Cambodia spent more than $165 million last year importing medicine, a 33 per cent increase compared with 2011, according to data from the Ministry of Commerce. Despite an increase in consumption, the use of locally produced medicine remains small; representing just about 15 per cent of the total consumption.
The Post's Hor Kimsay talked to Kao Muylim, general director of EPHAC pharmaceutical company and president of the Pharmaceutical Manufacturer Association of Cambodia about current developments in Cambodia's pharmaceutical industry.
How does Cambodia's pharmaceutical industry look?
Now, Cambodia has eight pharmaceutical manufacturers and produces medicine to supply the market every day, accounting for about 15 per cent of the total consumption in the country. The rest, about 85 per cent, is imported, largely from neighbouring countries. We observed that local production is increasing gradually alongside improving quality and growing recognition. In September this year, our company, EPHAC, won an international award from the Business Initiate Directors (BID), a France-based business committee to control the quality of medicine production. BID gave us the award to prove that our production quality is recognised internationally, the first international recognition ever for the pharmaceutical industry in Cambodia.
What segment of Cambodia's population uses locally produced medicine?
We create drugs to treat every individual. However, in practice, we can see that the medicine produced locally is mostly used by families on average income levels and below that. Middle income earners and wealthy people mostly buy imported medicine or travel abroad to get their treatment.
What are the major challenges in developing Cambodia's pharmaceutical industry?
There are several factors. They include a lack of government intervention, a lack of confidence among consumers towards using local products and especially the use of counterfeit drugs, which cost less. Counterfeit drugs are a serious problem in the country. Cambodia still depends largely on imported medicine, despite the fact that much of a good quality is being produced in the country. The government spends only about $2 million to buy medicine from two of the eight local pharmaceutical companies to provide them to public hospitals. The bidding process [for choosing these two] is also not transparent, narrowing the market side of local companies and discouraging them to expand.
What would you say to those who think local products lack quality?
It is not true. Even if our products are produced in the country, the quality is comparable to the imported items. We work with standardised procedures with a focus on efficiency, safety and quality. I can say that many of our drugs have the same quality as imported drugs because we follow the same formula. The award that EPHAC received from BID is good evidence to prove our quality to the public.
What are possible strategies to boost local production and earn confidence from the public?
The current production capacity in the local pharmaceutical industry has been growing, while the quality of our product also improves. The government should help to strengthen the local production by better fighting counterfeit drugs and increase the taxes on imported drugs to protect local production. In addition, we are strengthening public education for people to know about the quality of local products so that we can increase the confidence of consumers. Most importantly, public hospitals need to increase the use of drugs produced in Cambodia. Then it encourages local companies to expand.


text:
Opposition to the English inductivist tradition
Works in English translation
Pierre Duhem
Pierre Maurice Marie Duhem
(1861-06-09)9 June 1861
14 September 1916(1916-09-14) (aged 55)
Cabrespine, France
École Normale Supérieure (diploma, 1882)
19th-century philosophy
French historical epistemology[1]
Conventionalism[2]
Main interests
Thermodynamics, philosophy of science, history of science
Notable ideas
Clausius–Duhem inequality
Gibbs–Duhem equation
Duhem–Margules equation
Duhem–Quine thesis
Confirmation holism
Thermodynamic potential
William Rankine, Willard Gibbs, Ernst Mach,[3] Blaise Pascal
Émile Jouguet, John Worrall, Thomas Kuhn, Stanley Jaki, Stephen Menn
Pierre Maurice Marie Duhem (French: [pjɛʁ mɔʁis maʁi dy.ɛm, - moʁ-] ( listen); 9 June[4] 1861 – 14 September 1916) was a French theoretical physicist who worked on thermodynamics, hydrodynamics, and the theory of elasticity. Duhem was also a historian of science, noted for his work on the European Middle Ages, which is regarded as having created the field of the history of medieval science.[5] As a philosopher of science, he is remembered principally for his views on the indeterminacy of experimental criteria (see Duhem–Quine thesis).
Among scientists, Duhem is best known today for his work on chemical thermodynamics, and in particular for the Gibbs–Duhem and Duhem–Margules equations. His approach was strongly influenced by the early works of Josiah Willard Gibbs, which Duhem effectively explicated and promoted among French scientists. In continuum mechanics, he is also remembered for his contribution to what is now called the Clausius–Duhem inequality.
Duhem was convinced that all physical phenomena, including mechanics, electromagnetism, and chemistry, could be derived from the principles of thermodynamics.[6] Influenced by Macquorn Rankine's "Outlines of the Science of Energetics",[7] Duhem carried out this intellectual project in his Traité de l'Énergétique (1911), but was ultimately unable to reduce electromagnetic phenomena to thermodynamic first principles.
With Ernst Mach, Duhem shared a skepticism about the reality and usefulness of the concept of atoms.[8] He therefore did not follow the statistical mechanics of Maxwell, Boltzmann, and Gibbs, who explained the laws of thermodynamics in terms of the statistical properties of mechanical systems composed of many atoms.
Duhem was an opponent of Albert Einstein's theory of relativity.[9][10] In 1914, Duhem commented that Einstein's relativity theory "has turned physics into a real chaos where logic loses its way and common-sense runs away frightened".[11] In his 1915 book La Science Allemande, he argued strongly against relativity.[10] Duhem stated that the theory of relativity "overthrow[s] all the doctrines in which one has spoken of space, of time, of movement, all the theories of mechanics and of physics".[12]
Nicole Oresme, a prominent medieval scholar. Duhem came to regard the medieval scholastic tradition as the origin of modern science.
Duhem is well known for his work on the history of science,[13][14][15][16] which resulted in the ten volume Le système du monde: histoire des doctrines cosmologiques de Platon à Copernic (The System of World: A History of Cosmological Doctrines from Plato to Copernicus).[17] Unlike many former historians (e.g. Voltaire and Condorcet), who denigrated the Middle Ages, he endeavored to show that the Roman Catholic Church had helped foster Western science in one of its most fruitful periods. His work in this field was originally prompted by his research into the origins of statics, where he encountered the works of medieval mathematicians and philosophers such as John Buridan, Nicole Oresme and Roger Bacon, whose sophistication surprised him. He consequently came to regard them as the founders of modern science, having in his view anticipated many of the discoveries of Galileo Galilei and later thinkers.[18] Duhem concluded that "the mechanics and physics of which modern times are justifiably proud to proceed, by an uninterrupted series of scarcely perceptible improvements, from doctrines professed in the heart of the medieval schools."[19]
Duhem popularized the concept of "saving the phenomena." In addition to the Copernican Revolution debate of "saving the phenomena" (Greek σῴζειν τὰ φαινόμενα, sozein ta phainomena[20])[21][22] versus offering explanations[23] that inspired Duhem was Thomas Aquinas, who wrote, regarding eccentrics and epicycles, that
Reason may be employed in two ways to establish a point: firstly, for the purpose of furnishing sufficient proof of some principle. [...] Reason is employed in another way, not as furnishing a sufficient proof of a principle, but as confirming an already established principle, by showing the congruity of its results, as in astronomy the theory of eccentrics and epicycles is considered as established, because thereby the sensible appearances of the heavenly movements can be explained; not, however, as if this proof were sufficient, forasmuch as some other theory might explain them. [...][24]
"A theory of physics is not an explanation. It is a system of mathematical propositions, deduced from a small number of principles, which have for their aim to represent as simply, as completely and as exactly as possible, a group of experimental laws."[25][26]
Duhem, The Aim and Structure of Physical Theory, vol 13, p. 19
Duhem's views on the philosophy of science are explicated in his 1906 work The Aim and Structure of Physical Theory.[27] In this work, he opposed Newton's statement that the Principia's law of universal mutual gravitation was deduced from 'phenomena', including Kepler's second and third laws. Newton's claims in this regard had already been attacked by critical proof-analyses of the German logician Leibniz and then most famously by Immanuel Kant, following Hume's logical critique of induction. But the novelty of Duhem's work was his proposal that Newton's theory of universal mutual gravity flatly contradicted Kepler's Laws of planetary motion because the interplanetary mutual gravitational perturbations caused deviations from Keplerian orbits. Since no proposition can be validly logically deduced from any it contradicts, according to Duhem, Newton must not have logically deduced his law of gravitation directly from Kepler's Laws.[27][28][29][30]
Duhem's name is given to the underdetermination or Duhem–Quine thesis, which holds that for any given set of observations there is an innumerably large number of explanations. It is, in essence, the same as Hume's critique of induction: all three variants point at the fact that empirical evidence cannot force the choice of a theory or its revision. Possible alternatives to induction are Duhem's instrumentalism and Popper's thesis that we learn from falsification.
As popular as the Duhem–Quine thesis may be in the philosophy of science, in reality Pierre Duhem and Willard Van Orman Quine stated very different theses. Pierre Duhem believed that experimental theory in physics is fundamentally different from fields like physiology and certain branches of chemistry. Also Duhem's conception of theoretical group has its limits, since not all concepts are connected to each other logically. He did not include at all a priori disciplines such as logic and mathematics within these theoretical groups in physics which can be tested experimentally. Quine, on the other hand, conceived this theoretical group as a unit of a whole human knowledge. To Quine, even mathematics and logic must be revised in light of recalcitrant experience, a thesis that Duhem never held.
Duhem's philosophy of science was criticized by one of his contemporaries, Abel Rey, in part because of what Rey perceived as influence on the part of Duhem's Catholic faith.[31]
Duhem argues that physics is subject to certain methodological limitations that do not affect other sciences. In his The Aim and Structure of Physical Theory[27] (1914), Duhem critiqued the Baconian notion of "crucial experiments". According to this critique, an experiment in physics is not simply an observation, but rather an interpretation of observations by means of a theoretical framework. Furthermore, no matter how well one constructs one's experiment, it is impossible to subject an isolated single hypothesis to an experimental test. Instead, it is a whole interlocking group of hypotheses, background assumptions, and theories that is tested. This thesis has come to be known as confirmation holism. This inevitable holism, according to Duhem, renders crucial experiments impossible. More generally, Duhem was critical of Newton's description of the method of physics as a straightforward "deduction" from facts and observations.
In the appendix to The Aim and Structure, entitled "Physics of a Believer," Duhem draws out the implications that he sees his philosophy of science as having for those who argue that there is a conflict between physics and religion. He writes, "metaphysical and religious doctrines are judgments touching on objective reality, whereas the principles of physical theory are propositions relative to certain mathematical signs stripped of all objective existence. Since they do not have any common term, these two sorts of judgments can neither contradict nor agree with each other" (p. 285). Nonetheless, Duhem argues that it is important for the theologian or metaphysician to have detailed knowledge of physical theory in order not to make illegitimate use of it in speculations.
(1886). Le Potentiel Thermodynamique et ses Applications à la Mécanique Chimique et à l'Étude des Phénomènes Électriques. Paris: A. Hermann.
(1888). De l'Aimantation par Influence. Suivi de Propositions Données par la Faculté. Paris, Gauthier-Villars et Fils.
(1891). Cours de Physique Mathématique et de Cristallographie de la Faculté des Sciences de Lille. Paris: A. Hermann.
(1891–1892). Leçons sur l'Électricité et le Magnétisme. Paris: Gauthier-Villars et Fils, tome I (English EPUB), tome II (English EPUB), tome III (English EPUB).
(1893). Introduction à la Mécanique Chimique. Paris: G. Carré.
(1894). Sur les Déformations Permanentes et l'Hysteresis. Bruxelles: Impr. de Hayez.
(1895). Les Théories de la Chaleur.
(1896). Théorie Thermodynamique de la Viscosité, du Frottement et des faux Équilibres Chimiques. Paris: A. Hermann.
(1897–1898). Traité Élémentaire de Mécanique Chimique Fondée sur la Thermodynamique. Paris: A. Hermann.
(1897). Les Mélanges Doubles: Statique Chimique Générale des Systèmes Hétérogènes.
(1898). Faux Équilibres et Explosions.
(1902). Le Mixte et la Combinaison Chimique. Essai sur l'Évolution d'une Idée. Paris: C. Naud.
(1902). Les Théories Électriques de J. Clerk Maxwell: Étude Historique et Critique. Paris: A. Hermann.
(1902). Thermodynamique et Chimie: Leçons Élémentaires à l'Usage des Chimistes. Paris: A. Hermann.
(1903). Recherches sur l'Hydrodynamique. Paris: Gauthier-Villars.
(1903). Les Origines de la Statique. Paris: A. Herman, tome I, tome II.
(1905). L'Évolution de la Mécanique. Paris, A. Hermann.
(1906). La Théorie Physique. Son Objet, sa Structure. Paris: Chevalier & Riviére (Vrin, 2007).
(1906). Recherches sur l'Élasticité. Paris: Gauthier-Villars.
(1903–13). Études sur Léonard de Vinci, ceux qu'il a lus, ceux qui l'ont lu, 3 vol., Paris: A. Hermann.
Première série : Ceux qu'il a lu et ceux qui l'ont lu, 1906.
Deuxième série.
Troisième série : Les précurseurs parisiens de Galilée, 1913.
(1908). Josiah-Willard Gibbs, à propos de la Publication de ses Mémoires Scientifiques. Paris: A. Hermann.
(1908). Sauver les Phénomènes. Essai sur la Notion de Théorie Physique de Platon à Galilée. Paris: A. Hermann (Vrin, 2005).
(1909). Le Mouvement Absolu et le Mouvement Relatif. Paris: Impr. Librairie de Montligeon. English EPUB
(1911). Traité d'Énergétique. Paris: Gauthier-Villars, tome I (English EPUB), tome II (English EPUB).
(1913–1959). Le Système du Monde. Histoire des Doctrines Cosmologiques de Platon à Copernic: tome I, tome II, tome III, tome IV, tome V, tome VI, tome VII, tome VIII, tome IX, tome X.
(1915) La Science Allemande. Paris: A. Hermann.
(1908). "La Valeur de la Théorie Physique," Journal de Mathémathiques Pures et Appliquées, Vol. XIX, pp. 7–19.
(1908). "Ce que l'on Disait des Indes Occidentales avant Christophe Colomb," Journal de Mathémathiques Pures et Appliquées, Vol. XIX, pp. 402–406.
(1909). "Note: Thierry de Chartres et Nicholas de Cues," Revues des Sciences Philosophiques et Théologiques, Troisième Année, pp. 525–531.
(1911). "Sur les Petites Oscillations d'un Corps Flottant," Journal de Mathémathiques Pures et Appliquées, Vol. VII, Sixiéme Série, pp. 1–84.
(1911). "Le Temps selon les Philosophes Hellénes," Part II, Revue de Philosophie, Vol. XIX, pp. 5–24, 128–145.
(1914). "Roger Bacon et l'Horreur du Vide," in A.G. Little (ed.), Roger Bacon Essays. Oxford, at the Clarendon Press.
(1915). "Quelques Réflexions sur la Science Allemande," Revue des Deux Mondes, Vol. XXV, pp. 657–686.
(1916). "L'Optique de Malebranche," Revue de Métaphysique et de Morale, Vol. XXIII, No. 1, pp. 37–91.
Duhem's mathematics papers from NUMDAM
Duhem, Pierre (1903). Thermodynamics and Chemistry. A Non-mathematical Treatise for Chemists and Students of Chemistry (1st ed.). New York; London: J. Wiley & Sons; Chapman & Hall. OCLC 3383130. Retrieved 2011-08-31.
Duhem, Pierre (1954). The Aim and Structure of Physical Theory. Princeton: Princeton University Press. 2nd. Ed., 1991. Translation by Philip P. Wiener. (excerpts: excerpt 1, & excerpt 2 "Heavenly bodies: Theory, physics and philosophy")
"Physical Theory and Experiment," in Herbert Feigl & May Brodbeck (ed.), Readings in the Philosophy of Science. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc., 1953, pp. 235–252.
Duhem, Pierre (1969). To Save the Phenomena, an Essay on the Idea of Physical Theory from Plato to Galileo. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. OCLC 681213472. (excerpt)
