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Resident Evil 3 Remake Announced
After the success of Resident Evil 2's modern remake, Capcom have slapped a few more polygons onto the tentacle wielding nutter himself, Nemesis. That's right, Resident Evil 3 is getting the same treatment with a remake/reimagining of the PS1 original. Resident Evil 3 is releasing on 3 April 2020 for PC, PlayStation 4, and Xbox One.
RESIDENT EVIL™ 3 MODERNIZES THE CLIMACTIC EVENTS OF RACCOON CITY IN APRIL 2020
Outlast the Terrifying Nemesis in Resident Evil™ 3 or a Devious Mastermind in the Online Asymmetrical Multiplayer Game Resident Evil™ Resistance
LONDON – Dec. 10, 2019 – Today on PlayStation's State of Play broadcast, Capcom celebrated the 20th anniversary of the survival horror classic Resident Evil™ 3: Nemesis by unveiling a completely reimagined Resident Evil™ 3. On the heels of the award-winning Resident Evil™ 2, this highly demanded follow-up in the 94 million unit selling franchise once again utilizes Capcom's proprietary RE Engine to complete the Raccoon City story arc. Resident Evil 3 stars Jill Valentine – one of video games' most iconic heroines – as she escapes from a crumbling Raccoon City while being pursued by the unrelenting bioweapon Nemesis. Players can also participate in previously untold Umbrella experiments on the outskirts of Raccoon City in the included online asymmetrical multiplayer game Resident Evil™ Resistance, previously known as the working title Project Resistance. Resident Evil 3 will be available on PlayStation®4 computer entertainment system, the Xbox One family of devices including Xbox One X and Steam on April 3, 2020.
Resident Evil 3 is set amidst the nightmarish outbreak of the T-virus, a biological weapon developed by the pharmaceutical company Umbrella Corporation. The game marks the debut of Nemesis – a towering humanoid bioweapon designed for both brutality and high-functioning intelligence – whose dogged hunt of S.T.A.R.S. member Jill Valentine made him an icon of the Resident Evil™ series. Armed with an arsenal of high-powered weaponry and wrapped in a black suit to hide his mutilated features, Nemesis will maim, pulverize or destroy any obstacle on the path to his target.
Jill's harrowing escape takes place in the panic-stricken hours leading up to and following the events of the acclaimed best-selling Resident Evil 2. Intense combat and puzzle solving combine to deliver the heart-pounding final chapter of Raccoon City's collapse. The horrific settings from the original game and new content come to life as never before with RE Engine, previously utilized to create the acclaimed Resident Evil™ 7 biohazard, Resident Evil 2 and Devil May Cry™ 5 with high-definition graphics and modernized gameplay mechanics.
Complementing the action-packed single player campaign is Resident Evil Resistance, an asymmetrical 4 vs. 1 multiplayer game originally unveiled as a working title at Tokyo Game Show earlier this year. As the Mastermind behind the scenes, players can assume the role of key Resident Evil characters like Annette Birkin in a series of deadly experiments. Manipulate the environment and wield a deck of cards to place vicious creatures, set traps and weaponized security cameras to snare hapless Survivors. A first for the franchise, Masterminds can even directly control elite bioweapons like G-Birkin and Tyrant. In turn, four Survivors must effectively work together, making the most of a variety of weapons and each player's unique special abilities, to stand a chance of escaping the experiment before time runs out.
Resident Evil 3 will be available on PlayStation®4 computer entertainment system, the Xbox One family of devices including Xbox One X and Steam on April 3, 2020. Those who pre-order will also receive the exclusive Classic Costume Pack that features the original design for Jill Valentine and hairstyle for Carlos Oliveira (Please check with your retailer to confirm they'll have this pre-order bonus available).
Resident Evil Village – Showcase Event
Resident Evil 8 – Announcement
Resident Evil 3 Remake Demo Releasing This Week
Resident Evil Resistance – Two New Masterminds and Maps
Resident Evil 3 Remake – Nemesis Trailer
Resident Evil 3: Nemesis Remake
Why Be a Hero When You Can Be a Zero?
Visit Raccoon City in Japan
Umbrella Corps – Resident Evil Themed Multiplayer


Do the children you teach have problems with money?
When first introduced to money in the classroom, many children find it difficult to distinguish between the value of a pile of coins and the number of coins in the pile. These children may go on to find the concepts of equivalent amounts of money and giving change difficult to grasp.
Let's look at the skills we need to enable us to understand money.
We have to know the names of the numbers, in the correct order.
We have to be able to count objects accurately.
We have to understand the connection between digits (symbols) and the value they represent.
We have to understand the concepts of addition (grouping things together) and subtraction (splitting things apart).
We have to understand that objects can have a value, which is irrespective of their colour, shape, size, mass, etc.
By the time children are introduced to 'money' in Year 1 most will have the first two skills, at least up to ten. Some may have acquired the third skill, the fourth skill will be being taught to them, and the fifth skill will probably be the last they comprehend.
In the course of research* carried out in the 1980s with children aged between three and eight, it was discovered that although the children could accurately count small numbers of bricks, recording the information in the form of figures was not universally understood. Many children would prefer to record the numbers iconically (e.g. by tallies), or pictorially (e.g. one square to represent one brick) but few chose to record the numbers by writing digits. The use of digits was not widely used until about the age of seven or eight.
It was also found that even very young children could accurately combine small groups of bricks and say how many there were altogether without recounting them, (two bricks and three more bricks - there are five bricks). However their ability to manipulate figures and to make sense of addition and subtraction signs in order to record the 'transactions' they had performed was poor, if it existed at all. (Not one child in the study spontaneously used a plus or minus sign to represent addition or subtraction.) In other words, although they could completely comprehend what they had been doing, they had no way of storing the information on paper, or 'reading' what another person may have 'written' to explain the 'transactions'.
In everyday situations children will generally have come across things having a 'one-to-one' correspondence; dots on the dice equal jumps on the game board, one plate for each person at the table, etc. The concept of a monetary value of an object is not one with which most young children are familiar. If a child wants a new toy, for example, the depth of desire for the toy is of much greater importance than its cost.
In these days of increasing use of credit/debit cards and supermarket shopping, few young children have experience of even watching, let alone taking part in, a monetary transaction which involves the use of cash and coins. Some children may have exchanged a five or ten pound note for a toy in a toy shop, but the reason for their receiving 'a penny change' will be beyond the scope of their mathematical ability and would probably pass as an insignificant puzzle.
With luck some children will have been allowed to buy sweets or a comic in the local newsagents, and will have been able to hand over the coins themselves. Here, providing the amount of money is at about the 10p level, the arithmetic may well be within the scope of the child and can provide a very valuable 'lesson in money'. However, this is likely to be the limit of a child's use of money.
A class shop can be seen as an opportunity for children to use money, and buy and sell objects. However, unless play in the class shop is supervised by the teacher or a classroom helper, the accuracy of any monetary exchanges is likely to be nil.
The use of vocabulary relating to money will also be very limited. The words 'coin' and 'change' are rarely used or understood by young children. Vocabulary may even be used ambiguously by adults talking to children. An adult might say, 'I've brought you some pennies.' but mean 'Here is some pocket money.' as he hands over 10p pieces or a pound coin.
To understand exactly what a 2p coin represents we have to have mastered two of the skills in the list above (connecting digits with the value they represent, and understanding that value may be independent of physical properties). We have to understand that the '2' on the coin means two pennies and that this is the same as having two single penny coins, or two coins with '1' on them. When we introduce 2p coins to Year 1 children we are making the assumption that these skills have been acquired. If they have not (as the research would suggest) we are most probably about to introduce confusion to the child as well.
How can we avoid the confusion? Well, if one problem is that a 2p coin has no intrinsic 'twoness' about it, why don't we start with something that does? It is true that a 2p is larger than a 1p and may 'reveal' its greater value in that way, but a 5p coin is smaller than both of these so the analogy cannot be carried very far.
Suppose we start children off with 'pre-money coins' or tokens that indicate their value in a way more acceptable to young children than by putting digits on them. Simply use tokens that are marked with one dot if it stands for a value of one, two dots for a value of two, five dots for a value of five, etc. In this way we will be able to talk about holding a number of dots (something the children can see and quantify), rather than a number of pence (which is an unfamiliar and abstract quantity).
Further, we should be able to combine and separate groups of dots, and be able to compare their 'value' by physically counting the dots displayed on the tokens. In other words a group of tokens will be worth ten dots whether they are arranged.
Most children, even at the age of five or six, have a concept of 'fairness', and it is on this basis that an understanding of money can be built. After all, all monetary transactions should be based on 'a fair swap'.
Communicating an understanding of 'value' is certainly not easy. Our understanding probably results as much from continued exposure to 'real life', and values we put on things as we interact with other people, as it does from anything we can be taught.
If children have a problem with understanding the meanings of operation symbols (skill 4) we should ensure that we give them every chance to show they have understood what is happening 'in a shopping situation' without use of these symbols. This can be done by oral recording of problems and their solutions, or by the invention of a more meaningful way of recording transactions on paper, such as using pictures.
Early last year I was able to do some research with Year 1 children. I took a group of children for a few weeks before they were introduced to money in their maths lessons. I gave them an introduction to 'fair exchanges' and 'pre-money' tokens as mentioned above. They were then taught 'money' along with their classmates and I compared the understanding of the 'experimental' group against the rest of the class. The results were encouraging and seemed to show that the children benefited from practising 'fair exchanges' and from dealing with counters which could have a value of one, two or five, before they were formally taught about money. Their regular teacher noticed that the skills of the 'experimental' group were greater than she would have usually expected, and most encouraging of all, the low ability children amongst the group were able to join in with the rest of the class, when normally they would have been left behind at a much earlier stage. In fact, all the low ability children in the experimental group could find the value of sets of 1p and 2p coins (something the teacher would not have expected), while three children in higher groups, but not included in the experimental group, could not confidently do so.
The National Numeracy Strategy says Year 1 children should be able to recognise all coins. However these 'pre-money' tokens are to be an introduction to money, so you only need counters with one, two or five dots on them.
If we think about why money developed, we quickly realise it was as a consequence of barter and exchange. Coins merely provide a convenient way of carrying something of value to exchange for the goods you desire.
Introduce the 'pre-money' counters. Spend some time counting a number of counters and counting the value of the counters. Although this may seem trivial it is very important that the children understand the difference.
Play games where the children swap counters with a partner, making sure they always hold the same value.
Use the 'shopping cards' as something else the children can swap and exchange, something which has a recognisable value or price. Play a 'Happy family' type game where each child collects a set with a certain picture and may only exchange a card for one which has the same value.
After a while the counters can be used to 'buy' desired cards by simple exchanging of counters for cards.
As the children's ability grows, the cards and counters can be used in shopping situations, where 'change' has to be given.
As a final step before real (or facsimile) coins are introduced, use a second set of counters which has the dots on one side and the appropriate number 1, 2 or 5 stuck or painted on the reverse. This means the value of the counter may be seen whichever way up the counter is, and provides an opportunity for the children to link the digit symbol to its value.
Using the equipment provides a natural way to use money vocabulary, such as 'buying' cards, giving 'change', etc. When the children are eventually introduced to 'real' money, you should find that they are confident at handling coins and using money vocabulary.


