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This article is about the political meeting. For customs relating to a Constitution, see Constitutional convention (political custom).
A constituent assembly (also known as a constitutional convention, constitutional congress, or constitutional assembly) is a body assembled for the purpose of drafting or revising a constitution. Members of a constituent assembly may be elected by popular vote, drawn by sortition, appointed, or some combination of these methods.[1][2] Assemblies are typically considered distinct from a regular legislature, although members of the legislature may compose a significant number of its members.[3] As the fundamental document constituting a state, a constitution cannot normally be modified or amended by the state's normal legislative procedures;[4] instead a constitutional convention or a constituent assembly, the rules for which are normally laid down in the constitution, must be set up. A constituent assembly is usually set up for its specific purpose, which it carries out in a relatively short time, after which the assembly is dissolved. A constituent assembly is a form of representative democracy.[5]
Opening session of the 2021 Chilean constitutional convention
Unlike forms of constitution-making in which a constitution is unilaterally imposed by a sovereign lawmaker, the constituent assembly creates a constitution through "internally imposed" actions, in that members of the constituent assembly are themselves citizens, but not necessarily the political leaders, of the country for which they are creating a constitution.[6] As described by Columbia University Social Sciences Professor Jon Elster:
"Constitutions arise in a number of different ways. At the non-democratic extreme of the spectrum, we may imagine a sovereign lawgiver laying down the constitution for all later generations. At the democratic extreme, we may imagine a constituent assembly elected by universal suffrage for the sole task of writing a new constitution. And there are all sorts of intermediate arrangements."[7]
1 By Country
1.3 Costa Rica
1.4 Denmark
1.5 European Union
1.8 Iceland
1.9 Ireland
1.10 India
1.11 Indonesia
1.12 Italy
1.13 Mexico
1.14 Nepal
1.16 Philippines
1.17 Russia
1.18 Sri Lanka
1.19 Turkey
1.20 United States
1.20.1 Federal
1.20.2 States
1.20.3 State Constitutional Conventions
2 Countries without an entrenched constitution
By CountryEdit
For a full list of constituent assemblies, see List of constituent assemblies.
AustraliaEdit
Australia held four constitutional conventions, one each in 1891, 1897, 1973, and 1998
ChileEdit
Main article: Constitutional Convention (Chile)
As of May 2021 Chile is the most recently elected constitutional assembly. The 155 members of this assembly were elected between 15 and 16 May 2021. The assembly has gender parity (50% females and 50% males) and has 17 seats reserved for people belonging to indigenous peoples. The assembly is granted 12 months to draft a new constitution, which has to be ratified by referendum once written.
Costa RicaEdit
Main article: Constituent Assembly of Costa Rica
Immediately after the 1948 Costa Rican Civil War that overthrew the Rafael Angel Calderón Government, the leaders of the victorious side called for the election of a Constituent Assembly in the same year. The Assembly successfully drafted and approved the current Costa Rican Constitution.
DenmarkEdit
Main article: Constitution of Denmark
The Danish Constituent Assembly established the Constitution of Denmark in 1849.
European UnionEdit
The European Convention (2001) drafted the Constitution for Europe for approval by the European Council and ratification by the member states. This constitution was abandoned after being rejected in French and Dutch referenda, and was replaced by the Treaty of Lisbon in 2007
FranceEdit
Main article: National Constituent Assembly (France)
During the French Revolution (from July 1789 to September 1791) a National Constituent Assembly (Assemblée nationale constituante) was formed when representatives assembled at the only location available – a tennis court – and swore the Tennis Court Oath on June 20, 1789, promising that they would not adjourn until they had drafted a new constitution for France. Louis XVI recognized the validity of the National Constituent Assembly on June 27, 1789.[8]
See also 1848 French Constituent Assembly election
GermanyEdit
Parlamentarischer Rat (Parliamentary Council) (1948) – Drafted the Basic Law of the Federal Republic for ratification by the Länder. This council was not recognized as legitimate by Soviet-occupied East Germany, which drafted its own constitution in 1949 and would not accept the Basic Law until German reunification in 1990.
IcelandEdit
On 27 November 2010, Iceland held an election for a constitutional assembly, with 522 people competing for 25 delegate seats. The assembly, in session for four months from early April until late July 2011, drafted a new constitution and passed it unanimously with 25 votes and no abstentions. On 20 October 2012 the parliament put the bill to a national referendum, in which 67% of the voters supported the bill. Further, 67% of the voters supported equal voting rights (one person, one vote) and 83% supported national ownership of natural resources, two key provisions of the bill. Parliament has failed to ratify the bill, however, inviting accusations that the political class is trying to thwart the will of the people by disrespecting the result of the 2012 constitutional referendum.
IrelandEdit
In Ireland, the government elected in March 2011 has committed to establishing a "constitutional convention" to recommend constitutional amendments on six specified issues and others it may consider; the government has separately promised amendments on five other issues.[9]
IndiaEdit
Main article: Constituent Assembly of India
The Constituent Assembly of India was elected to write the Constitution of India, and served as its first Parliament as an independent nation. It was set up as a result of negotiations between the leaders of the Indian independence movement and members of the British Cabinet Mission. The constituent assembly was elected indirectly by the members of the Provincial legislative assembly, which existed under the British Raj. It first met on December 9, 1946, in Delhi. On August 15, 1947, India became an independent nation, and the Constituent Assembly started functioning as India's Parliament. B. R. Ambedkar drafted the Constitution of India in conjunction with the requisite deliberations and debates in the Constituent Assembly. The Assembly approved the Constitution on November 26, 1949 (celebrated as Constitution Day), and it took effect on January 26, 1950 — a day now commemorated as Republic Day in India. Once the Constitution took effect, the Constituent Assembly became the Provisional Parliament of India.
IndonesiaEdit
Main article: Constitutional Assembly of Indonesia
The Constitutional Assembly of Indonesia was established to draw up a permanent constitution. Its membership was elected in November 1955, and it met for the first time in November 1956. After four sessions, it failed to agree on the fundamental basis for the state. It was dissolved in 1959, and the original constitution imposed by presidential decree.(OTP)
ItalyEdit
Main article: Constituent Assembly of Italy
The Constituent Assembly of Italy was established in 1946 in the wake of Fascist Italy's defeat during World War II. It was elected with universal suffrage, simultaneously with a referendum about the adoption of Republic or the continuation of monarchy. Voters chose Republic, and the new assembly had the task to approve the new republic governments, as well as to write a new constitution. This was approved on 22 December 1947.
It was dissolved on 31 January 1948, to be replaced by the new Parliament of Italy.
MexicoEdit
The Viceroyalty of New Spain sent deputies to the Cortes of Cadiz, which enacted the 1812 Constitution. By the time this Constitution was enacted, an insurgency fighting for independence from Spain was already established.
The first Constituent Congress of independent Mexico, known as the Congress of Anahuac, was first gathered in Chilpancingo whilst the war of independence was still ongoing. During the opening of Congress, José María Morelos outlined its program in a document called Sentimientos de la Nación (Feelings of the Nation), which was the first antecedent of the varios Constitutions of Mexico. Being persecuted by royalist troops, the Congress fled Chilpancingo and gathered in Apatzingán.