Duhem, Pierre (1985). Medieval Cosmology: Theories of Infinity, Place, Time, Void, and the Plurality of Worlds. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-16922-4. OCLC 712044683. (excerpt: "The 12th century birth of the notion of mass which advised modern mechanics ... and void and movement in the void")
Duhem, Pierre (1988). The Physicist as Artist: The Landscapes of Pierre Duhem. Edinburgh: Scottish Academic Press. ISBN 0707305349
Duhem, Pierre (1990). "Logical Examination of Physical Theory," Synthese, Vol. 83, No. 2, pp. 183–188.
Duhem, Pierre (1990). "Research on the History of Physical Theories," Synthese, Vol. 83, No. 2, pp. 189–200.
Duhem, Pierre (1991). German Science. La Salle, Ill.: Open Court. ISBN 0812691245
Duhem, Pierre (1991). The Origins of Statics The Sources of Physical Theory. Boston Studies in the Philosophy of Science. 123. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands. doi:10.1007/978-94-011-3730-0. ISBN 9789401137300.
Duhem, Pierre (1996). Essays in the History and Philosophy of Science. Indianapolis: Hackett Pub. Co. ISBN 978-0-87220-308-2. OCLC 33968944.
Duhem, Pierre (2011). Commentary on the Principles of Thermodynamics by Pierre Duhem. Dordrecht; New York: Springer. ISBN 978-94-007-0311-7. OCLC 733543752. Archived from the original on 2013-02-03.
Duhem, Pierre Maurice Marie (2015). The Electric Theories of J. Clerk Maxwell. Boston Studies in the Philosophy and History of Science. 314. Alan Aversa (trans.). Cham: Springer International Publishing. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-18515-6. ISBN 978-3-319-18515-6. Retrieved 2015-07-08.
Duhem, Pierre Maurice Marie (2018-06-29). Galileo's Precursors: Translation of Studies on Leonardo da Vinci (vol. 3). Alan Aversa (trans.). doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.23235.71201/1. Retrieved 2019-07-03.
Duhem, Pierre Maurice Marie (2018-09-09). Ampère's Force Law: A Modern Introduction. Alan Aversa (trans.). doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.31100.03206/1. Retrieved 2019-07-03. (EPUB)
"Physics & Metaphysics" (1893)
"Physics of a Believer"
Articles contributed to the 1912 Catholic Encyclopedia
Pierre de Maricourt
Jordanus de Nemore
Nicole Oresme
Albert of Saxony
Thierry of Freburg
Jean de Sax
The above bibliography is not exhaustive. See his complete primary sources and secondary sources at the Duhem entry of the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
^ Donald Broady, "The epistemological tradition in French sociology", 1996.
^ Yemima Ben-Menahem, Conventionalism: From Poincare to Quine, Cambridge University Press, 2006, p. 39.
^ John T. Blackmore, Ernst Mach: His Work, Life, and Influence, 1972, p. 196.
^ Jaki, Stanley L. (1987). Uneasy Genius: The Life and Work of Pierre Duhem. Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoff, p. 3.
^ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Pierre Duhem
^ Roger Ariew (2007). "Pierre Duhem". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 2009-11-07.
^ Macquorn Rankine (1855). "Outlines of the Science of Energetics," The Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal, Vol. II, pp. 120–140.
^ See Hentschel (1988) on these and other parallels between Duhem and Mach, and on their correspondence.
^ McMullin, Ernan (1990). "Comment: Duhem's Middle Way". Synthese. 83 (3): 421–430.
^ a b Gillies, Donald. Philosophy of Science in the Twentieth Century, 1993.
^ Lakatos, Imre. (2001). The Methodology of Scientific Research Programmes: Volume 1. Cambridge University Press. p. 21. ISBN 0-521-28031-1
^ Lowinger, Armand. (1967). The Methodology of Pierre Duhem. AMS Press. p. 25. ISBN 9780404040581
^ "Pierre Duhem, himself a distinguished physicist, initiated in heroic fashion, almost singlehandedly, the modern study of the history of medieval science by the simple but effective expedient of reading and analyzing as many medieval scientific manuscripts as possible." — Palter, Robert M. (1961). Preface to Toward Modern Science, Vol. I. New York: The Noonday Press, p. ix.
^ Paul, Harry W. (1972). "Pierre Duhem: Science and the Historian's Craft," Journal of the History of Ideas, 33, pp. 497–512.
^ Murdoch, John E. (1991). "Pierre Duhem and the History of Late Medieval Science and Philosophy in the Latin West," in R. Imbach & A. Maierù, eds., Gli Studi di Filosofia Medievale fra Otto e Novecento. Rome: Edizioni di Estoria e Letteratura, pp. 253–302.
^ "By his numerous publications, Duhem made medieval science a respectable research field and placed the late Middle Ages in the mainstream of scientific development. He thus filled the hiatus that had existed between Greek and Arabic science, on the one extreme, and early modern science in the seventeenth-century Europe, on the other. For the first time, the history of science was provided with a genuine sense of continuity." — Grant, Edward (1996). The Foundations of Modern Science in the Middle Ages. Cambridge University Press, p. xi.
^ Duhem, Pierre (1914). Le système du monde: histoire des doctrines cosmologiques de Platon à Copernic (The System of World: A History Cosmological Doctrines from Plato to Copernicus).
^ Wallace, William A. (1984). Prelude, Galileo and his Sources. The Heritage of the Collegio Romano in Galileo's Science. N.J.: Princeton University Press.
^ Lindberg, David C.; Westman, Robert S., eds. (27 Jul 1990) [Duhem, Pierre (1905). "Preface". Les Origines de la statique 1. Paris: A. Hermman. p. iv.]. "Conceptions of the Scientific Revolution from Bacon to Butterfield". Reappraisals of the Scientific Revolution (1st ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 14. ISBN 978-0-521-34804-1.
^ An ancient view (attributed to Plato by Simplicius of Cilicia) on hypotheses, theories and phaenomena, on what scientists, or more historically accurately (ancient) astronomers, are for, are supposed to do; see Geminus of Rhodes; James Evans; J.L. Berggren (2006). "10. Reality and Representations in Greek Astronomy: Hypotheses and Phenomena". Geminos's Introduction to the Phenomena: A Translation and Study of a Hellenistic Survey of Astronomy. Princeton University Press. pp. 49–51. ISBN 9780691123394. Wherein "The oldest extant text in which the expression "save the phenomena" is only of the first century A.D. namely Plutarch's On the Face in the Orb of the Moon", hence see also (in Greek) Plutarch, De faciae quae in orbe lunae apparet, 923a (or in English) at the Perseus Project
^ Cf. Duhem, Pierre (1969). To save the phenomena, an essay on the idea of physical theory from Plato to Galileo. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. OCLC 681213472. (excerpt on pg. 132).
^ Cf. Andreas Osiander's Ad lectorem introduction to Copernicus's De revolutionibus orbium coelestium.
^ Pierre Duhem thinks "Kepler is, unquestionably, the strongest and most illustrious representative of that tradition," i.e., the tradition of realism, that physical theories offer explanations in addition to just "saving the phenomena."
^ Summa Theologica, I q. 32 a. 1 ad 2
^ Duhem, Pierre Maurice Marie (1991). The Aim and Structure of Physical Theory (9932 ed.). Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0691025247.
^ Cady, Walter G. (1946). Piezoelectricity. New York, NY, USA: McGraw-Hill. p. 245.
^ a b c Duhem, Pierre; Philip P. Wiener (1954). La Théorie Physique: son Objet et sa Structure [The Aim and Structure of Physical Theory]. Jules Vuillemin. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-02524-7.
^ Lakatos, Imre; Paul Feyerabend; Matteo Motterlini (1999). For and Against Method: Including Lakatos's Lectures on Scientific Method and the Lakatos-Feyerabend Correspondence. University of Chicago Press. pp. 45–49. ISBN 978-0-226-46774-0.
^ Lakatos, Imre; John Worrall; Gregory Currie (1980). "5: Newton's Effect on Scientific Standards". The Methodology of Scientific Research Programmes. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-28031-0.
^ Lakatos, Imre; John Worrall; Gregory Currie (1978). "5: The Method of Analysis-Synthesis". Mathematics, Science, and Epistemology. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-21769-9.
^ Page 2018, p. 5
Dijksterhuis, E.J. (1959). "The Origins of Classical Mechanics from Aristotle to Newton", in M. Clagett (ed). Critical Problems in the History of Science, pp. 163–184. University of Wisconsin Press.
Hentschel, Klaus (1988). "Die Korrespondenz Duhem-Mach: Zur 'Modellbeladenheit' von Wissenschaftsgeschichte", Annals of Science, 73–91.
Lowinger, Armand (1941). The Methodology of Pierre Duhem. Columbia University Press.
Martin, R. N. D. (1991). Pierre Duhem: Philosophy and History in the Work of a Believing Physicist. ISBN 978-0-8126-9160-3.
Miller, Donald G. (1970). "Pierre Duhem". In Gillispie, Charles (ed.). Dictionary of Scientific Biography. 3. New York: Scribner & American Council of Learned Societies. pp. 225–233. ISBN 978-0-684-10114-9.
Moody, Ernest A. (1951). "Galileo and Avempace: The Dynamics of the Leaning Tower Experiment". Journal of the History of Ideas. 12 (3): 375–422. doi:10.2307/2707752. JSTOR 2707752.
Moody, Ernest A. (1966). "Galileo and his Precursors", in C.L. Gollino, ed., Galileo Reappraised. Berkeley: University of California Press, 23–43.
Needham, Paul (2008). "Pierre Duhem". Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Page, Meghan D. (17 January 2018). "Sense and Reference of a Believer". American Catholic Philosophical Quarterly. 92: 145–157. doi:10.5840/acpq2018116143. Retrieved 21 January 2018.
Picard, Émile (1922). "La Vie et l'Oeuvre de Pierre Duhem," in Discours et Mélanges. Paris: Gauthier-Villars.
Stoffel, Jean-François; Stanley L. Jaki (1996). Pierre Duhem et ses Doctorands: Bibliographie de la Littérature Primaire et Secondaire. Centre Interfacultaire d'Étude en Histoire des Sciences. p. 325. ISBN 978-2-930175-00-3.
Stoffel, Jean-François; Jean Ladrière (2002). Le Phénoménalisme Problématique de Pierre Duhem. Brussels: Classe des Lettres, Académie Royale de Belgique. p. 391. ISBN 978-2-8031-0190-0.
Alexander, Peter (1964). "The Philosophy of Science, 1850–1910," in D.J. O'Connor, ed., A Critical History of Western Philosophy. New York: The Free Press, pp. 402–425.
Ariew, Roger (2011) Pierre Duhem, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, January 20, 2011.
Bordoni, Stefano (2012). Taming complexity: Duhem's third pathway to thermodynamics. Urbino: Montefeltro. ISBN 9788885363588.
Bordoni, Stefano (2017). When historiography met epistemology: sophisticated histories and philosophies of science in French-speaking countries in the second half of the nineteenth century. History of Modern Science. Brill. doi:10.1163/9789004315235. ISBN 978-90-04-31523-5. Retrieved 2017-06-13.
Dawson, Christopher (1959). "The Scientific Development of Medieval Culture," in Medieval Essays. New York: Image Books, pp. 122–147.
Dugas, René (1937). Alan Aversa (trans.). "Physical method according to Duhem in view of quantum mechanics (La méthode physique au sens de Duhem devant la mécanique des quanta)" (PDF). Revue générale des sciences pures et appliquées (49): 68–71. doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.10684.69769/1. (EPUB)
Deltete, Robert J. (2008). "Man of Science, Man of Faith: Pierre Duhem's 'Physique de Croyant'," Zygon 43 (3), pp. 627–637.
Jaki, Stanley L. (1985–86). "Science and Censorship: Hélène Duhem and the Publication of the 'Système du Monde'," The Intercollegiate Review 21 (2), pp. 41–49 [Rep., in The Absolute Beneath the Relative and Other Essays. University Press of America, 1988]. [WARNING: Link leads to phishing website.]
Jaki, Stanley L. (1992). Reluctant Heroine, The Life and Work of Helene Duhem. Scottish Academic Press.
Jaki, Stanley L. (1993). "Medieval Christianity: Its Inventiveness in Technology and Science," in Technology in the Western Political Tradition. Ed. M.R. Zinman. Cornell University Press, pp. 46–68.
Kahler, Erich (1943). "Reason and Science," in Man: The Measure. New York: Pantheon Books, Inc.
Quinn, Philip L. (1974). "What Duhem Really Meant," in Robert S. Cohen & Marx W. Wartofsky, eds., Methodological and Historical Essays in the Natural and Social Sciences. Dordrecht: Reidel Publishing Company.
Schaffers, V. (1922). "Pierre Duhem et la Théorie Physique," Revue des Questions Scientifiques, pp. 42–73.
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Pierre Duhem & Thomas Kuhn
Duhem's Bull
Analytic–synthetic distinction
A priori and a posteriori
Consilience
Creative synthesis
Demarcation problem
Empirical evidence
Falsifiability
Feminist method
Functional contextualism
Ignoramus et ignorabimus
Intertheoretic reduction
Problem of induction
Scientific law
Scientific pluralism
Scientific theory
Theory choice
Theory-ladenness
Underdetermination
Unity of science
of science
Constructive realism
Constructivist epistemology
Conventionalism
Deductive-nomological model
Hypothetico-deductive model
Inductionism
Epistemological anarchism
Foundationalism
Model-dependent realism
Positivism / Reductionism / Determinism
Rationalism / Empiricism
Received view / Semantic view of theories
Scientific realism / Anti-realism
Scientific essentialism
Scientific formalism
Scientific skepticism
Structuralism
Vitalism
Philosophy of
thermal and statistical
Criticism of science
Faith and rationality
Hard and soft science
History of evolutionary thought
Relationship between religion and science
Rhetoric of science
Sociology of scientific knowledge
Sociology of scientific ignorance
Philosophers of science by era
Epicureans
Hugh of Saint Victor
Dominicus Gundissalinus
Robert Kilwardby
Pierre Gassendi
Late modern
Friedrich Schelling
William Whewell
Herbert Spencer
Wilhelm Wundt
Wilhelm Windelband
Henri Poincaré
Karl Pearson
Otto Neurath
C. D. Broad
Michael Polanyi
Hans Reichenbach
Rudolf Carnap
Carl Gustav Hempel
W. V. O. Quine
Thomas Kuhn
Imre Lakatos
Paul Feyerabend
Ian Hacking
Bas van Fraassen
Larry Laudan
Daniel Dennett
Philosophy portal
Science portal
Scientific databases
CiNii (Japan)