Here are a few designs that are not in circulation yet, but should be!
Butter Better is a new and convenient way to take your butter on the go. This functional, single serving has a knife built right into the disposable packaging so you can scoop and spread butter without the hassle of bring cutlery out of the house.
The designer, Yeongkeun Jeong was born and raised in Korea. He is a product designer and currently working as an Industrial designer.
Designed by Marta Suslow and Mara Holterdorf, Butter Plus© has been developed in cooperation with the Weidenhammer Packaging Group, Europe's leading supplier of packages and the DVI - the German Institute of Packaging.
Katie McLurg, is a graphic designer based in London.


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Credit: Marco Borggreve
Credit: Jan-Olav Wedin
Leonidas Kavakos: Winner of the 2017 Léonie Sonning Music Award
Brahms: Violin Concerto | Gewandhausorchester Leipzig, cond, Riccardo Chailly (Decca)
Stravinsky: Suite Italiene, excerpt | Daniil Trifonov, piano (Medici TV)
Mussorgsky: Pictures at an Exhibition, excerpt | Budapest Festival Orchestra
Brahms: Violin Sonata No.1 in G major, excerpt
Yuja Wang, piano (Decca)
Shostakovich: Violin Concerto No.1 in A minor, excerpt
Orchestra of the Mariinsky Theatre, cond. Valery Gergiev (Mariinsky)
Brahms: Scherzo in C minor for Violin & Piano
Yuja Wang, piano (Recorded live at the Edinburgh International Festival)
Violin, Conductor
Artist in Residence, Symphonieorchester des Bayerischen Rundfunks, 2018-19
Leonidas Kavakos is recognised across the world as a violinist and artist of rare quality, acclaimed for his matchless technique, his captivating artistry and his superb musicianship as well as for the integrity of his playing. He works with the world's greatest orchestras and conductors and is a frequent recitalist in the world's premier recital halls and festivals. He is an exclusive recording artist with Sony Classical.
The three important mentors in his life have been Stelios Kafantaris, Josef Gingold and Ferenc Rados. By the age of 21, Leonidas Kavakos had already won three major competitions: the Sibelius Competition in 1985, and the Paganini and Naumburg competitions in 1988. This success led to him recording the original Sibelius Violin Concerto (1903/4), the first recording of this work in history, and which won Gramophone Concerto of the Year Award in 1991.
In the 2018-19 season, as Artist in Residence with the Bavarian Radio Symphony Orchestra, Kavakos will appear as both soloist and conductor when he performs Beethoven Violin Concerto and Symphony No. 7, and will also perform Shostakovich Violin Concerto with Mariss Jansons and Berg Violin Concerto with Daniel Harding. He will also appear as soloist with orchestras including the Vienna Philharmonic, Royal Concertgebouw Orchestra, London Symphony Orchestra, Orchestre Philharmonique de Radio France, Israel Philharmonic, San Francisco Symphony. He will also make a short tour of China including recitals and with concerto performances in Guangzhou, Hangzhou, Beijing and Shanghai.
Leonidas Kavakos has built a strong profile as a conductor and has conducted the London Symphony Orchestra, New York Philharmonic, Boston Symphony Orchestra, Houston Symphony, Deutsches Symphonie-Orchester Berlin, Gürzenich Orchester, Maggio Musicale Fiorentino, Filarmonica Teatro La Fenice, Orchestre de la Suisse Romande, and Danish Radio Symphony orchestras. This season he will conduct the Orchestra dell'Accademia Nazionale di Santa Cecilia, Budapest Festival Orchestra, Vienna Symphony, Chamber Orchestra of Europe, and Dallas Symphony.
Leonidas Kavakos signed an exclusive recording contract with Sony Classical in June 2018. This signifies a welcome return to the label as Kavakos previously recorded the Mendelssohn Violin Concerto, and Mozart's Violin Concertos, conducting and playing with Camerata Salzburg. More recently, Kavakos joined Yo-Yo Ma and Emmanuel Ax for a highly successful recording of Brahms Trios for the label. Kavakos's first solo project with Sony is the Beethoven Violin Concerto and Beethoven Septet which will be recorded with the Bavarian Radio Symphony Orchestra later this season. This will be followed by a project to record the complete Bach Solo Sonatas and Partitas.
Kavakos' extensive discography also includes Beethoven Violin Sonatas with Enrico Pace, which was awarded the ECHO Klassik 'Instrumentalist of the Year'. This was followed by the Brahms Violin Concerto with the Gewandhausorchester Leipzig and Riccardo Chailly, Brahms Violin Sonatas with Yuja Wang, and Virtuoso. He was awarded Gramophone Artist of the Year 2014. He has recorded for Decca, BIS and ECM.
Leonidas Kavakos was the winner of the prestigious Léonie Sonning Music Prize 2017. This prize is Denmark's highest musical honour and is awarded annually to an internationally recognised composer, instrumentalist, conductor or singer. Previous winners include Leonard Bernstein, Benjamin Britten, Arthur Rubinstein, Yehudi Menuhin, Dmitri Shostakovich, Dietrich Fischer-Dieskau, Mstislav Rostropovich, Pierre Boulez, György Ligeti, Alfred Brendel, Daniel Barenboim and Sir Simon Rattle.
Born and brought up in a musical family in Athens, Kavakos curates an annual violin and chamber-music masterclass in Athens, which attracts violinists and ensembles from all over the world and reflects his deep commitment to the handing on of musical knowledge and traditions. Part of this tradition is the art of violin and bow-making, which Kavakos regards as a great mystery and to this day, an undisclosed secret.
He plays the 'Willemotte' Stradivarius violin of 1734 and owns modern violins made by F. Leonhard, S.P. Greiner, E. Haahti and D. Bagué.
2018-2019 season / 626 words. Not to be altered without permission.
Please include links to www.leonidaskavakos.com and www.facebook.com/leonidas.kavakos.violin in all printed and digital use of biography.
Vienna Philharmonic / Chailly, Eschenbach
Vienna Symphony / Afkham, Jurowski
Bayerische Rundfunk / Jansons
Berliner Philharmoniker / Rattle, Mehta
Gewandhausorchester Leipzig / Bringuier, Chailly, Blomstedt
Munich Philharmonic / Denève, Gergiev
WDR Symphony Orchestra / Saraste
Royal Concertgebouw Orchestra / Gatti, Gergiev, Jansons
London Symphony Orchestra / Rattle, Harding
London Philharmonic Orchestra / Jurowski
Orchestre de Paris / Temirkanov, Järvi
Orchestre de la Suisse Romande / Stenz
Accademia Nazionale di Santa Cecilia / Gergiev
Filarmonica della Scala / Chailly, Harding
Mariinsky Theatre Orchestra / Gergiev
Boston Symphony Orchestra / Nelsons, Denève
The Cleveland Orchestra / Noseda
New York Philharmonic / Gilbert, Haitink
Philadelphia Orchestra / Nézet-Séguin
San Francisco Symphony / Tilson-Thomas
Conducting highlights
Vienna Philharmonic Orchestra
Vienna Symphony Orchestra
Bamberg Symphony
Deutsches Symphonie-Orchester Berlin
Gürzenich Orchestra
Netherlands Radio Philharmonic Orchestra
Chamber Orchestra of Europe
Danish National Symphony Orchestra
Gothenburg Symphony Orchestra
Royal Stockholm Philharmonic Orchestra
State Academic Symphony Orchestra of Russia
Singapore Symphony Orchestra
Accademia Nazionale di Santa Cecilia
Maggio Musicale Fiorentino
National Symphony Orchestra
Houston Symphony
This is playing that sorts out the men from the boys. I doubt if there is more than a handful of violinists alive who can match Kavakos in the tonal variety, accuracy and speed of his harmonics, or in the deft alternation of bowing and left-hand pizzicato. In fact, I wonder if Paganini would have equalled him.
Gramophone, May 2016
Leonidas Kavakos was the soloist, superbly articulate and incisive, yet rapturously lyrical.
Guardian, January 2016
Shostakovich's Violin Concerto No 1 in A minor … brought out the best in its soloist … an intriguing mixture of fierce energy and fierce self-restraint. At all points he put the music before showmanship.
Financial Times, April 2015
Intermusica represents Leonidas Kavakos	worldwide
Jessica Ford
Director, Artist Management
jford@intermusica.co.uk
Victoria Ford
Associate Artist Manager
victoriaford@intermusica.co.uk

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


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Francisco Palanca y Roca (Alcira, 1834-Valencia, 1897) fue un escritor de teatro español, principalmente en valenciano. Fue un popular autor dramático. Se hizo famoso por sus piezas teatrales de propaganda política. Fue miembro de la sociedad cultural Lo Rat Penat. En su memoria se concede cada año el Premio de Teatro Francisco Palanca y Roca en el marco de los Premios Literarios Ciudad de Alcira.

Biografía
Siendo un niño, la necesidad de mejorar las condiciones de vida familiares, motivó el traslado de su familia a Valencia, donde su padre comenzó a trabajar como hornero, en 1838. Tras una temporada en su ciudad natal, tras el fallecimiento de su madre, regresó a la capital, donde su padre había contraído matrimonio en segundas nupcias. Debido a su falta de interés por la escuela, comenzó a trabajar muy joven ayudando en el horno.Siendo un adolescente, manifestó inquietudes literarias y políticas, y se inscribió en una entidad cultural: El Museo Valenciano. Poco después despertó su interés por el teatro y formó parte de una compañía teatral, si bien no sabía leer ni escribir. A partir de este momento frecuentó los foros culturales y teatrales de la capital, y conoció a Bernat i Baldoví, Jacinto Labayla y Eduardo Escalante. El impresor José Doménech, vinculado al diario Las Provincias, le animó a escribir.

Su primera composición poética fue Oda al mar. Su primera creación teatral se tituló Llàgrimes d'una femella (Lágrimas de una doncella), se interpretó con un rotundo éxito en el teatro Princesa de Valencia, compuesta expresamente para la función que se llevó a cabo a beneficio de la actriz María Toral. A esta, seguiría una segunda, también en valenciano, La millor raó: el trabuc. Su primera obra teatral escrita en castellano fue Deuda sagrada. Con el tiempo, Palanca pasó a interesarse por las obras musicales. Su mayor triunfo hasta entonces vino de la mano de una zarzuela de costumbres valencianas, titulada Un casament en Picanya (Una boda en Picaña). De la mano de Bernat i Baldoví hizo su incursión en el género de los Milagros de San Vicent Ferrer creando con aquel el titulado: El rey moro de Granada.

A los veintiséis años dio el salto a Madrid. En 1862 se estrenó, en el teatro Novedades de la capital de España, El Ángel de Salvación. Obtuvo un gran éxito. Palanca regresó a Valencia y volvió a escribir en valenciano. En 1865 tuvo otro gran éxito en el teatro Calderón de Orán (Argelia), que le supuso la felicitación expresa del emperador Napoleón III de Francia. Éxitos posteriores serían Valencianos con honra, Tres roses en un pomell, Toni manera i Joan de la son y Las escuelas en España. Decrets de la Providència, Ortigues i Reselles y El capital i el treball fueron sus últimos éxitos.

Estaba casado desde 1865 con Juana Labayla.

Obra
 La ballá de Sen Fransés. Ed. facsímil. Biblioteca Virtual Joan Lluís Vives. Biblioteca Dramàtica Valenciana.
Original: Valencia, F. Campos, 1868.
 La gata moixa: (choquet en un acte de costums valensianes, orichinal y en vers). Ed. facsímil. Biblioteca Universitaria. Biblioteca de la Universidad de Alicante.
Original: Valencia, Juan Mariana y Sanz, 1874.
 ¡¡El sòl de Rusafa!!: sarsuela en un acte, y en vers / orichinal de Francisco Palanca y Ròca ; música de Juan García y Catalá. Ed. facsímil. Biblioteca Virtual Joan Lluís Vives. Biblioteca Dramàtica Valenciana.
Original: Valencia, José Mateu Garín, 1861.
 Secanistes de Bixquert ó Al vell carabasa en ell : comedia bilingüe, en dos actes y en vers / orichinal de Francisco Palanca y Roca. Ed. facsímil. Biblioteca Virtual Joan Lluís Vives. Biblioteca Dramàtica Valenciana.
Original: Játiva, Blas Bellver, 1867.
 El secret del agüelo : pesa bilingüe en un acte y en vers, de costums valensianes / orichinal de Francisco Palanca y Roca. Ed. facsímil. Biblioteca Virtual Joan Lluís Vives. Biblioteca Dramàtica Valenciana. Biblioteca Universitaria.
Original: Valencia, [s.n.] (Vitorino León, 1870).
 El secret del agüelo : pesa bilingüe en un acte y en vers de costums valensianes. Ed. facsímil. Biblioteca Universitaria. Biblioteca de la Universidad de Alicante.
Original: Valencia, [S. n.], 1870 (Imprenta de Victorino León).

Bibliografía

 Diario Las Provincias (01/09/1996).

Enlaces externos

Escritores de España del siglo XIX
Dramaturgos de España del siglo XIX
Escritores de la Comunidad Valenciana
Dramaturgos de la Comunidad Valenciana
Escritores en valenciano
Escritores en valenciano del siglo XIX
Escritores en español del siglo XIX
Nacidos en Alcira
Fallecidos en Valencia

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


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TAITMAIL Our museum walls are closing in
Written on 11 December 2020 .
In the circumstances it seems like a pragmatic decision for a national museum. Almost obvious. Never mind arbitrary closing of some galleries, limited cafe service, skeleton-staffed shop. Just close the place for a couple of days a week.
But the V&A's decision is a watershed, a signifier of just how badly hit even big cultural institutions have been by Covid and the lockdowns. The museum has decided it will have to be closed on Mondays and Tuesdays for at least a year.
It's nothing new for the old place. In the 80s it was shut every Friday, ostensibly to give the cleaners a day to spruce up the galleries, but actually it was when the curators could get on with their research papers undisturbed by the 2,000-odd folk that traipsed through on a normal open day.
The world has turned many times since then, and the ethos is different now. Back then the V&A's head of publicity complained to the director that the museum could never raise its visitor numbers while it was inwardly looking, when the public was seen as a necessary nuisance. He was ignored then, but the public is now the first priority for museum management. There are more like 11,000 visitors a day now, a vast new shop and blockbuster exhibitions aimed at consumer design more than history of art, for which it has been able to charge handsome admission fees – although it's free to get into the museum it will cost you £12 to see the delayed Bags: Inside Out show that opens tomorrow. Last year Leicester Council decided that curators were totally dispensable and got rid of all of them from its museums and galleries, "to be more user-focused" its spokeswoman said.
Financially, the V&A has been a big earner of late, generating £64m in 2019-20 which is 55% of its income, the rest coming in its government grant, a grant that has been cut by around 33% in the last ten years. But this year the museum has lost more than £30m and is expecting £5m – probably as a loan rather than a grant - from the government's £1.57bn culture rescue fund.
But there has been a catastrophic drop in visitor numbers: no footfall, of course, from March to July, then in August 15% of the same month's figures in 2019. Assuming it is allowed to open normally in 2021-22 the museum is expecting less than half of the numbers in 2019-20. The V&A's deputy director, Tim Reeve, think it might be five years before they're back up to 2019 figures. He was hoping for an autumn boost and a Christmas bonanza to make up some of the loss, but then came the second lockdown for a crucial month, and who knows what the situation will be after December 16.
None of that takes into account Brexit. At the time of writing it will be a no-deal Brexit, meaning many fewer visitors from Europe, and with clean air target tyranny meaning less air travel the rest of the world is going to feel less inclined to make the trip.
It means the staff will take a hit, probably around 85 of them will have to be made redundant in the case of the V&A, and even in a complement of 1,000 it's a loss that will be badly felt.
The people that care for the nation's treasures like they are their own babies are scandalously underpaid for their qualifications. The lowest rung on curatorial level is museum assistant; thefe is enormous. Competition is tough and for every vacancy there are hundreds of applications. To get a job as an MA need a very good degree, preferably a PhD; you will be expected to work a full 40-hour week, often very physical work; and in return you will be paid an average of £9 an hour - the national minimum wage for age 25 and over is £872, the London living wage is £10.85.
Tate is preparing to lose 12% of its full-time workforce on it four sites, in response to a financial loss of £56m and a drop in annual visitor figures from 8m to 1m. "The knowledge, experience and passion of our colleagues across Tate is at the heart of our success and is hugely valued" Maria Balshaw, the director, said in a statement. "We nevertheless have no choice (but to ask for redundancies) given the impact of the pandemic on our finances".
Tate has halved operating budgets, frozen non-essential recruitment, cut executive salaries, restructured retail and catering and exhausted its emergency reserves. As for all major museums, blockbusters will be fewer and further between, because of the cost and new customs complications of importing loans from abroad, and they'll be on for probably six months each or more instead of the usual three, one or two crowd-pleasers rather than three or four, meaning proportionately less earning power. An important income has come from exhibitions generated here travelling overseas, and border restrictions will severely curtail that.
And if it's a bleak outlook for national museums with multimillion pound incomes, for smaller museums the country over it is even more bleak, and there are fears that if there is another lockdown or wider Tier 3 designation several will not be reopening at all, let alone for two days a week.


Stylish personalised grey cotton bath towel a unique and useful gift for yourself, the family or a friend.
This bath sized towel is 100% cotton 500gsm. 75x125cm towel.
This bath sized towel is 100% cotton 500gsm. 75x125cm towel. This towel looks great in the bathroom and is also a very popular gift for anniversaries, birthdays and Christmas too!


In this episode, Kristen joins us to talk about making the transition between games that have you playing strictly "behind your character's eyes" and games that ask you to share in creating the fiction external to your character.
Game we discuss this week include: Urban Shadows, Renegade Jennys and Boilerplate Jacks, Uncharted Worlds, Dungeon World, In a Wicked Age, Lasers & Feelings, and Apocalypse World.
We also discuss a bunch of games, including: Masks, Dresden Files FAE, Lamentations of the Flame Princess, Star Wars D6, Funnel World, Meg Baker's Wishing Games, Fiasco, Lady Blackbird, Monster of the Week, and The Warren.


text:
Q: Import CSV file - dynamic path I am trying to import a csv file dynamically.
This works:
BULK
INSERT #CSV
FROM 'C:\Users\MyName\Desktop\Players.csv'
WITH
(
    FIELDTERMINATOR = ',',
    ROWTERMINATOR = '\n'
)

I would like to change it to be with a @path parameter like that:
DECLARE @path NVARCHAR(4000) = 'C:\Users\MyName\Desktop\Players.csv';

BULK
INSERT #CSV
FROM @path
WITH
(
    FIELDTERMINATOR = ',',
    ROWTERMINATOR = '\n'
)

But this does not compiles.
How could I do that?
Thanks in advance.

