi in konētl" não deve ser interpretada como significando apenas "a criança grita" mas sim, mais corretamente, "ele/ela grita, (aquele que) é uma criança".

Fenômenos de contato
Quase 500 anos de contato intenso entre os falantes de náuatle e os falantes de espanhol, combinado com o status de língua minoritária do náuatle e o maior prestígio associado com o espanhol, causaram diversas mudanças nas variedades modernas do náuatle, com um grande número de palavras emprestadas do espanhol penetrando no léxico náuatle, e a introdução de novas construções sintáticas e categorias gramaticais.

Por exemplo, uma construção como a seguinte, com diversas palavras e partículas "importadas", é comum em diversas variedades modernos do náuatle (empréstimos espanhóis em negrito):

 pero āmo tēchentenderoah lo que tlen tictoah en mexicano
 mas não eles-nos-entender-PLURAL que aquilo que nós-isto-dizer em náuatle
 "Mas eles não entendem o que dizemos em náuatle" (náuatle de Malinche)

Em alguns dialetos modernos a ordem básica das palavras tornou-se um Sujeito-Verbo-Objeto fixo, provavelmente sob influência do espanhol. Outras mudanças na sintaxe do náuatle moderno incluem o uso das preposições espanholas em vez de posposições ou substantivos relacionais e a reinterpretação das posposições e substantivos relacionais originais como preposições. No exemplo seguinte, do náuatle de Michoacán, a posposição -ka, que significa "com", aparece como uma preposição sem qualquer objeto que a preceda:

 ti-ya ti-k-wika ka tel
 você-ir você-isto-carregar com você
 "Você vai carregar isto com você?" (náuatle de Michoacán)

E neste exemplo do náuatle mexicanero de Durango, a posposição/substantivo relacional original, -pin ("em/sobre"), é utilizada como uma preposição. "Porque", uma preposição emprestada do espanhol, também ocorre na sentença.

 amo wel kalaki-yá pin kal porke ¢akwa-tiká im pwerta
 não poder ele-entrar-PASSADO na casa porque isto-fechado-estava a porta
 "Ele não podia entrar na casa porque a porta estava fechada." (náuatle mexicanero)

Muitos dialetos também passaram por um grau de simplificação de sua morfologia que causou alguns estudiosos a considerá-los como tendo cessado de ser polissintéticos.

Ver também
 Línguas ameríndias
 Náuatles

Bibliografia

Ligações externas

Línguas mesoamericanas
Línguas do México
Línguas uto-astecas
Línguas aglutinantes
!Mais Teoria da História na Wiki (Povos originários)

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


text:
The American Legion Post No. 560, in Long Beach, California, is one of 114 City of Long Beach's historic landmarks.  Constructed in the 1920s, the building was designated as a historic landmark as the last remaining American Legion post in Long Beach, and due to its association with notable persons in Long Beach history, including the Houghton family, Carl Peterson, Eddie Rickenbacher, and Harry Truman.

This post number, 560,  is now in Houston Texas

References

Buildings and structures in Long Beach, California
American Legion buildings
Clubhouses in California
Landmarks in Long Beach, California


A new study shows Wisconsin is fairing well when it comes to providing childcare to low-income families.
The report from the National Women's Law Center highlights the challenges many states face in continuing to help low-income families access childcare. For many states, including Wisconsin, federal funding shortages top the list.
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