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Théodore de Pharan est un théologien chrétien du début du  (mort sans doute vers 630).

Il était évêque de Pharan dans le Sinaï. Il soutint, sous le règne d'Héraclius, la tentative du patriarche Serge  de Constantinople de concilier l'orthodoxie et le monophysisme par la doctrine du monoénergisme. Cette doctrine fut condamnée par le concile du Latran en 649 et le troisième concile de Constantinople de 680/681, qui jetèrent l'anathème contre lui.

Selon les travaux du théologien Werner Elert, il ne serait autre que le moine, puis abbé Théodore de Raithu, qui aurait d'abord été supérieur de ce monastère situé au sud-ouest du Sinaï, avant de devenir évêque de la localité voisine de Pharan. Dans ce cas, avant de se faire avec Serge  l'initiateur du monoénergisme, il aurait été l'un des derniers représentants du mouvement « néochalcédonien », né dans les années 530 et favorisé par l'empereur Justinien, qui prétendait rapprocher la théologie issue du concile de Chalcédoine de celle de Cyrille d'Alexandrie. On attribue à Théodore de Raithu un ouvrage appelé Préparation (en latin : Præparatio ; en grec : Προπαρασκευή), dont la première partie est une histoire des hérésies depuis Mani jusqu'à Sévère d'Antioche, et la seconde partie un exposé de la doctrine chrétienne dans un sens « néochalcédonien ».

Édition
 Franz Diekamp (éd.), Analecta patristica, Rome, 1938 (Προπαρασκευή de « Théodore de Raithu » 185-222).

Bibliographie
  Werner Elert, Der Ausgang der altkirchlichen Christologie: Eine Untersuchung über Theodor von Pharan und seine Zeit als Einführung in die alte Dogmengeschichte, Lutherisches Verlagshaus, Berlin, 1957 (publication posthume).

Références

Théologien byzantin
Personnalité du christianisme au VIIe siècle
Personnalité du haut Moyen Âge par nom
Théologien du haut Moyen Âge

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


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Stephen McNamara
stephen.mcnamara@shearman.com
Stephen McNamara is an associate in the Capital Markets practice. He focuses on international capital markets transactions, with experience across a range of debt and equity transactions. Stephen has acted for both issuers and underwriters, and also has experience in liability management and private placements.
High Yield – Issuers
El Corte Inglés in connection with its inaugural offering of €600 million senior notes.
Ardagh on various financing and liability management transactions, including:
$1.8 billion of notes, consisting of €440 million senior secured notes, $500 million senior secured notes and $800 million senior notes; and
$1.13 billion senior secured toggle notes and €1 billion senior secured toggle notes.
Trivium Packaging in connection with its offering of $2.85 billion of notes, consisting of €625 million senior secured notes, $1.05 billion senior secured notes, €355 million secured floating rate notes and $700 million senior notes.
High Yield – Initial Purchasers
Barclays, DNB Markets, UniCredit, BNP Paribas, BofA Merrill Lynch, Lloyds Bank, NatWest Markets and Société Générale in connection with Thomas Cook's €400 million senior notes offering.
Goldman Sachs, BNP Paribas, Deutsche Bank, Banca Akros, Banca IMI and Raiffeisen in connection with KME AG's inaugural offering of €300 million senior secured notes.
Barclays, Deutsche Bank, BNP Paribas, RBC Capital Markets, Wells Fargo, ABN AMRO, Goldman Sachs, NatWest Markets, Lloyds Bank and SEB in connection with Ithaca Energy's proposed high yield notes offering.
HSBC, BofA Merrill Lynch, Well Fargo, Commonwealth Bank of Australia and US Bancorp in connection with James Hardie's €400 million inaugural euro-denominated senior notes offering.
BNP Paribas, Crédit Agricole and Deutsche Bank in connection with Loxam's €300 million senior secured notes and €200 million senior subordinated notes offering.
Deutsche Bank, BNP Paribas, Crédit Agricole, Natixis and Société Générale in connection with Loxam's €700 million senior secured notes, €450 million senior secured notes and €250 million senior subordinated notes offering.
Investment Grade / Debt Capital Markets
Coca-Cola European Partners in connection with its €400 million notes offering.
Partner Communications in connection with its NIS 225 million debentures offering.
The underwriters (led by BofA Merrill Lynch, Citi, Credit Agricole, Goldman Sachs, J.P. Morgan and RBC Capital Markets) in connection with ArcelorMittal's $750 million notes offering.
The underwriters (led by Barclays, Citi and Morgan Stanley) in connection with Eaton's €1.1 billion notes offering.
The underwriters (led by BofA Merril Lynch, Citi, Credit Agricole, Goldman Sachs, J.P. Morgan and RBC Capital Markets) in connection with ArcelorMittal's $1.25 billion notes offering.
Carnegie, J.P. Morgan, Barclays, ABG Sundal Collier, Nordea and KeyBanc in connection with the proposed initial public offering and NASDAQ Stockholm listing of iZettle AB.
The joint global coordinators in connection with a proposed accelerated bookbuild and block trade on Euronext Lisbon.
Hassan Allam Holding in connection with its proposed IPO and listing on the Egyptian Exchange and London Stock Exchange.
Deutsche Bank, J.P. Morgan, Halyk Finance and Renaissance Capital in connection with ALMEX Holding Group's follow-on offering of Global Depositary Receipts, representing shares in the share capital of Halyk Bank, and listing of Global Depositary Receipts on the London Stock Exchange and Astana International Exchange.
J.D., magna cum laude
B.A., cum laude

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


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Palazzo Gallo è un palazzo nobiliare della seconda metà del XVII secolo sito nel centro storico di Taranto. Sono presenti tre livelli ipogei, uno aperto su via Duomo ed un altro su piazza Monteoliveto ed ambienti di servizio con pozzi e cisterne. In questo edificio venne tenuto il ricevimento di nozze di Maria d'Enghien, vedova del principe di Taranto, con il re di Napoli Ladislao di Durazzo, re col nome di Ladislao I di Napoli.

Note

Voci correlate
Maria d'Enghien

Taranto

Palazzo Galizia

Palazzo Galeota

Palazzo Pantaleo

Gallo


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NEXT: Readers Picks: Food & Drink »
Chapter 2: Food & Drink
After a night in the softest sheets he'd ever slept in, Jake took a tip from the bellboy and headed to Aroma Cafe in San Rafael for an egg number called a shakshuka. He had trouble pronouncing it, but it sure was good.
On the way to Bolinas, Sir Francis Drake was clogged with bicycle enthusiasts—a real Tour de France scene. But it was smooth sailing after that, the Roadmaster lapping up the Shoreline Highway like a kitten drinking milk. Nice country, Jake thought, as the dark redwood forest gave way to ocean vistas. The kind of place a person could lose himself in.
Case in point, he realized after half an hour, he'd missed the turnoff to Bo-town.
Cursing his sloppy work, Jake pulled off the road to ask directions at a tidy little farm. Looking around for an Old MacDonald–type, he was surprised to find a bearded fellow in white spaceman rags walking toward him, like some kind of beatnik Flash Gordon.
"Hey, mac," Jake called out. "Is this the road to Bolinas?"
"Yep. Keep on this road, it's about 10 miles south of Point Reyes Station."
"I just came from there. I didn't see any sign for it."
"Oh, you didn't see it, all right," the farmer said with a laugh. Bees were buzzing his head like Spitfires, but he didn't seem to notice. "The locals take down the sign on the highway every time they put up a new one."
"Are you blowing smoke?"
"It calms the bees."
Jake narrowed his eyes. Farmer Flash was savvy. "I get the picture," