text:
in: Central African Republic, French-speaking countries and territories, Landlocked countries,
Member states of the African Union
States and territories established in 1960
Central African countries
1960 establishments in the Central African Republic
Countries in Africa
"CAR" redirects here. For the region in the Philippines, see Cordillera Administrative Region.
Coordinates: 7°N 21°E / 7, 21
Ködörösêse tî BêafrîkaInvalid language code.
République centrafricaine(French)
Motto: "Unité, Dignité, Travail"(French)
"Unity, Dignity, Work"
Anthem: E ZingoInvalid language code.
La Renaissance(French)
"The Renaissance"
Location of Central African Republic (dark blue)
– in Africa (light blue & dark grey)
– in the African Union (light blue)
and largest city Bangui
Mandjia
Mboum
M'Baka
Yakoma
Unitary semi-presidential constitutional republic
- President Faustin-Archange Touadéra
- Prime Minister Firmin Ngrébada (fr)
- from France 13 August 1960
- Central African Empire established 4 December 1976
- Republic restored 21 September 1979
- Total 622,984 km2 (44th)
- Water (%) 150
- 2016 estimate 4,594,621[1] (119th)
- 2003 census 4,987,640[2]
- Density 7.1/km2 (221st)
18.4/sq mi
- Total $3.454 billion[3]
- Per capita $693[3]
high · 28th
low · 188th
WAT (UTC+1)
right[6]
The Central African Republic (CAR; Sango: Ködörösêse tî Bêafrîka; French: République centrafricaine pronounced: [ʁepyblik sɑ̃tʁafʁikɛn], or Centrafrique [sɑ̃tʁafʁik]) is a landlocked country in Central Africa. It is bordered by Chad to the north, Sudan to the northeast, South Sudan to the east, the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the south, the Republic of the Congo to the southwest and Cameroon to the west. The CAR covers a land area of about 620,000 square kilometres (240,000 sq mi) and had an estimated population of around 4.6 million as of 2016. As of 2019, the CAR is the scene of a civil war, ongoing since 2012.[7]
Most of the CAR consists of Sudano-Guinean savannas, but the country also includes a Sahelo-Sudanian zone in the north and an equatorial forest zone in the south. Two thirds of the country is within the Ubangi River basin (which flows into the Congo), while the remaining third lies in the basin of the Chari, which flows into Lake Chad.
What is today the Central African Republic has been inhabited for millennia; however, the country's current borders were established by France, which ruled the country as a colony starting in the late 19th century. After gaining independence from France in 1960, the Central African Republic was ruled by a series of autocratic leaders, including an abortive attempt at a monarchy;[8] by the 1990s, calls for democracy led to the first multi-party democratic elections in 1993. Ange-Félix Patassé became president, but was later removed by General François Bozizé in the 2003 coup. The Central African Republic Bush War began in 2004 and, despite a peace treaty in 2007 and another in 2011, civil war resumed in 2012.
Despite its significant mineral deposits and other resources, such as uranium reserves, crude oil, gold, diamonds, cobalt, lumber, and hydropower,[9] as well as significant quantities of arable land, the Central African Republic is among the ten poorest countries in the world, with the lowest GDP per capita at purchasing power parity in the world as of 2017.[10] As of 2015, according to the Human Development Index (HDI), the country had the lowest level of human development, ranking 188th out of 188 countries.[5] It is also estimated to be the unhealthiest country[11] as well as the worst country in which to be young.[12] The Central African Republic is a member of the United Nations, the African Union, the Economic Community of Central African States, the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie and the Non-Aligned Movement.
1.1 Early history
1.2 16th–19th century
1.3 French colonial period
1.4 Since independence (1960–present)
1.4.1 Bokassa and the Central African Empire (1965–1979)
1.4.2 Central African Republic under Kolingba
1.4.3 Patassé Government (1993–2003)
1.4.4 Civil wars
2.1 Wildlife
2.3 Prefectures and sub-prefectures
3.2 Languages
5 Government and politics
5.1 Executive branch
5.2 Legislative branch
5.3 Judicial branch
5.4.1 Foreign aid and UN Involvement
7 Infrastructure
7.1 Transportation
7.3 Communications
9 Healthcare
10 Human rights
Main article: History of the Central African Republic
The Bouar Megaliths, pictured here on a 1967 Central African stamp, date back to the very late Neolithic Era (c. 3500–2700 BC).
Early history[]
Approximately 10,000 years ago, desertification forced hunter-gatherer societies south into the Sahel regions of northern Central Africa, where some groups settled.[13] Farming began as part of the Neolithic Revolution.[14] Initial farming of white yam progressed into millet and sorghum, and before 3000 BC[15] the domestication of African oil palm improved the groups' nutrition and allowed for expansion of the local populations.[16] This Agricultural Revolution, combined with a "Fish-stew Revolution", in which fishing began to take place, and the use of boats, allowed for the transportation of goods. Products were often moved in ceramic pots, which are the first known examples of artistic expression from the region's inhabitants.[13]
The Bouar Megaliths in the western region of the country indicate an advanced level of habitation dating back to the very late Neolithic Era (c. 3500–2700 BC).[17][18] Ironworking arrived in the region around 1000 BC from both Bantu cultures in what is today Nigeria and from the Nile city of Meroë, the capital of the Kingdom of Kush.[19]
During the Bantu Migrations from about 1000 BC to AD 1000, Ubangian-speaking people spread eastward from Cameroon to Sudan, Bantu-speaking people settled in the southwestern regions of the CAR, and Central Sudanic-speaking people settled along the Ubangi River in what is today Central and East CAR.
Bananas arrived in the region and added an important source of carbohydrates to the diet; they were also used in the production of alcoholic beverages. Production of copper, salt, dried fish, and textiles dominated the economic trade in the Central African region.[20]
16th–19th century[]
Main article: Arab slave trade
The Sultan of Bangassou and his wives, 1906
During the 16th and 17th centuries slave traders began to raid the region as part of the expansion of the Saharan and Nile River slave routes. Their captives were enslaved and shipped to the Mediterranean coast, Europe, Arabia, the Western Hemisphere, or to the slave ports and factories along the West and North Africa or South the Ubanqui and Congo rivers.[21][22] In the mid 19th century, the Bobangi people became major slave traders and sold their captives to the Americas using the Ubangi river to reach the coast.[23] During the 18th century Bandia-Nzakara peoples established the Bangassou Kingdom along the Ubangi River.[22] In 1875, the Sudanese sultan Rabih az-Zubayr governed Upper-Oubangui, which included present-day CAR.
French colonial period[]
Main articles: Ubangi-Shari and French Equatorial Africa
The European invasion of Central African territory began in the late 19th century during the Scramble for Africa.[24] Europeans, primarily the French, Germans, and Belgians, arrived in the area in 1885. France seized and colonized Ubangi-Shari territory in 1894. In 1911 at the Treaty of Fez, France ceded a nearly 300,000 km² portion of the Sangha and Lobaye basins to the German Empire which ceded a smaller area (in present-day Chad) to France. After World War I France again annexed the territory. Modeled on King Leopold's Congo Free State, concessions were doled out to private companies that endeavored to strip the region's assets as quickly and cheaply as possible before depositing a percentage of their profits into the French treasury. The concessionary companies forced local people to harvest rubber, coffee, and other commodities without pay and held their families hostage until they met their quotas. Between 1890, a year after the French first arrived, and 1940, the population declined by half due to diseases, famine and exploitation by private companies.[25]
Charles de Gaulle in Bangui, 1940.
In 1920 French Equatorial Africa was established and Ubangi-Shari was administered from Brazzaville.[26] During the 1920s and 1930s the French introduced a policy of mandatory cotton cultivation,[26] a network of roads was built, attempts were made to combat sleeping sickness, and Protestant missions were established to spread Christianity. New forms of forced labor were also introduced and a large number of Ubangians were sent to work on the Congo-Ocean Railway. Through the period of construction until 1934 there was a continual heavy cost in human lives, with total deaths among all workers along the railway estimated in excess of 17,000 of the construction workers, from a combination of both industrial accidents and diseases including malaria.[27] In 1928, a major insurrection, the Kongo-Wara rebellion or 'war of the hoe handle', broke out in Western Ubangi-Shari and continued for several years. The extent of this insurrection, which was perhaps the largest anti-colonial rebellion in Africa during the interwar years, was carefully hidden from the French public because it provided evidence of strong opposition to French colonial rule and forced labor.
In September 1940, during the Second World War, pro-Gaullist French officers took control of Ubangi-Shari and General Leclerc established his headquarters for the Free French Forces in Bangui.[28] In 1946 Barthélémy Boganda was elected with 9,000 votes to the French National Assembly, becoming the first representative of the CAR in the French government. Boganda maintained a political stance against racism and the colonial regime but gradually became disheartened with the French political system and returned to CAR to establish the Movement for the Social Evolution of Black Africa (Mouvement pour l'évolution sociale de l'Afrique noire, MESAN) in 1950.
Since independence (1960–present)[]
In the Ubangi-Shari Territorial Assembly election in 1957, MESAN captured 347,000 out of the total 356,000 votes,[29] and won every legislative seat,[30] which led to Boganda being elected president of the Grand Council of French Equatorial Africa and vice-president of the Ubangi-Shari Government Council.[31] Within a year, he declared the establishment of the Central African Republic and served as the country's first prime minister. MESAN continued to exist, but its role was limited.[32] After Boganda's death in a plane crash on 29 March 1959, his cousin, David Dacko, took control of MESAN and became the country's first president after the CAR had formally received independence from France. Dacko threw out his political rivals, including former Prime Minister and Mouvement d'évolution démocratique de l'Afrique centrale (MEDAC), leader Abel Goumba, whom he forced into exile in France. With all opposition parties suppressed by November 1962, Dacko declared MESAN as the official party of the state.[33]
Bokassa and the Central African Empire (1965–1979)[]
Further information: Central African Empire
Jean-Bédel Bokassa, self-crowned Emperor of Central Africa.[8]