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


Australian Design Group's 1998 World in Flames Annual is a 72 page magazine that gives you all the strategy tips you need to play World in Flames final as an expert.
Its highlight is Leaders in Flames, a 140 counter optional add on to World in Flames that provides every major character of World War II.
Now you can finally see why Guderian and Rommel were so superb at tank warfare, why Cunningham was an admiral par excellence and how damaging Spaatz and Harris could be in the air.


text:
Update on the Proposed Changes to MARSE
Over 10,000 people have signed the change.org petition urging Rick Snyder, Governor of the State of Michigan, and Michael P. Flanagan, State Superintendent of Education, to immediately withdraw the changes proposed in March to the Michigan Administrative Rules for Special Education (MARSE).
As noted earlier this year, the proposed revisions would have dramatic and detrimental effects on Michigan's children. As Laura Jones, the petition's organizer, puts it, the changes would.
"Change eligibility standards for children on the autistic spectrum by use of a symptom which is not an accepted medical diagnostic criteria. The result will be a flood of ASD kids being pushed into general education without help, causing havoc in classrooms and education needs not being met for all students. Look up the definition of the word 'including'. It does not mean 'such as'.
Remove the use of multidisciplinary teams in evaluations, which places too much control over eligibility with a few people. Such limited evaluations will be incomplete and inaccurate as the team members are further degraded by a drop in qualifications for education and medical professionals.
Degrade the standards for Para-Pros who provide direct instruction in reading, written expression and mathematics to the lowest possible level (high school diploma) and reduce the quality of education for Special Education students.
Short term measurable objectives will be eliminated, removing any progress monitoring for children or staff that is other than subjective.
Have special education staffing levels set by schools locally and will explode special education staff caseloads as standards are removed.
Remove all transparency from the ISD "alternate special education plan." MI ISDs have authority to override all special education programs, program sizes, teacher caseloads and student age spans, and create their own. The MI DOE is now proposing to remove all transparency and only require that the ISD keeps a copy of this "alternate plan" on file.
Require parents to initiate consent for special education prior to convening an Individualized Education Program (IEP) team. This is incongruent with the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act. This may be due to the poor clarrity in the proposed rules changes, which is further reason to withdraw them.
Reduce requirements for Hearing Impairment and Visual Impairment teachers, shortchanging students.
Allow physician assistants to be on the evaluation team to determine a Physical Impairment (PI), Other Health Impairment (OHI), Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI) and Deaf-Blind.
Require only a psychiatrist, psychologist and social worker in determining a student's eligibility for an Emotional Impairment."
As the petition grows, organizers have found an ally in Lieutenant Governor Brian Calley, who has a daughter receiving special education services. However, the fight isn't over and every name is counted.
Click here to add yours today.
Jessica Kelly, J.D., is a trained Special Education lay advocate located in Ann Arbor, Michigan. She advocates for her three children in public schools while consulting with other families seeking free, appropriate public education.
MARSE
This website provides general information related to special education to help users effectively advocate for their own children. This website does not provide legal advice. Jessica Kelly is not a licensed attorney nor does she provide legal advice. Although we go to great lengths to make sure our information is accurate and useful, we recommend you consult a lawyer if you want legal advice. No attorney-client or confidential relationship exists or will be formed between you and Jessica Kelly or any of her representatives.
© 2014 Jessica Kelly, J.D. All rights reserved.


The E.A. Rawlinson Centre is bringing choice, diversity and local talent to the stage for its Winter-spring season.
The lineup for January to May was announced at the E.A. Rawlinson Preview night Wednesday.
It features rock, country, classical and even comedy musical acts, as well as two new series the Rawlinson Centre is putting together to help connect with its audience in a different way.
One of the biggest names announced Wednesday is the Arrogant Worms, a Canadian folk-comedy band known for songs such as 'The Last Saskatchewan Pirate' and 'Canada is Really Big.' They've been performing together since 1991 and have performed across Canada, the US and Australia, also appearing on national TV. They'll stop by the Rawlinson Centre on March 12.
Classical music is also making its return to the Rawlinson Centre season series. Eleven members of the Saskatoon Symphony Orchestra are performing along with singer Eileen Laverty on April 12, while the Celtic Tenors, a classical crossover act from Ireland, sing in Prince Albert three days prior on April 9.
Other acts include the previously-announced shows by Terra Lightfoot and the Trews, contemporary pop singer Jill Barber, bluegrass band the Slocan Ramblers, country singer Corb Lund and Eagles tribute Hotel California.
"The focus is on diversity, and on quality of acts, and on focusing on the patron," Rawlinson Centre general manager Roxanne Dicke said.
Season subscribers will be able to book tickets for all 12 shows, or pic, and choose a combination of any four, six or eight shows.
Two of those series were unveiled Wednesday evening.
One is the Home Grown Series, a set of three performances from local and Saskatchewan-based artists. The series kicks off with Heidi Munro and the Real Groovy Band, on Jan. 26, continues with Larry Krause and his Founders of Canadiana show on Feb. 8 and concludes with Donny Parenteau's Colours of the Sash celebration of Métis culture.
Bringing those local acts into the season series is an important part of celebrating local talent, Dicke said.
"I so often say we are the last to recognize talent in our own city," she said.
For his show, Krause is bringing a bunch of local musicians and celebrating the music and stories of classic Canadian artists who have come before, such as Gordon Lightfoot and Stompin' Tom Connors.
Colours of the Sash will feature Parenteau as a performer, as well as an "astounding lineup" of Métis artist and up-and-comers, Dicke said, adding that the homegrown series is "crucial to building our arts community.
Another local act will help kick off the Rawlinson Centre's other new series.
The Cabaret Series, not included as a part of the regular season series, will see groups and audience members sharing the same space. The house will be closed, and the entire evening will take place on the Rawlinson Centre stage.
The first rock cabaret show will see Rymestone performing on March 2. The Johnny McCuaig Band, which combines rock music with a set of bagpipes, will round out the air of shows on April 18.
Dicke said other acts, such as the classical concerts and the Arrogant Worms show, hearken back to what the Rawlinson Centre has done in the past, and are a sign of things to come.
The classical shows will "attract a clientele that just wants to come in and really enjoy the acoustics of our space," Dicke said.
"We have an incredible acoustical space. We're very lucky. It's built for that." She said those types of acts used to be performed a lot in Prince Albert years ago, but have since fallen by the wayside.
The Arrogant Worms, she said, is a concert that should appeal to families, something Dicke wants to do more of.
"We're trying to offer more family-oriented shows in the future," she said.
Wednesday's announcement also marks the end of the half-year seasons. In May 2019, the centre will announce the first preview night for a full-year series. Booking the entire span of September to May or June in one go is what other theatres do, Dicke explained, which makes attracting acts easier. She's currently working on putting that year-long program together and expects that announcement to become an annual event.
"It's going to become very exciting because you can plan your whole year. You can see what's coming, and it's a chance to be in the know ahead of time," she said.
She mentioned some plans for the 2019-20 season, including more themed series that attract certain groups of audience members, as well as an expansion of the cabaret-style show into the folk and jazz genres.
More details about the upcoming shows, as well as tickets, are available at earc.ca/events, or by visiting the E.A. Rawlinson Centre box office.


text:
Q: Looping through worksheets, refreshing and sorting pivot tables I have tried to create a macro to loop through all worksheets in a workbook, determine if there is a pivot table, refresh that pivot table, and sort on a specific column. There are a number of sheets that won't be sorted on a specific column so I have included code to exclude them.
It seems that it is only sorting the pivot table on the ActiveSheet. I think this is because of the ActiveSheet.PivotTable(1) piece, but the code won't run if I take that piece out. I'm fairly new to VBA, so I'm at a loss for what to do next. Any help would be greatly appreciated.
Sub RefreshPivotCache()
    Dim ws As Worksheet
    Dim PT As PivotTable

