text:
\section{Introduction}

We present a short overview on the extragalactic
background radiation from radio to X-rays,
with an eye to the relation to galaxy formation. The emphasis is on
astrophysical (as opposed to cosmological) backgrounds. In particular,
we will only cursorily deal with the cosmic microwave background (CMB)
and with reference only to spectral distortions and anisotropies due to
gas processes at the formation of collapsed structures.

\section{The radio background}

The extragalactic radio background has received little attention in the last
25 years, while the interest of radio astronomers was shifted on one side
towards accurate measurements of the CMB and, on the
other side, towards deeper and deeper surveys. In fact, it may well be
that most of the extragalactic radio background has already been resolved
into sources. Nevertheless, improved determinations of the intensity of
the radio background are still of considerable interest, for at least
three reasons: i)
a significant, or even large, fraction of it may not come from discrete
sources at all but from emission of diffuse intergalactic or pre-galactic
material; ii)
even if all the background is actually attributable to discrete sources,
an indefinite fraction of them may be too faint to be detected even in the
deepest surveys;
ii) the integrated emission of extragalactic sources and from a pre-- or
inter--galactic medium constitutes a ``foreground'' signal which needs to
be determined and subtracted out to infer the CMB spectrum.

Unfortunately, its intensity is difficult to measure because it is swamped
by the non thermal
radiation of our own Galaxy and/or by the CMB (the minimum sky brigthness
at 178 MHz is $\simeq 80\,$K, while that of the isotropic component
is estimated to be in the range 15--37 K: Longair \& Sunyaev 1971).
However, improving such estimates is possible even with the
classic ``T-T plot'' method.

The wealth of data on source counts and related statistics at many frequencies
(notably at 1.4 and 5 GHz where counts have been determined down to
$\sim 10\mu$Jy) makes possible direct estimates of the
contributions  from extragalactic
sources. At 178 MHz the  result is $\simeq
22\,$K; $\simeq 60\%$ of the flux comes from radiogalaxies and
quasars, the remaining part from sub-mJy radio sources, a large fraction of
which is likely to be made up by active star-forming galaxies.

At high frequencies, the radio background is dominated by compact sources,
which are generally QSO's. Preliminary identifications of
sources detected by the EGRET instrument on the Compton Observatory
seem to indicate that compact radio quasars also dominate the
extragalactic $\gamma$-ray sky (Bignami 1992). Their
$\gamma$-ray to radio flux ratios  are generally
well above the corresponding ratio of background intensities
[$(\nu I_\nu)_{{\rm bkg,}\, 100\,{\rm MeV}}/(\nu I_\nu)_{{\rm bkg,}\, 10\,
{\rm GHz}}\simeq 5$] suggesting that this kind
of sources may
be the dominant contributors to the $\gamma$-ray background.

\section{The far-IR/sub--mm background}

\subsection{Comptonization distortions of the CMB}

A significant sub-mm excess can be produced by comptonization of microwave
photons off hot electrons.
An order of magnitude estimate of CMB spectral distortions
expected in different scenarios can be easily obtained by scaling the
well known result that an intergalactic medium (IGM)
having a kinetic energy density, referred
to the present time, $\epsilon_{\rm IGM}(z=0) \approx 10^{-13}\,
\hbox{erg}\,\hbox{cm}^{-3}$ ($H_0 = 50$), sufficient to produce the XRB, yields
$y = \int(kT_e/mc^2)n_e \sigma_Tc\,dt \approx 10^{-2}$ (Field \& Perrenod
1977).
Well known energy sources include:

\begin{itemize}

\item {\it Stellar nucleosynthesis}. The present average density of metals
in observed galaxies is estimated to be (Songaila et al. 1990):
$6\times 10^{-5} < (H_0/50)^2 \Omega < 2\times 10^{-4}$. If the
average density of helium synthesized in stars is $\Omega_{He} \simeq
3\Omega_Z$, the energy density produced by stellar nucleosynthesis is
$\epsilon_\star(z=0) \approx 2\hbox{--}6 \times 10^{-15}\,
\hbox{erg}\,\hbox{cm}^{-3}$ ($z_\star \simeq 2$). Only a fraction of this
contributes to heating of the IGM.

\item {\it Binding energy}. The binding energy of baryons in galaxies is
$\epsilon_{b}(z=0) \simeq \frac1/2 \rho_b v^2(1+z_{\rm coll})^{-1}
\approx 2\times 10^{-18} [10/(1+z_{\rm coll})]\,
\hbox{erg}\,\hbox{cm}^{-3}$. The energy density associated with larger
scale structure is probably of the same order.

\item {\it Nuclear activity}. The
energy density produced by AGNs, estimated from B counts assuming
a ratio of bolometric to B flux $\kappa = 30$
and an effective redshift $z_{\rm AGN} = 1.5$ is
(Padovani et al. 1990): ${\epsilon_{\rm AGN}(z=0) \approx 5\times 10^{-16}\,
\hbox{erg}\,\hbox{cm}^{-3}}$,
about \frac1/6 of which is in the form of ionizing photons.

\end{itemize}

Although all the above values are highly uncertain, it appears likely,
also in view of the primordial nucleosynthesis constraint ($\Omega_b
\lsim 0.1$), that the amount of energy that can have been released
by well established energy sources to heat up the IGM is bounded by
$\epsilon_{\rm IGM}(z=0) \lsim
{\rm few} \times 10^{-15}\,\hbox{erg}\,\hbox{cm}^{-3}$, so that
$y$ is expected to be smaller (and possibly much smaller)
than  ${\rm few} \times 10^{-4}$.

Detailed calculations of comptonization distortions from gas heated
during the formation of large scale structures have been carried out
by Cen \& Ostriker (1992), Cavaliere et al. (1991), Markevitch et al. (1992),
and others.

Inhomogeneities of the IGM will translate into CMB {\it fluctuations}
$\Delta T/T \sim y/\sqrt{N}$, $N$ being the effective number of blobs
per beam. Detailed maps of fluctuations expected in the framework of
self similar evolution of clusters of galaxies have been produced by
Markevitch et al. (1992).

Fluctuations $\delta T/T \sim 10^{-5}$ on scales $\theta \sim 2'$ may be
expected from correlated motions of plasma concentrated in young galaxies
or pre-galactic star clusters; anisotropies of similar or somewhat larger
amplitude but on smaller scales ($\theta \sim 3\Omega\,$arc sec) can be
produced by scattering of microwave photons by moving plasma in young
galaxies (Peebles 1990).

\subsection{Astrophysical backgrounds}

A particularly intense  far-IR/sub--mm background is predicted if
a large fraction of the hard XRB comes from starburst galaxies (Griffiths
\& Padovani 1990), owing to the relatively low efficiency of these
sources in producing high energy photons.
{\it Einstein Observatory} data indicate that
they generally have $(\nu I_\nu)_{\rm 2 keV}/(\nu I_\nu)_{60
\mu{\rm m}}  \lsim 10^{-4}$ (Fabbiano 1990). Thus models implying that
they make up a
large fraction of the hard XRB, might face problems with
the upper limits on the far-IR isotropic flux
as well as with energy constraints following from
estimates of the density of metals in galaxies (cf. De Zotti et al. 1991).

Things turn out to be more or less right
if the active starforming phases make up $\simeq 10\%$ of the XRB at 2 keV.
The contribution at lower energies might well be significantly higher
if these sources have the steep soft X-ray spectra
indicated by ROSAT data (Boller et al. 1992).

\medskip\noindent
A substantial far-IR/sub-mm background is, however, expected
also from galaxies directly detected in very deep optical
and near-IR surveys. The integrated flux corresponding to
direct counts in the wavelength range $\lambda =$3200--10000 {\AA} is
(Tyson 1990) $\nu I_\nu \simeq 10^{-9}\,\hbox{erg}\,\hbox{cm}^{-2}\,
\hbox{s}^{-1}\,\hbox{deg}^{-2}$
i.e. $\simeq 5\times 10^{-3}(\nu I_\nu)_{{\rm CMBpeak}}$.
The observed flattening of the counts suggests that the total contribution
of galaxies is not much larger than that.
The local far-IR luminosity density of galaxies is about \frac1/3
of the optical luminosity density (Saunders et al. 1990);
substantial cosmological evolution in the far-IR is suggested by
$60\,\mu$m IRAS counts (Hacking et al. 1987; Danese et al. 1987).
All that boils down to an expected far-IR/sub-mm background due to
directly observed galaxies
$(\nu I_\nu)_g \simeq \hbox{few}\times 10^{-3}(\nu I_\nu)_{{\rm CMBpeak}}$,
peaking at $\lambda \simeq 100(1+z_{\rm eff})\,\mu$m
(Franceschini et al. 1991).

\medskip\noindent
The estimated energy density of known AGNs,
$\epsilon_{\rm AGN} \approx 5\times 10^{-16}\,\hbox{erg}\,\hbox{cm}^{-3}$,
is $\approx 10^{-3} \epsilon_{\rm CMB}$ and
corresponds to a mass density of collapsed nuclei of
$(H_0/50)^2\Omega_{\rm AGN} \simeq 3\times 10^{-6}
(\kappa/30)\linebreak(\eta/0.1)^{-1}$,
where $\eta$ is the mass-energy conversion efficiency (Padovani et al. 1990).
A similar mass density of dust-enshrouded AGNs accreting with the normally
adopted efficiency $\eta \simeq 0.1$ would yield a far-IR background
potentially detectable by COBE. Already available data
on diffuse backgrounds
rule out the possibility that the dark matter consists of black holes
built up by accretion with such efficiency (see Bond et al. 1991).

\medskip\noindent
The possibility that
early structures, at $z \sim 5$--100, could have led to copious star
formation, producing both an intense background and dust capable of
reprocessing it, has been extensively discussed by Bond et al. (1991).
In this case, essentially all the energy produced by nuclear reactions
comes out at far-IR/sub-mm wavelengths. The peak wavelength depends
on the redshift and temperature distributions of the dust but, for
a relatively broad range of parameter values, occurs at $\lambda
\sim 600\,\mu$m.

\medskip\noindent
Measurements of the far-IR background spectrum would be informative on
the birth of galaxies, their chemical and photometric evolution,
the evolution of interstellar dust, the average density of metals in
the universe.
On the other hand, spectral measurements alone will not
identify the sources of the background; measurements of small scale
anisotropies would provide complementary information (Bond et al. 1991;
Peebles 1990).
For example, surface brightness fluctuations would be
suppressed if there is a large contribution from star clusters
not (yet) bound in galaxies; also, if the far-IR background is dominated
by thermal radiation from dust in galaxies, the autocorrelation function
of the far-IR intensity fluctuations directly reflects the galaxy correlation
function.

\section{The near-IR/optical background}

Measurements are difficult because of the intense
foreground emissions. In fact, the observational situation
is still unclear. The tightest upper limits
are already
only a factor of several above the expected contribution from galaxies
and about a factor of 10 above the integrated light from direct counts.
Claims of a substantially more intense
background in some bands are not confirmed by
more recent experiments (Noda et al. 1992).

The flattening of the QSO counts at $B\simeq 19.5$ suggests that
their contribution to the optical/near-IR background is small in comparison
to that of galaxies.

Predictions for a radiating highly ionized IGM at $T\sim 10^4\,$K
are at least two orders of magnitude below the emission from galaxies
(Paresce et al. 1980).

Measurements of the autocorrelation function of
optical and near-IR fluctuations have placed important
constraints on the background intensity.
A determination of the fluctuation spectrum would provide a test for the
presence of sources other than galaxies and measures at different angular
scales would probe the space distribution of sources (see Peebles 1990
and references therein).

\section{The UV background}

Its magnitude has been the subject of dispute for many years
(see Bowyer 1991; Henry 1991).

The first, and still one of the strongest pieces of evidence of an intense
diffuse ionizing flux
is the Gunn-Peterson effect. The lack of continuous absorption
shortward of the Ly$\alpha$ line in distant QSOs implies that the IGM
must be highly ionized up to $z\simeq 4.9$ (Schneider et al. 1991).

The ``proximity'' or ``inverse'' effect (decrease in the counted number
of intergalactic Ly$\alpha$-absorbing clouds in the vicinity of luminous,
UV-emitting quasars) gives an independent estimate of
the ionizing background intensity,
$J_{912} \sim 10^{-21\pm 0.5}\,\hbox{erg}\,\hbox{cm}^{-2}\,\hbox{s}^{-1}
\,\hbox{Hz}^{-1}\,\hbox{sr}^{-1}$
at the hydrogen Ly$\alpha$ edge (912 \AA), approximately independent
of redshift for $1.7 < z < 3.8$ (Lu et al. 1991).

Measurements of the autocorrelation function of intensity fluctuations
in the 1400--1900 {\AA} band (Martin \& Bowyer 1989) have allowed to
derive tight upper limits on the background flux.

{\it Young galaxies} could easily produce the UV flux up to 4 Ryd, if
enough radiation can escape from the galaxy (a galaxy undergoing a
burst of star formation is obviously expected to be gas-rich)
and a significant fraction of the metal abundance is produced
before $z\simeq 3$ (Miralda-Escud\'e \& Ostriker 1990 and references
therein).
Also Steidel \& Sargent (1989) have argued that to account for
the observed ionization state of heavy element absorption systems
a harder UV spectrum than produced by hot main sequence stars is required;
on the other hand, such ionization state may also be affected by
local sources of radiation or by collisional ionization
(Miralda-Escud\'e \& Ostriker 1990).

The integrated UV background from {\it observed QSOs} as a function of
redshift has been discussed by many authors (Madau, 1992
and references therein). The general conclusion
is that optically selected QSOs probably
 fail to emit sufficient ionizing flux
to account for the ionization level implied by the Gunn-Peterson test
and for the proximity effect, particularly at $z\gsim 2.5$ where a decline in
the comoving space density is suggested.

AGNs could nevertheless be the sources of the UV background.
The missing contribution may come either from quasars not seen because of
dust obscuration by intervening galaxies (Miralda-Escud\'e \& Ostriker
1990) or by a new class of AGNs such as the reflection dominated ones,
proposed to be the source of the hard XRB (Fabian et al. 1990).
The model discussed by Fabian et al. (1990)
predicts $J_{912} \sim 10^{-21}\,\hbox{erg}\,\hbox{cm}^{-2}\,\hbox{s}^{-1}
\,\hbox{Hz}^{-1}\,\hbox{sr}^{-1}$ at $z\simeq 2$--3.

{\it Protogalactic shock radiation\/} appears to be insufficient
by a large factor to account for the required photoionization (Shapiro \&
Giroux 1989).
{\it Decaying 'inos\/} as possible sources of the UV background are
discussed e.g. by Field \& Walker (1989).

\section{The X-ray background (XRB)}

\subsection{XRB constraints on evolution of the AGN population}

About 50\% of the 1--2 keV XRB has been resolved into discrete sources
in the deepest ROSAT field (Hasinger 1992), implying that X-ray surveys
are seeing directly almost the entire evolution history of X-ray sources
and in particular of AGNs. However, the situation is still somewhat
confusing mostly because data from different X-ray bands yield apparently
contradictory results (see Franceschini et al. 1992 for additional details
and references).

\begin{itemize}

\item HEAO-1 and {\it Ginga} fluctuation analyses
indicate a normalization of source counts
a factor of about 3 above that derived from the {\it Einstein Observatory}
EMSS, a result confirmed by direct {\it Ginga} counts.

\item The energy spectrum of fluctuations in the {\it Ginga} band (4--12 keV)
is consistent with the ``canonical'' AGN slope $\alpha \simeq 0.7$
(but beware of the effect of clusters!) and
substantial photoelectric absorption ($N_H \sim 10^{22}\,{\rm cm}^{-2}$).

\item On the other hand, soft X-ray selected AGNs rather show steep spectral
indices ($\alpha \simeq 1$--1.3) and no significant absorption
down to faint flux limits. Also, there is a distinct absence, at faint X-ray
fluxes, of the low luminosity AGNs which dominate the HEAO-1 A2 LLF
by Piccinotti et al. (1982).

\end{itemize}

Allowing for the presence of different components (a self absorbed
power law plus a soft excess plus a high energy bump) with a broad
distribution of spectral parameters is not enough to account for all the data
(the most critical being the mean spectral index of AGNs detected in deep
ROSAT surveys), as far as we assume: i) continous distributions and
ii) no spectral evolution.

A consistent picture obtains considering {\it two} AGN populations
(see Franceschini et al. 1992 for details).

\begin{itemize}

\item A {\it soft X-ray spectrum population}, contributing $\lsim 30\%$
of local hard X-ray selected AGNs (Piccinotti et al. 1982), of relatively
high luminosity, strongly evolving, as indicated by soft X-ray counts,
with X-ray spectra similar to those of optically selected quasars.

\item A {\it hard X-ray spectrum population}, contributing most of the
AGN in the Piccinotti survey, having a ``canonical'' spectral index,
strong self absorption ($N_H \sim 10^{22}\,{\rm cm}^{-2}$)
plus a high energy bump, relatively low mean luminosity. Since no more
than $\simeq 10$--15\% of EMSS and few ROSAT AGNs can belong to this class,
they should either be evolving very slowly (if at all) or be characterized
by a spectral evolution essentially counterbalancing,
in soft X-ray bands, their luminosity/density evolution. The latter possibility
is favoured by fluctuation analyses;
evolution is required if these sources have to
account for the XRB intensity above 3 keV.

\end{itemize}

{\it Soft}-spectrum AGNs should give a minor contribution to the
XRB above 3 keV (the model discussed by Franceschini et al. 1992 yields
23\% at 3 keV) and might also not saturate the XRB intensity in soft
bands. In fact, at least in the framework of luminosity evolution models,
the decline of their local luminosity function at low luminosities,
indicated by {\it Einstein Observatory} Medium Sensitivity Survey data,
entails a correspondingly fast convergence of the counts and an
integrated flux at 1 keV $\simeq 30$--50\% of the XRB intensity estimated
from ROSAT data (cf. Franceschini et al. 1992).
Additional contributions from {\it soft} X-ray sources
(IGM in groups and clusters, ASF galaxies...) may be required.

{\it Hard}-spectrum AGNs are essentially invisible below a few keV.
They could account for the XRB at higher energies if both their
luminosity and their absorbing columns evolve.

A third AGN population characterized by extreme absorbing columns
($N_H \sim 10^{24}\hbox{--}10^{25}\,{\rm cm}^{-2}$; Setti \& Woltjer 1989)
or by a reflection spectrum (Fabian et al. 1990)
could be the dominant contributor to the XRB above 3 keV. Optically
selected Seyfert 2 may have the necessary properties.
This population, however, is not represented in the Piccinotti LLF
and apparently cannot give a large contribution to fluctuations
measured by {\it Ginga} [Tanaka (1992) quotes an upper limit
of $\sim 20\%$ to this contribution down to
$S_{\rm 2-10 keV} = 2\times 10^{-13}\,\hbox{erg}\,\hbox{cm}^{-2}\,
\hbox{s}^{-1}$], implying
a very low local volume emissivity, so that extreme evolution is
needed to produce a significant fraction of the XRB.

\subsection{XRB constraints on large scale structure }

If the minimum angle, $\theta_{min}(r_0)$, subtended by the
maximum scale of significant clustering is larger than the angular scale
of observations, the autocorrelation function $W(\theta)$ scales as
(De Zotti et al. 1990)
$W(\theta) \propto \theta^{1-\gamma} r_0^\gamma f^2$,
where $r_0$ is the ``clustering radius'' at the present time ($\xi(r) =
(r/r_0)^{-\gamma}$),
$f$ is the fraction of the residual background (after subtraction
of the resolved source contribution) produced by the considered population.

If, on the other hand, $\theta_{min}(r_0) \ll \theta$, most of the
contribution to the observed ACF comes from local sources, which
provide only a minor fraction of the XRB; the above equation
still holds but $f$ has to be replaced by the fraction of the XRB volume
emissivity made up by the considered sources: $j_{\rm sources}/j_{\rm XRB}$.
Particularly tight constraints are obtained for AGNs, whose local
volume emissivity is $\simeq 20\%j_{\rm XRB}$
(Barcons \& Fabian 1989; Mart{\'\i}n-Mirones et al. 1991;
Carrera \& Barcons 1992).

Several analyses of clustering properties of optically selected
quasars consistently indicate a 2-point correlation function consistent
with the $-1.8$ power law form derived for galaxies with a scale
length $r_0 = (14 \pm 3)(50/H_0)\,$Mpc at $z \simeq 1.4$
(Andreani et al. 1991, and references therein).
The availability of large quasar samples has recently made possible
to investigate the cosmological evolution of their clustering. Such
evolution is usually modelled as
$\xi(r,z) = (r/r_0)^{-\gamma}(1+z)^{-(3+\epsilon)}$,
where $\epsilon = 0$ corresponds to ``stable clustering'',
$\epsilon = \gamma -3$  or $\epsilon = -3$ to a clustering radius constant in
comoving or in physical coordinates, respectively, $\epsilon = \gamma -1$
to linear growth for $q_0=0.5$.
Recent studies (Andreani \& Cristiani 1992) support
the ``comoving'' model ($\epsilon = \gamma -3 \simeq - 1.2$), although
stable clustering, favoured by some earlier analyses, cannot yet be ruled out.

But sources with $r_0 > 10\,$Mpc and $\epsilon = -1.2$ would produce
an X-ray ACF exceeding the small scale ROSAT limits (Hasinger 1992), if
their contribution to the XRB exceeds $\simeq 30\%$. Sources
with $r_0 \geq 10\,$Mpc can account for $\geq 50\%$ of the XRB only if
$\epsilon \geq 0$.
Similar constraints apply to Active Star-forming Galaxies.
If their clustering radius is equal to that of normal galaxies
($r_0 \simeq 10\,$Mpc), their contribution to the soft XRB cannot exceed
$\simeq 30\%$ if $\epsilon = \leq -1.2$ and is $\lsim 45\%$ if $\epsilon = 0$.

Mushotzky \& Jahoda (1992) report the detection (99\% confidence)
of a positive ACF at scales $\sim 6^\circ$--$20^\circ$ with $W(\theta)
\sim 3\times 10^{-5}$. Based on the LLFs by Piccinotti et al. (1982),
Danese et al. (1992) find that rich clusters with $r_0 = 50\,$Mpc
yield $W(6^\circ) \simeq 10^{-5}$, while AGNs with $r_0 = 20\,$Mpc
give $W(6^\circ) \simeq 3\times 10^{-5}$. Any class of sources
distributed like normal galaxies ($r_0\simeq 10\,$Mpc)
must have a local volume emissivity $j_{\rm gal} \lsim 0.4 j_{\rm XRB}$.