On 31 December 1965, Dacko was overthrown in the Saint-Sylvestre coup d'état by Colonel Jean-Bédel Bokassa, who suspended the constitution and dissolved the National Assembly. President Bokassa declared himself President for Life in 1972, and named himself Emperor Bokassa I of the Central African Empire (as the country was renamed) on 4 December 1976. A year later, Emperor Bokassa crowned himself in a lavish and expensive ceremony that was ridiculed by much of the world.[8]
In April 1979, young students protested against Bokassa's decree that all school attendees would need to buy uniforms from a company owned by one of his wives. The government violently suppressed the protests, killing 100 children and teenagers. Bokassa himself may have been personally involved in some of the killings.[34] In September 1979, France overthrew Bokassa and restored Dacko to power (subsequently restoring the name of the country and the original government to the Central African Republic). Dacko, in turn, was again overthrown in a coup by General André Kolingba on 1 September 1981.
Central African Republic under Kolingba[]
Kolingba suspended the constitution and ruled with a military junta until 1985. He introduced a new constitution in 1986 which was adopted by a nationwide referendum. Membership in his new party, the Rassemblement Démocratique Centrafricain (RDC), was voluntary. In 1987 and 1988, semi-free elections to parliament were held, but Kolingba's two major political opponents, Abel Goumba and Ange-Félix Patassé, were not allowed to participate.[35]
By 1990, inspired by the fall of the Berlin Wall, a pro-democracy movement arose. Pressure from the United States, France, and from a group of locally represented countries and agencies called GIBAFOR (France, the US, Germany, Japan, the EU, the World Bank, and the UN) finally led Kolingba to agree, in principle, to hold free elections in October 1992 with help from the UN Office of Electoral Affairs. After using the excuse of alleged irregularities to suspend the results of the elections as a pretext for holding on to power, President Kolingba came under intense pressure from GIBAFOR to establish a "Conseil National Politique Provisoire de la République" (Provisional National Political Council, CNPPR) and to set up a "Mixed Electoral Commission", which included representatives from all political parties.[35]
When a second round of elections were finally held in 1993, again with the help of the international community coordinated by GIBAFOR, Ange-Félix Patassé won in the second round of voting with 53% of the vote while Goumba won 45.6%. Patassé's party, the Mouvement pour la Libération du Peuple Centrafricain (MLPC) or Movement for the Liberation of the Central African People, gained a simple but not an absolute majority of seats in parliament, which meant Patassé's party required coalition partners.[35]
Patassé Government (1993–2003)[]
Patassé purged many of the Kolingba elements from the government and Kolingba supporters accused Patassé's government of conducting a "witch hunt" against the Yakoma. A new constitution was approved on 28 December 1994 but had little impact on the country's politics. In 1996–1997, reflecting steadily decreasing public confidence in the government's erratic behaviour, three mutinies against Patassé's administration were accompanied by widespread destruction of property and heightened ethnic tension. During this time (1996) the Peace Corps evacuated all its volunteers to neighboring Cameroon. To date, the Peace Corps has not returned to the Central African Republic. The Bangui Agreements, signed in January 1997, provided for the deployment of an inter-African military mission, to Central African Republic and re-entry of ex-mutineers into the government on 7 April 1997. The inter-African military mission was later replaced by a U.N. peacekeeping force (MINURCA). Since 1997, the country has hosted almost a dozen peacekeeping interventions, earning it the title of "world champion of peacekeeping".[25]
In 1998, parliamentary elections resulted in Kolingba's RDC winning 20 out of 109 seats but in 1999, in spite of widespread public anger in urban centers over his corrupt rule, Patassé won a second term in the presidential election.
On 28 May 2001, rebels stormed strategic buildings in Bangui in an unsuccessful coup attempt. The army chief of staff, Abel Abrou, and General François N'Djadder Bedaya were killed, but Patassé regained the upper hand by bringing in at least 300 troops of the Congolese rebel leader Jean-Pierre Bemba and Libyan soldiers.[36]
In the aftermath of the failed coup, militias loyal to Patassé sought revenge against rebels in many neighborhoods of Bangui and incited unrest including the murder of many political opponents. Eventually, Patassé came to suspect that General François Bozizé was involved in another coup attempt against him, which led Bozizé to flee with loyal troops to Chad. In March 2003, Bozizé launched a surprise attack against Patassé, who was out of the country. Libyan troops and some 1,000 soldiers of Bemba's Congolese rebel organization failed to stop the rebels and Bozizé's forces succeeded in overthrowing Patassé.[37]
Civil wars[]
Rebel militia in the northern countryside, 2007.
See also: Central African Republic Bush War and Central African Republic Civil War (2012–present)
François Bozizé suspended the constitution and named a new cabinet, which included most opposition parties. Abel Goumba was named vice-president, which gave Bozizé's new government a positive image. Bozizé established a broad-based National Transition Council to draft a new constitution, and announced that he would step down and run for office once the new constitution was approved.
In 2004, the Central African Republic Bush War began, as forces opposed to Bozizé took up arms against his government. In May 2005, Bozizé won the presidential election, which excluded Patassé, and in 2006 fighting continued between the government and the rebels. In November 2006, Bozizé's government requested French military support to help them repel rebels who had taken control of towns in the country's northern regions.[38] Though the initially public details of the agreement pertained to logistics and intelligence, the French assistance eventually included strikes by Dassault Mirage 2000 fighters against rebel positions.[39]
The Syrte Agreement in February and the Birao Peace Agreement in April 2007 called for a cessation of hostilities, the billeting of FDPC fighters and their integration with FACA, the liberation of political prisoners, integration of FDPC into government, an amnesty for the UFDR, its recognition as a political party, and the integration of its fighters into the national army. Several groups continued to fight but other groups signed on to the agreement, or similar agreements with the government (e.g. UFR on 15 December 2008). The only major group not to sign an agreement at the time was the CPJP, which continued its activities and signed a peace agreement with the government on 25 August 2012.
In 2011, Bozizé was reelected in an election which was widely considered fraudulent.[9]
In November 2012, Séléka, a coalition of rebel groups, took over towns in the northern and central regions of the country. These groups eventually reached a peace deal with the Bozizé's government in January 2013 involving a power sharing government[9] but this deal broke down and the rebels seized the capital in March 2013 and Bozizé fled the country.[40][41]
Michel Djotodia took over as president. Prime Minister Nicolas Tiangaye requested a UN peacekeeping force from the UN Security Council and on 31 May former President Bozizé was indicted for crimes against humanity and incitement of genocide.[42] By the end of the year there were international warnings of a "genocide"[43][44] and fighting was largely from reprisal attacks on civilians from Seleka's predominantly Muslim fighters and Christian militias called "anti-balaka."[45] By August 2013, there were reports of over 200,000 internally displaced persons (IDPs)[46][47]
Refugees of the fighting in the Central African Republic, January 2014
French President François Hollande called on the UN Security Council and African Union to increase their efforts to stabilize the country. On 18 February 2014, United Nations Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon called on the UN Security Council to immediately deploy 3,000 troops to the country, bolstering the 6,000 African Union soldiers and 2,000 French troops already in the country, to combat civilians being murdered in large numbers. The Séléka government was said to be divided.[48] and in September 2013, Djotodia officially disbanded Seleka, but many rebels refused to disarm, becoming known as ex-Seleka, and veered further out of government control.[45] It is argued that the focus of the initial disarmament efforts exclusively on the Seleka inadvertently handed the anti-Balaka the upper hand, leading to the forced displacement of Muslim civilians by anti-Balaka in Bangui and western CAR.[25]
On 11 January 2014, Michael Djotodia and Nicolas Tiengaye resigned as part of a deal negotiated at a regional summit in neighboring Chad.[49] Catherine Samba-Panza was elected as interim president by the National Transitional Council,[50] becoming the first ever female Central African president. On 23 July 2014, following Congolese mediation efforts, Séléka and anti-balaka representatives signed a ceasefire agreement in Brazzaville.[51] By the end of 2014, the country was de facto partitioned with the anti-Balaka in the southwest and ex-Seleka in the northeast.[25] On 14 December 2015, Séléka rebel leaders declared an independent Republic of Logone.[52]
Main article: Geography of the Central African Republic
Falls of Boali on the Mbali River
A village in the Central African Republic
The Central African Republic is a landlocked nation within the interior of the African continent. It is bordered by Cameroon, Chad, Sudan, South Sudan, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and the Republic of the Congo. The country lies between latitudes 2° and 11°N, and longitudes 14° and 28°E.
Much of the country consists of flat or rolling plateau savanna approximately 500 metres (1,640 ft) above sea level. Most of the northern half lies within the World Wildlife Fund's East Sudanian savanna ecoregion. In addition to the Fertit Hills in the northeast of the CAR, there are scattered hills in the southwest regions. In the northwest is the Yade Massif, a granite plateau with an altitude of 1,143 feet (348 m).
At 622,941 square kilometres (240,519 sq mi), the Central African Republic is the world's 45th-largest country. It is comparable in size to Ukraine.
Much of the southern border is formed by tributaries of the Congo River; the Mbomou River in the east merges with the Uele River to form the Ubangi River, which also comprises portions of the southern border. The Sangha River flows through some of the western regions of the country, while the eastern border lies along the edge of the Nile River watershed.
It has been estimated that up to 8% of the country is covered by forest, with the densest parts generally located in the southern regions. The forests are highly diverse and include commercially important species of Ayous, Sapelli and Sipo.[53] The deforestation rate is about 0.4% per annum, and lumber poaching is commonplace.[54]
In 2008, Central African Republic was the world's least light pollution affected country.[55]
The Central African Republic is the focal point of the Bangui Magnetic Anomaly, one of the largest magnetic anomalies on Earth.[56]
Wildlife[]
Main article: Wildlife of the Central African Republic
In the southwest, the Dzanga-Sangha National Park is located in a rain forest area. The country is noted for its population of forest elephants and western lowland gorillas. In the north, the Manovo-Gounda St Floris National Park is well-populated with wildlife, including leopards, lions, cheetahs and rhinos, and the Bamingui-Bangoran National Park is located in the northeast of CAR. The parks have been seriously affected by the activities of poachers, particularly those from Sudan, over the past two decades.[57]
Main article: Climate of the Central African Republic
Central African Republic map of Köppen climate classification.
The climate of the Central African Republic is generally tropical, with a wet season that lasts from June to September in the northern regions of the country, and from May to October in the south. During the wet season, rainstorms are an almost daily occurrence, and early morning fog is commonplace. Maximum annual precipitation is approximately 71 inches (1,800 mm) in the upper Ubangi region.[58]
The northern areas are hot and humid from February to May,[59] but can be subject to the hot, dry, and dusty trade wind known as the Harmattan. The southern regions have a more equatorial climate, but they are subject to desertification, while the extreme northeast regions of the country are already desert.
Prefectures and sub-prefectures[]
Main articles: Prefectures of the Central African Republic and Sub-prefectures of the Central African Republic
Template:Prefectures of the Central African Republic Image Map The Central African Republic is divided into 16 administrative prefectures (préfectures), two of which are economic prefectures (préfectures economiques), and one an autonomous commune; the prefectures are further divided into 71 sub-prefectures (sous-préfectures).
The prefectures are Bamingui-Bangoran, Basse-Kotto, Haute-Kotto, Haut-Mbomou, Kémo, Lobaye, Mambéré-Kadéï, Mbomou, Nana-Mambéré, Ombella-M'Poko, Ouaka, Ouham, Ouham-Pendé and Vakaga. The economic prefectures are Nana-Grébizi and Sangha-Mbaéré, while the commune is the capital city of Bangui.
Fula women in Paoua
Main article: Demographics of the Central African Republic
The population of the Central African Republic has almost quadrupled since independence. In 1960, the population was 1,232,000; as of a 2016 UN estimate, it is approximately 4,594,621.[1]
The United Nations estimates that approximately 4% of the population aged between 15 and 49 is HIV positive.[60] Only 3% of the country has antiretroviral therapy available, compared to a 17% coverage in the neighbouring countries of Chad and the Republic of the Congo.[61]
The nation is divided into over 80 ethnic groups, each having its own language. The largest ethnic groups are the Baya, Banda, Mandjia, Sara, Mboum, M'Baka, Yakoma, and Fula or Fulani,[62] with others including Europeans of mostly French descent.[9]
Template:Largest cities of Central African Republic
Main article: Religion in the Central African Republic
A Christian church in the Central African Republic.
According to the 2003 national census, 80.3% of the population was Christian—51.4% Protestant and 28.9% Roman Catholic—, 10% is Muslim and 4.5 percent other religious groups, with 5.5 percent having no religious beliefs.[63] More recent work from the Pew Research Center estimated that, as of 2010, Christians constituted 89.8% of the population (with Protestantism at 60.7% and Catholicism 28.5%) while Muslims make up 8.9%.[64][65] The Catholic Church claims over 1.5 million adherents, approximately one-third of the population.[66] Indigenous belief (animism) is also practiced, and many indigenous beliefs are incorporated into Christian and Islamic practice.[67] A UN director described religious tensions between Muslims and Christians as being high.[68]
There are many missionary groups operating in the country, including Lutherans, Baptists, Catholics, Grace Brethren, and Jehovah's Witnesses. While these missionaries are predominantly from the United States, France, Italy, and Spain, many are also from Nigeria, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and other African countries. Large numbers of missionaries left the country when fighting broke out between rebel and government forces in 2002–3, but many of them have now returned to continue their work.[69]
According to Overseas Development Institute research, during the crisis ongoing since 2012, religious leaders have mediated between communities and armed groups; they also provided refuge for people seeking shelter.[70]
Languages[]
Main article: Languages of the Central African Republic
The Central African Republic's two official languages are French and Sango (also spelled Sangho), a creole developed as an inter-ethnic lingua franca based on the local Ngbandi language. CAR is one of the few African countries to have an African language as their official language.[71]
See also: List of African writers (by country) #Central African Republic and Music of the Central African Republic
Main article: Media of the Central African Republic
See also: Central African Republic at the Olympics
Basketball is the country's most popular sport and a good way to connect with its people.[72][73] Its national team won the African Championship twice and was the first Sub-Saharan African team to qualify for the Basketball World Cup.
The country also has a national football team, which is governed by the Central African Football Federation, and stages matches at the Barthélemy Boganda Stadium.
Government and politics[]
Main articles: Politics of the Central African Republic, Central African Republic Council of Ministers, and List of political parties in the Central African Republic
Politics in the Central African Republic formally take place in a framework of a semi-presidential republic. In this system, the President is the head of state, with a Prime Minister as head of government. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and parliament.
Changes in government have occurred in recent years by three methods: violence, negotiations, and elections. A new constitution was approved by voters in a referendum held on 5 December 2004. The government was rated 'Partly Free' from 1991 to 2001 and from 2004 to 2013.[74]
Executive branch[]
The president is elected by popular vote for a six-year term, and the prime minister is appointed by the president. The president also appoints and presides over the Council of Ministers, which initiates laws and oversees government operations. However, as of 2018 the official government is not in control of large parts of the country, which are governed by rebel groups.
Acting president since April 2016 is Faustin Archange Touadera who followed the interim government under Catherine Samba-Panza, interim prime minister André Nzapayeké.
Legislative branch[]
The National Assembly (Assemblée Nationale) has 105 members, elected for a five-year term using the two-round (or Run-off) system.
Judicial branch[]
As in many other former French colonies, the Central African Republic's legal system is based on French law.[75] The Supreme Court, or Cour Supreme, is made up of judges appointed by the president. There is also a Constitutional Court, and its judges are also appointed by the president.
See also: Central African Armed Forces and Foreign relations of the Central African Republic
Foreign aid and UN Involvement[]
The Central African Republic is heavily dependent upon foreign aid and numerous NGOs provide services that the government does not provide.
In 2006, due to ongoing violence, over 50,000 people in the country's northwest were at risk of starvation[76] but this was averted due to assistance from the United Nations. On 8 January 2008, the UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-Moon declared that the Central African Republic was eligible to receive assistance from the Peacebuilding Fund.[77] Three priority areas were identified: first, the reform of the security sector; second, the promotion of good governance and the rule of law; and third, the revitalization of communities affected by conflicts. On 12 June 2008, the Central African Republic requested assistance from the UN Peacebuilding Commission,[78] which was set up in 2005 to help countries emerging from conflict avoid devolving back into war or chaos.
In response to concerns of a potential genocide, a peacekeeping force – the International Support Mission to the Central African Republic (MISCA) – was authorized in December 2013. This African Union force of 6,000 personnel was accompanied by the French Operation Sangaris.[70]
Bangui shopping district
Main article: Economy of the Central African Republic
The per capita income of the Republic is often listed as being approximately $400 a year, one of the lowest in the world, but this figure is based mostly on reported sales of exports and largely ignores the unregistered sale of foods, locally produced alcoholic beverages, diamonds, ivory, bushmeat, and traditional medicine.
The currency of Central African Republic is the CFA franc, which is accepted across the former countries of French West Africa and trades at a fixed rate to the euro. Diamonds constitute the country's most important export, accounting for 40–55% of export revenues, but it is estimated that between 30% and 50% of those produced each year leave the country clandestinely.
Graphical depiction of Central African Republic's product exports in 28 color-coded categories
Agriculture is dominated by the cultivation and sale of food crops such as cassava, peanuts, maize, sorghum, millet, sesame, and plantain. The annual real GDP growth rate is just above 3%. The importance of food crops over exported cash crops is indicated by the fact that the total production of cassava, the staple food of most Central Africans, ranges between 200,000 and 300,000 tonnes a year, while the production of cotton, the principal exported cash crop, ranges from 25,000 to 45,000 tonnes a year. Food crops are not exported in large quantities, but still constitute the principal cash crops of the country, because Central Africans derive far more income from the periodic sale of surplus food crops than from exported cash crops such as cotton or coffee. Much of the country is self-sufficient in food crops; however, livestock development is hindered by the presence of the tsetse fly.
The Republic's primary import partner is the Netherlands (19.5%). Other imports come from Cameroon (9.7%), France (9.3%), and South Korea (8.7%). Its largest export partner is Belgium (31.5%), followed by China (27.7%), the Democratic Republic of Congo (8.6%), Indonesia (5.2%), and France (4.5%).[9]
The CAR is a member of the Organization for the Harmonization of Business Law in Africa (OHADA). In the 2009 World Bank Group's report Doing Business, it was ranked 183rd of 183 as regards 'ease of doing business', a composite index which takes into account regulations that enhance business activity and those that restrict it.[79]