A: You would need to use Dynamic SQL to pass a dynamic file path to the Bulk Insert.
DECLARE @FileName NVARCHAR(4000);

SET @FileName = '/path/to.csv';

DECLARE @sql NVARCHAR(4000) = 'BULK INSERT #CSV
        FROM ''' + @FileName + ''' WITH ( FIELDTERMINATOR ='','', ROWTERMINATOR =''\n'' )';

EXEC(@sql);

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaStackExchange


Do you need to up your blog game? Are you looking for better SEO on your company's website? Do you have questions about how to get started with building more interesting, surprising, creative content?
During this 75-minute session, ZEST Storycraft founder Jenni Gritters will explain the seven qualities of a great digital story, including skimmability, shareability, story framing, visuals, characters, an element of surprise, and a snappy headline. Then we'll walk through the process of a building an epic story together in an interactive workshop setting. You'll leave this session with a checklist for digital storytelling success and a list of inspiring story options to pursue on your own!
This workshop can be tailored to meet your specific needs. Please inquire about rates and availability!


True understanding of a business can be demonstrated most successfully when the seller can demonstrate future, hopefully early, potential to a prospective buyer. By TOM McKASKILL.
The value to the buyer in a strategic sale is created through the exploitation of some asset or capability acquired in the purchase. Using this to best advantage is the secret.
To release the value of assets or capabilities, the buyer of a business needs to deploy the product or service throughout their organisation or through their distribution channels. The faster that can be done, the quicker the buyer releases the potential profits from the acquisition.
What does this mean for the seller? Basically, the more easily and quicker the buyer can exploit the inherent potential of the acquisition, the more it is worth to the buyer – if you look at the investment in terms of the present value of a stream of future earnings.
The basic premise is that larger and earlier profits generated from the acquisition are more valuable than smaller and later profits. If you translate this into the value of the acquisition, it is obvious that the acquisition is worth more to the buyer at the point of acquisition if the benefits can be released earlier.
The opposite side of this argument is clearly that the business is therefore more valuable and therefore can be sold for a higher price.
Following this logic, the seller can best prepare the business for sale by recognising the need of the buyer to quickly integrate the new acquisition and then rapidly deploy the acquired asset or capability. Thus the more easily the products or services can be scaled, the more able the buyer is to exploit the acquisition potential.
The seller should thus examine the business to ascertain what it would take to dramatically scale up the appropriate strategic value asset or capability. So, given unlimited resources, what should the product or service look like at the point of acquisition? How should the business itself be structured to provide the best launch platform for integration and then scalability of the strategic asset or capability?
Scalability might involve many aspects of the business. For example, documentation, monitoring systems, specialised equipment, training aids for salespersons, demonstrators, installers, available capacity, lining up suppliers and distribution channels. Ask yourself — what would need to be done to scale the activity by 50 to 100 times?
Part of the task of the business owner is to work out which corporation can best exploit the acquisition. In doing so, the entrepreneur is identifying which corporations have the capability, capacity and experience to best exploit the opportunity presented through the acquisition.
The entrepreneur should then proactively set about presenting this opportunity to the prospective buyers so that they can evaluate it. In bringing the opportunity to their attention, the entrepreneur should articulate what steps he or she has taken to ensure that the acquisition is well prepared for scaling the acquired asset or capability. In this way the entrepreneur is also showing the buyer that he understands the potential of the acquisition and also how much it is worth.
The final part of the puzzle in ensuring that the entrepreneur gets full value for that potential is to ensure that he has several potential buyers lined up for the time when he wishes to trigger a sale.


MESC 2017: Who's representing Malta in the Eurovision finals?
The public has voted singer Claudia Faniello to represent Malta in this year's edition of the Eurovision Song Contest to be held in Ukraine.
Faniello, 28, beat 15 other performers to take home the title of this year's Malta Eurovision Song Contest winner. Faniello's song, Breathlessly, garnered a total of 4,996 votes.
The song was composed by Philip Vella and Sean Vella and written by Gerard James Borg.
A popular favourite of the public, Janice Mangion, came second place with her Maltese song 'Kewkba'. Mangion obtained 4,544 votes.
Former Swedish Idol winner Kevin Borg came in third, with 2,502 votes.
Only one song per artist was shortlisted, meaning that each singer performed one song during the singing contest. The jury has been dropped in favour of 100% televoting.
The 2017 Eurovision Song Contest is being held in Kyiv, in May.


text:
Gain () is a novel by Richard Powers published by in 1998. It tells the stories of Clare International, a chemical conglomerate with origins in soap manufacturing in the early 18th century, and Laura Bodey, a 42-year-old divorcée living near Clare International's headquarters who develops ovarian cancer. It won the James Fenimore Cooper Prize for Best Historical Fiction in 1999.

External links
Bibliography of editions
Listing of reviews and writings

1998 American novels
Novels by Richard Powers
James Fenimore Cooper Prize-winning works
Farrar, Straus and Giroux books


Taido and I had this wonderful coconut sweet potato soup in a restaurant on a date recently that we loved. It was so dreamy that we sat at the table a long time and tried to figure out everything that was in it. We made a list so later I could try to duplicate it.
This is the creation I came up with and we thought it was a keeper for sure. The shallots and the cream are key. SO richly delicious!!
Melt butter in dutch oven, add shallots until softened (about 5 minutes). Add sweet potatoes. Stir to coat with butter and shallots. Then add chicken broth and coconut milk. Simmer until potatoes are soft. Blend with immersion blender in the dutch oven or place in a blender until smooth. Season with cayenne, salt and pepper to taste. Stir in cream just before serving.
Makes about 4 large bowls.
This recipe brought me fun and happiness today. It was easy enough that I could do it…and different enough that I thought it a great treat. I have now shared it with family in the north and south of Arkansas and sister in California….Thanks for taking the time to figure it out and post it for others Alison.


Debating on selling my 1990 comanche as it will become my daily driver here soon and I would like to have some more comfort (pw,pl,ac) and safety(locking seatbelts/airbags) features. The truck runs great and I'll continue to drive it as I don't need to sell, but wanted to see if anyone else is interested.
I have the original manual/sales sticker and the PO documented all maintenance in the manual since new. The PO did some rust touch ups here and there but the Jeep is extremely and doesn't have any leaks. Comes with drop in bed liner and cap. PO installed an electric fan override switch as well.
When lights are on, the right turn signal notifcstion stays lit (all lights function as they should).
For the A/C blowing cold, it's not too hard or expensive to replace the whole A/C system and it can almost exclusively be done at home. If the system still has a charge you would legally need a shop to evacuate it before opening it up, but to replace every component in the A/C system you'd probably be under $300 (I know the compressor kit was $160ish last I looked and the condenser and evaporator core were about $40-$50 each). I've done a few A/C systems and I just rent a vacuum pump from oreillys. The turn signal light illuminating is typically a corroded connector or socket. Mine had the same issue and I got a new front light harness and it fixed it. Good looking rust free truck! Wish mine was that nice!
I checked today and noticed the lower bulb wasn't illumnated. Pulled it out and reset it and now the dash light is no longer illuminated and the light is working. Thanks!
I'm still considering selling so make an offer if interesting (we have a wedding coming up this year, so trying to save some extra cash). Pic below with cap and Wrangler wheels(still have originals). Added a stock clock, wheels and partially partially fixed the shift indicator but its not 100% lined up.
Also, the AC was converted to R134 at some point, so I will try a recharge this summer if i still have it.


Look picture perfect in Faviana S10058. This stretch jersey long gown offers a halter neckline with bandeau back. Cutout sides is secured with slim band and ties at the back. The full-length skirt glides to the ground creating an icon of versatility.


text:
ES5Harness.registerTest({

    id: "15.4.4.16-7-b-16",

    path: "TestCases/chapter15/15.4/15.4.4/15.4.4.16/15.4.4.16-7-b-16.js",

    description: "Array.prototype.every - decreasing length of array does not delete non-configurable properties",

    test: function testcase() {
        function callbackfn(val, idx, obj) {
            if (idx === 2 && val === "unconfigurable") {
                return false;
            } else {
                return true;
            }
        }

        var arr = [0, 1, 2];

        Object.defineProperty(arr, "2", {
            get: function () {
                return "unconfigurable";
            },
            configurable: false
        });

        Object.defineProperty(arr, "1", {
            get: function () {
                arr.length = 2;
                return 1;
            },
            configurable: true
        });

        return !arr.every(callbackfn);
    },

    precondition: function prereq() {
        return fnExists(Array.prototype.every) && fnExists(Object.defineProperty) && fnSupportsArrayIndexGettersOnArrays();
    }

});