\medskip\noindent
{\it Acknowledgements.} GDZ wishes to thank the organizers
for having allowed him to attend this very
successful workshop and the Pontificial Academy of Sciences for the
very warm hospitality. Work supported in part by ASI and CNR.

\medskip
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Saunders, W., Rowan-Robinson, M., Lawrence, A., Efstathiou, G., Kaiser, N.,
Ellis, R.S., \& Frenk, C.S. 1990, MNRAS, 242, 318

\noindent\hangindent=20pt\hangafter=1
Schneider, D.P., Schmidt, M., \& Gunn, J.E. 1991, ApJ, 306, 411

\noindent\hangindent=20pt\hangafter=1
Setti, G., \& Woltjer, L. 1989, A\& A, 224, L21

\noindent\hangindent=20pt\hangafter=1
Shapiro, P.R., \& Giroux, M.L. 1989, in The Epoch of Galaxy Formation,
Kluwer, p. 153

\noindent\hangindent=20pt\hangafter=1
Songaila, A., Cowie, L.L., \& Lillie, S.J. 1990, ApJ, 348, 371

\noindent\hangindent=20pt\hangafter=1
Steidel, C.C., \& Sargent, W.L.W. 1989, ApJ, 343, L33

\noindent\hangindent=20pt\hangafter=1
Tanaka, Y. 1992, in X-ray Emission from Active Galactic Nuclei and the
Cosmic X-ray Background, MPE Report 235, p. 303

\noindent\hangindent=20pt\hangafter=1
Tyson, J.A.  1990, in Proc. IAU Symp. No. 139 ``The Galactic and
Extragalactic Background Radiation'', p. 245

\end{document}

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaArXiv


Enjoy the local brand's simple and practical way of making life easier!
As part of its public service initiative, Cherry Mobile, the leading local technology giant, formalized a partnership with the Light Rail Manila Corporation (LRMC) and PHAR Philippines to install charging kiosks at select LRT-1 stations.
"Cherry Mobile, at its core, is all about service and helping Filipino in their daily lives. We wanted to continuously value their lifestyle and ensure that we are making things easier for them by installing charging stations that could be of help as they go about their daily commute," shares Michelle Cinco-Ngu, COO of Cherry Mobile.
Starting August 10, the commuting public can charge their smartphones and devices, regardless of the brand, for free at the different LRT-1 stops given that they bring their own USB charging cables.
"PHAR Philippines is all about making LRT-1 more convenient for our more than 500,000 passengers daily and we are very happy that we have found a consistent partner with Cherry Mobile. Since our partnership in 2016, Cherry Mobile has been committed in making the riders' journey more enjoyable and delightful. We have the full support for the initiatives that they will further bring to the stations, and we are confident that it will facilitate a better riding experience for the commuters." shares Prem Bhatia, Managing Director - Asia, Phar Philippines.


Of all generic domain extensions, .INFO is the only one, which is planned for unrestricted use. Even though domain extensions such as Dot COM and .NET, for instance, are virtually unrestricted, they were intended to be used by commercial entities, Internet Providers and other infrastructure firms. Even though Dot INFO is intended for no particular purpose, it gives the global net community a chance to reserve good domains, which are taken with the other TLDs. For more than a decade since its start in 2001, more than 5 million .INFO domains have been booked.
Because we are partners with an ICANN-approved .INFO domain provider, we can offer you fast .INFO domain registration services. You can also transfer your dot INFO domain to us and administrate it along with your hosting account from one and the same place. There are no stipulations on who can purchase a dot INFO domain and the registration interval is between one and ten years. To prevent unauthorized transfers, .INFO domains have a security lock and a special EPP transfer authorization code, but if you unlock the domain and have its code, you can easily move it over to us. We also offer Whois Privacy Protection services, so your actual names, addresses and emails will be hidden from the public eye.
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This rope clutch has never been used and is in perfect, like new condition!! I can't use it because it is too large for the backing plate pre-installed in my boat.
Will also trade for Spinlock XAS Triple Clutch in good condition.


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Нова-Топола —  населённый пункт (село) в общине Градишка Республики Сербской в БиГ
 Нова-Топола —  населённый пункт (село) в общине Лебане в Сербии

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


text:
ET Water Systems Named a Finalist for the 2010 Red Herring 100 North America Award
June 21, 2010 07:00 ET | Source: ET Water Systems, Inc. ET Water Systems, Inc.
Minnetonka, California, UNITED STATES
NOVATO, CA--(Marketwire - June 21, 2010) - ET Water Systems, Inc., the company that is redefining green technology with the world's most advanced and efficient irrigation management systems for landscapes, today announced it has been named a Finalist for the Red Herring 100 North America Award, a prestigious recognition honoring the year's most promising private technology ventures in North America. ET Water Systems is scheduled to present its award-winning smart irrigation technology at the Red Herring North America 2010 conference on Wednesday, June 23 at 1:30 p.m. EST at the Hotel Del Coronado in San Diego, California.
The Red Herring editorial team selected the most innovative companies from a pool of hundreds from across North America. The nominees are evaluated on both quantitative and qualitative criteria, such as financial performance, technology innovation, quality of management, execution of strategy, and integration into their respective industries. During the several months leading up to the announcement, hundreds of companies in the telecommunications, security, Web 2.0, software, hardware, biotech, and clean tech industries sent in their submissions to qualify for the award. The Top 100 winners will be announced at a special awards ceremony on June 24 at the event.
This unique assessment of potential is complemented by a review of the actual track record and standing of a company, which allows Red Herring to see past the "buzz" and make the list an invaluable instrument for discovering and advocating the greatest business opportunities in the industry.
"We are honored to be selected as a finalist for this year's Red Herring 100 North America Award," said Pat McIntyre, CEO of ET Water Systems. "This award further validates our leadership in this important and growing market, and recognizes the innovative ways we integrate web services and mobile communications with smart irrigation controllers to conserve our limited water resources."
"This year was especially difficult," said Alex Vieux, publisher and CEO of Red Herring. "Despite the global economic situation, there were so many great companies producing really innovative and amazing products that we had a difficult time narrowing the pool and selecting the finalists. ET Water Systems shows great promise and therefore deserves to be among the Finalists. Now we're faced with the difficult task of selecting the Top 100 winners of the Red Herring North America award. We know this year's crop will grow into some amazing companies that are sure to go far."
About ET Water Systems, Inc.
Since 2002, ET Water has been at the forefront of "green" technology solving one of the world's most important environmental challenges through intelligent irrigation management. By integrating the power of the internet with the state-of-the-art in software, database technology, horticulture science and weather data, ET Water is perfecting the science of landscape irrigation with systems that reduce water consumption by 20 to 50 percent or more, simplify administration, improve landscape quality, and reduce runoff pollution. To discover why some of the largest commercial and municipal properties in the world entrust their landscapes to ET Water visit www.etwater.com.
Stephen Drusano
Skyya Communications for ET Water Systems

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


重组 (chóng zǔ) means rearrange, 词 (cí) means word and 句 (jù) means sentence.
You've really done a hard day's work.
They talked together the whole night.
She is beautiful and clever.
He's holding a book in his hand.
I'll call on you again tomorrow.
This photograph is not hung straight.
你好, is it zhong4zu3 or chong2zu3?
Sorry. I made a mistake again.
重组 should be " chóng zǔ ". I have corrected it.


Jamie Gruman, Ph.D., is a Full Professor and Senior Research Fellow in the Department of Management at the University of Guelph (Ontario, Canada). He is also a founding member of the Canadian Positive Psychology Association and served two terms as Chair of the board. An applied social psychologist by training, he is lead editor of the book Applied Social Psychology: Understanding and Addressing Social and Practical Problems. His latest book is called Boost: The Science of Recharging Yourself in an Age of Unrelenting Demands. Jamie's research and writing focuses largely on how we can live and work as richly and effectively as possible.
A frequent keynote speaker, Jamie has spoken for numerous Fortune 500, not-for-profit, and public organizations including General Motors, Deloitte, Ford, Accenture, The Children's Wish Foundation, and Departments and Agencies of the Government of Canada. He often writes for, and is quoted in, the media and has appeared in NBC news, Time, Oprah, Inc, and Fast Company magazines, in addition to the blog of the World Economic Forum.
When Jamie was in graduate school he ate a lot of pasta and made his own tomato sauce. He wanted his sauces to be delicious, not just adequate, so he experimented with countless ingredients to get them just right. But they always fell short of his high expectations. That is, until the day he discovered fresh basil. That one simple ingredient transformed his average sauces into the restaurant-quality creations he always wanted. In an analogous fashion, this blog focuses on the simple ingredients in life and work that allow us to transform our everyday, average lives into the best lives we can live.


text:
CESL Stars - Minen Al-Kafajy
cesl
Read more about CESL Stars - Minen Al-Kafajy
CESL Student Awards Ceremony (Fall 2015)
esl.as.uky.edu/
Read more about CESL Student Awards Ceremony (Fall 2015)
Two A&S Educators Honored With 2016 Great Teacher Awards
Six University of Kentucky educators were recently named recipients of the UK Alumni Association 2016 Great Teacher Award.
Read more about Two A&S Educators Honored With 2016 Great Teacher Awards
UK College of Law, A&S Team Up To Offer 6-Year BA + JD Program
A new collaboration between the University of Kentucky College of Law and College of Arts and Sciences will allow students seeking a law degree to save time and money by graduating in six years instead of seven.
Read more about UK College of Law, A&S Team Up To Offer 6-Year BA + JD Program
Visiting Writers Series: Roxane Gay
As a part of the University of Kentucky's Visiting Writers Series, Roxane Gay visited campus on October 14, 2015. Roxane Gay's writing has appeared or is forthcoming in Best American Mystery Stories 2014, Best American Short Stories 2012, Best Sex Writing 2012, A Public Space, McSweeney's, Tin House, Oxford American, American Short Fiction, West Branch, Virginia Quarterly Review, NOON, The New York Times Book Review, Bookforum, Time, The Los Angeles Times, The Nation, The Rumpus, Salon, and many others. She is the co-editor of PANK. She is also the author of the books Ayiti, An Untamed State, Bad Feminist, and Hunger, forthcoming from Harper in 2016.
Read more about Visiting Writers Series: Roxane Gay
Author of 'The Big Smoke' Visits UK
Adrian Matejka, nationally renowned poet, will read at the University of Kentucky William T. Young Library at 7 p.m. Tuesday, Nov. 10.
Read more about Author of 'The Big Smoke' Visits UK
Conversation with Attorney Chris Green
Mr. Green is a Partner in the law firm of Boies, Schiller, and Flexner, which represented Al Gore in the 2000 presidential election lawsuit, Bush v. Gore. Mr. Green specializes in litigation and trials, and is interested to talk with current UK students about developing the skills necessary to succeed as a lawyer; choosing and excelling in law school; about what an attorney's work is really like; and any other questions you might have about law school or the law.
Thursday, November 5, 2015 - 3:30pm
Niles Gallery, Lucille Little Fine Arts Library
departmentofenglish
lawschool
Historian Roy Foster Details Irish History
Roy Foster, Carroll Professor of Irish History at the University of Oxford, was recently awarded a President's Medal from the British Academy for "transforming the understanding of a period or subject of study" for his book "Vivid Faces: the Irish revolutionary generation 1890-1923."
Read more about Historian Roy Foster Details Irish History
College of Arts and Sciences Inducting Five Into Hall of Fame
Celebrating the accomplishments of distinguished alumni and faculty, the University of Kentucky College of Arts and Sciences will induct five new members into the its Hall of Fame Friday, Oct. 9.
Read more about College of Arts and Sciences Inducting Five Into Hall of Fame


Um, is it really September? Where the heck did the summer go?
Well, I guess it's time for the last post in this drawn out account of my ridiculously long road trip. So, I'll spare you the details and summarize the drive home. We drove. A lot. (1400+ miles) We arrived safely in Tampa. The end.
Now that that's over, I can get on to the good stuff- The FOOD! Let me tell you friends, Vermont has some dang good food! And some pretty awesome farmer's markets too!
Friday night's meal: Courtney and I shared these plates.
On Saturdays in the summer, Burlington has an incredible farmer's market, right in the heart of downtown. After the race, Felipe excitedly told us that the market was open for another hour or so, and that we all HAD to check it out. You don't have to ask me twice! I love farmer's markets! Of course the first thing I did was find a stand selling real maple syrup.
This was from Williston, which is about ten miles away from Burlington. Talk about local!!
I was a bad blogger and didn't take many any photos of the actual market or the other cool stuff we found (honey, wine, maple lemonade, lots of fresh fruits/veggies). I wasn't really feeling well, so I walked around a little before taking a rest on a bench while Felipe and Courtney looked around (Jess was resting in the car). I was really bummed that I wasn't up to walk around more. I ❤ farmer's markets, and really really miss them. (Growing season is kinda opposite here, and the closest market to me happens once a month. And, its not really that good for getting fresh produce- there's like one produce vendor.) After we stocked up at the market (I think Felipe bought a quart of honey!) we headed back to the hotel.
After a shower and a nap, I felt much better and ready for our next excursion. It was close to dinner time, but it was also close to closing time for Ben and Jerry's, which was a short drive away.
It didn't take long for everyone to agree that we HAD to go to Ben and Jerry's.
Everyone says Disney is the greatest place on earth. I think Ben and Jerry's may be a contender for that title.
Clearly, I was excited to be there.
We opted not to take the tour because they weren't making ice cream while we were there. Isn't the point of the whole tour to taste test?? Sheesh. Well, at least I got a hot fudge sundae.
I should have gone with a scoop shop exclusive, but I went with the What a Cluster flavor: Peanut Butter Ice Cream with Caramel Cluster Pieces, Peanut Butter & Marshmallow Swirls. Tasty!
We couldn't leave without taking funny photos in the cut out, over sized pint lid. Courtney's face is great!
After our ice cream appetizer, we headed into Burlington for dinner. Apparently all the other 2000 or so triathletes in town for the weekend also had the same idea. All the restaurants were PACKED. So, we walked around some, put in our name at the American Flatbread, Burlington Hearth, and then headed over to the Vermont Pub and Brewery for some locally brewed craft beer.
Courtney and I decided to try a sampler. We told the bartender to give us six of her favorites, and we'd go from there.
Courtney and I both agreed that the Tulach Leis was the best. I thought that the Forbidden Fruit came in a close second. We had just enough time to get through all of the beers before heading back to American Flatbread.
When we were finally seated, we ordered salads and a large pizza for our group. By the time the pizza came, I was so hungry I forgot to take a picture. Regardless, it was delicious!
The next morning was driving day, so we stopped for our morning fuel.
I was about to check out when I saw this: Homemade raspberry pie. MMmmmhmmmm. I snacked on this all day long.
Someone suggested that we find a few farmer's markets along the way (while we were still far enough north) to break up our drive. So, somewhere in the middle of western Massachusetts, we found a neat little farmer's market, with fresh local produce, and lots of other assorted local goodies like beer, cheese, jelly, and fresh bread. WIN!
I made some quesadillas with this, and they were OUTSTANDING. Smoked cheddar ftw!
I haven't cracked these babies open yet, but the time is coming!
I'm not gonna lie, I left the northeast a little sad. The abundance of farmer's markets made me miss my favorite farmer's market in DC. And the weather we had for the weekend couldn't be beat! It was what I would consider perfect fall weather, but it's definitely not Florida fall weather. I'll have to wait at least another three months before I experience that down here. Sad face. On the bright side, at least I won't have to deal with snow!
As you can tell, I had some good eats on my road trip. Maybe for my next road trip, I'll take a tour of the best farmer's markets in the country. Wouldn't that be great??


How rich is Oleg Aleksandrovich Strizhenov? For this question we spent 4 hours on research (Wikipedia, Youtube, we read books in libraries, etc) to review the post.
Total Net Worth at the moment 2019 year – is about $237,7 Million.
:How tall is Oleg Aleksandrovich Strizhenov – 1,70m.
Oleg Strizhenov was born on August 10, 1929 in Blagoveshchensk, Amur Okrug, Russian SFSR, USSR as Oleg Aleksandrovich Strizhenov. He is an actor, known for The Forty-first (1956), Life in Your Hands (1959) and Pikovaya dama (1960).


As the summer months have blazed on, school foodservice consultant Kern Halls has been crisscrossing the country, helping foodservice teams put on a fresh face for the coming school year. Halls' Orlando-based company, Ingenious Culinary Concepts, accomplished this at Maricopa High School this summer, casting fresh eyes on several elements of the service area: reach-through windows, entryways, windows and condiment stations. Getting these things right can change the whole face of a school food program, Halls has found.
Maricopa (Ariz.) Unified School District Director Suzette Moe was looking for a "spruce up" for the Phoenix-area high school's serving space. "We recommended adding a new condiment bar and new design on the walls and window treatments," Halls says. Check out before-and-after photos that show how a mini makeover can make a major difference in a matter of days.


Sharon Bramlett-Solomon, an associate professor at Arizona State University's Walter Cronkite School of Journalism and Mass Communication, was named one of journalism's top educators in the nation for her inspirational work with students.
Bramlett-Solomon was one of 10 educators to win Crain's NewsPro Noteworthy Journalism Educator honors, nominated by members of the Broadcast Education Association, the Radio Television Digital News Association and the Society of Environmental Journalists.
Bramlett-Solomon has taught many courses in the Cronkite School, including news writing, advanced news reporting, media and society, ethics and diversity, and a mass media theory graduate course. She currently teaches courses in race, gender and media as well as mass communication history.
Bramlett-Solomon is the author of "Race, Gender, Class and Media: Studying Mass Communication and Multiculturalism." Her research focuses on the effects on audiences of media depiction of race and social class. She has published and presented more than 100 scholarly papers in this area as well as articles on media and aging.
In addition to her latest honor, Bramlett-Solomon has received numerous teaching, research and service awards, including the Barry Bingham Fellowship from the National Conference of Editorial Writers Foundation, awarded annually to a journalism educator dedicated to advancing diversity in college journalism education. She also is a recipient of the Professor the Year Award from the Newspaper Division of the Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication.
As part of the Noteworthy Journalism Educator honors, Crain NewsPro also recognized journalism and communications professors from the City University of New York, Columbia University, Ohio University, Syracuse University, the University of Arkansas, the University of Louisiana at Lafayette, the University of Missouri, the University of Wisconsin-Madison and Western Illinois University.


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Brainpoint provides basic Computer Application Course that trains you to utilize an extensive variety of computer application programs and is probably going to be an early course taken in numerous projects. Understudies work on utilizing direction keys and designing material for simplicity of perusing and figure out how to utilize Microsoft Word, Excel and PowerPoint to make introductions, spreadsheets and content records. Sporadically, this course addresses contact composing, expecting you to get composing speed up to a specific number of words every moment, more often than not around 45.
This course gives you skills of encounter planning and distributing Web pages. Where you can add movement and sound to computer illustrations practice the nuts and bolts of Web plan and discover approaches to build up and to make further developed structures. Work area distributing systems are regularly included, and you will work on utilizing programming projects to alter Web pages and set them up for production.
Adobe Photoshop is the halfway level course figure out how to make, organize and alter pictures utilizing Adobe Photoshop. You can additionally alter photographs and adjust them by including or expelling hues, helping, obscuring and making photographs adequate for print or Web distribution. Additionally, upgrade pictures and layer them to make fuller, more extravagant outlines. Photoshop is a propelled level application thus courses for it is normally taken late in the authentication or degree program.
In this propelled course, you'll expand on the essential standards of Web configuration procured through the Brainpoint. You learn and join computer programming dialects in HyperText Markup Language (HTML) and Cascading Style Sheets (CSS) to the configuration, distribute and keep up a Web website. If you are taking this class figure out how to fuse connects to and from other Web pages and furthermore include recordings and pictures, altering them to fit the screen. A few projects incorporate preparing for Adobe in Design, which enables clients to calibrate illustrations, design, and photographs utilizing a complex yet ground-breaking work area distributing the application.
Online courses are expected to acquaint you with different Computer applications can be found in testament and partner's degree programs; potential accreditations incorporate a Certificate in Computer Applications or an Associate of Applied Science in a related field, for instance, Computer data frameworks. Courses are likewise accessible independently and can be assumed in a non-acknowledgment arrange through universities' grown-up learning divisions. Concentrates in Computer applications are valuable for an assortment of employment, including business administrator, clerical specialist, and an assistant. Free online courses likewise exist.
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It examines different Computer applications like MS Office, Internet applications, Operating System, Database Management System, HTML among different subjects.
A man who has finished DCA can apply as a Computer administrator in any firm. You can get set at administrative levels like an assistant, Computer administrator or digital bistro proprietor. You can likewise work at BPO. DCA certificate holder can execute fundamental Computer errands and can likewise turn into an Accountant. You can likewise turn into a Computer educator at an essential level or can likewise possess Computer showing Center for youngsters or grown-ups who wish to learn Computer nuts and bolts.
DCA is a valuable degree as it is 6 months to 1-year recognition course (fluctuates from establishment to organize). You can take in the scope of Computer bundles in a matter of a year. Individuals likewise seek after DCA in the wake of finishing long stretches of their instruction. Housewives, individuals in their mid-twenties or thirties likewise contemplate DCA to sharpen their Computer knowledge. Any individual who needs to clean their PC working aptitudes ought to do DCA as he can get mindful of the essential utilities of computers by Brainpoint Computer Institute.
The computer helps in giving a considerable measure of offices in the instruction framework. The Computer gives a device in the instruction framework known as CBE (Computer Based Education).CBE includes control, conveyance, and assessment of learning. Computer instruction is quickly expanding the chart of a number of PC understudies. There are various strategies in which instructive foundations can utilize a Computer to teach you. It is utilized to set up a database about the execution of an understudy and examination is completed on this premise.
Declaration Course in Computer Application is a specific Diploma course in the area of computer and IT-related applications. The course can be sought after by an applicant after finishing your graduation. The authentication program in computer application is a professional program in the space that goes for enhancing the range of abilities of the alumni to improve your employ ability certifications in the market.
Admission to the course in Brainpoint Institute is made on legitimacy premise that is the total level of imprints acquired by the competitor at graduation or equal level examinations. Schools/Institutes are offering the course request at least half checks at graduation or proportionate level.
Endorsement course in Computer Applications is an aptitude based confirmation which gives operational information and abilities to you in a way with the end goal that they can execute their learning in a reasonable sense. Understudies are furnished with hands-on learning of the subject amid the residency.
Competitors are more likely than not passed graduation or identical level (with Mathematics as a subject of concentrate at 10+2 or graduation level) examination from a perceived college. You will not have any excess or compartment in any of the subjects at graduation or identical level that is yet to be cleared at the season of taking affirmations. Aside from the previously mentioned qualification criteria's different universities/foundations may have their very own extra criteria's which you would need to fulfill with the end goal to take confirmation (like work involvement in the space). If there were an occurrence of saved classification understudies, then you will need to exhibit their reservation testaments issued by the skilled experts with the end goal to profit the advantages material to them by Brainpoint.
Confirmation in Computer application goes out competitor can benefit a decent number of chances as far as your vocation. You can fill in as Trouble-shooter, System Analyzer, DBMS Manager, Network creator, Assistant developer and so forth. To upgrade the range of abilities and work involvement, you can likewise search for a temporary job with great and presumed firms throughout their affirmation thinks about. This would give an understanding of the work culture in the business to the understudy.
To give an all-encompassing perspective of the vocation prospects of the course Brainpoint has tabled certain territories and the individual jobs appended to a similar where you can search for as far as their profession in the wake of getting affirmation.
Computer Applications is a one-year early on a course that will give you the chance to utilize the Computer as a critical thinking instrument. Brainpoint team gives an outline of microcomputer applications starting with a short prologue to Computer ideas and Microsoft Windows XP. On the off chance that time permits, you will learn essential Web page creation and joining of the Microsoft Office applications. The Brainpoint will likewise center on utilizing the Internet in significant class ventures. Computer Applications is a required course, and there are no essentials.
Ground Floor, Ratan Abad Society, T.J. Road, Bhatia Hospital Lane, Opp. Wallace Apts., Grant Road (West), Mumbai - 400 007.