    For Each ws In ActiveWorkbook.Worksheets '<~~ Loop all worksheets in workbook
        If ws.PivotTables.Count > 0 Then
              If (ws.Name <> "L&D TE Summary") And (ws.Name <> "L&D BCD Summary") And (ws.Name <> "HR Ops TE") And (ws.Name <> "HR Ops BCD") And (ws.Name <> "Strat Delivery Summary") _
                And (ws.Name <> "Strat Delivery TE") And (ws.Name <> "Strat Delivery BCD") Then
                    For Each PT In ws.PivotTables        '<~~ Loop all pivot tables in worksheet
                        PT.PivotCache.Refresh
                       ActiveSheet.PivotTables(1).PivotFields("Associate Name").AutoSort _
                         xlDescending, " ", ActiveSheet.PivotTables(1).PivotColumnAxis. _
                         PivotLines(1), 1

                     Next PT
                End If
        End If

    Next ws
End Sub

A: You're only changing the pivot table on your Activesheet, but you never activate ws in your loop. So change
ActiveSheet.PivotTables(1).PivotFields("Associate Name").AutoSort _
                         xlDescending, " ", ActiveSheet.PivotTables(1).PivotColumnAxis. _
                         PivotLines(1), 1

to
ws.PivotTables(1).PivotFields("Associate Name").AutoSort _
                         xlDescending, " ", ws.PivotTables(1).PivotColumnAxis. _
                         PivotLines(1), 1

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaStackExchange


Have you ever considered your ICT supply chain as an information security risk?
With the release of ISO/IEC 27036:2013, the new International Standard for ICT supply chain security, it has become apparent to me that not many organisations have considered the information security risks posed from the ICT supply chain. There have, for instance, been rumours going around for years that certain countries embed devices manufactured in their countries with malicious code, but there hasn't been any guidance on how you can address this type of information security risk until now.
The release of ISO/IEC 27036:2013 changes this. This Standard gives clear guidance on how you can gain visibility into a diverse ICT supply chain and how you can respond to risks by integrating information security process and practices into existing system and software lifecycle processes, while supporting the information security controls in ISO/IEC 27002.
If you haven't considered this often-overlooked aspect of information security, you should order a copy of ISO/IEC 27002.


text:
Guide to Investing in Oil Markets
Commodities Oil
By Jason Fernando
What Is a Hydrocarbon?
A hydrocarbon is an organic chemical compound composed exclusively of hydrogen and carbon atoms. Hydrocarbons are naturally-occurring compounds and form the basis of crude oil, natural gas, coal, and other important energy sources.
Hydrocarbons are highly combustible and produce carbon dioxide, water, and heat when they are burned. Therefore, hydrocarbons are highly effective as a source of fuel.
Hydrocarbons are chemical compounds that are utilized as the basis of the vast majority of global energy production.
A variety of complex technologies and techniques have been developed for extracting hydrocarbons from deep within the earth.
Because of the serious environmental cost of using hydrocarbons as a primary source of energy, it is likely that in the years and decades ahead, the movement away from hydrocarbons and toward alternative energy sources such as solar, nuclear, wind, and geothermal power will increase exponentially.
Understanding Hydrocarbons
Hydrocarbons occur naturally throughout the world, originating from plant and animal fossils that have been formed by the forces of temperature and weight over millennia. They are mostly found deep underground, in porous rock formations (such as sandstone, limestone, and shale). Porous rock formations are often found in large bodies of water, so there is an immense quantity of hydrocarbons trapped deep beneath the oceans. Oil and natural gas exploration companies use advanced engineering techniques to identify these potential reservoirs and pull their resources to the surface for human use. Examples of such technologies include offshore oil platforms, directional drilling, and enhanced oil recovery (EOR) techniques.
Hydrocarbons are very important for the modern economy. Globally, hydrocarbons are responsible for roughly 85% of energy consumption. This figure may actually understate the role of hydrocarbons in the economy by a significant margin because they are used in a wide range of applications aside from their use as a source of energy. For example, refined petroleum has been used to produce myriad derivative materials that play critical roles in the global economy, such as plastics, solvents, and lubricants.
Different techniques are used to extract hydrocarbons, depending on the type and location of the reserve. For example, hydraulic fracturing—better known as "fracking"—is used to extract natural gas from shale rock by using pressurized fracking fluid to create fissures through which the gas can escape to the surface. Mining is used to access oil sands, which are unconventional deposits of crude oil that are heavily intermixed with sand and sandstone.
Unfortunately, it is now understood that there is a serious environmental cost to using hydrocarbons as a primary source of energy. Greenhouse gasses released during the combustion of hydrocarbons are contributing to climate change. The process of oil and gas extraction can damage the surface environment and surrounding groundwater of the extraction site.
Many economists argue that hydrocarbon energy production involves substantial negative externalities that are not sufficiently represented in the market price of oil and gas. In fact, considering the mounting cost of climate-change-related phenomena, many argue that these externalities significantly outweigh any cost savings associated with hydrocarbons.
To address these concerns, there is a growing movement toward the use of renewable energy sources, such as solar, nuclear, wind, and geothermal power. Alongside innovations in battery technology and "smart grid" infrastructure, these new energy alternatives may play a significantly larger role in global energy production in the years and decades ahead.
Exploring Types of Natural Gas Liquids – NGL
Natural gas liquids are components of natural gas that are separated from the gas state in the form of liquids.
What Are Nonrenewable Resources?
A nonrenewable resource is a natural substance that is not replenished with the speed at which it is consumed. It is a finite resource.
Crude oil is a naturally occurring, unrefined petroleum product composed of hydrocarbon deposits and other organic materials.
What Does Unconventional Oil Mean?
Unconventional oil is crude oil that has been identified or extracted using novel methods.
Re-fracking
Re-fracking is the practice of returning to a previously fracked well to capitalize on newer, more effective extraction technologies.
Steam-Assisted Gravity Drainage (SAGD)
Steam-assisted gravity drainage (SAGD) is a drilling technique used to extract heavy oil that cannot be mined using traditional methods.
Socially Responsible Investing (SRI)
The 5 Countries That Produce the Most Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
The Economics of Solar Power
How the Oil and Gas Industry Works
The World's Top Oil Producers of 2019
How has fracking decreased U.S. dependence on foreign oil?
How OPEC (and Non-OPEC) Production Affects Oil Prices


text:
package handlers

import (
	"fmt"
	"html/template"
	"log"
	"net/http"
	"os"
	ttemplate "text/template"
)

// Template rendering function
func RenderTemplate(w http.ResponseWriter, templateFile string, templateData interface{}) {
	t, err := template.ParseFiles(templateFile)
	if err != nil {
		log.Printf("Error encountered while parsing the template: ", err)
	}
	t.Execute(w, templateData)
}

func RenderUnsafeTemplate(w http.ResponseWriter, templateFile string, templateData interface{}) {
	t, err := ttemplate.ParseFiles(templateFile)
	if err != nil {
		log.Printf("Error encountered while parsing the template: ", err)
	}
	w.Header().Set("X-XSS-Protection", "0")
	t.Execute(w, templateData)
}

func GenerateUUID() string {
	f, err := os.Open("/dev/urandom")
	if err != nil {
		log.Println("Encountered the following error when attempting to generate an UUID: ", err)
		return ""
	}
	b := make([]byte, 16)
	f.Read(b)
	f.Close()
	uuid := fmt.Sprintf("%x-%x-%x-%x-%x", b[0:4], b[4:6], b[6:8], b[8:10], b[10:])
	return uuid
}

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaGithub


Our primary goal is to improve the innovative capacity for the electronics design sector in the UK.
bringing together the supply side and the market for partnering and brokerage events for both academia2business or business2business brokerage.
Our programs identify the strength and depth of the UK's university research across the electronic and electrical engineering syllabus, and we build collaborations and initiate relationships between universities and business through the KTP and iCase programmes.
These enabling technologies cut across the challenge led themes; the focus of the ESP Community.
we're the UK's innovation agency, accelerating economic growth. We know that taking a new idea to market is a challenge. We fund, support and connect innovative businesses through a unique mix of people and programmes to accelerate sustainable economic growth.


I am looking for a shuttle plus that was not completed because the owner became busy and willing to sell it.
Is there a shuttle plus available from our friend who was not able to complete the kit who became busy and is selling it?
On the GY-401 "N" is normal or rate mode and "A" is AVCS or heading hold.
but it I dont get the wanted RPM. My ZX with a 32 size and the manual curves have the rigth RPM? any suggestion?
Is the RPM too high or too low?
Basically the same curves from your ZX should work on the Plus. Same dimensions etc. Just the 37 will put out more power and possibly a higher RPM.
What is the pitch curve degree amounts that correspond with the percentages you listed.