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaGithub


text:
Evidence Of The Big Bang
In this chapter we aim to illustrate the process of the development of the Big Bang theory over the course of history and to present its main evidence.
1.THEORETICAL EVIDENCE: MISSING LINK IN NEWTON'S CONCEPT OF UNIVERSE
Newton imagined an infinite universe ruled by gravitational force. He thought that kinds of matter that attracted each other in a finite and stationary universe would eventually adhere to each other to form a single whole. But one could observe no such composition in the universe. He tried to sidestep the issue by stating that matter was scattered in an infinite universe. But this did not constitute an explanation of the problem: if every object was attracting every other object, how had the stars kept their distances from one another for ages? The idea of an infinite universe was not the solution. The gravitational force between the stars would draw them closer to each other in a given portion of space. If they got close enough, they would adhere to each other; but if they moved away from each other somewhat, they would go even further away from each other, since they would be released from the gravitational force. Thus, the notion of the indefinite expansion of the universe did not do away with the problems that the gravitational force would generate; assuming that the universe was infinite, everything would collapse sooner or later into a single whole. But this did not fit in with the age-old universe presented to the view of man.
Newton's idea of an infinite universe created difficulties in establishing the beginning of creation. On the other hand, the idea of creation by an omnipotent God of an infinite universe had come to be accepted by a considerable number of theologians. Scientists and philosophers who succeeded Newton were under the influence of Newtonian physics and espoused the idea that the universe was infinite. This assumption continued until the formulation of the Big Bang theory.
CORRECTION BROUGHT TO NEWTONIAN PHYSICS
Einstein also came under the influence of Newtonian physics. It was in 1916 that Einstein put forward the model of a static universe. Soon after, however, he realized that such a static universe was eventually destined to collapse into a single mass under gravitational force. His introduction into his equations of the "cosmological constant" to fit his model of a stationary universe in his theory was not based on any logical reason, observation or theoretical necessity. Einstein postulated this cosmological force of repulsion to cancel out the attractive force of gravity. The only reason for Einstein's positing the "cosmological constant" was his confirmed belief in Newton's infinite static universe, as he was resolute that any contrary view could not find justification. Later, Einstein was to acknowledge that this biased opinion about a static universe and "cosmological constant" had been the greatest blunder of his life.
In 1922, Alexander Friedmann, Russian meteorologist and mathematician, noticed something that Einstein had ignored and refused to acknowledge in the beginning: the fact that the universe might be expanding. Friedmann worked with the relativity equations of Einstein and found that the expansion of the universe was the necessary consequence of these equations; the universe was not static so, then, it was dynamic; this model of the universe provided the missing link for the Newtonian system. It became clear that the laws of gravitation did not contradict the picture that the universe presented. The dynamism of the expansion prevented the galaxies from collapsing into a single whole.
This discovery, based on Einstein's equations, agreed with the Einsteinian physics. The paradox that Newtonian gravitational laws had been facing was thus solved by Einstein's formulas, and it was understood that there was no need for a "cosmological constant."
LEMAITRE'S SOLUTION
Independently from Friedmann, Georges Lemaître, Belgian astrophysicist, developed the notion of a 'primeval atom' that had exploded, establishing thus the Big Bang theory that marked the beginning of the expanding universe. Like Friedmann, Lemaître had also studied Einstein's formulas, and it was these formulas that inevitably led Lemaître to conclude that the universe was expanding.
An expanding universe counterbalanced gravitational force, which prevented the matter scattered in space from condensing into one single mass. The expanding universe continually grew in size and was never the same as a moment earlier. This connoted, at the same time, the fact that the universe that preceded the expansion was smaller in size. This meant that originally the universe had been a single mass. The said results, which formulated the Big Bang theory, were the consequence of Einstein's formulas.
Lemaître was the most prominent specialist in the observatory of the Vatican. The theory he propounded found a ready home in the Catholic Church, which never failed to support him. The Catholic Church was the first among the religious circles that acknowledged the paramount importance of the Big Bang theory (1920s), and in 1951 the Church officially recognized that the theory was in perfect accord with religion.
EINSTEIN'S FORMULAS
Einstein's formulas explained the gravitational force in a clearer light than did Newton's. For instance, the failure of Newtonian formulas to exactly explain the orbit of the planet Mercury was later explained precisely by Einstein's formulas.
According to Einstein, the mass of objects influences space by causing it to be curved. Space is not an absolute void; it is dependent on masses by which it is influenced. This phenomenon, one that seems at first difficult to comprehend, may be illustrated as follows: imagine a bi-dimensional sheet representing space. Let two persons stretch it from either end. Let us place an apple on it. The sheet will automatically lose its tautness and becomes distorted especially near the apple. If we replace the apple with a heavy rock, the distortion will be so great that it will become almost impossible to go on holding the sheet. We can deduce from this the fact that as mass grows, the distortion is larger.
According to Einstein's explanation of gravity we are revolving around the sun, since it is the sun that causes the greater distortion in near space. Had the universe been static, matter (stars, planets, etc.) would have collapsed at the bottom of the greatest pit of time and space. Newton's physics demonstrated the mutual attraction between celestial bodies, while Einstein's physics produced the mathematics that explained the manner in which celestial bodies exerted influence over time and space.
INTERLINKING OF MATTER, SPACE AND TIME
Matter, space and time were interlinked by Einstein's formulas, but prior to the 1920s it was the concepts of "absolute space" and "absolute time" that dominated. It was believed that space and time stemmed from infinity and perpetuated their infinity and were not affected by the motion and gravitational force of celestial bodies. Einstein's relativity theory demonstrated the error in conceiving of space and time as separate and absolute entities; whereupon there emerged the space-time concept. The space-time affected the motion of celestial bodies, and they were affected by all the phenomena in the universe. These phenomena cannot be comprehended without the space-time concept, and according to the "relativity theory" one cannot refer to a space and time outside the confines of the universe.
Einstein's formulas led us to the conclusion that the universe expanded. Now, were one to reverse the process and conclude that space dwindles into nothingness, the concept of time would necessarily also cease to exist. It ensues from this that the Big Bang was not only the origin of matter, but also of time. This fact was further corroborated by the theoretical demonstrations based on the mathematical equations of Roger Penrose and Stephen Hawking.
The theory of relativity paved the way for an important mental revolution by the fact that time is not absolute, that it changes along with the speed and gravitational force. The Newtonian concept of absolute time, the antinomies that Kant's philosophy had posited on the postulate of absolute time, lost their value in the wake of Einstein's revolution.
Experiments conducted afterward justified Einstein's claims. Two precision atom clocks were set at exactly the same time: one was kept on the earth's surface and the other boarded a plane that left London for China. These clocks set by John Laverty were of such perfection that the admissible error involved was 1 second per 300,000 years. As the plane flew at high attitudes, it was not affected by gravity as much as an object on the surface of the earth. As the gravitational force influenced time, it was expected that the clocks would mark different times. The difference anticipated was insignificant and, therefore, could only be established by a precision instrument. The difference in question proved to be 1/55.000.000.000 of a second. This was an empirical evidence of the correctness of Einstein's relativity of time. Such a phenomenon could not even have been fancied before, since the former conception conceived of time as absolute and unaffected by gravitational force. Additional experiments were to confirm Einstein's theory.
Einstein's discovery introduced momentous change into the minds of many. Reversal of the progressive expansion of the universe to the beginning of time ended with the extinction of space. Time, coexistent with space, had a common origin according to the relativity. The concept of absolute time that Einstein's formulas had invalidated lost its eternal character. Time became a relative concept that had a beginning. This, however, did not mean, as some had imagined, that time was merely a product of the mind and that it had no existence in the world outside. Quite the reverse was the case, given the fact that this approach linked space, time and matter together and explained it in mathematical terms; time was as real as the existence of matter in the outside world. The scientific demonstration of the fact that not only matter but time also had a beginning and that both had a common origin was the achievement of the Big Bang theory.
SOLUTION OF OLBERS'S PARADOX AND THE GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL PARADOX
The Big Bang theory owed its origin to theoretical considerations, without observational evidence. This same theory also resolved Olbers's Paradox, a subject that had been hotly debated for years. This paradox, expressed by Heinrich Olbers in 1826, asked the following question: "Why is the sky dark at night?" In an infinitely large and unchanging universe, uniformly populated with stars and galaxies, the sky should be dazzlingly bright. Olbers suggested a solution for this paradox: he thought that the enormous amount of dust in the universe must be absorbing the greater portion of the light emitted by the stars, causing the sky to darken.
It was discovered afterward that even this dust would get hot because of the radiation it had absorbed and would radiate with the same intensity. The paradox came to be solved following the Big Bang's postulation that the universe must have had a beginning and that it was expanding. So, the fact that the night sky is dark indicates that the universe cannot have an infinite number of evenly distributed stars over an infinite period of time.
Johann Friendrich Zöllner's (1871) paradox about gravitation was also invalidated by the expanding universe model (the gravitational potential paradox). Zöllner maintained that if we imagined the stars in an infinite and static universe evenly scattered in space, as Newton had assumed, there should have been infinite gravitational potential at every point of the universe. Such a postulate was hardly compatible with common sense and observations; in this way the Big Bang model that postulated an expanding, dynamic and finite universe also resolved this paradox.
HAWKING'S WONDER
Hawking wondered at the fact that nobody (not even Newton) had ever posited that the universe was expanding, before the twentieth century. He commented: "We know it is impossible to have an infinite static model of the universe in which gravity is always attractive. It is an interesting reflection on the general climate of thought that before the twentieth century no one suggested that the universe was expanding or contracting. It was generally accepted that either the universe had existed forever in an unchanging state, or that it had been created at a finite time in the past more or less as we observe it today." In a different context he had the following to say: "The discovery that the universe is expanding was one of the greatest intellectual revolutions of the twentieth century. With hindsight, it is easy to wonder why no one had thought of it before. Newton and others should have realized that a static universe would soon start to contract under the influence of gravity. But suppose instead the universe expanding."
The fact that the universe could not be static was inherent in Newton's law of gravity. Yet, Hawking was puzzled at the fact that the expansion of the universe had not been conceived by Newton and his successors. Hawking thought this mystery should have been solved long before the 1920s.