Infrastructure[]
See also: Transportation in the Central African Republic
Trucks in Bangui
Bangui is the transport hub of the Central African Republic. As of 1999, eight roads connected the city to other main towns in the country, Cameroon, Chad and South Sudan; of these, only the toll roads are paved. During the rainy season from July to October, some roads are impassable.[80][81]
River ferries sail from the river port at Bangui to Brazzaville and Zongo. The river can be navigated most of the year between Bangui and Brazzaville. From Brazzaville, goods are transported by rail to Pointe-Noire, Congo's Atlantic port.[82] The river port handles the overwhelming majority of the country's international trade and has a cargo handling capacity of 350,000 tons; it has 350 metres (1,150 ft) length of wharfs and 24,000 square metres (260,000 sq ft) of warehousing space.[80]
Bangui M'Poko International Airport is Central African Republic's only international airport. As of June 2014 it had regularly scheduled direct flights to Brazzaville, Casablanca, Cotonou, Douala, Kinshasha, Lomé, Luanda, Malabo, N'Djamena, Paris, Pointe-Noire, and Yaoundé.
Since at least 2002 there have been plans to connect Bangui by rail to the Transcameroon Railway.[83]
See also: Energy in the Central African Republic
The Central African Republic primarily uses hydroelectricity as there are few other resources for energy and power.
Communications[]
See also: Communications in the Central African Republic
Presently, the Central African Republic has active television services, radio stations, internet service providers, and mobile phone carriers; Socatel is the leading provider for both internet and mobile phone access throughout the country. The primary governmental regulating bodies of telecommunications are the Ministère des Postes and Télécommunications et des Nouvelles Technologies. In addition, the Central African Republic receives international support on telecommunication related operations from ITU Telecommunication Development Sector (ITU-D) within the International Telecommunication Union to improve infrastructure.
Classroom in Sam Ouandja
Main article: Education in the Central African Republic
Public education in the Central African Republic is free and is compulsory from ages 6 to 14.[84] However, approximately half of the adult population of the country is illiterate.[85]
The University of Bangui, a public university located in Bangui, includes a medical school, and Euclid University, an international university in Bangui, are the two institutions of higher education in the Central African Republic.
Healthcare[]
Main article: Health in the Central African Republic
Mothers and babies aged between 0 and 5 years are lining up in a Health Post at Begoua, a district of Bangui, waiting for the two drops of the oral polio vaccine.
The largest hospitals in the country are located in the Bangui district. As a member of the World Health Organization, the Central African Republic receives vaccination assistance, such as a 2014 intervention for the prevention of a measles epidemic.[86] In 2007, female life expectancy at birth was 48.2 years and male life expectancy at birth was 45.1 years.[87]
Women's health is poor in the Central African Republic. As of 2010, the country had the 4th highest maternal mortality rate in the world.[88] The total fertility rate in 2014 was estimated at 4.46 children born/woman.[9] Approximately 25% of women had undergone female genital mutilation.[89] Many births in the country are guided by traditional birth attendants, who often have little or no formal training.[90]
Malaria is endemic in the Central African Republic, and one of the leading causes of death.[91] According to 2009 estimates, the HIV/AIDS prevalence rate is about 4.7% of the adult population (ages 15–49).[92] This is in general agreement with the 2016 United Nations estimate of approximately 4%.[93] Government expenditure on health was US$20 (PPP) per person in 2006[87] and 10.9% of total government expenditure in 2006.[87] There was only around 1 physician for every 20,000 persons in 2009.[94]
Human rights[]
Main article: Human rights in the Central African Republic
The 2009 Human Rights Report by the United States Department of State noted that human rights in CAR were poor and expressed concerns over numerous government abuses.[95] The U.S. State Department alleged that major human rights abuses such as extrajudicial executions by security forces, torture, beatings and rape of suspects and prisoners occurred with impunity. It also alleged harsh and life-threatening conditions in prisons and detention centers, arbitrary arrest, prolonged pretrial detention and denial of a fair trial, restrictions on freedom of movement, official corruption, and restrictions on workers' rights.[95]
The Aka Pygmies living in the Dzanga-Sangha Special Reserve
The State Department report also cites widespread mob violence, the prevalence of female genital mutilation, discrimination against women and Pygmies, human trafficking, forced labor, and child labor.[96] Freedom of movement is limited in the northern part of the country "because of actions by state security forces, armed bandits, and other nonstate armed entities", and due to fighting between government and anti-government forces, many persons have been internally displaced.[97]
Violence against children and women in relation to accusations of witchcraft has also been cited as a serious problem in the country.[98][99][100] Witchcraft is a criminal offense under the penal code.[98]
Freedom of speech is addressed in the country's constitution, but there have been incidents of government intimidation of the media.[95] A report by the International Research & Exchanges Board's media sustainability index noted that "the country minimally met objectives, with segments of the legal system and government opposed to a free media system".[95]
Approximately 68% of girls are married before they turn 18,[101] and the United Nations' Human Development Index ranked the country 188 out of 188 countries surveyed.[102] The Bureau of International Labor Affairs has also mentioned it in its last edition of the List of Goods Produced by Child Labor or Forced Labor.
Outline of the Central African Republic
List of Central African Republic-related topics
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^ In Template:Lang-ff; in French: Peul
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Bibliography[]
Eur (31 October 2002). Africa South of the Sahara 2003. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-85743-131-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=1KBP7QbalX0C&pg=PA185.
Kalck, Pierre (2004). Historical Dictionary of the Central African Republic.
McKenna, Amy (2011). The History of Central and Eastern Africa. The Rosen Publishing Group. ISBN 978-1615303229.
Balogh, Besenyo, Miletics, Vogel: La République Centrafricaine
Further reading[]
Doeden, Matt, Central African Republic in Pictures (Twentyfirst Century Books, 2009).
Petringa, Maria, Brazza, A Life for Africa (2006). ISBN 978-1-4259-1198-0.
Titley, Brian, Dark Age: The Political Odyssey of Emperor Bokassa, 2002.
Woodfrok, Jacqueline, Culture and Customs of the Central African Republic (Greenwood Press, 2006).
Find more about Central African Republic on Wikipedia's sister projects:
News stories from Wikinews
Learning resources from Wikiversity
Country Profile from BBC News
CIA World Factbook entry on Central African Republic
Central African Republic from UCB Libraries GovPubs
Central African Republic at the Open Directory Project
Wikimedia Atlas of the Central African Republic
Key Development Forecasts for the Central African Republic from International Futures
Central African Republic news headline links from AllAfrica.com
Central African Republic at Humanitarian and Development Partnership Team (HDPT)
Johann Hari in Birao, Central African Republic. "Inside France's Secret War" from The Independent, 5 October 2007
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Leo came to Our Pack from the Michael Vick case, and I was lucky enough to later adopt him. Even though he didn't have a good start in life, he made life for others around him better. Just after arriving to us, Leo quickly turned inhumanity into humanity. He gave love that wasn't even given to him.
Leo working as a therapy dog was amazing to watch, surprising to some, and yet to those who know the pit bull breed, not a surprise at all. Leo was the consummate example of true pit bull spirit – despite the life he led before with his former owner, he made a quick ascension to stardom: ace-ing his obedience classes, playing and socializing with other dogs, and revealing himself to be a true ambassador for all.
Leo worked with cancer patients as a therapy dog. He showed kids that no matter what, you can still show love and compassion toward others regardless of how life has treated you. He showed the world that one should not be judged based on what property he lives on but on who you are and what you do as an individual. Many dogs are alive today and many people have smiled because of Leo and his work. He gave a second chance to other dogs that may never have gotten one because of who he was and what he did.
Please join me in remembering the good that Leo has done and pass it on. We've suffered a great loss, but we've also received a wonderful gift in the time we were lucky enough to share with him. Leo accomplished so much in so little time. Thank you Leo, I love you so much and you will never be forgotten … ever.
See Leo in action as a therapy dog at the Our Pack website.
When I saw this on fb over the weekend I cried. I don't know what it's like to lose a furever family member however, the thought paralyzes me. Thank God for you and all who helped Leo and the other dogs of the cruelty case. Leo is and should not be known as one of Michael Vick's dogs but a loving dog that bought joy to you and all whom he came in contact with.
@theprettychic What a beautiful thought, thank you.
Thank you for sharing your thoughts about Leo. He has shown the world what these dogs are truly capable of when given love and compassion. Though I never met any of the dogs rescued from Bad Newz Kennels, they have taught me so much about the love of a pit bull. He was amazing and the work you do is priceless. Thank you. RIP Leo.
I am just devastated with the news of Leos death, what an inspiration he was. I have been following all the Vicktory dogs closely, and always loved Leo,s personality. I hope he is playing with all his buddies in the Rainbow bridge.
Oh bless his beautiful soul! I love this breed so much after finding two pits on the highway two years ago. They are my babies and will be for the duration of their lives.
I'm so sorry to hear about Leo's death. He was truly a remarkable dog. He made the world a better place and today, the Rainbow Bridge is a little brighter because he's there.
R.I.P Leo, sorry about what Michael Vick did to you, and even though I never met you, I'll see you at Rainbow Bridge, find my old dogs Daisy, Casey, and Bella for me, tell them I miss them, they'll be your friends too.
@sillyfox4lyfe How sweet, we are all teary now.
@K9crazy so beautiful. Thank you.