On October 22, 1814, the Congress enacted the Constitutional Decree for the Liberty of Mexican America (Decreto Constitucional para la Libertad de la América Mexicana), known as the Constitution of Apatzingán. The 1814 Constitution entered into force in the territories dominated by the insurgents, but as the war continued and the first insurgent leaders (like Morelos) were defeated, it was largely forgotten.
After independence was consummated on September 27, 1821, and based on the Plan de Iguala and the Treaty of Córdoba, the Provisional Governing Junta was stablished. The Junta proclaimed the Act of Independence of the Mexican Empire and acted as a de facto legislative assembly until February 24, 1822, when the Constituent Congress was gathered. On May 19, 1822, the Constituent Congress proclaimed Agustín de Iturbide as Emperor. The relations between Emperor and Congress were always problematic, a situation that led to the dissolution of Congress by Iturbide on October 31, 1822, without a formal Constitution being enacted.
After the dissolution of Congress, Iturbide created the National Instituent Junta, which enacted the Provisional Political Bylaws of the Mexican Empire on December 18, 1822. The dissolution of Congress had resulted in an armed revolution under the Plan de Casa Mata, which called for the establishment of a Federal Republic and for the restoration of the Constituent Congress. Iturbide was forced to abdicate and he reinstalled the Constituent Congress.
The Congress then created a provisional government, called the Triumvirate, and enacted the Constituent Act of the Mexican Federation, by which the former Provinces of Mexico were transformed into free and sovereign States. After this, a Constituent Congress was formed with the participation of the States and it enacted the 1824 Constitution.
Many disputes aroused between federalists and centralists, which resulted in political instability and in 1836 the Siete Leyes (Seven Laws) were enacted. The Siete Leyes dissolved the federation and created a unitary republic, but that ended in 1846 when the Constitutive and Reforms Act was enacted and the 1824 Constitution, and thus the federation, was restored.
On October 16, 1854, President Juan Álvarez, under the Plan de Ayutla, decreed the formation of another Constituent Congress, which met in 1856. During the presidency of Ignacio Comonfort, the Constituent Congress enacted the 1857 Constitution, which was liberal in character. The Constitution was not well-received by the church and Mexican conservatives, and the Plan de Tacubaya called for its derogation. This events led to the Reform War, which the liberals won, then restoring the 1857 Constitution and adding to it the Reform Laws.
After the Porfiriato, and whilst the Mexican Revolution was still being fought, President Venustiano Carranza formed a Constituent Congress, which met in Querétaro and enacted the still-current Political Constitution of the United Mexican States of 1917.
NepalEdit
Main article: 2nd Nepalese Constituent Assembly
Nepal had two Constituent assemblies, the last one being elected after its predecessor failed to deliver a constitution, despite multiple extensions. It also served as the country's parliament. Finally Nepal had made constitution with 89% majority. Nepal has adopted Federalism since.
PolandEdit
The Great Sejm (also known as Four-Year Sejm) was held between 1788 and 1792. Its principal aim became to restore sovereignty to, and reform, the federative Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth politically and economically. These attempts were made by writing Constitution of 3 May 1791 that was designed to redress long-standing political defects of the Commonwealth and its system of Golden Liberties. The constitution did not go into effect because of the Polish-Russian War of 1792 and the Third Partition of Poland.
PhilippinesEdit
The Philippines has had several conventions:
1898 - drafted the 1898 Malolos Constitution, the basic law of the First Philippine Republic, the first constitutional republic in Asia. The drafted constitution was written by Felipe Calderón y Roca and Felipe Buencamino as an alternative to a pair of proposals to the Malolos Congress by Apolinario Mabini and Pedro Paterno. After a lengthy debate in the latter part of 1898, it was enacted on 21 January 1899.
1935 – to draft a constitution to create the autonomous Commonwealth of the Philippines under the U.S. Tydings–McDuffie Act. The constitution was also used in the 3rd Republic (1946) until the passage of the 1973 constitution. Members were elected through the 1934 Philippine Constitutional Convention election
1971 – to draft a revised constitution to replace the old U.S. 1935 Philippine constitution. Members were elected through the 1970 Philippine Constitutional Convention election. The system of government changed from presidential to parliamentary to presidential-parliamentary (in 1984 amendment). The constitution lasted until the downfall of Ferdinand Marcos in 1986 and Corazon Aquino appointed members to draft the 1987 Constitution through a Constitutional Commission.
RussiaEdit
Main article: Russian Constituent Assembly
The Russian Constituent Assembly was established in Russia in the wake of the October Revolution of 1917 to form a new constitution after the overthrow of the Russian Provisional Government.
Sri LankaEdit
The Sri Lankan Parliament approved the creation of a Sri Lankan Constitutional Assembly on March 9, 2016 proposed by Prime Minister Ranil Wickramasinghe. The assembly will draft a new constitution for Sri Lanka.[10]
TurkeyEdit
Constituent Assembly of Turkey was established in 1961 after the 1960 Turkish coup d'état to prepare a democratic constitution. The constitution was prepared and approved by the voters in a referendum of 1961.
United StatesEdit
FederalEdit
Main article: Constitutional Convention (United States)
Scene at the Signing of the Constitution of the United States, by Howard Chandler Christy (1940)
The U.S. Constitutional Convention drafted the still-current United States Constitution in 1787. Its delegates were appointed by the states, not directly elected, and not all states sent delegates; moreover, the Convention was originally charged with drafting amendments to the Articles of Confederation rather than a new constitution.[11]
The US Constitution contains no provision for its own replacement (and because of the presence of entrenched clauses it cannot be revoked through an amendment). Article V of the Constitution does permit Congress to appoint a national constitutional convention to propose amendments but it has never done so. While Congress has the option to submit both its own proposals for amendments and those of a national convention to state conventions rather than the state legislatures for ratification; this process has been used only once (for the Twenty-first Amendment).
StatesEdit
The Virginia Constitutional Convention, 1830 (George Catlin, ca. 1830). Many state constituent assemblies, like the 1830 Virginia Constitutional Convention, were highly formalized but the legitimacy of the constitution they drafted depended on whether it was authorized by the people, not whether a particular procedure was followed.
A long tradition in the use of constituent assemblies exists at the state level of Constitutionalism. In fact, constituent assemblies met in the states before the formation of the Federal Constitution in 1787 as well as after its ratification. Since 1776 nearly 150 state constitutional conventions have met to draft or revise state constitutions.[12]
These early state constitutional conventions frequently did not use procedural steps like popular ratification that became commonplace in the mid-19th century. Yet they were considered to be constituent assemblies that exercised their authority as that of the people.[13] As American Sovereigns: The People and America's Constitutional Tradition Before the Civil War by Christian G. Fritz notes:.
"A legitimate constitution depended on whether the sovereign people authorized it, not whether a particular procedure was used or whether revolutionary conventions were free of other responsibilities, such as passing ordinary legislation. It was the people as the sovereign who authorized drafting those first [state] constitutions that gave them their legitimacy, not whether they used procedures that matched what was later understood to be necessary to create fundamental law."[14]
American state constituent assemblies in the 19th and 20th centuries reflected many qualities of a citizen's movement.[15] From the start of state American constitution-making, delegates to constitutional conventions studied earlier state models of constitutions. They often self-consciously "borrow[ed]" constitutional text and provisions from other states. They often used in their drafting and debates compact and pocket-sized compilations of all the existing American constitutions, so that the constituent's assembly could draw upon the latest in constitutional design.[16] The powers of these state constituent assemblies were also highly contested, with some claiming that they had unlimited legal power and others claiming that they must operate within the pre-existing legal landscape.[17] In the end, a common law of constituent power emerged which held that elected constituent assemblies had limited powers.[18]
Several U.S. states have held multiple conventions over the years to change their particular state's constitutions.
Missouri has held four,[19] in 1820, 1865, 1875 and 1945.
Michigan has held four,[20] in 1835,[21] 1850, 1908 and 1963.[22]
Massachusetts has held six, in 1778, 1779–80, 1820–21, 1853, 1917–18, and most recently 2016.
The Constitution of New York has been amended, or re-established de novo, through nine Constitutional Conventions: in 1776–1777, 1801, 1821, 1846, 1867–1868, 1894, 1915, 1938, and 1967; a Constitutional Commission in 1872–1873; and a Judicial Convention in 1921.
Vermont's first constitution was drafted by a convention that met in July 1777 and revised by a convention that met in 1786, both of these conventions occurring when Vermont was still independent of the United States. Vermont was admitted into the United States in 1791 and its government continued to function under the 1786 constitution. Two years later in 1793 held another convention to bring some provisions of its constitution into line with the Constitution of the United States.
Virginia Conventions have included six unlimited meetings. Constitutions were promulgated by fiat in 1776, 1864 and 1901–02, and ratified by referendum in 1829–30, 1850, and 1868. Limited Conventions and Constitutional Commissions resulting in revisions were held in 1927, 1945, 1956 and 1968. Subsequently, the state legislature proposes amendments that are ratified in popular referendum.[23]
State Constitutional ConventionsEdit
All 50 states have had a Constitutional Convention, numbering at least 230 in total.[24]
Constitutional Conventions
1836 1861 1864 1868 1874 1917-18 1969-70 1978-80
1849 1878-79
1838-39 1861 1865 1868 1885
1818 1847 1862 1869-70 1920-22 1969-70
1792 1794 1849-50 1890-91
1812 1845 1852 1861 1864 1868 1879 1898 1913 1921 1973-74
1776 1850-51 1864 1867 1967-68
1779-80 1820 1853 1917-19
1835 1850 1867 1907-08 1961-62
1820 1845-46 1861-63 1865 1875 1922-23 1943-44
1866 1884 1889 1971-72
1871 1875 1919-20
1776 1778-79 1781-83 1791-92 1850-51 1876 1889 1902 1912 1918-23 1930 1938-41 1948 1956-59 1964 1974
1848 1849 1850 1872 1889-90 1907 1910 1969
1776-77 1801 1821 1846 1867 1894 1915 1938 1967
1776 1835 1861-62 1865-66 1868 1875
1802 1850-51 1873 1912
1776 1789-90 1837-38 1872-73 1967-68
1842 1944 1951 1955 1958 1964-69 1973
1836 1845 1861 1866 1868-69 1876 1974
1776 1829-30 1850-51 1861 1864 1867-68 1901-02 1945 1956
Countries without an entrenched constitutionEdit
A few countries do not have an entrenched constitution which can be amended by normal legislative procedures; the United Kingdom, New Zealand and Israel are examples. In these countries there is no need to call constituent assemblies, and no provision to do so, as the legislature can effectively modify the constitution.
Although is lacks a written constitution, the United Kingdom has had several conventions at the subnational level including:
Northern Ireland Constitutional Convention (1975–1976) – a failed attempt to find a solution to the status of Northern Ireland.
Scottish Constitutional Convention (1989) – produced a plan for Scottish devolution.
The constitution of New Zealand consists of a collection of statutes (Acts of Parliament), Treaties, Orders-in-Council, Letters Patent, decisions of the Courts and unwritten constitutional conventions. Because it is not supreme law, the constitution is comparatively easy to reform, requiring only a majority of Members of Parliament to amend it.
The constitutional law of Israel is determined by the Knesset which, since 1949, serves as the country's ongoing constituent assembly. The Knesset has the power to create Basic Laws of Israel, laws which are entrenched legislation and will become part of a "future" constitution of Israel, as well as "regular" statutory legislation.
List of constituent assemblies
Convention parliament
Constituent Cortes
National Constituent Assembly (disambiguation)
Third Dáil, also called the Constituent Assembly
^ Oloka-Onyango, Joseph. (2001). Constitutionalism in Africa : creating opportunities, facing challenges. Fountain Publishers. ISBN 9970-02-271-7. OCLC 849441803.
^ Ghai, Yash. "The Role of Constituent Assemblies in Constitution Making" (PDF).
^ "3.1.2 Constitutional assemblies". Constitution Making for Peace. Retrieved 2021-10-31.
^ Macfarlane, Emmett, editor. Constitutional Amendment in Canada. ISBN 978-1-4426-1900-5. OCLC 1046612703. CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^ Newar Bdair. (2001). Newar Bdair - The Constituent Power. Fountain Publishers. ISBN 9970-02-271-7. OCLC 3286293.
^ Id. at 125
^ Axel Hadenius, ed., Democracy's Victory and Crisis, Ch 7: Ways of constitution-making by Jon Elster (p. 123); Cambridge University Press, 1997. 431 pp ISBN 9780521573115
^ Paul R. Hanson, The A to Z of the French Revolution (2013) pp 85-86
^ Dáil debates Vol.728 No.3 p.5 March 22, 2011
^ "Resolution on Constitutional Assembly passed in Parliament". www.adaderana.lk. Retrieved 19 March 2018.
^ See The Records of the Federal Convention of 1787 (Edited by Max Farrand; revised edition in Four Volumes, Yale University Press, 1966).
^ Albert L. Sturm, "The Development of American State Constitutions," 12 Publius (1982), 57-98.
^ Marc W. Kruman, Between Authority and Liberty: State Constitution Making in Revolutionary America (Univ. of North Carolina Press, 1997), 1-33; Christian G. Fritz, "Alternative Visions of American Constitutionalism: Popular Sovereignty and the Early American Constitutional Debate," 24 Hastings Constitutional Law Quarterly (1997), 322-29; Christian G. Fritz, American Sovereigns: The People and America's Constitutional Tradition Before the Civil War (Cambridge University Press, 2008) at p. 31-35 ISBN 978-0-521-88188-3
^ Fritz, American Sovereigns: The People and America's Constitutional Tradition Before the Civil War (Cambridge University Press, 2008) at p. 33 ISBN 978-0-521-88188-3 For more on the role of the requirement of complying with specific procedures and processes, see Christian G. Fritz, "America's Unknown Constitutional World," Archived 2011-05-11 at the Wayback Machine Bonus Article, Common-Place, Vol. 9, No. 1 (Oct. 2008)
^ Laura J. Scalia, The Remaking of State Constitutions: The Uses of Liberalism in Designing Electoral Laws, 1820-1850 (Northern Illinois Univ. Press, 1999); John J. Dinan, The American State Constitutional Tradition (Univ. Press of Kansas, 2006).
^ Marsha L. Baum and Christian G. Fritz, "American Constitution-Making: The Neglected State Constitutional Sources," 27 Hastings Constitutional Law Quarterly (2000), 199–242.
^ The American Tradition of Constituent Power
^ "A Celebration of Two Constitutions". archive.is. May 29, 2007. Archived from the original on May 29, 2007.
^ "CONSTITUTION OF MICHIGAN". www.legislature.mi.gov.
^ 19th Century Michigan History
^ "Michigan Legislature - CONSTITUTION OF MICHIGAN OF 1963". www.legislature.mi.gov.
^ Dinan, John. "The Virginia State Constitution: a reference guide", ISBN 0-313-33208-8, 2006, pp. 8–24.
^ Sturm, Albert L. (1982). "The Development of American State Constitutions". Publius. 12 (1): 57–98. doi:10.2307/3329673. ISSN 0048-5950.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Constituent_assembly&oldid=1066061674"