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Home / Hoodies
Templar -Triblend Hoodie Tee
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Templar - Triblend Long-Sleeve Hoody T-Shirt
Those who deny freedom to others deserve it not for themselves.
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Templar, also called Night Templar, member of the Poor Knights of Christ and of the Temple of Solomon, a religious military order of knighthood established at the time of the Crusades that became a model and inspiration for other military orders. Originally founded to protect Christian pilgrims to the Holy Land, the order assumed greater military duties during the 12th century. Its prominence and growing wealth, however, provoked opposition from rival orders. Falsely accused of blasphemy and blamed for Crusader failures in the Holy Land, the order was destroyed by King Philip IV of France.
The Templars were originally divided into two classes: knights and sergeants. The knight-brothers came from the military aristocracy and were trained in the arts of war. They assumed elite leadership positions in the order and served at royal and papal courts. Only the knights wore the Templars' distinctive regalia, a white surcoat marked with a red cross. The sergeants, or serving-brothers, who were usually from lower social classes, made up the majority of members. They dressed in black habits and served as both warriors and servants. The Templars eventually added a third class, the chaplains, who were responsible for holding religious services, administering the sacraments, and addressing the spiritual needs of the other members. Although women were not allowed to join the order, there seems to have been at least one Templar nunnery.
The Templars eventually acquired great wealth. The kings and great nobles of Spain, France, and England gave lordships, castles, seigniories, and estates to the order, so that by the mid-12th century the Templars owned properties scattered throughout western Europe, the Mediterranean, and the Holy Land. The Templars' military strength enabled them to safely collect, store, and transport bullion to and from Europe and the Holy Land, and their network of treasure storehouses and their efficient transport organization made them attractive as bankers to kings as well as to pilgrims to the Holy Land.
See the original Templar Tee
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F*ck Antifa Hoodie