Hello! I am Jenny, and I am back with the CBDfx Review.
I have never been a planner, but I guess after reviewing so many CBD Brands, some have started considering me quite the CBD Connoisseur. Now CBD has been immensely beneficial for me, my daughters, my husband, and even for my pet dog Lysander.
One CBD brand that has recently caught my attention is CBDfx. I have been reading about it online quite extensively and have also used some of its products. Before I give you my take on the CBDfx products that have worked well for me, let me give you a little peek into what this company is all about.
CBDfx is a company that believes in a natural and especially plant based approach to wellness and health instead of the chemical or pharmaceutical approach. It provides customers with a wide range of products to choose from. The CBDfx vape kits, gummy bears, capsules and CBD infused concentrates are made available for customers at affordable prices. What makes the CBDfx products particularly authentic in nature is the fact that the company provides a Certificate of Analysis for each and every one of its products. The CoAs mention that the CBDfx capsules, concentrates and other products are composed of full spectrum cannabinoids.
CBDfx ensures that they use high quality industrial hemp for their products. A major benefit of using agricultural hemp is that it does not contain THC. CBDfx claims it's users don't need to worry about getting high or delusional even when taking regular doses. The hemp that is used to make CBDfx products is derived from organically grown plantations in Europe and its use is entirely legal.
CBDFX takes a good deal of pride in quality and efficacy of its products and is committed to the physical and mental wellbeing of each and every one of its customers. Without wasting anymore, let me now provide you with some detailed insights that I developed following my use of certain CBDfx products.
The CBD Vape Oil Additives by CBDfx can be administered with the help of a dropper. A few drops of the CBD Vape oil can be inserted over the tip of the tongue or under the tongue for fifteen to twenty seconds and then swallowed down. The CBD Vape Oil is also available in the form of a liquid e-tank, which is used in almost the same way as the dropper. The Liquid e-tank can be recharged when exhausted. The CBD Vape Oil should ideally be consumed two to three times in a day for best results.
Using CBD products is not something that is new for me. I, as well as the immediate members of my family, my husband, my two daughters and even my pet dog Lysander, are regular consumers of CBD products for health and wellness. When I read about the CBD Vape Oil Additives by CBDfx online, I decided to buy it and try it out for two reasons. Firstly, I had never used a liquid e-tank until date. Secondly, what intrigued me about the CBDfx vape oil was the fact that it was able to cure chronic inflammation and reduce stress and anxiety in the same time frame. My husband suffers from chronic rheumatism and is frequently subject to aches and pains in the body as a result of this. I decided to make him try out the CBDfx vape oil additives to see how well this could work for him. I took the decision to do so, primarily because I know that there are few or no side effects associated with CBD hemp oil products and there could be no harm therefore in trying a new CBD product. After administering the CBD vape oil additives on my husband via a liquid e-tank, which is used in the same way as an inhaler, I noticed an immediate sense of calm take over his body and his mind. He looked far more restful and relaxed than he had in ages, after ten to fifteen minutes of inhaling the CBD vape oil, had passed. After using the CBD vape oil additives over a couple of days, he complained of fewer aches and pains than before. Within two weeks of using the CBD vape oil additives, his body aches had been considerably reduce and he was actually able to sprint around the house when doing household chores, much to the surprise of me and my daughters. I also did not see him plagued by any side effects like nausea or vomiting after inhaling the CBD vape oil additives. There were no adverse bodily changes that he went through. Instead, his chronic pain was brought down by several notches and he has been calmer and happier than ever before.
The CBD Oil Tincture by CBDfx needs to be applied by rubbing small amounts of this oil over the painful or affected areas of the body. The CBD Oil Tincture should be be applied three to four times a day for best results.
Ever since I had hit my back, I have been trying various CBD brands for it. The doctor had prescribed regular pain medications, but while the pain does subside when I take them, it is recurring. After buying a small bottle of the CBD Oil Tincture, I applied this oil around the painful areas of my hips every single day, for two to three times in a day. The pain started to recede immediately upon the application of this CBD Oil Tincture. I didn't even had to wait for an hour or two for the pain to go away. It vanished instantly, and left me feeling both surprised and happy. In order to make sure that the results of the CBD Oil Tincture were here to stay, I continued the application of this oil for a week or two. This topical application of the CBD Oil Tincture did not trigger any adverse side effects on my skin either. There was no burning sensation that I felt upon its application and my skin did not break out into eruptions either.
Administering the CBD Capsules by CBDfx is very easy to do. A single capsule needs to be gulped down with a glass of water two to three times in a day for effective results. The CBD capsules can be consumed before as well as after meals.
The CBD Capsules by CBDfx is a product that I had been reading about online for quite some time but had not felt the urge to try it out, primarily because I was satisfied and content with the other CBD products that I was using. However, when my elder daughter began to complain about suffering from insomnia recently, I decided to try these capsules out on her, mostly to see how quickly these could work their effects on her. Insomnia can be terrible and I did not want to see my young and beautiful daughter suffer from sleepless nights for too long. So after buying the CBD capsules, I made her have one of these every single day for a period of seven days at a stretch. After three to four days, my daughter spoke to me about being more sleep induced than she had been previously and was able to get a couple of hours of sleep in the night. Once a week had passed of taking these capsules, her sleep had fully returned and she was able to rest soundly in the night. What I really liked about the CBD capsules was not only the fact that it worked quickly and effectively to cure my daughter's problem of insomnia but that it also did not alter her sleep patterns in an extreme way, which other sleep inducing products are often known to do. While my daughter was getting more sleep in the night now, than before, she had plenty of energy to perform her day to day tasks with vigor and did not complain of any fatigue or tiredness. She also appeared to be far more relaxed and at peace with herself than she had been when she was sleep deprived, and showed a sharper and renewed focus in her personal and professional matters.
The CBD gummies can be administered by simply popping one or two of these into the mount everyday and chewing them in the same way that one would chew on candy. The CBD gummy bears taste as delicious as regular gummy bears do and ought to be taken three to four times in a day for best results.
My friend Genevieve has a young son in second grade, by the name of Peter. Peter suffers from anxiety and is often unable to complete his school work and home work on time because of this. Although he is a bright child, his performance in school suffers considerably because of his anxiety issues. When Genevieve expressed her concerns to me over the phone about this, I suggested she try using the CBD gummies on Peter to see if this could help him. I had read about the CBDfx gummies quite a bit online, and knew that it would taste good enough for Peter to feel inclined to take it daily. True enough, Genevieve called me after two weeks to let me know that the CBD gummies had worked marvels on her son. Peter had been so delighted by the delicious taste of the CBD gummies that he took three to four of these every single day over a period of fourteen days and wanted to even continue taking them further. More importantly, his anxiety issues had abated a good deal after taking the CBD gummies for over two to three days. His concentration in class had also improved a lot and as reported by his mother, Peter is now able to do quite well in his school work, with self doubt and anxiety plaguing him no longer. Genevieve for one is entirely relieved by the beneficial impact that the CBD gummies have had on her son and intends on making full use of this if she ever detects signs of stress and anxiety in her son ever again. She also never complained of Peter suffering from any side effects after eating the CBD gummies, so my hunch about the product working well for him had been entirely correct.
The CBDfx products are undoubtedly worth purchasing and using by people who suffer from stress and anxiety issues as well as chronic pain. I have seen the CBDfx products work quite well for my family members and my friends, and their family too. Hence I can vouch for the fact that this is a CBD brand that is definitely worth trusting and relying on. The CBDfx products do not come with adverse side effects and can be safely consumed for a couple of times in the day. The results begin to show sooner or later upon consumption. The CBDfx products are fully organic in nature and are affordably priced, so these cater to customers of every budget. There is no need to break the bank to buy any of the CBD oil products launched by CBDfx in the market. Each and every product manufactured by CBDfx is made from organically grown high quality agricultural hemp that comes with low THC levels.
The CBDfx products can be bought online from the company's official website which is www.CBDfx.com. The products are delivered for free to customer homes within a few days of the purchase online. Those who buy the CBD oil products by CBDfx on a regular basis stand to benefit from amazing deals and discounts, enabling them to save a lot of money on CBD shopping online. The CBDfx products are seldom known to be out of stock and can be purchased from the company website at any given hour of the day or in the night.


Starting today all of our sodas are available online in 6 packs! You can order a mixed 6 pack as well. Just go to the purchase page to place your order today in time for the 4th of July!
All Sodas Available Online Right Here!
Starting today, you can now purchase all of our sodas by the case online right here. Apothecary Soda or Scarlet Soda delivered right to your door anywhere east of the Mississippi. Just click on the purchasing page and select your favorite or possibly a mixed case.
Scarlet Soda Wins "Best In Show"!
At this years Homer Craft Soda Festival, Buckeye State Scarlet Soda was named "Best In Show"! Homer is the country's premier craft soda festival and features over 250 different craft sodas, so it is quite an honor.
Anywhere East of the Mississippi!
Home of Buckeye State Soda!
Yacon Root on Scarlet Soda Wins "Best In Show"!
rootadmin on All Sodas Available Online Right Here!
Betty L Kuhnell on All Sodas Available Online Right Here!


Supply of all major brands ofGas & Electric fires, showers, complete fire suites, boilers & all bathroom santiary ware.
The complete bathroom & kitchen installation service.
Categories related to our business: bathroom tiling and furnishing. Bathroom Fitter and Tiler.