In the beginning, the Big Bang was based solely on "theoretical evidence." Observations were to be made later, as the theoretical considerations found their justifications. Plato thought that the universe had been constructed according to mathematical principles laid down by God. Einstein said that unless we turn to good account the observations we make on a theoretical basis, phenomena will not be comprehensible, given the fact that theories are explained by mathematical principles; the mathematical approach joins the point of intersection towards which Plato and Einstein converge.
1. The said theoretical evidence solved the paradoxes related to Newton's law of gravity.
2. They were based on Einstein's formulas (these formulas are supported by experiments).
3. They established the fact that time had a beginning simultaneously with matter.
4. They solved Olbers's paradox.
5. They also solved the gravitational potential paradox.
In this way, paradoxes in the cosmology of the universe were solved, the laws of gravity became comprehensible and mathematical formulas of the theory of relativity found their application. The beginning of the universe was thus seriously explained in scientific terms for the first time.
2.EVIDENCE OF THE EXPANSION: MENTAL REVOLUTION BASED ON THE TELESCOPE
The "theoretical evidence," which was the first piece of evidence of the Big Bang, was based on Einstein's formulas; this evidence posited that the universe could not be in a steady-state and that it was in the process of expansion. When this evidence was introduced for the first time, experimental data were not available; all that existed were theoretical principles based on mathematics. Spurred by scientific developments, and especially by the invention of the telescope, the observation of the celestial bodies had created a new enthusiasm. The marked developments in the telescope provided new knowledge of the celestial sphere. By adding mirrors to the telescope, Newton succeeded in obtaining images that were more highly magnified than those available to Galileo. Stars were seen more readily, inviting scientists to discover the mysteries of the universe and the stars.
In 1920, the most sophisticated of telescopes was at Mount Wilson in California, USA; Edwin Hubble (1889-1953) obtained permission to use it in research that would lead to revolutions in our thought. These revolutions would be led by new knowledge based on observations.
HUBBLE'S OBSERVATIONS AND THE DOPPLER EFFECT
Observations made by the Hubble telescope demonstrated for the first time that the number of galaxies in the universe greatly exceeded one hundred million. His statements gave rise to speculation that the time had come for this man to retire.
Hubble, disregarding the controversy he was provoking, continued his research. In 1929 he noticed that the external galaxies appeared to be receding from the Milky Way and that the further away they were, the faster they receded. Hubble obtained the same results in all the galaxies he observed. This discovery of Hubble's was to lead the way to a conceptual revolution of great scope. At first, the importance of this unexpected discovery was not fully realized. The best illustration of Hubble's universe was made by using an inflating balloon. Mark a speck on the surface of a balloon and put dots around it haphazardly. As the balloon keeps inflating you'll see that the dots will recede away from each other. The universe was expanding as such.
Hubble discovered the expansion by the Doppler effect. The Doppler effect is the change in wavelength observed when the distance between a source of waves and the observer is changing. The wavelength increases as the source or the observer move apart from other and decreases as they move closer to other. The changing pitch of the siren of a passing motor vehicle is an example of the Doppler effect on sound waves. In this respect, there is no difference between sound and light, as both propagate in waves.
As the wavelength of the light source drawing near decreases, it shifts to the blue color in the light spectrum. The wavelength of the receding light source increases and shifts toward red. Hubble examined the light coming from the stars using the Doppler effect and noticed that the light always shifted to red; this meant that all the stars were receding along with the galaxies. The anticipation was the shifting toward blue of the light coming from the stars of some galaxies, while toward red of the light coming from other stars.
Observations that succeeded those of Hubble, Milton Humeson's and others', confirmed this result. In 1948 the biggest telescope of the world was established at Mount Palomar and the observations carried out by this telescope confirmed the results as well.
LEMAITRE AND BOXER HUBBLE
Edwin Hubble's initial aspiration was to be a boxer. One wonders how many adversaries he would have knocked out had he done so! But one thing is certain; his observations knocked out a great number of scientists who believed the universe to be static and stationary. The concept of a steady-state universe, confuted by theoretical evidences, was, in a sense, knocked down by Hubble.
All observations carried out up until today have confirmed Hubble's findings. At first, atheists, who foresaw the philosophical consequences of Hubble's discoveries, took issue with them and refused to accept the concept of an expanding universe. This was a concept that atheistic scientists, convinced of an unchanging, eternal and boundless universe, were to have difficulties accepting. When Hubble exposed the findings of his observations for the first time, he was derided and the results he had obtained were made light of.
However, the new discovery caused a scientist by the name of Lemaître to sparkle with excitement. As we have already seen above, Lemaître and Friedmann had, independently from each other, theoretically posited the necessity of an expanding universe by mathematical formulas. Lemaître was not content with a theoretical approach; he also made use of Hubble's observational data and ended by explaining that the Big Bang theory was substantiated by both theoretical and observational evidence. Theoretical calculations matched eventually with the results achieved by the telescope.
At first Hubble himself did not realize the scope of influence that the knowledge he had acquired would be exerting on the physics and the philosophy of the 20th and 21st centuries. It seems that Lemaître was the first person to understand its importance.
ENCOUNTER OF LEMAITRE, EINSTEIN AND HUBBLE
As I have already pointed out, even Einstein was at pains at first to confirm the truth of this theory, despite the fact that it was the product of his own formulas, for, he, like Newton, maintained that the universe was static and stationary. Lemaître, Einstein and Hubble met one day at the California Institute of Technology. Lemaître gave a detailed account of the Big Bang theory. He said that the universe owed its beginning to a "primeval atom," which, as a consequence of disintegration, had broken into parts that eventually became galaxies that expand according to the standard equations of general relativity. He meant thereby that the universe was created on a day that had no yesterday. He had made all the calculations needed for the purpose; he combined the data of Hubble, who was among the audience, with Einstein's formulas. Lemaître was surprised to see Einstein rise and declare this explanation to be the brightest and the most convincing he had heard thus far.
The meeting at the California Institute of Technology was a breakthrough. Lemaître, the father of the Big Bang theory; Einstein, who had a share in the production of the "theoretical evidence" through the application of the mathematics of the theory of relativity; and Hubble, who had contributed to the demonstration of the theory by his "observational evidence," had come together and confirmed the truth of the Big Bang theory.
HUBBLE'S LAW
The findings of Hubble and Vesto M. Slipher and Milton Humason, who collaborated with him at the Mount Wilson observatory, have another important aspect: the Hubble Law, the result of his observations. In 1929, he announced his famous law: the more distant a galaxy, the greater, in direct proportion, is its velocity of recession.
This law permitted scientists to measure the speed at which galaxies moved away from each other, and to spot the place that a particular galaxy would be occupying at the end of a definite time. We can estimate the position of a galaxy after a billion years. The same reasoning may also be reversed. If we go backward instead of proceeding ahead we end up at the beginning of creation. By this formula it is possible to calculate the age of the universe. The moment at which the universe was created can thus be defined.
The age of the universe can be established by using Hubble's constant. The exact calculation of Hubble's constant involves difficulties; that is why the construction of the exact time at which the universe was created has been a controversial issue.
Scientists have used different methods to calculate the age of the universe. Nevertheless, the results they have achieved vary between 10 to 25 billion years; none of the various calculation methods have gone beyond these limits. Research conducted after the 1990s indicated that the age should be around 15 billion of years.
NO MOMENT OF THE UNIVERSE IS EQUAL TO ANOTHER MOMENT
The expansion of the universe, which had, at the beginning, been posited as "theoretical evidence" deduced from mathematical calculations, was substantiated by observations that eventually led to the reckoning of the age of the universe and its establishment within a time bracket. The question now was not, therefore, whether or not the universe had a beginning, but how to exactly calculate its age.
The most recent observations have added new evidence to the expansion of the universe. According to the Big Bang model, the universe expanded rapidly from a highly dense primordial state that resulted in a significant decrease in density and temperatures. When you look at the galaxies in the farthest corners of the sky, please bear in mind that you are, in fact, watching the past of the universe. As the light of the farthest galaxies is traveling from an extremely long distance, what we observe in fact is the state of galaxies billions of years ago. Our observation of this fact proves that this state of galaxies presents a denser aspect of the universe. The universe that was denser billions of years ago attained its present density after continuous expansion. This is another confirmation of the Big Bang theory.
Continuous expansion of the universe is a discovery that has revolutionized astronomy and deeply affected man. Such an earth-shattering discovery has but few precedents in the history of science. A similar breakthrough was perhaps the substitution of the geocentric system with the heliocentric system. I maintain that the revolution in thought processes that this would lead to was of an even greater scope. (However, its far-reaching significance may as yet not be as conspicuous as the Copernican revolution.)
The continuously-expanding universe reminds one of Heracletus (540-480 BC), who said, "You cannot step into the same river twice." The expanding universe is changing every moment, and every moment we are in a universe of differing dimensions. No split second is the same as the one that preceded it. No two moments of the universe are equal. This revolutionary change is being evidenced by observations that take us much further than Heracletus's statement. The expansion and continuous alteration generate other far more reaching consequences related to the origin and the end of the universe.
3.COSMIC BACKGROUND RADIATION: DISAPPOINTMENT GENERATED BY THE OVERTHROW OF THE CONCEPT OF AN ETERNAL UNIVERSE
The Big Bang theory was launched at a time when Marxist atheism was gaining ascendancy and positivism was espoused by a great many scientists as the only valid philosophical system. A universe that had no beginning in time was gladly maintained by positivists and atheists as it shoved aside God. Sir Arthur Eddington declared that the idea that the universe had a beginning was "philosophically repugnant." The antagonism toward the Big Bang theory originated from ideological concerns and atheistic psychology rather than scientific interest.
In a radio broadcast, Fred Hoyle, who himself advocated the Steady State model, referred sarcastically to the new findings with the expression "Big Bang." The expression later gained acceptance.
WHERE IS THE FOSSIL OF THIS EXPLOSION?
During the time in which the Big Bang theory was being formulated, demonstration was made of the formations of elements in the course of the life process of stars. The contribution of Fred Hoyle and his team on this subject had been very significant. The Big Bang theory explains the origin of hydrogen, an element which was not produced by stars, but contributed to their formation. The Big Bang compensates for the gaps that existed in Hoyle's suppositions and gave a perfect account of the formation of elements. According to the subatomic theory, in order to be obtained, hydrogen requires a medium of immense heat. The Big Bang model posits the necessity of the existence of such a medium of immense heat at the origin of the universe.
Hoyle maintained that the solution of this problem could not be found in the Big Bang theory and he continued to insist on his antagonism. If the Big Bang had produced an immense heat at the beginning, he said, the explosion should have left a fossil behind.