text:
Lookin' for a 'feet'
Tasker Dunham gets beaten up
"You two lookin' for a 'feet'?" said a coarse voice behind. We both pretended not to hear and kept on walking.
We were on our way home from school for what we used to call our 'dinner', now usually 'lunch', and had gone by way of the back lanes so we could take off our school caps. You had to wear your uniform to and from school at all times, including the hideous cap: navy blue, badge on the front, four showy yellow triangles joined on top. Be caught without it and you got an automatic Saturday morning detention. This applied just as much to sixth formers as younger pupils, even those who stayed on an extra year to try for Oxbridge entrance, and they could be nearly twenty! Caps on sixth formers looked even more ridiculous than on us, as nobody ever bought a new one, and so they walked to and from school with tiny first-form caps perched insecurely on huge sixth-form heads.
Nonetheless, we all knew that once out of sight, concealed beneath the high walls of the back lanes and cross streets where you were unlikely to be seen by a teacher, it was safe to put your cap in your pocket, so long as you kept away from where the German teacher lodged. The only danger was that the lanes and cross streets were frequented by secondary modern school boys who flaunted their toughness and maturity by walking home smoking. Modern School boys detested Grammar School boys, considering them anything other than tough and mature.
The voice behind was quiet for a time, so my friend Burling resumed talking about school work. He was usually top of the 'A' stream, and apart from cricket, talked about little other than what he was currently studying. That particular day he had been going on about surds, managing to convince me that the square root of fifty was equal to five times the square root of two, and had then switched to early nineteenth century history, prattling enthusiastically about William Pitt the Younger and George Canning. He could almost convince you it was fascinating, but from the way the disagreeable voice behind had pronounced fight as "feet", I suspected we were being overheard by someone who thought surds were absurd, a pit was where you might get a job, and that canning was what they did with peas and carrots at the factory on the Doncaster Road.
"You two lookin' for a 'feet'?"
There were two modern school boys behind us, both smoking. I recognised one as the notorious Pete Jibson, who although only a couple of years older than us, was one of those lads who by the age of fourteen could pass for twenty. He was heavily built, with greasy hair, dark stubble, a lined forehead and a perpetually malicious expression. I had once seen him ask for three Woodbine in the corner shop. He was definitely not someone you would want to fight. My experience in these situations was that it was essential to be conciliatory; better to lose face than teeth. Unfortunately, Burling lacked any sense of self-preservation. He never went out enough to acquire it.
"I said you two lookin' for a 'feet'?" repeated Jibson.
"Why?" asked Burling, brightly. "Have you lost one?"
This, of course, was not at all a sensible thing say. Jibson pushed forward, picked up Burling by the lapels of his school blazer and rammed him backwards, hard against the wall.
"You clever grammar school c***," he growled, Woodbine still in mouth. He let Burling go and turned to walk away with his accomplice, smirking.
"Charming!" I whispered as they left, but a bit too loudly, and Jibson turned back to give me the treatment.
"What was that, you b******? What did you say?"
"I didn't say owt," I protested in anxious, conciliatory, wide-eyed innocence. "I didn't say owt." I didn't want to sound too posh.
Jibson let me go and turned again to leave. I was just about to give a sigh of relief when Burling, like the idiot he was, piped up, "He said you two were charming."
"Oh! Right!" said Jibson menacingly as he turned back. There was a sudden flash, a heavy thump under my chin, and I staggered backwards to the ground. As I struggled to get up I could see Burling being smashed against the wall again. When Jibson had made his point he flicked the smouldering stub of his Woodbine at my head, and swaggered off.
We waited until they were well ahead before continuing home. Burling had a few scrapes and scratches, and I suffered no worse than damaged pride and a bruised chin. We took the main roads home for the next few weeks, and kept our caps on.
Such fiery animosity between the two different kinds of school is hardly surprising. Only around a quarter of eleven year olds went to the grammar schools, yet they enjoyed typically three times the resources of the secondary moderns. Grammar schools had the pick of the best teachers, and guided their pupils intellectually and culturally towards membership of an elite new middle class. Even their own families could feel left behind. As interests and horizons expanded and widened, old friends at the secondary moderns gradually dwindled away. Although perhaps none of us were truly aware of it at the time, it was social engineering on a grand scale. Grammar schools and modern schools were likely to lead to very different jobs, levels of pay and ways of life.
The vast majority at the secondary moderns were thought to have no future in education and encouraged to leave at fifteen, whereas most at the grammar schools were still in education at seventeen, and usually went on to university, teacher training, the civil service or the professions. Meanwhile, boys from the modern schools found themselves in blue-collar or unskilled jobs, typically in the engineering industries, the building and motor trades, the railways, road transport, shipping, the armed forces, mining and agriculture. Girls might at first go to work in shops or factories, but most saw this as a temporary measure on the road to marriage, children and home making.
At the grammar schools, we enjoyed for free the kind of privileged, public-school style of education some parents now pay tens of thousands of pounds for. We had rugby, cricket and hockey teams, summer athletics sports days, outdoor pursuits such as climbing, rambling and pot holing at the school hut in the Yorkshire Dales, foreign exchange trips to Belgium and Germany, geography and biology field excursions, drama productions, arts, crafts, hobby and debating societies, all led by highly-qualified, experienced, content and enthusiastic staff. We studied for G.C.E. 'O' and 'A' level qualifications across the full range of sciences, humanities, arts and classics. We had well stocked science laboratories with work benches for individual experiments in physics and chemistry, dissections and examinations in biology, all housed in a purpose-built science block. There was a magnificent, fully equipped stage with a proscenium arch and modern lighting rig, and in the hall, a multi-keyboard organ with bass pedals, the preserve of the ancient but gifted head of music who accompanied our uplifting Christian hymns at daily morning assembly. We had a dedicated gymnasium with retractable beams, ropes and wall bars, with vaulting horses, spring boards and basketballs in the overflowing store cupboards. Everything was respected and looked after; there was very little theft or vandalism. They only things the modern school had that we didn't were vegetable plots, greenhouses and chicken pens for lessons in horticulture and animal husbandry.
Even the buildings shouted different levels of privilege; the grammar school's attractive Georgian architecture in Flemish-bond yellow-orange brick, its Queen Anne cupola, the town coat of arms carved over the door, and the foundation date in prominent Roman numerals high above, all scorned the modern school's plain functional redbrick.
The injustices become even more conspicuous when one realises that selection for the grammar schools was not entirely based on merit. Middle-class children, perhaps from homes full of books, culture, intelligent conversation, and the time and space to enjoy them, were far more likely to get through the 'eleven plus' than those from poorer backgrounds, and if there was any doubt about their abilities, ambitious parents would pay for private tuition to ensure they did. One study found that in Nottingham, two thirds of children from one middle class suburb went to grammar school, against fewer than one in fifty from a neighbouring poorer area. In some depressed northern industrial towns, less than ten per cent of all children got in. Then there were children who actually did make the grade, but found their grammar school place turned down by their parents, often on grounds of cost, as they were needed to earn a wage as soon as possible. I also remember two boys from council houses who would easily have passed, except they were discovered to have 'dirty magazines' in their school desks, and in an act of such unbelievably small-minded, puritanical snobbery, were peremptorily denied any opportunity of a grammar school education. They were eleven for goodness' sake! Their places must have gone to two others, innocently unaware of the inexcusable circumstances of their arbitrary good fortune.
Even the ideology of selection at eleven was influenced by the outrageous fraud of the educational psychologist and government advisor, Sir Cyril Burt, who faked his studies of separately-raised identical twins to declare that intelligence and ability were fixed at conception, primarily determined by genetics rather than upbringing. Had he been right, then selecting children for different kinds of education by measuring their intelligence might have been sensible, but the Nottingham findings, mentioned above, are just one of the many pieces of evidence that he could not have been more wrong; such a large difference between communities could never be down to intelligence alone, indicating that they were measuring something other than what they thought was fixed at birth.
Not only was selection so very, very unfair, it was also wasteful of talent. Many late-developers found it impossible to recover from eleven plus failure. They and countless others, given the opportunity, could have succeeded in the grammar schools just as well as their more fortunate peers. I know of several eleven plus 'rejects' who went on to demonstrate this in the most superlative way. One, after a year at the modern school, was thrown the lifeline of a transfer back into the first form at the grammar school, which he then passed through a year late before getting into Cambridge University and qualifying as a veterinary surgeon. Another first form transfer went on to qualify as a solicitor, although he did need two goes at his 'A' levels, which meant he was nearly twenty-one by the time he left the sixth form. Thankfully for him, a new headmaster had by then pronounced the old school caps and uniform archaic. Significant numbers of others too, allowed to transfer to the grammar school at sixteen after having overcome the considerable hurdle of passing their 'O' levels at the modern school, went on to respectable careers. It goes to show that with encouragement and determination, most of us can achieve anything. But how many 'false negatives' and 'late developers' did the system miss?
Grammar schools brought in a never-before, and perhaps never-again seen era of social mobility for those lucky enough to get in. When we had left, we could look forward to a wide range of influential and well-paid careers throughout the country, if not throughout the world, at the highest level our abilities could take us. Despite being from fairly ordinary homes, the opportunities were limitless.
Perhaps today there may be something in the view that we have gone too far the other way. Almost half of young people now go to university, which means that large numbers of recent graduates would never in the past have got through eleven plus. This is undoubtedly a change for the better, but during my later career at one of the less-prestigious universities, I came across some students who simply lacked the basic levels of literacy, numeracy, ability or diligence to gain much at all from degree level study. They didn't seem to grasp what we were doing, or why they were there. "Pass them anyway," said the management, off the record, "because that's what the government wants us to do." I suppose at least now, few can genuinely claim they were not given some kind of a chance. But if comprehensives and academies had achieved their declared aim of providing a universal grammar school quality of education, it seems unlikely that private education would have flourished as it has. Selection and networking through wealth and class now seem even more prevalent.
Jibson and his mate of the 'feet' incident both left school soon afterwards. In all likelihood, Jibson would never have enjoyed a grammar school or university education. I heard he went to work at the local concrete factory making reinforced panels - dangerous, corrosive and life-shortening work. I saw his accomplice again only a few months later. To my consternation he was at our house, whistling and joking noisily with the local firm of decorators as they painted the outside woodwork. I don't think he recognised me, but just in case, I crept in quietly from school each day and made myself scarce until they had all gone home. His job, as a new apprentice, seemed to consist mainly of fetching and carrying things for the more experienced decorators, and pushing an enormous two-wheeled flat barrow around the town, loaded with boards, ladders, paint pots, brushes, turpentine, and so on, which was how tradesmen moved their tools and equipment before they all had vans. He may later have progressed from fetching and carrying to become a qualified painter, perhaps even rising to the heights of grainer, a specialist in creating artificial grain effects in paintwork to give ordinary wood a façade of quality. That would have been his working life, until, that is, we all installed uPVC doors and windows, renewed our interior woodwork with laminated grain-effect surfaces, took up DIY and did our own decorating, and painters and grainers were no longer needed.
Ironically, one of the factors in putting so many tradesmen out of work by facilitating our home DIY efforts, was the availability of a particular, ingenious, folding workbench, initially patented by one of my grammar school near-contemporaries (although it is said that he and the company he worked for may have stolen the idea after seeing it on display at a trade fair). As for Burling, he went up to Oxford to read philosophy, politics and economics. He later became an economist at the Bank of England.
Labels: 1960s, accents and language, drinking and smoking, friends, school
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