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Server optimization at scale - Eliminating packet drops and improving capacity
Posted by Zach Jones
Improving the performance of our technology for the benefit of our customers and their audiences is an ongoing course of action at Verizon Media. For example, over the past two years, our performance and kernel engineers have eliminated virtually all packet drops (over 98% removed), improved performance health checks on our edge servers by 50%, and increased server capacity by up to 40%.
We've also coupled the above with network automation and organic network expansion — currently 75 Tbps — to improve the user experience. Carefully tuning our performance has played a major role in our ability to support rapidly changing, and sometimes unpredictable, network surges that come as we deliver software updates for millions of game consoles, live video streams for major sporting events, and when multi-CDN load balancers move load to our network.
Maintaining quality at scale involves optimizing performance across every part of the Verizon Media Platform tech stack: from its lower layers, at the CPU and NIC, all the way up to the OS and the applications. Ultimately, our goal is always the same: great performance. To get there, we perform data-driven analysis, relying on measurable performance changes to validate our decision making.
CPU cache optimizations
We run 20,000 servers around the world, largely Broadwell and Haswell chipsets, typically with 32 to 40 cores. We added 12,000 servers in the last three years alone. However, most servers are not optimized to scale for our workloads out of the box. Simply adding more servers doesn't make for more efficient operation, and indeed can create additional challenges. Effective scaling requires careful optimization of existing components. Being able to optimize one server so that it is capable of processing two or three times (or more) requests than with the default configuration, can make a powerful difference to the network's overall performance.
The switch from early snoop to home snoop
To guarantee that the local CPU cache is consistent with memory, modern CPUs employ a snoop protocol. This lets caches listen for modification to variables on any CPU and update their versions of these variables accordingly. Not surprisingly, the particular technique used can have a significant impact on memory performance.
By default, our hardware vendors use a protocol called Early Snoop. It has a lower latency to resolve cache coherency, as all cores can make cache coherency requests simultaneously and send out broadcasts. We have found that during peak load scenarios, our systems generate heavy amounts of simultaneous disk and NIC activity. These activities result in a high number of snoop broadcasts, leading to communication bottlenecks. This causes IO device slowing and can eventually lead to processing stopping entirely.
By switching to Home Snoop mode, an approach which coalesces snoop requests, we have seen a significant reduction in broadcast traffic. The processor's Quick Path Interconnect (QPI) is no longer starved during periods of simultaneous heavy disk and network IO operations; furthermore, packet drops that we saw with Early Snoop significantly reduced in number.
Changing the snoop protocol depends simply on changing a BIOS setting. However, rebooting 20,000 servers without disrupting customers requires automation. We can make this kind of large scale deployment change work in production partly thanks to our StackStorm-based IT automation platform, Crayfish.
An unexpected failover event
During testing of the switch to Home Snoop, a failover event occurred: one of our largest media customers, which has a multi-CDN deployment, experienced a problem with another vendor and moved a significant portion of their traffic to our CDN. This provided an opportunity to test the Home Snoop improvements at scale, and they were extremely impactful.
The figure above shows the effect of the change. The group that was still using Early Snoop saw an increase in drops by 13.75x (55K packet drops per server per day) while the group that had switched to Home Snoop saw an increase of only 4.23x (27K packet drops per machine per day). Home Snoop immediately proved its value during the failover event.
Network interface optimization and driver tunings
Another set of important performance tuning involved the network interface and the driver. Here, we focused on bringing down packet drops usually occurring with bursty traffic. During large events, inbound traffic was so heavy, the NIC was unable to keep up, and we saw packet drops sooner than expected. As we dug into the reasons why, we found that several parameters on the NIC itself needed adjusting, including the number of queues, the queue size, and interrupt scheduling. To optimize these specifications for our particular workload and hardware configuration, we concentrated on tuning the Receive Side Scaling (RSS) by making the inbound queues longer, reducing their overall number, and balancing the interrupts across NUMA nodes.
The graph above shows a test we ran in North America, in which each PoP is divided into a control (i.e., untuned) group and a test (i.e., tuned) group. Here, we present the number of drops summed daily over one week.
Following the tunings, our test group saw approximately 95% fewer packet drops than the control group, allowing significantly more requests to be processed. This also means less action is required to manually manage the health of the network during surges, leaving our engineers free to focus on other areas.
CPU scheduling tunings
While the NIC and driver level tuning concentrated on improving the total capacity we can deliver, the CPU scheduling tunings were focused instead on enhancing how consistently we can deliver content.
Without these tunings, inbound and outbound messages have to compete for resources. When we began to investigate the root cause, we found that the contention over resources was a result of how the kernel was scheduling the handling of these messages. This meant that during peak traffic, the load wasn't migrated away until after the CPUs in question were saturated. To fix this, we set the CPU affinity of our web server processes to exclude CPUs dedicated to processing incoming network traffic.
The graphs above show the impact of enabling the CPU scheduling tunings globally across the CDN on March 21–22. We assess the impact based on the 95th percentile and median values of a performance health check metric, a composite metric which demonstrates the relative response time of a server. As expected, low traffic valleys were not significantly reduced; however, the peaks reveal significantly reduced contention between incoming and outgoing traffic. This translates to a major improvement on both the outliers and medians, particularly during peak loads. We can now better handle surges in traffic and iron out problems related to high outlier behavior, such as rebuffers in video streams or the overall responsiveness of a server for all users.
Kernel performance updates
Optimizing the upper layers of our tech stack is equally as important as tuning the lower layer elements. In the process of recently upgrading our OS, we also upgraded our Linux kernels to take advantage of upstream engineering work from the Linux kernel community. The new kernel had around four years of development beyond the previous version deployed, including improvements to the memory management system, which reduces blocking page allocations, and improves load distribution and performance when using the epoll API and socket sharding.
In the graph above, you can see the effect of the upgrading process from late November to early January as a decline in the 99th percentile performance health checks. The underlying kernel improvements all led to a more even load distribution across all our web server request processors. This resulted in a substantial drop to these outliers, making requests for all our customers more reliable.
Performance tunings have a significant effect
Over the past two years, the far-reaching system tunings that performance and kernel engineering have deployed have eliminated virtually all packet drops (over 98% removed) and halved our performance health checks on our edge servers. Our server capacity has gone up by 10–40% (the exact amount varies according to the customer profile and event), allowing us to deliver more traffic, faster. Outlier behavior has improved significantly, making for a more consistent experience and we have seen good improvement on the medians, in particular during peak load. In summary, the performance tuning to the entire tech stack have allowed us to better handle any unexpected traffic spikes (whether from a highly anticipated gaming console update or a popular streaming video live event) and deliver more consistent performance for all our users.

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


The Ram Nawami festival is a celbration of the birthday of Hindu God Ram. Lord Ram, who was born to the then King of Ayodhya, Dashrath and his first queen Kaushalyawati, is considered the seventh incarnation of God Bisnhu.
As per the Hindu mythology, it was God Ram who triumphed over Ravana, the then King of Lanka, a symbol of demonic and evil powers, and established peace and harmony in the society.
Ram, who is considered as an ideal man and the embodiment of perfect manhood and high morale, was born in the Treta Yug for the protection of virtue.
Devotees visit the temples of Lord Ram and perform special pooja on the occasion of this festival.


As patients, we tend to trust our doctors with extremely private and personal information. And rarely do we take the time to wonder about the rules and regulations regarding how our medical information is shared and stored. We may think our medical records are safe and secure, but are there laws that apply to doctors and hospitals sharing our personal health information? The answer in the Hoosier State is, "Yes." This is a brief summary of medical records laws in Indiana.
Your medical records are generally protected by a combination of state and federal laws governing the privacy protection of medical records. These laws determine whether doctors may share your medical information without your permission. Under most circumstances, your personal medical information is confidential.
However, nearly every state requires medical professionals to report suspected child abuse, positive HIV tests, and certain communicable diseases to the proper authorities. Under Indiana medical records laws, only the patient, authorized representative, or an authorized health case worker has access to medical records, except by subpoena or other court order.
Each state can have varying medical records laws, but all states must adhere to federal laws. The main provisions of Indiana medical record laws are listed in the chart below.
If the government requires specific reporting (mostly for births, deaths, and communicable diseases.
Laws regarding medical records can seem complex and confusing, especially when dealing with your personal health history. If you would like legal assistance regarding a health care case, you can contact a Indiana health care attorney. You can also visit FindLaw's health care law section for more general information, including what you should do if you learn your medical records have improperly disclosed.


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Biografia

Nato a Milano il 10 dicembre 1921. Ha frequentato il Liceo Artistico e l'Accademia di Belle Arti di Brera con Achille Funi maestro di affresco e Aldo Carpi per la tecnica ad olio. Dopo una pausa di quattordici mesi di prigionia in Germania durante la guerra (1944 - 1945) ha ripreso e completato gli studi uscendo dall'Accademia con il premio Hayez (1946).

Nel 1969 ha scritto di lui Giuseppe Mele, direttore dell'Ente Manifestazioni Milanesi:

"Formatosi nella (non più recente) temperie di valori e criteri non soltanto pittorici, una delle cui summae migliori mi sembra rimanere "L'Avventura novecentista" del compianto e per ora obliato Bontempelli, l'impassibile Marino Ronchi ha percorso un arco che nei risultati più recenti lo ha condotto a soddisfare esigenze artistiche nuove ed aggiornate; in bilico sovente per fortuna fra la necessità di trasfigurare l'oggetto di natura e il bisogno tuttavia di farlo riconoscere sempre. Ha studiato con Funi ma capiva Sironi ed ammiccava a Cezanne. Gli piaceva Poussin e intanto copiava Delacroix........senza indulgenze con se stesso che non siano frutto di traguardi raggiunti consapevoli, senza premura che non nasca il lui dal bisogno, dal piacere anzi di fare. L'azione come vita, la vita come lavoro, l'arte, quale ne sia il risultato, come esercizio anche morale. Il vivere come operazione di cultura; fare ciò che si deve meglio che si può".

Cronologia
È stato per quarantatre anni (1948 -1991) Professore di Educazione Artistica presso la scuola media pubblica ("De Marchi a Milano, a Castano Primo, a Codogno ed alla "Luciano Manara" a Milano).

Nel 1948 ha affrescato venticinque metri quadrati del Battistero della chiesa di Sant'Elena a Milano, su bozzetto di Funi, in collaborazione con Francesco Scaini.

Dal 1948 al 1973 ha tenuto un corso libero serale di disegno presso la scuola dei Martinitt a Milano.