As a consequence of the sarcastic approach of Fred Hoyle, not only the term "Big Bang," but the term "fossil" was also coined. When "cosmic background radiation" was discovered, many scientists termed it "fossil radiation." In fact, Hoyle's objections played the role of a boomerang, as they ended up validating, rather than invalidating the Big Bang theory, thus putting an end to his espoused Steady-State model.
GAMOW'S THEORETICAL CALCULATIONS
It was Gamow who first postulated the existence of the cosmic background radiation based on mathematical calculations. Gamow and Alpher proposed on 1 April 1948, the "alpha, beta, gamma" theory that suggests the possibility of explaining the abundance of chemical elements as the result of thermonuclear processes in the early stages of a hot, evolving universe. These ideas were developed and became part of the Big Bang model of the universe. They predicted that, as the universe expanded, the cooling of the Big Bang would yield a faint background radiation with the current temperature of about 5 Kelvin.
An article by George Gamow and colleagues narrated the way the atoms interacted at the beginning of the Big Bang in the light of recent findings of nuclear physics, exposing the fact that the value of heat emitted during these reactions could be measured in terms of billions of degrees. They pointed out that the radiation, involving an immense energy, filled the universe and claimed that even today a remnant of this high-energy thermal radiation was still there in space. In brief, Gamow postulated the necessity of the existence of the "fossil" at which Hoyle had poked fun.
All radiations that succeeded the Big Bang would have definite points of origin from which they emanated. But the most significant characteristic of the radiation caused by the Big Bang was its spread throughout the universe.
FOSSIL RADIATION FOUND
In the 1960s, Robert Dicke and colleagues deduced that a Big Bang origin of the universe should have left an observable remnant of microwave radiation, detectable all around us. The origin of the universe was intensely hot and replete with hot electrons, protons and photons of high energy. As the universe expanded this radiation was to cool down, enabling us to observe it in the microwave zone of the electromagnetic spectrum. It is said that the astronomers from Princeton were not aware of the fact that Gamow had a similar concept. It is an established fact, however, that Gamow and colleagues were aware of the existence of this radiation, although they failed to propose its experimental demonstration.
Robert Dicke and colleagues were the first to use special instruments to try to find the cosmic microwave background radiation. Dicke, Roll and Wilkinson constructed the microwave radiation detector that Dicke had designed in 1965. However, the discovery, which they believed would secure them the Nobel Prize, was to fall to the lot of others, namely, to two engineers: Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson, employed at the Bell Telephone Laboratories in New Jersey. Penzias discovered "cosmic microwave background radiation" while investigating an unexpected excess. The interference caused by this phenomenon thwarted their research. When they failed to dispose of this interference they called up Dicke and his friends at Princeton, as they knew that they were specialized in radiations in space. Dicke and colleagues, having heard of the findings of Penzias and Wilson, realized that the latter had discovered the radiation that they themselves had been looking for. Thus, the fossil, at which Hoyle had poked fun, was discovered by Penzias and Wilson, who were awarded the Nobel Prize, while Dicke and his friends missed the chance. There have been many scientists who acknowledged this discovery as "compelling evidence." The defense of the Steady-State model became impossible following t he discovery of the "cosmic microwave background radiation." The radiation in question could be observed in every direction of the universe. The temperature of the radiation was -270 (3 Kelvin). This value was quite near the temperature -268 (5 Kelvin) that Gamow and colleagues had calculated. Alpher and Herman said: "Everyone agrees that 1965 was an important year in the historical development of cosmology; indeed, some take it as the birth year of modern cosmology."
4- EVIDENCE OF COSMIC MICROWAVE BACKGROUND RADIATION: SLIGHT FLUCTUATIONS IN THE RADIATION
The discovery of cosmic background radiation was a significant evidence of the Big Bang. Further research conducted on this radiation was to supply new evidence in corroboration of the Big Bang model. Following the observations of Penzias and Wilson, Roll and Wilkinson from Princeton University built precise instruments to carry out the experiment. This was the first of a number of experiments that were to validate the findings of Penzias and Wilson.
After the discovery of cosmic microwave background, scientist began searching for fluctuations of the radiation, as they were necessary for the formation of the universe. Had matter dispersed in every direction homogenously following the Big Bang, the formation of galaxies, stars and the earth would not have been possible. For the said formation, fields of varying densities were necessary. The minutest of divergences in temperature during the initial development of the universe starting from a single point would give ample evidence to attest to this. Spots comparatively hotter would have had greater energy, whose contents of particles would be more numerous than in the cooler portion. This process would give the way to the formulation of the galaxies.
FLUCTUATIONS DISCOVERED
The detector that Penzias and Wilson used could not possibly detect the fluctuations anticipated in the cosmic microwave background. To obtain precise measurements, it was first necessary to eliminate the sources of interferences in the earth's atmosphere. Instruments of great size had to be lifted into the sky in helium balloons. A plan was constructed whereby U2 aircraft would search for "cosmic microwave background." To carry the precious detector, a cockpit with a specially designed compartment was constructed, for even the windowpanes of the aircraft might impair an instrument of precision. It became clear that the motion of the aircraft and the time that would allow measurements was limited. The aircraft could not remain suspended in the air like a balloon; it had to draw the same trajectory over and over again which would drain up its fuel before the completion of the measurement. The only realistic solution was to use a satellite. The anticipated venture was realized in November of the year 1989 by the installation of an instrument on the Cosmic Background Explorer satellite (COBE) by John Mather. The instrument developed by Mather succeeded in sensitively measuring the temperature of the cosmic microwave background, which corresponded to a temperature of 2.725 Kelvin. COBE stayed in space for three years; the data it provided were more than sufficient, as they proved not only the existence of the cosmic background radiation, but also its emanation from every direction of space. Infinitesimal fluctuations were also detected. The picture drawn by computers based on data provided by COBE also indicated the fluctuations in the former map of the world. To differentiate between the hotter and cooler portions, pink and blue colors were added to the picture. The data that COBE had found in the universe were re-examined and meticulously studied; the results were satisfactory. Fluctuations did exist in the cosmic microwave background and this would permit the formation of galaxies. The Big Bang model had won another victory.
George Smoot hit the headlines all over the world when his
data processor produced the pink and blue image of the fosil radiation in the universe. A cosmological observation like this had never been witnessed before. Next to the picture was Stephen Hawking's comment on this discovery: "This is the greatest discovery of the century, and perhaps of all times."
The project leader of the COBE satellite, George Smoot, declared that this discovery was an evidence of the fact that the universe had had a beginning and added that it was as if one was
looking at God.
SATELLITE AND COMPUTER-BACKED DATA
The satellite, a marvel of engineering, and the computer, a miracle of electronics, joined hands with the fine calculations of mathematics to promote the Big Bang. The picture of the universe was now clearer than ever.
The discovery of the fluctuations required for the formation of galaxies was something that not even those who had posited their indispensability had been expecting. The alpha-beta-gamma thesis that had put forth for the first time the necessary existence of the cosmic microwave background radiation had occupied its privileged place in history. In 1978 Penzias and Wilson were awarded the Nobel Prize for their discovery of 1965. The COBE satellite launched into space at the cost of millions of dollars in order to measure the cosmic background radiation had thus measured the "fossil radiation" and the fluctuations in it with great precision. The discovery of the cosmic background radiation and its study were of paramount importance for the Big Bang theory. The cosmic microwave background had other evidence in store for us.
TEMPERATURE OF THE FORMER COSMIC MICROWAVE BACKGROUND RADIATION
As we have already noted, one of the most significant data
provided by the Big Bang model was the fact that the origin of the universe was extremely hot and dense and that these had decreased as the universe expanded. The temperature of the cosmic background radiations is continuously falling, and, at present, it is equal to 2.7 Kelvin. When we look at the light coming from the galaxies far in space, we must remember that we are actually looking far into the past. The light coming from the remote galaxies is coming from a distance of billions of years. It may well be that the galaxy we are observing at the moment does not actually exist, and that we are seeing the light that had departed on its journey billions of years ago. In brief, we are looking far into the past.
In the past the universe was, according to the Big Bang theory, much denser and hotter. Were we to measure the temperature of the cosmic microwave background in one of the farthest galaxies (galaxies of the past), we should be able to find a much higher temperature. In the spring of 1994, researchers were able to succeed doing this. The temperature of the cosmic microwave background radiation was 7.4 Kelvin, which today is but 2.7 Kelvin.
This observation was made thanks to the Keck telescope, the biggest optical instrument of the time. In 1996, the same team of astronomers succeeded in measuring the temperature of a more remote galaxy; the value they found slightly exceeded 8 Kelvin. The scanning of even more remote zones by another group of astronomers led to the discovery of a temperature of 10 Kelvin. All these data confirmed the Big Bang; the farther we went, the higher the temperature encountered. The study of the history of the cosmic background radiation proved to be an additional evidence of the Big Bang.
COMBINING THEORY AND OBSERVATION
So the mathematical theory was coupled by observations as regards the cosmic background radiation: We may summarize this process in the following manner:
1. On a theoretical basis: Gamow and Princeton researchers postulated that there is a remnant radiation from the primeval fireball which spread over the entire universe, and made a calculation of its temperature. On an observational basis: This radiation, the existence of which was initially detected by Penzias and Wilson and afterward came to be confirmed by COBE observations, was diffused throughout the entire universe and the calculations made by Gamow and Princeton researchers were very near to the temperature of this radiation.
2. On a theoretical basis: It was postulated that fluctuations must have been at the initial temperature of the universe for the formatting of galaxies. On an observational basis: In 1992 COBE detected the temperature fluctuations at the initiatory phases of the universe.
3. On a theoretical basis: Given the fact that the past of the universe involved higher temperatures, so should the temperature have been of the past cosmic microwave background radiation. On an observational basis: In 1994 the study of light coming from remote galaxies confirmed that the cosmic microwave background radiation was higher in the past, as was expected. The subsequent observations confirmed this.
5. EVIDENCE FROM THE QUANTITY OF ELEMENTS AMOUNT OF HYDROGEN
The proportions of the elements in space are established by the "Fraunhofer lines" discovered by Fraunhofer. These lines were the fingerprints, so to speak, of the elements. It is possible to detect the nature of the elements in the light source by analyzing this fingerprint. It has been observed that the composition of the sun and the stars are one and the same. Their basic elements are hydrogen and helium. The sun was part of a subgroup of galaxies of stars. The universe was a medium subject to the gravity which stars and satellites made of the same primary material used.
Fraunhofer's lines proved that 73% of the universe is made up of hydrogen and 25% of helium. This was corroborative evidence of the Big Bang. Subatomic research necessitated a medium-intensely hot environment for the production of the hydrogen atom. The first detailed estimate was put forth in 1948 by the work of Gamow and colleagues.
As Gamow suggested, the rapid cooling of the universe from an intensely hot state explained the cooperative production of elements of protons and neutrons and the 73% proportion of hydrogen in the universe. Hydrogen cannot form in the processes taking place inside the stars; the Big Bang cleared the way for the formation of the hydrogen atom and its amount.
EVIDENCE IN THE AMOUNT OF HELIUM
The Big Bang has taught us that helium formed at the very beginning of the universe. At its beginning, the universe was a very hot mixture of protons, neutrons and electrons. As this composition cooled down, nuclear reactions began to occur. Neutrons and protons combined in pairs that joined to form the nucleus of the element helium. Theoretical calculations showed that twenty-five percent of the composition of the universe was made up of helium. Helium can also be produced by the reactions taking place in the stars; however these reactions cannot by themselves account for this amount of helium.
All the observations carried out thus far have confirmed this. For instance, in 1999 American and Ukrainian astronomers used the Multiple Mirror and Keck telescopes to obtain a 24.52% proportion of helium. The Big Bang theory was thus proved once again by these astronomers who had determined this proportion based on their observations of the oldest galaxies. Later, in 2000, the results reached by Canadian astronomers were very close. These studies demonstrated that helium had existed from the very early stages of the universe.
EVIDENCE SCATTERED THROUGHOUT THE UNIVERSE
The Big Bang originated from a single point in the universe and all the matter in the universe originated in a cataclysmic explosion. The Big Bang model suggests that, at its origin, the universe was exceedingly small and hot and that its temperature fell as it expanded. The Big Bang model also provided an explanation for the amount of hydrogen and helium in the universe. We have seen that one of the significant characteristics of cosmic microwave background was its diffusion throughout space. The same result must have been reached with regard to the 73% ratio of hydrogen and 25% of helium. Considering that the elements in question scattered in all directions, the same ratio should prevail throughout the expanding universe.
The results tally with the data the Big Bang theory anticipated and have been demonstrated by the observations made. Hydrogen and helium are the dominating elements in every spot of the universe. Approximately three fourths of the universe consists of hydrogen and one fourth of helium.
EVIDENCE PROVIDED BY DEUTERIUM AND LITHIUM
All the deuterium (one of the three isotopes of hydrogen, the nucleus containing one proton and one neutron) and lithium were formed immediately after the explosion. Processes going on inside the stars cannot form these elements; as a matter of fact, stellar burning gobbles up those elements rather than producing more of these atoms. The Big Bang model explains the raison d'être of deuterium and lithium.
Observations made with the Keck and Hubble telescopes conform exactly to the amounts of deuterium and lithium as suggested by the Big Bang model. Studies of Vanioni Flam, Coc and Casse published in 2000 and research conducted previously confirm this.
Calculations related to the amount of deuterium and lithium in the universe prior to 1994 were made in stars relatively near the earth. After 1994, the masses of gas at a distance of 12 billion light years from our planet (that is billions of years before) were examined. Deuterium and lithium were also present in these. The fact that these elements existed from the first minutes after the Big Bang once more prove the validity of the Big Bang theory.
We can summarize the results as follow:
1. About three-fourths of the universe consists of hydrogen atoms
as suggested by the Big Bang theory.
2. About one-fourth of the universe consists of helium atoms as
suggested by the Big Bang theory.
3. The ratios are prevalent throughout the universe as suggested by
the Big Bang theory.
4. The maximum intense heat required for the formation of the
hydrogen atom is provided by the Big Bang.
5. Helium may form inside the stars, but the 25% helium in the
universe can only be explained by the Big Bang.
6. The stars gobble up the elements like deuterium and lithium;
these elements owe their formation only to the Big Bang.
7. The recent discoveries that succeeded in observing distant (the
most ancient) galaxies and gas clouds and establishing the amounts
of hydrogen, helium, deuterium and lithium prove the primordial
existence of these elements just as suggested by the Big Bang
model.
6. EVIDENCE FROM THE SUB-ATOMIC WORLD TO STARS' PROGRESSIVE DEVELOPMENT ACCELERATORS OF BILLIONS OF DOLLARS
To gain a better access to the sub-atomic world, accelerator tunnels were constructed to simulate the hot mediums and to increase the velocity of sub-atomic particles. These experimental mediums in which the prominent physicists of the world carry out their research projects are marvels of technology constructed at a very great cost. The most powerful of these are CERN in Geneva, Switzerland, Fermilab in Chicago, USA, and SLAC in San Francisco, USA. The experiments conducted in these tunnels tally with the Big Bang model.
The Big Bang theory postulates that at the beginning, only energy existed; this was followed by the formation of all the subatomic particles as the initial heat gradually cooled down; this, in
turn, was succeeded by the production of gas clouds and periodically of stars. All the stages of formation of the sub-atomic world and stars are explained in terms of the reduction in heat, and in condensation and expansion. The discovery of matter and antimatter, electrons and positrons (that is, the anti-matter of the electron), protons and anti-protons, quarks and anti-quarks and their destruction of each other are explained within the framework of the Big Bang theory. In brief, all the stages of the sub-atomic world, the present sub-atomic state of our universe, are explained in terms of the Big Bang model and the accelerator tunnels mentioned a while ago confirm the model.
THE FIRST THREE MINUTES
About one second after the first explosion, the temperature at every spot in the universe has been computed to have been around ten billion degrees. These results have been obtained by sophisticated
mathematical calculations. Persons who are not particularly interested in physics and mathematics seem at a loss to understand the boldness people display in speaking of the first second of the Big Bang. However, the acclaimed books about the subatomic world explain these phenomena in terms of split seconds. Steven Weinberg, the author of The First Three Minutes (perhaps the most celebrated among its kind) said that we were ready to behold the cosmic phenomenon of the initial evolution of the universe. He said that as the phenomenon at the first seconds of the universe took place at a more rapid rate, it might not be advantageous to represent the sequence of shots in equidistant time intervals like in an ordinary filmstrip. He suggested arranging the speed in parallel with the cooling process of the heat and taking a shot whenever there is a reduction at the rate of 1/3. Weinberg illustrated these stages with six frames. I will try to give a brief account of these six frames in order to illustrate the daring with which the Big Bang model's mathematical
results have accredited us:
First Frame: The temperature of the universe marked 100 billion Kelvin. The universe was a chaotic structure made of matter and radiation. In this chaotic milieu, every particle was in collision with each other at great speeds. In the first frame, the number of nucleic particles was not so great. There was only one proton or neutron for approximately every billion photons or electron or neutrinos. It is advisable to remember that the time corresponding to the shot was about one percent of a second.
Second Frame: The temperature of the universe fell to 30 billion Kelvin. Just 0.11 seconds had elapsed. The limited number of nuclear particles had not yet integrated to form the nuclei. The ratio of nucleic particles was subjected to a shifting of 38% of
neutrons and 62% of protons.
Third Frame: The temperature fell to 10 billion Kelvin. 1.09 seconds had elapsed since the first frame. The universe was still too hot to allow the integration of neutrons to form the nuclei of atoms. The shifting in the balance of protons and neutrons was 24% neutrons and 76% protons.
Fourth Frame: The temperature was now 3 billion Kelvin. The time that had elapsed since the first frame was 13.82 seconds. Neutrons were being transformed into protons, though at a slower pace: the balance was now 17% neutrons and 83% protons. The universe was cool enough now to allow the formation of nuclei like helium, but the process had not begun as yet.
Fifth Frame: The temperature was 1 billion Kelvin now. A short time after the fifth frame a striking thing occurred. The temperature dropped to a degree at which the nuclei of deuterium (an isotope of the hydrogen element) did not break down. Nevertheless, the number of the nuclei heavier than helium was not considerable. The time elapsed since the first frame was 3 minutes and 46 seconds (Weinberg apologizes for the slight mistake in the title of the book, since the addition of the fraction of 46 seconds to the title might not sound so catchy).
Sixth Frame: The point targeted in the fifth frame was reached and the basic elements had already formed. However, in anticipation of the subsequent phenomena, Weinberg ventured another frame. The temperature was 300 million K, this time. 34 minutes 40 seconds had elapsed since the first frame. The nucleic particles had integrated. But the temperature was still too high to allow stable atoms
PLANCK TIME
We try to understand the phenomena that occurred within the first seconds of the universe explained by the Big Bang model, thanks to the infinitesimal calculation and experiments conducted by particle accelerators. However, it is not possible to say anything about the fraction of time equal to 10 . This fraction of time is called Planck time; as physical laws like the law of gravity are not applicable to this fraction of time, it cannot be defined. Nothing can be said about the 10 K degrees, the temperature of the Planck time.
The Big Bang model has elucidated many things, enabling us to describe in such detail the formation of the universe from sub-atomic world to galaxies within the framework of the expansion of the universe following the decrease of temperature and density succeeding the Planck time. The point at issue now is the extremely small fraction of a second.
The world of science had been deprived of thousands of years from cosmogony, the scientific study of the origin and development of the universe. All the particles from quarks to the formation of gluons, from protons, neutrons and electrons to neutrinos, fit into the Big Bang model of the universe. The antiparticles, their interactions and the evolution to this day conform perfectly to the Big Bang model.
EVOLUTION OF STARS
The Big Bang model's account of the formation of the subatomic world and stars through an evolutional process is 32 10 saniye -43 seconds confirmed by experiments and observations. Astronomers divide the stars into three categories: namely, first population of stars,
second population of stars and third population of stars. The first population of stars was the first to appear (some make a reverse classification of stars according to their discoveries). The first population of stars is called the "super-giant stars," as they came about at a period when the elements of the universe were denser. Their lifetime was short as all their elements were dispersed by a big explosion. Theoreticians conclude that few, if any, of these stars may be observed.
The second population of stars has been described as follows within the framework of the evolutionary process of the Big Bang model.
a)These form the largest population of stars.
b)They are denser in particular regions (like the regions where young stars are formed).
c)They should come in both big and small sizes in all mass categories.
These three postulates conform to the recent observations of astronomers. The third population of stars, a category that also includes our sun, was formed from the scattered dust of the second population of stars.
A great many elements, ranging from the carbon and calcium in our bodies to gold and iron, are the products of the second population of stars. This also explains the reason why living beings were created 15 billion years after the creation of the universe. As a matter of fact, an atom like the carbon atom, an element essential for the earth, was the product of the second population of stars.
The evolution of stars has been confirmed by observations, which, in turn, were additional pieces of evidence that sustained the Big Bang theory. The Big Bang model explains the universe by an evolution from the sub-atomic world to the populations of stars; this is a dynamic account of the universe, contrary to the views held for millennia that had sustained the static models of the universe. Observation and experimentation combine to give voice to mathematical calculations, enabling access to the mystery of the universe never before witnessed in such a way in the history of science.