text:
Smith's 18 points, Behanan's career-high 18 rebounds key No. 2 Louisville past Samford 80-54
LOUISVILLE, Ky. – First-year coach Bennie Seltzer felt his Samford team came out scared in Thursday's 80-54 loss to No. 2 Louisville.
Samford's slow start in front of 20,016 spoiled any chance of keeping the game competitive.
The Bulldogs made only four field goals in the first half and went without a basket in the 7:08 before intermission.
They shot just 22 percent and trailed 42-13 at the break.
"I thought, first half, we had a little stage fright," Seltzer said.
There should be little surprise that Samford, with the one of the nation's youngest rosters, would start the game that way. The Bulldogs have no seniors and nine of their 14 players are underclassmen.
Louisville was the school's highest-ranked opponent since opening the 2006 season with a 79-54 loss to top-ranked and defending champ Florida.
Samford came out stronger after halftime. Its first seven field goals were 3-pointers and a shift to a zone defense slowed the Cardinals early, but Seltzer focused on Louisville's 28 offensive rebounds.
"I am proud of the second-half effort, but we must become a tougher team," Seltzer said.
The Bulldogs won't get much of a rest before another stiff challenge at No. 17 Memphis on Saturday.
The team boarded a bus for Memphis after the game and Seltzer said he'd begin breaking down film of the Tigers during the six-hour drive.
"I guarantee that rebounding will be one thing that we'll work on," Seltzer said of Friday's practice. "We will get after it tomorrow."
Freshman Tim Williams led Samford with 15 points and six rebounds. He appreciates the chance at another ranked opponent on the heels of his first big-game experience.
"I'm actually glad it's a quick turnaround because then we can show what we got better on," Williams said. "Hopefully we'll play more relaxed the first half after coming from Louisville. I think we'll play a lot calmer in the Memphis game."
Samford was outrebounded 53-28 by Louisville, which got a career-high 18 from Chane Behanan. His 13 first-half rebounds were one more than the Bulldogs as a team.
Russ Smith scored a game-high 18 points for the Cardinals.
Samford's one upside was shooting better than Louisville. The Bulldogs shot 39.1 percent, compared to 38.9 percent for the Cardinals.
Samford also hit 8 of 15 3-pointers in the second half and 9 of 20 overall. While it didn't get the Bulldogs closer than 24 points after intermission, they outscored the Cardinals 41-38.
Samford's youngsters began against a slightly different Louisville lineup. The Cardinals' initial set included Behanan and Wayne Blackshear at forward along with Peyton Siva, Luke Hancock and Gorgui Dieng.
The Cardinals also tried a smaller lineup with Dieng surrounded by three guards and Hancock.
All the combinations were effective as the Cardinals built a 24-6 lead after 11-plus minutes, helped by a 13-0 run. They had outrebounded the Bulldogs 11-4 at that point and made it hard for Samford to get anything inside.
Louisville closed the half even better, holding Samford without a field goal for the final 7:08 to lead 42-13 at intermission.
"In the first half I saw a lot of combinations that looked really good," Pitino said.
The Bulldogs didn't crack double digits until 4:38 remained in the half when Clide Geffrard Jr. made two free throws.


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For more information on obtaining 3DPost, please contact SURFCAM VAR 3D Concepts.


text:
Pebble 2 With Heart Rate Tracker Now Available For Pre-Order
By Tyler Lee, on 10/06/2016 16:18 PDT
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If you're shopping around for a new smartwatch, you might be interested to learn that Kickstarter darling Pebble has announced that the Pebble 2 is now shipping to its Kickstarter backers (launched in May earlier this year), and that for those who missed their chance, it is also available for pre-order.
So what can we expect from the Pebble 2 + heart rate tracker for those who missed the announcement this year? It will also come with the usual host of features that one might expect from a fitness tracker/smartwatch these days. This means that we can look forward to features like being able to count the number of steps you've taken, the amount of calories you've burnt, and it even has the ability to detect whether you're out for a run, a short/long walk, or if you're napping.
The Pebble 2 will even be able to sync the data it has gathered with smartphone health platforms such as Google Fit or Apple's HealthKit. Pebble is also boasting how the Pebble 2 will last 7 days on a single charge, and will be able to display notifications and alerts from your phone.
In addition to the Pebble 2, the Pebble 2 SE has been announced which is basically a basic version of the Pebble 2 minus the heart rate tracker. For those interested in placing their pre-orders, hit up Pebble's website where the Pebble 2 + heart rate tracker is priced at $129
Filed in Gadgets. Read more about Pebble, Smartwatch and Wearable Tech.
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Software Update Will Allow Pebble Watches To Work Indefinitely
Fitbit's Own App Store Will Be Launched Soon
Fitbit To Keep Pebble's Services Running Through 2017


Boiswood were asked to design, source and assemble the above pressure let down panel.
Both panels consisted of 3 pressure reducing regulators and 6 ball valves each. The regulators were mounted directly to the back panel and then connected with a ball valves on both the inlet and outlet side.
This allowed the customer to pipe the panels as seen straight into their system and connect up to their bottle cylinders.


text:
False af73e524-2953-455a-a5a3-660ca0c03224
Balance sheet strength retained with tangible equity of approximately CHF 1.1 billion.
Group assets under management increased by CHF 0.9 billion during the first quarter of 2011 to reach CHF 118.7 billion, supported by positive market performance and the slight strengthening of the euro against the Swiss franc. Overall, the Group's net new money for the first quarter of 2011 was broadly flat, with the trends experienced in the second half of 2010 continuing into the first quarter of 2011.
The Group's balance sheet remains strong, with tangible equity of approximately CHF 1.1 billion and a cash position of approximately CHF 770 million on 31 March 2011.
At today's Annual General Meeting (AGM), shareholders of GAM Holding AG will be asked to approve a new share buy-back programme which - together with the proposed dividend of CHF 0.50 per share for 2010 - will be paid from the Group's capital contribution reserves (amounting to CHF 2.1 billion as confirmed by the Swiss Federal Tax Authority). Details of GAM Holding AG's AGM can be found on www.gamholding.com.
GAM reported assets under management of CHF 53.3 billion as at 31 March 2011, marginally down on the 2010 year-end figure of CHF 53.6 billion. Client investment remains focused in the active long equity and fixed income hedge products, though the shift in private client preferences away from traditional offshore funds of hedge funds and the related attrition from GAM's historic partner private banking channels led to a small net new money outflow for the quarter. However, new mandates and fund inflows in early April, predominantly from institutions into funds of hedge funds and other non-correlated strategies, have already more than offset these outflows and the pipeline of business overall remains solid.
Despite the unsettling impact of recent macroeconomic and geopolitical events on private client demand, GAM's funds saw strong inflows in the first quarter of 2011 in a number of its fixed income and equity strategies.
GAM continues to be well-positioned to capitalise on investors' growing appetite for actively managed onshore funds that offer liquidity, enhanced regulatory protection and more favourable tax treatment. Since the beginning of 2011, it has launched three new UCITS strategies, including GAM's first onshore fund of hedge funds, GAM Star Trading, which provides investors with access to its proven high-quality macro and managed futures strategies within a UCITS structure.
Swiss & Global Asset Management reported assets under management of CHF 82.5 billion for the first quarter of 2011, an increase of CHF 2.1 billion from year-end 2010, driven by both positive net new money and market and currency appreciation. Net inflows during the first quarter reflected the sustained growth in its private label funds business and continuing strong demand for its physical precious metals funds and the fixed income funds sub-advised by GAM.
Inflows into equity funds in Swiss & Global Asset Management's core markets in Continental Europe remained muted during the quarter despite strong relative performance, reflecting the fragility of private investor sentiment and its sensitivity to geopolitical and other external shocks.
GAM Holding AG is an independent, well-diversified asset management group. Its operating businesses - GAM and Swiss & Global Asset Management - focus on the manufacturing and distribution of actively managed investment products and services.
GAM Holding AG is listed on the SIX Swiss Exchange and is a component of the Swiss Market Index Mid (SMIM) with the symbol "GAM". The Group has assets under management of CHF 118.7 billion (as at 31 March 2011) and employs over 1,000 staff with offices in Zurich (head office), Bermuda, Grand Cayman, Dubai, Dublin, Frankfurt, Geneva, Hong Kong, London, Luxembourg, Madrid, Milan, New York and Tokyo.
[1] Excludes CHF 17.1 billion from funds distributed by Swiss & Global Asset Management and sub-advised by GAM.