Nel 1949 ha affrescato e donato, in occasione del proprio matrimonio, il Battesimo di Gesù nella chiesa di San Silvestro e San Martino a Milano, parrocchia della sposa Giuseppina Bramati.

Nel 1950 ha dipinto la tavola del Battesimo per la chiesa di San Matteo a Milano.

Dal 1950 al 1972 ha tenuto un corso serale di Disegno vetrinistico e cartellonistico pubblicitario, di cui è stato uno dei fondatori (assieme ad Adriano Pagetti, Direttore della Biblioteca Sormani in Milano), promosso e realizzato dal Comune di Milano.

Dal 1954 al 1963 è stato illustratore della rivista civica "Rassegna Città di Milano"

Nel 1955 ha eseguito l'affresco del Buon Pastore nella chiesa provvisoria di via Pirandello a Milano

Ha illustrato i volumi:
 "La Biblioteca Comunale di Palazzo Sormani" (1956)
 "Il nostro Manzoni" (1958)
 "La nostra Scala" (1961) "Quaderni del Comune di Milano" pubblicati a cura della Ripartizione Educazione.

Dal maggio 1959 al 1964 ha curato per "Città di Milano" una rubrica di Storia e Critica di opere d'arte antica e moderna presenti in palazzi e chiese di Milano (44 inserti).

Tali pubblicazioni si possono consultare presso la Biblioteca del Castello Sforzesco di Milano. Sempre nel Castello, nella Civica Raccolta Dallais è custodita una tempera di Marino Ronchi raffigurante la Galleria Vittorio Emanuele. Suo è l'articolo "La Madonna nelle vetrate" sul numero speciale (1962) della rivista "Diocesi di Milano" dedicato alla Madonna nel Duomo".

Nel 1973 ha avviato un corso libero festivo di pittura, diventato poi civico, presso la Scuola Cova, dove ha insegnato fino al 1996.

Nel 1983 ha dipinto il Battesimo di Gesù per la chiesa di San Pio X di Cinisello Balsamo.

Dal 1989 al 2000 ha diretto il corso di pittura della sezione artistica del Circolo Filologico Milanese, dove ha esposto ogni anno i propri lavori e dove è custodita la sua composizione "La conversazione della sera", pastello su grande cartone intelaiato per affresco (1997) e dove ha tenuto varie conferenze, tra cui:
 "La figura umana dalle caverne a Fidia"
 "Casistica degli elementi geometrici e dei colori"
 "Lo spazio e la prospettiva"
 "La composizione nell'opera d'arte, l'importanza dei rapporti".

Muore il 25 febbraio 2015.

In occasione della mostra personale al Circolo Filologico Milanese del 1997 la Professoressa Dalma Folco Zambelli scrive: "...I principali movimenti del secolo: la ventata picassiana, il Cubismo, il Futurismo, non difettano nella sua formazione. Ma egli li accetta solo in quanto affini al suo linguaggio e giovino al taglio compositivo. Ronchi artista silenzioso non ama ne' ricerca il battage pubblicitario. Molteplici e vari sono i suoi interessi: dalle nature morte (in cui la preziosità della materia giova all'accordo cromatico nel sobrio spazio compositivo) al paesaggio, agli stupendi ritratti, ai testi di surrealismo. In ogni opera al di là dei rapporti con le voci del secolo, la voce, la facies di Ronchi dominano inconfondibili".

"...Marino Ronchi dipinge una serie di nature morte, paesaggi, ritratti con un fare largo, sintetico che deriva dallo studio dell'affresco presso la scuola di Funi. Usa una tavolozza semplice, composta di poco colore, dai toni severi. C'é una continuità in lui, ma anche la ricerca del nuovo che risponde ad una ragione interiore di approfondimento e di coscienza di sé. Nelle sue opere si nota il disegno come base di tutto ed un costruttivismo geometrico basato su rapporti di spazio che fu comune al Futurismo ed al Cubismo.

Il risultato è una sintesi di quei valori primordiali su cui egli ha condotto sempre le sue ricerche. Ne deriva un realismo magico dove l'oggetto è l'idea dell'oggetto o la realtà reinventata, tolta dal provvisorio e fissata in una sostanza di valori che vanno al di là del temporaneo".

Altre opere murali
 1992: Affresco della Madonna di Villa Lesa, proprietà della famiglia Pirelli, sul Lago Maggiore.
 1994: Grande composizione murale in acrilico: "Cielo, terra e mare" in casa Petrella a Carpiano (Milano).
 1997: Grande composizione murale in acrilico: "Inno alla Vita" nell'Istituto Palazzolo Don Gnocchi a Milano.
 1998: Quadro a olio su grande telaio "Il discorso della sera" (Collezione privata).

Mostre
 1969: Personale alla Biblioteca Rionale Calvairate in via Ciceri Visconti a Milano
 1970: Personale alla Galleria Caprotti di Monza
 1975: Personale di incisioni in Palazzo Sormani, sede della Biblioteca Civica di Milano
 1981: Personale all'Arengario di Monza
 1981: Mostra Internazionale di Francoforte (Germania)
 1983: Mostra internazionale di Francoforte (Germania)
 1983: Mostra Antologica personale al Museo di Milano, offerta dal Comune di Milano in occasione del compimento di 40 anni di attività.
 1986: Personale a Palazzo Rho a Borghetto Lodigiano (Lodi)
 1986: Personale al Centro Culturale Puecher alla Biblioteca comunale di Cerro al Lambro (Milano)
 1992: Personale all'Accademia delle Arti (Melegnano)
 1997: Personale al Circolo Filologico Milanese
 2000: Personale al Circolo Filologico Milanese
 2001: Personale all'Accademia delle Arti (Melegnano)
 2007: Personale nel Comune di Casalmaiocco (Lodi)

Pubblicazioni
Elenco dei lavori di critica riguardanti opere d'Arte figurativa presenti in chiese e palazzi di Milano, Estratti delle pubblicazioni realizzate da Marino Ronchi e contenute nei numeri della rivista "Città di Milano"dal maggio 1959 a febbraio 1965. Tali estratti si possono consultare nella comunale al Castello Sforzesco di Milano.

 Il mito d'Orfeo in Palazzo Sormani (maggio 1959)
 Gli affreschi di Bernardino Luini nella chiesa dei S.S. Maurizio e Sigismondo (giugno 1959)
 Gli affreschi di Funi al Banco di Roma (febbraio 1960)
 L'affresco dell'Appiani nella Villa Comunale (marzo 1960)
 Gli affreschi del Bergognone in Santa Maria della Passione (maggio 1960)
 Gli affreschi del Tiepolo in palazzo Clerici (giugno 1960)
 Il mosaico di Sironi nel palazzo di Giustizia (luglio 1960)
 Le vetrate di Carpi in Duomo e in San Simpliciano (ago.sett.1960)
 la sala dei Giochi in palazzo Borromeo (ottobre 1960)
 L'affresco del Luini nell'Abbazia di Chiaravalle (novembre 1960)
 Le miniature del Messale Visconteo (dicembre 1960)
 Le vetrate di Santa Caterina nella Basilica di San Nazzaro (gennaio 1961)
 Gli affreschi trecenteschi dell'Abbazia di Chiaravalle (febbraio 1961)
 Gli affreschi trecenteschi dell'Abbazia di Chiaravalle (2ª parte) (aprile 1961)
 Gli affreschi trecenteschi dell'Abbazia di Chiaravalle (3ª parte) (maggio 1961)
 Le vetrate di Enzo Morelli nella chiesa di S. Maria Bambina (ago.sett. 1961)
 Gli affreschi del Lanino nella Basilica di Sant'Ambrogio (ottobre 1961)
 Gli affreschi di Daniele Crespi alla Certosa di Garegnano (nov.dic. 1961)
 Gli affreschi di Daniele Crespi alla Certosa di Garegnano (2ª parte) (gennaio 1962)
 Gli affreschi di Simone Peterzano alla Certosa di Garegnano (febbr.mar. 1962)
 I dipinti della chiesa di San Cristoforo sul naviglio (aprile 1962)
 Il mosaico dell'abside di Sant'Ambrogio (maggio 1962)
 I mosaici romani nella Basilica di San Lorenzo (giu.lug. 1962)
 I mosaici rimani nella Basilica di San Lorenzo (2ª parte) (agosto 1962)
 Gli affreschi di Carlo Carrà nel palazzo di Giustizia (settembre 1962)
 Gli affreschi medioevali nella Basilica di San Lorenzo (ottobre 1962)
 Una tavola di Funi per la Basilica di San Pietro (novembre 1962)
 I dipinti di Bernardino Luini in San Giorgio a Palazzo (dicembre 1962)
 I dipinti di G.C.Procaccini a Palazzo Isimbardi (gennaio 1963)
 Gli affreschi di palazzo Durini (aprile 1963)
 Gli affreschi del Butinone e dello Zenale nella chiesa di san Pietro in Gessate (maggio 1963)
 I bassorilievi di Arturo Martini all'Arengario (giugno 1963)
 Gli affreschi di A.Appiani in Santa Maria presso San Celso (luglio agosto 1963)
 I dipinti del Procaccini in Santa Maria presso San Celso (ottobre 1963)
 I dipinti della cappella di San Nazaro e Celso in Santa Maria presso San Celso (novembre i963)
 L'assunta di Camillo Procaccini in Santa Maria presso San Celso (gennaio 1964)
 Affreschi di G,B,Crespi e di Andrea Appiani in Santa Maria presso San Celso (febbraio 1964)
 Le tre tele del Cerano in Santa Maria presso San Celso (marzo 1964)
 La caccia terracotta di Agenore Fabbri (apr.mag.1964)
 I dipinti dei Campi nella Basilica di San Paolo (giugno 1964)
 I dipinti dei Campi nella Basilica di San Paolo (2ª parte) (luglio agosto 1964)
 I dipinti dei Campi nella Basilica di San Paolo (3ª parte) (settembre ottobre 1964)
 La disputa di Sant'Ambrogio e Sant' Agostino nella chiesa di San Marco (novembre dicembre 1964)
 Il Battesimo di Sant'Agostino in San Marco (gennaio febbraio 1965)
 "La Madonna nelle vetrate" estratto dalla Rivista Diocesi di Milano, numero speciale intitolato "La Madonna e il Duomo (settembre 1962)