text:
Скопление галактик Пуля (), 1E 0657-558 — скопление галактик, состоящее из двух сталкивающихся скоплений. Строго говоря, название скопление Пуля относится к меньшему из скоплений, удаляющемуся от большего.
Сопутствующее расстояние вдоль луча зрения составляет 1,141 Гпк (3,7 млрд световых лет).

Исследование явлений гравитационного линзирования данным скоплением дало одно из наиболее важных доказательств существования тёмной материи.

Наблюдения столкновений других скоплений галактик, таких как MACS J0025.4-1222, также поддерживают идею существования тёмной материи.

Общие сведения
Основные компоненты пары скоплений — звёзды, газ и предполагаемая тёмная материя — по-разному ведут себя в течение столкновения, что позволяет исследовать компоненты по отдельности. Звёзды галактик, наблюдаемые в видимом излучении, слабо откликаются на столкновение, большинство звёзд испытывает только замедление движения вследствие дополнительного притяжения. Горячий газ двух сталкивающихся скоплений, наблюдаемый в рентгеновском излучении, представляет большую часть барионного вещества в паре скоплений. Газ двух скоплений участвует в электромагнитном взаимодействии, что приводит к существенному замедлению газа по сравнению с замедлением звёзд. Третий компонент, тёмная материя обнаруживается при наблюдении гравитационного линзирования объектов фона. В рамках теорий, в которых тёмная материя отсутствует (например, модифицированная ньютоновская динамика), линзирование должно согласовываться с распределением барионного вещества, то есть рентгеновского газа. Но наблюдения показали, что эффект линзирования сильнее всего проявляется в двух отдельных областях вблизи наблюдаемых галактик; таким образом, получила подтверждение идея о том, что большая часть массы в скоплениях заключена в пределах двух областей тёмной материи, которая проходит сквозь области газа при столкновении. Этот вывод согласуется с предполагаемыми свойствами тёмной материи как слабо взаимодействующей, за исключением силы гравитации.

Скопление Пуля является одним из наиболее горячих известных скоплений галактик. Для земного наблюдателя меньшее скопление прошло центр системы скоплений 150 млн лет назад, создав ударную волну в форме арки, находящуюся вблизи правой стороны скопления, при прохождении газа температурой 70 млн К в меньшем скоплении через газ с температурой 100 млн K в большем скоплении со скоростью около 10 млн км/ч. Выделившаяся при этом энергия эквивалентна энергии 10 квазаров.

Значимость для теорий о тёмной материи
Скопление Пуля представляет одно из лучших доказательств существования тёмной материи и по свойствам плохо согласуется с выводами наиболее известных вариантов модифицированной ньютоновской динамики. Было показано на уровне статистической значимости 8σ, что смещение центра полной массы от центра масс барионного вещества не может объясняться только изменением закона тяготения.

По словам Greg Madejski:

По словам Эрика Хаяси:

Проведённое в 2010 году исследование показало, что скорости столкновений несовместимы с предсказаниями Лямбда-CDM модели. Но уже последующее исследование показало, что согласие между теорией и наблюдениями есть, а несоответствие возникало в том числе вследствие малого объёма моделирования. Более ранняя работа, в которой утверждалось несоответствие параметров скопления и современных космологических моделей была основана на неверном определении скорости падения галактик на основе скорости ударной волны в испускающем рентгеновское излучение газе.

Хотя скопление Пуля предоставляет свидетельства наличия тёмной материи на крупных масштабах скоплений, оно не вносит вклада в разрешение проблемы вращения галактик. Наблюдаемое отношение количества тёмной материи и видимой материи в типичном богатом скоплении существенно ниже, чем теоретическое. Таким образом, возможно, Лямбда-CDM модель не способна описать различие масс на масштабах галактики.

Альтернативные интерпретации
Мордехай Милгром, автор теории модифицированной ньютоновской динамики опубликовал опровержение утверждений о том, что свойства скопления Пуля доказывают существование тёмной материи. Милгром утверждает, что MOND корректно учитывает динамику галактик вне скоплений галактик, а в скоплениях типа Пули устраняет необходимость в большом количестве тёмной материи, оставляя отношение требуемой для описания свойств скопления массы и
наблюдаемой массы равное 2, это расхождение значений Милгром объясняет наличием ненаблюдаемого обычного вещества, а не тёмной материи. Без привлечения MOND или похожей теории расхождение в массе достигает 10 раз. Другое исследование, проведённое в 2006 году, предостерегает от "простой интерпретации анализа слабого линзирования в скоплении", оставляя открытым вопрос о том, может ли в несимметричном скоплении типа скопления Пуля MOND или аналогичная теория корректно учесть эффекты гравитационного линзирования.

См. также
 Abell 520 — похожее скопление галактик, в котором тёмная материя и светящееся вещество оказались разделёнными вследствие крупного столкновения
 NGC 1052-DF2
 Список скоплений галактик

Примечания

Ссылки
 arXiv: A direct empirical proof of the existence of dark matter
 arXiv: Strong and weak lensing united III: Measuring the mass distribution of the merging galaxy cluster 1E0657-56 (Marusa Bradac) Fri, 18 Aug 2006 20:06:48 GMT
 arXiv: Can MOND take a bullet? Analytical comparisons of three versions of MOND beyond spherical symmetry
 arXiv: On the Law of Gravity, the Mass of Neutrinos, and the Proof of Dark Matter
 arXiv: The Bullet Cluster 1E0657-558 evidence shows Modified Gravity in the absence of Dark Matter Brownstein and Moffat
 CXO: Bedeviling Devil's Advocate Cosmology (The Chandra Chronicles) August 21, 2006
 CXO: 1E 0657-56: NASA Finds Direct Proof of Dark Matter Изображение в рентгеновских лучах, видимом излучении и распределение тёмной материи
 анимация столкновения, показывающая, как тёмная материя и обычное вещество оказались разделены .
 Harvard Symposium: Markevitch PDF 36 изображений и слайдов, моделирующих наличие тёмной материи
 NASA: NASA Finds Direct Proof of Dark Matter (NASA Press Release 06-096) Aug. 21, 2006
  Статья SCIENCE NEWS August 22, 2006 Colliding Clusters Shed Light on Dark Matter, включающая анимацию по моделированию столкновения

Скопления галактик
Тёмная материя

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


I can't find any Update for this version. There are just for 64 Bit and i've WIN2003 Server 32 Bt. I've also enough space. If there is an Update ?? Where??? Just for 32 Bit. I'v searched but can't find any update. Thanks for your help.
I'm updating from direct from KA Lab's internet. I've a new License key, which i've installed it too, but i get always the same error. Please help. Thanks.


_ Whilst surfing the internet I found these pictures on a website, it looks to be an Ashley 1172 with a few modifications front and rear.
I also found the original photo's on a car forum in the USA with a note from the person that had taken the photo's saying that the car was on his neighbour's driveway, in a suburb of Miami, USA.
to the photographer and the forum concerned).
_ Looking at the side view this seems to be correct as you can see palm tree's over the fence in the distance also in this side view you can just make out the original rear wing shape of the 1172.
So is this a prototype of an Ashley 1172 for the American market that was sent over for a car show maybe and has it just resurfaced again or someone's home conversion to make it look more American?
_ (All Photo's of the Ashley Sports Racer #3 courtesy of The Dezer Collection Miami).
and secondly because it looked very familiar.
I emailed Dezer about the incorrect name and they promptly changed the advert to Ashley 1172.
The familiarity bit took longer as my photo collection of Ashley cars was not in a very orderly, indexed filing system.
But I eventually found the 3 photo's of the Americanised Blue Ashley 1172 shown at the top of page.
the following points are the reasons for this conclusion.
_ Point 2. The Rear bumper bar still shows the mark where the overriders have been removed.
Point 3. The view in the rear window shows the same suspension tower and boot space cover complete with lock and key.
_ Point 4. The large Amber indicators on the Blue car required large openings in the bonnet, these can still be seen on the restored car although it is now fitted with a smaller lamp unit.
Point 5. The vent on the bonnet is also the same on both (is non standard from the original UK Ashley 1172).
GB License plate number RMD 3, was the body RMD 2. RMD 1001 is obviously a beefed up RMD 1, all numbers made up for a show car, who knows???


* several young males are on the 1830 census but not the 1840. The assumption is that they died between 1830 and 1840. It is possible they were children of friends or relatives simply staying with the James Hill family in 1830.


IDX products set the standard for professionals worldwide and is the world's first company to utilise Lithium Ion power in broadcast applications and the first manufacturer to comply with international safety and environmental requirements.
It is their mission to develop products that professionals can use with confidence and convenience. By offering the highest quality of product, IDX's customers are allowed to operate their equipment as expected and concentrate solely on capturing and creating.


1. Not all trees need pruning every three to five years.
Pruning is a necessity in order to ensure proper growth and harvest. Fruit trees must be pruned to ensure a high quantity and high quality yield. Additionally, flowering trees produce larger and more abundant flowers when pruned periodically. Other trees should also be pruned periodically to ensure proper leaf density and to contain new growth. However, some trees grow slower than others and do not need as frequent pruning. Pay attention to how quickly your tree grows before beginning a pruning cycle.
2. If your tree contains dead branches, you should get it pruned.
A tree with dead branches can be a hazard to your home, business, and to bystanders – especially if situated in an urban area. Dead branches may also signify that your tree is diseased. If your tree has dead branches, call a professional such as the Happy Tree Service of Austin to safely remove the hazard.
3. If fungi, mushrooms, or mold is growing on your tree, you might be in trouble.
If you see fungi growing in your tree branches, this may be a sign of a larger problem. Mushrooms may have taken over the inside of the tree and may have begun the decomposition process. If this is the case, your tree may not be savable, especially if the decomposition process has begun within the main trunk of the tree.
4. Ask about seasonal pricing and discounts.
During the spring and summer, tree growth rates are at a maximum. As a result, landscaping companies are in full swing during these times and may charge extra to compensate. If your trees do not need immediate service and pose no danger to others (i.e. no dead limbs or branches), ask about winter pricing. During the winter, tree services are generally less busy and may offer discounts to encourage business.


In the event of an earthquake or other natural disaster, are you prepared? Everyone should be ready to provide for their own needs for a minimum of 72 hours. Natural disasters can happen any time. Your potential for survival is greatly increased by being prepared. You will find links for emergency preparedness on this page to help you with your planning.
AlertSanDiego- The County of San Diego has instituted a regional notification system that will be able to send telephone notifications to residents and businesses within San Diego County impacted by, or in danger of being impacted by, an emergency or disaster.
ReadySanDiego- County of San Diego's Emergency Preparedness page. On this page you will find information on how to prepare for an emergency.
Community Emergency Response Team- For citizens who want to receive training on how to respond to emergencies in their city. The goal of this program is to better prepare the community for disasters and to help serve neighborhoods when emergency services are overwhelmed.


If it's Thursday, this must be Rome. And this conference must be the Web2 for Development conference, hosted at the FAO in Rome. My impressions of Rome thus far come exclusively from what I can see of the city from the roof of the FAO complex. According to a friend at lunch, this building is where Mussolini planned his colonization of Africa – there's more than a few bad jokes about whether FAO is continuing that work.
One of my pet peeves is speakers who show up only for their session at a conference, parachuting in and giving a talk without understanding the tone of a meeting, the speeches that have come before, the context for their words. Today, I'm that jerk. Given the vastness of the topic – how does the world of web 2.0 intersect with the world of international development – I'm left guessing at how to pitch the remarks.
The talk went well, I think, judging from good questions after the session and throughout the day. Ismael Peña-López, who blogs brilliantly on ICT4D at ICTlogy has good notes on the talk, and Tobias from Kabissa has reflections on my suggestion that interactive voice response systems should be a serious priority for international development. You can check out the slides here if you'd like.
– Thomas Metz from the International Rice Research Institute, who's led implementation of two major web2.0 projects for his group, observes that there's a potential culture clash between the behaviors web 2.0 encourages and the hierarchies that tend to characterize bureacratic organizations and research centers. In organizations where every public utterance needs to be scrutinized by a PR department, it's really hard to encourage open collaboration via a tool like a wiki – Metz regrets that one of his projects was built in a closed, password-protected environment, but it was the only way to make everyone comfortable with the process.
– Kwame Ahiabenu from the International Institute for ICT in Journalism (PenPlusBytes) in Accra, Ghana, makes a persuasive case for the importance of basic tools in online education. His team offers free online trainings for journalists on how to incorporate IT into their journalistic practice and better use IT tools for reporting. The courses are offered via email, and while they encourage the use of fairly complex online tools, they're accessible to anyone who can participate in the email lists, which helps explain their popularity with users throughout Africa, and as far away as Bangladesh and Australia.
– There's a great deal of enthusiasm for the tools of web 2.0, but I worry that people are embracing tools because they're worried about falling behind.
– Those of us who have been working in ICT for development for a while may – or perhaps should – be starting to feel like it's "put up or shut up" time for these tools. We need to get beyond discussions of how these tools might benefit people and get closer towards ensuring they do benefit people.
More reflections when I'm not so sleep deprived, I suspect.
Ethan, I'm surprised to learn that you were in attendance at this conference and only learned about that fact via Nedesanjo's post at GVO today. Don't feel like a jerk who just parachuted in to the conference to deliver a boring presentation as I am sure that your inputs were appreciated by many there.
One thing that I noticed in September while reviewing the Web2forDev website, blog, and wiki is that there were major government sponsors and supporters (i.e. USFAO, the EC/EU, Germany's GTZ)but apparently there were no major Web 2.0 technology companies listed as sponsors or exhibitors for this conference. Does this mean that the Web 2.0 software industry was not informed about the event, not invited to present or exhibit, or not interested?
BRE, I think there might have been some resistance to having web2.0 companies – or companies as a whole – as sponsors to the conference. It might have been percieved that those sponsors were controlling the conference agenda.


text:
Vexillum zebuense is a species of small sea snail, marine gastropod mollusk in the family Costellariidae, the ribbed miters.

Description

Distribution
This marine species occurs off the Philippines..

References

External links
 Reeve, L. A. (1844-1845). Monograph of the genus Mitra. In: Conchologia Iconica, or, illustrations of the shells of molluscous animals, vol. 2, pl. 1-39 and unpaginated text. L. Reeve & Co., London
 Gould, A. A. (1850). [descriptions of new species of shells from the United States Exploring Expedition. Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History. 3: 151-156, 169–172, 214-218, 252–256, 275–278, 292–296, 309–312, 343–348]
 Souverbie [S.M.. (1860). Descriptions d'espèces nouvelles de l'Archipel Calédonien (5è article). Journal de Conchyliologie. 8(3): 311-326, pl. 11]
 Sowerby, G. B. III. (1879). Descriptions of ten new species of shells. Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London. 1878: 795–798, pl. 48.
 Cernohorsky, W. O. & Jennings, A. (1965). The Mitridae of Fiji. Veliger. 8(2): 70-160, pls 13-23.
  Cernohorsky, Walter Oliver. The Mitridae of Fiji; The veliger vol. 8 (1965)

zebuense
Gastropods described in 1844


The Ball Group is a fashion retailer that has stores in Europe as well as its own E-commerce platform. On top of it, their growth comes also from selling on other platforms. How can they manage all this and stay in control?


How much does a simple direct cremation cost in Tacoma?
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Would you like to tell us how we did? Give us feedback here.


Posted in Testimonial, Paleo Diet Blog Articles, Weight Loss Tagged The Paleo Diet, weight loss, fat loss, more energy, lower cholesterol 1 Reply ← Previous Next → Comments to this website are moderated by our editorial board. encyclopedia of geomorphology by fairbridge pdf Diet To Lower Cholesterol Pdf Weight Loss Detox Tea Cvs How Often Should You Detox To Lose Weight cholesterol medications zocor 10 Day Detox Diet Mark Hyman Dr Oz Lemon Orange Cucumber Mint Water Detox My advice is, be very skeptical of magazine and food industry claims about how to lose weight quickly.
Here is how you can use a low cholesterol diet plan to lose weight fast. Here is the list of foods that lower cholesterol and help you live a healthy life. Here is the list of foods that lower cholesterol and help you live a healthy life.


text:
<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/loose.dtd">

<title>Compiler (CONF API Version 6.6)</title>
<meta name="date" content="2018-03-02">
<link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="../../../stylesheet.css" title="Style">

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com.tailf.conf

Interface Compiler

All Known Implementing Classes:

XPathAbrevCompiler

public interface Compiler

Field Summary

Fields

Modifier and Type
Field and Description

static int
AXIS_ANCESTOR

static int
AXIS_ANCESTOR_OR_SELF

static int
AXIS_ATTRIBUTE

static int
AXIS_CHILD

static int
AXIS_DESCENDANT

static int
AXIS_DESCENDANT_OR_SELF

static int
AXIS_FOLLOWING

static int
AXIS_FOLLOWING_SIBLING

static int
AXIS_NAMESPACE

static int
AXIS_PARENT

static int
AXIS_PRECEDING

static int
AXIS_PRECEDING_SIBLING

static int
AXIS_SELF

static int
FUNCTION_CURRENT

static int
NODE_TYPE_COMMENT

static int
NODE_TYPE_NODE

static int
NODE_TYPE_PI

static int
NODE_TYPE_TEXT

Method Summary

Methods

Modifier and Type
Method and Description

Object
equal(Object left,
     Object right)

Produces an EXPRESSION object representing the comparison:
 left equals to right

Object
expressionPath(Object expression,
              Object[] predicates,
              Object[] steps)

Produces an EXPRESSION object representing a filter expression

Object
function(int code,
        Object[] args)

Produces an EXPRESSION object representing the computation of
 a core function with the supplied arguments.

Object
function(Object name,
        Object[] args)

Produces an EXPRESSION object representing the computation of
 a library function with the supplied arguments.

ConfObject[]
getKP()

Object
literal(String value)

Produces an EXPRESSION object that represents a string constant.

Object
locationPath(boolean absolute,
            Object[] steps)

Produces an EXPRESSION object representing a location path

Object
nodeNameTest(Object qname)

Produces a NODE_TEST object that represents a node name test.