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text:
Joystick Metrics
Michael A. Covington
PC Tech Journal, vol 3, No 5, May 1985, pages 99, 101, 103, 105, 106
The IBM PC is put to some of its most interesting applications when it is asked to handle data on and respond to external physical conditions. Microcomputers can serve in many such capacities: as superintelligent thermostat for heating systems, data collection devices for the laboratory, or automated troubleshooters for electronic equipment. In addition, unlike other kinds of measuring equipment, the computer can store and analyze large amounts of data automatically.
Almost all of these applications require some form of analog-to-digital conversion – that is, a continuously varying quantity, such as a voltage, has to be converted into a computer-readable form. Commercial analog-to-digital converters often cost hundreds of dollars, but the PC's joystick port (officially called the IBM Game Control Adapter) can be used to do the same job in a simpler way. The circuits discussed in this article can convert the joystick port into a device that will measure resistance, capacitance, or voltage. No modification to the PC or the adapter is required; the circuits all plug in externally in place of the joystick.
These circuits have not been tested with the PCjr, but they should be fully compatible with it. The PCjr BASIC and Technical Reference manuals indicate that, with the exception of the pin connections, the PCjr's built-in joystick port is identical to the PC Game Control Adapter. Performance with PC compatibles is hard to predict, but if IBM's Game Control Adapter card can be used in the computer, chances are good for full compatibility in this area.
An IBM PC joystick consists of two potentiometers at right angles to each other, plus two fire buttons; for simplicity, only the potentiometers will be considered here. The computer senses the position of the joystick by measuring the resistance of each potentiometer, which varies from 0 to 100,000 ohms. This is done by timing how long it takes a capacitor of known value to charge through the unknown resistance.
FIGURE l: Joystick Port Circuit (Simplified)
The joystick position is read by moving the short circuit across the capacitor and measuring the time required for it to charge to about 3.3 volts.
FIGURE 2: Joystick Port Pin Connections
On the PC and PCjr, pins are numbered as seen by looking at the joystick socket from outside the computer. On the PC, pin numbers are usually shown on the connector. On the PCjr (at right), AA0l and BA0l are the missing pins.
FIGURE 1 shows a simplified version of the circuitry inside the joystick port; FIGURE 2 shows the pin connections. One end of the resistance to be measured is connected to the positive 5-volt supply; the other end is connected, through a 2200-ohm resistor, to the capacitor. Normally, a switching transistor keeps a short circuit across the capacitor to prevent it from charging; the PC reads the joystick position by removing the short circuit and timing how long it takes the capacitor to charge to approximately 5.3 volts. The result is a number between 0 and 255, roughly equal to the resistance in Kilohms.
This result can be accessed in BASIC using the functions STICK(0), STICK(1), STICK(2), and STICK(3), one for each of the four potentiometers (there are two in each of the two joysticks). When the value of STICK(0) is requested, the PC reads the positions of all four potentiometers; when STICK(1), STICK(2), or STICK(3) is requested, the results of readings that were taken simultaneously with the most recent call to STICK(0) are returned.
Listing 1: ANALOG BAS
The program in LISTING 1 outputs a continuous display of the value of STICK(0) that can be used while experimenting. Only STICK(0) is used in this article, for the sake of simplicity, but remember that the PC can accommodate four copies of each circuit given here, all operating simultaneously.
FIGURE 3: Measuring Resistance
The unknown resistance need not be a joystick potentiometer; it can be anything with a resistance in the appropriate range. Because resistor and capacitor values inside the joystick port vary among PCs, some preliminary calibration is required.
Naturally, the unknown resistance need not be a joystick potentiometer. It can be a resistor or anything else with a resistance in the appropriate range (see FIGURE 3). To read out the actual resistance in ohms, some calibration is required, since the values of the resistors and capacitors inside the joystick port can vary from one PC to another.
LISTING 2: OHM. BAS
The program in LISTING 2 will perform the calibration. At the beginning of each session, readings are taken of two known resistances, one of which is 0 ohms (obtained by shorting across the terminals where the unknown resistor should go); the other should be a resistor with an accurately known value between 100 and 200 kilohms.
FIGURE 4: Measuring Capacitance
This circuit is slightly more complicated than that for measuring resistance. Capacitance is measured by assessing the time taken to charge the unknown capacitor in addition to the
capacitor inside the PC. Two calibration values are needed.
The PC can also measure capacitance, but the circuit required is slightly more complicated: it has two components instead of one (FIGURE 4). The idea is to measure the time taken to charge the unknown capacitor in addition to the capacitor inside the PC, The requisite program is shown in LISTING 3.
LISTING 3: CAPAC.BAS
Again, two calibration values are required; one is 0, obtained by leaving an open circuit in place of the unknown capacitor, and one should be a capacitor with an accurately known value between about 0.2 and 0.5 microfarads. The program operates over a range of about 0.01 to 0.5 microfarads, with a resolution of about 0.01 microfarads.
To make the PC respond to light level, just substitute a cadmium sulfide photocell for the resistor in the PC ohmmeter circuit. Depending on the characteristics of the photocell, calibration may turn out to be quite complicated. There is probably no one program to suit all cases, but any mathematical formula can be implemented easily on the PC.
FIGURE 5: A Simple Temperature Sensor
The same is true for measuring temperature, which can be done in many different ways. A thermistor—a temperature-sensitive resistor—can be used, but they are often difficult to obtain. An easier alternative is to use a silicon transistor (see FIGURE 5). All transistors are temperature-sensitive to an extent and this sensitivity can be exploited to take measurements.
The fixed resistor shown in the diagram should be chosen by trial and error so that the value of STICK(0) comes out near 100 at room temperature. The potentiometer can then be used for fine adjustment. In most control applications, the PC will be used to detect that the temperature has reached a certain level rather than to make quantitative measurements. Note that the value of STICK(0) decreases with increasing temperature. A resolution of 1-degree Centigrade or better can be expected, depending on the type of transistor.
The most important kind of analog to digital conversion involves voltage, since other analog quantities can be converted into voltages relatively easily. To make the PC measure voltage, it is necessary to convert the unknown voltage into a constant or nearly constant current and use this to charge the internal capacitor; the higher the voltage, the shorter the charging time will be. The voltage will then be proportional to the reciprocal of STICK(0), rather than to STICK(0) itself, and resolution will be best at lower voltages—which is as it should be, since small voltage differences matter most when the total voltage is small.
LISTING 4 is a program that can be used with any of the PC voltmeter circuits given here. It requires calibration from two known voltages, both in the range of the circuit used.
LISTING 4: VOLT.BAS
FIGURE 6: PC Voltmeter - Economy Style
This circuit can be used only to measure voltages that are high enough to charge the internal capacitor to the threshold within the allowed time. The useful range is between 5 and 18 volts. It is accurate to within .003 volts.
The simplest way to convert voltage to current is to run it through a resistor; this is the method used in the circuit in FIGURE 6. But this circuit can measure only voltages that are high enough to charge the capacitor to the threshold within the time allowed, which means that the circuits useful range is about 5 to 18 volts. Within this range, it is quite accurate. I assembled a test version and calibrated it at 5 and 12 volts using VOLT.BAS; it was accurate to within 0.03 volts for all values between.
FIGURE 7: PC Voltmeter - Deluxe Style
FIGURE 7 is the deluxe model PC voltmeter. Its useful range covers 0 to about 6 volts; more importantly, no adjustments are necessary—the software can do all calibration because there is so little variation among units.
FIG 7a - Type 324 Quad Operational Amplifier
The circuit, a voltage—controlled current source, uses a type 324 quad Operational amplifier integrated circuit (op amp IC). The output of the first stage is the same as the input voltage. Resistors R1, R2, and R3 form a summing network. A small, constant bias is added to the input voltage so that 0 volts input will not give 0 output current (if it did, the PC's capacitor would not charge and it would be impossible to take a reading). The second and third op amps, the two transistors, and resistors R4, R5, and R6 constitute the current source itself. The voltages across R4, R5, and R6 are held equal; the output current is equal to this voltage divided by the value of R6.
The input and output voltages of the type 524 op amp can swing down all the way to 0 volts, making a negative power supply unnecessary. (For this reason, only the 524 or an exact equivalent can be used in this circuit.) However, a problem is posed by the upper limit of the 324's output voltage, which is 1.5 volts below the positive supply. If the 324 were powered from the 5—volt supply, its output could not go above 5.5 volts, and the capacitor in the PC would not charge within the time allowed. The solution is to power the 324 (and obtain R2's bias voltage) from a higher-voltage power supply. In FIGURE 7, this is shown as a 9-volt battery, but any source of between 7.5 and 30 volts DC will do; the current required is less than 1 mA If this circuit is built on the prototyping area of the PC Game Control Adapter Card, the PC's positive 12-volt supply can be tapped.
FIGURE 8: Substitute For 9-Volt Battery In Figure 7
This circuit allows the voltmeter to be run from the 5-volt power available at the joystick pins. The ICL 7660, operating as an oscillator at about 8kHz, feeds a voltage doubler and
outputs about 9 volts from the input.
FIGURE 8 shows a more subtle solution that enables the whole circuit to run off the 5-volt power available at the joystick port pins. An ICL 7660 voltage converter IC, operating as an oscillator at about 8 kHz, feeds a voltage doubler to give about 9 volts out from 5 volts in. The output voltage is slightly higher if a type 1N54 or equivalent germanium diodes are used, although silicon signal diodes (1N9l4, 1N4148) are suitable.
The component values in the deluxe PC voltmeter are not highly critical, but it is good to use 5—percent resistors of the values specified. R4 and R5 should be well matched. R6 controls the range of readings obtained; adjust it to get STICK(0) to equal about 200 or 220 for 0 volts input, and below 50 for the highest voltage to be measured. The transistors can be any small signal silicon type (one NPN, one PNP), preferably with gain (beta) above 50. The circuit is designed to virtually cancel out variations in transistor gain.
Used with VOLT.BAS, the deluxe model PC voltmeter performs impressively. Using a breadboarded version of this circuit, 1 obtained 0.01-volt resolution for readings under 1 volt, 0.03-volt resolution up to 2 volts, and 0.1-volt resolution up to 4 volts. After calibration at 0 and 5.2 volts, the deluxe PC voltmeter agreed with my Micronta digital multimeter to within 002 volts, resolution permitting, over the entire 0-to-5-volt range—I am now not certain which of the two is the more accurate!
One precaution: the input of the 324 sources a small current that can be as high as 500 nanoamperes, though 20 nanoamperes is more typical. This can distort readings of extremely high impedance voltage sources, such as the charge on a capacitor. A 1-megaohm resistor across the input greatly reduces this effect and makes possible readings through a standard oscilloscope probe in either the 1:1 or 1:10 configuration. Alternatively, the input voltage range can be extended with a voltage divider.
LISTING 5: OSCILL.BAS
OSCILL.BAS (LISTING 5) plots a graph of voltage against time, functioning like a chart recorder or slow, single-sweep oscilloscope. The front end is exactly like the PC voltmeter and can be used with any of the same circuits, but the results are displayed as a graph of voltage against time. A sweep takes about nine seconds and could be slowed down by inserting delay loops. (The PC takes the same time to evaluate STICK(0) whether the capacitor charges slowly or quickly; if this were not so, the joystick would be more responsive at one end of its range).
FIGURE 9a: PC Oscilloscope Circuit, 1Hz Square Wave
FIGURE 9b: PC Oscilloscope Circuit, Capacitor Charging Curve
These figures display the output from OSCILL.BAS (LISTING 5) taken with the
deluxe model PC voltmeter circuit, illustrated in FIGURE 7. The top figure shows
a l-Hz square wave; the lower figure shows the charging curve of a capacitor.
The drawings in FIGURE 9 show the PC oscilloscope's interpretations of, respectively, a 1-Hz square wave and the charging curve of a capacitor, taken with the deluxe model PC voltmeter circuit. The bottom figure shows how the resolution is highest at low voltages.
This PC oscilloscope program is only the beginning. With proper programming, the PC can do far more than any ordinary oscilloscope. It could generate logarithmic scales on one or both axes, mathematically transform the data before displaying it, automatically cut out long, monotonous stretches from the waveform, store the readings, or even plot calculated values against measured ones on the screen. The PC costs little more than a good chart recorder and is a lot more versatile. It can be the most powerful piece of equipment in the laboratory.
Michael A Covington conducts research in artificial intelligence and supercomputer applications at the University of Georgia.