Foto

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Florence is one of the most beautiful and ancient cities in Italy and the world.
Florence is reached every day by crowds of visitors who, in the attempt of seeing the city in only few days, are often overwhelmed by the huge amount of beauty and culture that the simple walking around its ancient streets imposes to every eye.
Florence was Renaissance's main epicentre, from there it reached the rest of Europe.
During the Lombard period Florence belonged to the Duchy of Chiusi; after the absorption of the Lombard kingdom by Charlemagne, who spent at Florence the Christmas of 786, it was the residence of a count whose overlord was margrave of Tuscany.
Florence was long the chief centre of the Renaissance, the leaders of which were either citizens or welcome guests of that city, e.g.
Florence is the seat of a university, and possesses also an institute of social science, conservatory of music, a botanical garden, and an observatory (astronomical, meteorological, and seismological).
The extinction of the Medici line and the accession in 1737 of Francis Stephen, duke of Lorraine and husband of Maria Theresa of Austria, led to Tuscany's inclusion in the territories of the Austrian crown.
Florence replaced Turin as Italy's capital in 1865, hosting the country's first parliament, but was superseded by Rome six years later, after the withdrawal of the French troops made its addition to the kingdom possible.
Florence Nightingale, OM (12 May 1820 – 13 August 1910), who came to be known as The Lady with the Lamp, was a pioneer of modern nursing.
Florence Nightingale was born into a wealthy and well-connected British family at the Villa Colombaia in Florence, Italy.
Florence Nightingale had exhibited a gift for mathematics from an early age and excelled in the subject under the tutorship of her father.
Florence Nightingale is most remembered as a pioneer of nursing and a reformer of hospital sanitation methods.
With her analysis, Florence Nightingale revolutionized the idea that social phenomena could be objectively measured and subjected to mathematical analysis.
Florence Nightingale's two greatest life achievements--pioneering of nursing and the reform of hospitals--were amazing considering that most Victorian women of her age group did not attend universities or pursue professional careers.
Florence Nightingale, the daughter of the wealthy landowner, William Nightingale of Embly Park, Hampshire, was born in Florence, Italy, on 12th May, 1820.
Florence refused to marry several suitors, and at the age of twenty-five told her parents she wanted to become a nurse.
Florence's desire to have a career in medicine was reinforced when she met Elizabeth Blackwell at St. Bartholomew's Hospital in London.
Beautiful evergreen forests, sparkling lakes and river, towering dunes, and the dazzling Pacific Ocean are the backdrop to one of the most spectacular vacation destinations in the country.
Florence is also a unique location for conventions, trade shows and business meetings.
If that's not enough, Florence is also conveniently located to Eugene, North Bend and Lincoln City that provide headliner entertainment as well as great shopping from outlets to boutiques to upscale department stores.
Florence (Italian: Firenze) is the capital of the region of Tuscany in Italy, with a population of some 400,000.
Florence was very much the epicentre of the Italian Renaissance and remains one of the world's top attractions for lovers of art--as such, it is one of the most beautiful cities in the world.
Via XXVII Aprile, 3 - 50129 Florence - Ph.(0039) 055 2645539, Fax.(0039) 055 2645550 - e-mail: info@carolushotel.com The Carolus Hotel, in Florence, is situated in a beautiful neo-classical palazzo built, between the Dominican convent of San Marco and the Fortezza da Basso, near the Orti di Barbano.
Florence: Situated on Italy's north-west coast on the banks of the river Arno, Florence, the capital city of Tuscany, is a cultural hub with all the best attractions within walking distance of each other.
Lying right in the heart of Florence's historical center, the superior 3-star Corona d'Italia Hotel is an ideally located base from which to discover this beatiful city of art; all the main monuments, attractions, museums and the Duomo are within walking distance.
Hotel Brunelleschi of florence originates from the recovered invaluable historic structures of the Byzantine tower of Pagliazza" and the Medieval Church of "San Michele in Palchetto" in the heart of Florence.
Florence is the cradle of the Renaissance and the birthplace of Leonardo Da Vinci.
The city of Florence is smaller than Rome, but has as many things to see and experience as the capital.
Alfabookings has accommodations in all parts of Florence and if you are not convinced on where to stay, our staff is ready to give you advices and helping you in finding just the accommodation that suits you.
Florence was the city of such writers as Dante, Petrarch, and Macchiavelli, and artists and engineers such as Boticelli, Brunelleschi (who built the magnificent dome on the church of St. Mary of the Flowers), Alberti, Leonardo Da Vinci, and Michelangelo.
Lorenzo de' Medici, who ruled Florence in the late fifteenth century was perhaps the greatest patron of the arts in the history of the West.
The court came to dominate all aspects of civic life, and for the Galilei family the route to success lay through the patronage structure in which the Court was central.
We are proud to propose you this hotel: symbol of style and elegance in the florentine hospitality, takes its name from the swiss family whose tradition in managing luxury hotels in Florence and in Italy goes back till the past century, giving their guests the well-known Swiss hospitality.
Situated in the historical centre of Florence, in a strategic position beeing at walking distance from the railway station S. Maria Novella, the Congress Centre and Fortezza da Basso (Pitti fashion fairs), and few steps from the main monuments and museums.
The province of Florence is located in the northern reaches of the Tuscany region of Italy.
In the center of the province is the famed city of Florence - the capital of the province.
Bagno a Ripoli, rising in the southeast of Florence between the Arno and Ema rivers, is notable for its lovely agricultural landscapes and numerous villas and gardens.
Florence (Firenze in Italian) is the capital of the region of Tuscany, on Italy's northwest coast.
Florence is a small city, located in the Arno River valley, and surrounded by olive-planted hills on the north and south.
In the Renaissance period, Florence was one of the most powerful and influential of the city states.
The cost of living in Florence is relatively the same as it is in the United States, but you should always take the exchange rate into consideration.
The Administrative Office has a list of centrally located internet shops in Florence, and you should easily be able to find one near your apartment or the school.
Florence's bus system runs often and spreads over the entire city and its suburbs.
Because of its strong economy and a political philosophy that was dedicated to the welfare of the city, Florence thrived.
Much of Florence's wealth was dependent on the manufacture or trade of cloth, primarily wool.
Maria Novella, by Leon Battista Alberti, at Florence, Italy, 1456 to 1470.
The Town of Florence was founded in 1866 and is the fifth oldest city or town in the state that is incorporated.
Florence is a rural community situated in the central portion of Pinal County, Arizona about 45 minutes away from the Phoenix and Tucson metropolitan areas.
Florence, at an elevation of 1,493 feet, has been the county seat since its formation in 1875.
In in the hearth of Florence with view of Campanile di Giotto!
Florence, italy is one of the most visited tourist destinations of the world.
Events in Florence, Italy for the Christmas and End of Year: Christmas Market From the 28th of November to the 16th of December in Piazza Santa Croce there will be the great market of typical products.Christmas concert.
In addition to working for the City of Florence, Givens holds an office at his church and is a member of the local Shriners.
The City of Florence Trail system, an urban bike and pedestrian path, currently consists of approximately 2 miles of hard natural trails, an asphalt trail and a series of board walks.
Design Guidelines For Downtown Florence, SC The goal of the design guidelines for downtown Florence is to build a framework within which builders, developers, homeowners and City government can play their part in revitalizing the area, secure in the knowledge that their individual contributions will reinforce the whole.
Florence is a difficult city for neophytes; the sheer volume of people crammed into this centre of this Renaissance city can be overwhelming.
Nearly all of the main sights in Florence lie within the centro storico.
The cradle of the Renaissance, Florence has a fabulous legacy of artistic and architectural treasures, yet it still holds its own as a prosperous city of the 21st century.
Mary McCarthy famously described Florence (Firenze) as a "City of Stone." This assessment digs deeper than merely the fact that the buildings, streets, doorjambs, sidewalks, windowsills, towers, and bridges are all cobbled together in shades of gray, stern rock hewn by generations of the stonecutters Michelangelo grew up with.
Florence's stoniness is evident in both its countenance and its character.
Florence food is well known for its quality tasting and variety of recipes: Ribollita, Pappa al pomodoro, Bistecca alla Fiorentina..
The itinerary includes the picture gallery of the Certosa of Florence, the Castel of VicchioMay, the Pieve of San Leonino and the city of Greve in Chianti.
Florence, in the region of Tuscany, is the main city after which the province is named.
The hotel is situated in the center of florence, very next to the most important monuments of the city.
The cultural and historical impact of Florence (or Firenze) is overwhelming.
Even long after it had set on the political and economic horizon, Florence upheld its elegant appearance: its skyline, all russet rooftops and lofty domes, is indeed picturesque.
When To Go The best time to visit Florence is in the low season, from April to June and in September/October, when the weather is usually good, prices are lower and there are fewer tourists - if you come in July or August, expect a Renaissance Disneyland experience and plenty of sweat in your socks.


How the Spanish Flu Affected India's Freedom Struggle | Audiomatic.
The Spanish Flu was the biggest pandemic of the last century. Five hundred million people were affected and over 14 million people died in India, the worst affected country in the world. But apart from taking millions of lives and disrupting families, the Spanish Flu also had geopolitical repercussions, including on India's freedom struggle.
In this episode of The Intersection, Padma and Samanth learn about the Spanish's Flu's wide-ranging effects and how existing flus around the world share properties with the dangerous 1918 strain.


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