Object
nodeTypeTest(int nodeType)

Produces a NODE_TEST object that represents a node type test.

Object
number(String value)

Produces an EXPRESSION object that represents a numeric constant.

Object
qname(String prefix,
     String name)

Produces an QNAME that represents a name with an optional prefix.

Object
step(int axis,
    Object nodeTest,
    Object[] predicates)

Produces a STEP object that represents a node test.

Field Detail

AXIS_ANCESTOR

static final int AXIS_ANCESTOR

See Also:

Constant Field Values

AXIS_ANCESTOR_OR_SELF

static final int AXIS_ANCESTOR_OR_SELF

See Also:

Constant Field Values

AXIS_ATTRIBUTE

static final int AXIS_ATTRIBUTE

See Also:

Constant Field Values

AXIS_CHILD

static final int AXIS_CHILD

See Also:

Constant Field Values

AXIS_DESCENDANT

static final int AXIS_DESCENDANT

See Also:

Constant Field Values

AXIS_DESCENDANT_OR_SELF

static final int AXIS_DESCENDANT_OR_SELF

See Also:

Constant Field Values

AXIS_FOLLOWING

static final int AXIS_FOLLOWING

See Also:

Constant Field Values

AXIS_FOLLOWING_SIBLING

static final int AXIS_FOLLOWING_SIBLING

See Also:

Constant Field Values

AXIS_NAMESPACE

static final int AXIS_NAMESPACE

See Also:

Constant Field Values

AXIS_PARENT

static final int AXIS_PARENT

See Also:

Constant Field Values

AXIS_PRECEDING

static final int AXIS_PRECEDING

See Also:

Constant Field Values

AXIS_PRECEDING_SIBLING

static final int AXIS_PRECEDING_SIBLING

See Also:

Constant Field Values

AXIS_SELF

static final int AXIS_SELF

See Also:

Constant Field Values

FUNCTION_CURRENT

static final int FUNCTION_CURRENT

See Also:

Constant Field Values

NODE_TYPE_COMMENT

static final int NODE_TYPE_COMMENT

See Also:

Constant Field Values

NODE_TYPE_NODE

static final int NODE_TYPE_NODE

See Also:

Constant Field Values

NODE_TYPE_PI

static final int NODE_TYPE_PI

See Also:

Constant Field Values

NODE_TYPE_TEXT

static final int NODE_TYPE_TEXT

See Also:

Constant Field Values

Method Detail

equal

Object equal(Object left,
           Object right)
             throws ConfException

Produces an EXPRESSION object representing the comparison:
 left equals to right

Parameters:

left - is an EXPRESSION object

right - is an EXPRESSION object

Returns:

Object

Throws:

ConfException

expressionPath

Object expressionPath(Object expression,
                    Object[] predicates,
                    Object[] steps)

Produces an EXPRESSION object representing a filter expression

Parameters:

expression - is an EXPRESSION object

predicates - are EXPRESSION objects

steps - are STEP objects

Returns:

Object

function

Object function(int code,
              Object[] args)

Produces an EXPRESSION object representing the computation of
 a core function with the supplied arguments.

Parameters:

code - is one of FUNCTION_... constants

args - are EXPRESSION objects

Returns:

Object

function

Object function(Object name,
              Object[] args)

Produces an EXPRESSION object representing the computation of
 a library function with the supplied arguments.

Parameters:

name - is a QNAME object (function name)

args - are EXPRESSION objects

Returns:

Object

getKP

ConfObject[] getKP()

literal

Object literal(String value)

Produces an EXPRESSION object that represents a string constant.

Parameters:

value - String literal

Returns:

Object

locationPath

Object locationPath(boolean absolute,
                  Object[] steps)

Produces an EXPRESSION object representing a location path

Parameters:

absolute - indicates whether the path is absolute

steps - are STEP objects

Returns:

Object

nodeNameTest

Object nodeNameTest(Object qname)

Produces a NODE_TEST object that represents a node name test.

Parameters:

qname - is a QNAME object

Returns:

Object

nodeTypeTest

Object nodeTypeTest(int nodeType)

Produces a NODE_TEST object that represents a node type test.

Parameters:

nodeType - is a NODE_TEST object

Returns:

Object

number

Object number(String value)

Produces an EXPRESSION object that represents a numeric constant.

Parameters:

value - numeric String

Returns:

Object

qname

Object qname(String prefix,
           String name)
             throws ConfException

Produces an QNAME that represents a name with an optional prefix.

Parameters:

prefix - String prefix

name - String name

Returns:

Object

Throws:

ConfException

step

Object step(int axis,
          Object nodeTest,
          Object[] predicates)

Produces a STEP object that represents a node test.

Parameters:

axis - is one of the AXIS_... constants

nodeTest - is a NODE_TEST object

predicates - are EXPRESSION objects

Returns:

Object

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redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaGithub


Scrollability allows you to scroll through documents in two fundamentally new ways. With Scrollability's gesture-driven scrolling, simply moving the mouse into the upper or lower edges of the window will scroll it in the appropriate direction. With the grab scroll feature, you can invoke a small hand cursor to grab the contents of a window and drag them up and down, just like the hand tool in many graphics and page-layout programs.


Super Eagles goalkeeper, Francis Uzoho has been ruled out of Nigeria's clash against South Africa in a 2019 Africa Cup of Nations qualifier in Johannesburg on November 17 and a friendly match against Uganda at the Stephen Keshi Stadium in Asaba.
Uzoho, who was in goal in Elche's 5-1 loss to Cardiz in a Spanish second division league tie last weekend, has remained Nigeria's number one goalie since dethroning Ikechukwu Ezenwa.
Confirming the reports, the former U-17 goalkeeper stated on his twitter handle that he would be missing in action for four weeks.
Meanwhile, the Super Eagles technical adviser, Gernot Rohr has invited Enyimba international goalkeeper, Theophilus Afalokhai to replace the injured goalkeeper and he's expected to team up with Ikechukwu Ezenwa and Chippa United of South Africa goalie Daniel Akpeyi for the games.


text:
Share this Story: Iranian state TV: Helicopter crash kills 5 in western Iran
PMN World
Iranian state TV: Helicopter crash kills 5 in western Iran
Mar 04, 2019 • March 4, 2019 • 1 minute read • Join the conversation
TEHRAN, Iran — Iran's state TV is reporting that five people were killed after a rescue helicopter crashed in the country's western province of Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari.
The TV says the helicopter was trying to airlift a pregnant woman, but did not make it to her location on Monday.
Iranian state TV: Helicopter crash kills 5 in western Iran Back to video
Pirhossein Koulivand, head of the country's emergency medical services, told the TV three of the five aboard were flight crew and two were rescue workers
Iranian aircraft crashes have been blamed on its old fleet and years of international sanctions over the country's nuclear program.
In 2016, a helicopter belonged to the oil company crashed in the Caspian Sea, killing five onboard. In 2015, four died in a crash of a helicopter transferring an injured oil staffer to hospital from an offshore oil platform.

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


The City Council regularly meets the 3rd Monday of each month at 7 p.m., unless otherwise noticed. The City Council will occasionally hold meetings on other dates and at other times as necessary.
Council meetings are open to the public, and Garibaldi City Hall is ADA accessible. if you need special accommodations please contact the City Manager at City Hall.


A couple of weeks ago, we packed up our London flat and headed up the M11 to Cambridge. It was only mildly traumatic, but did require about twice as much van space as we'd originally envisaged (oops).
The week before the big move, we thought we'd make the most of the quite frankly amazing weather, and make a final trip sans baby to Kew Gardens.
As it was so warm, the rest of London had also apparently had the same idea, but after queuing for about 40 minutes (!), we were in, and free to explore the gorgeous greenery. And daffodils. I love daffodils.
The greenhouses at Kew are one of my favourite places in the whole of London. I could normally spend hours wondering round them, but at 35 weeks pregnant and wearing a fleecy dress and tights, a very short run through is about all I could manage!
I bought this dress from Monki towards the end of last summer but it's had hardly any wear because it was pretty shapeless. Turns out that shapeless is exactly what's required when your stomach contains an ever growing child. Hurray!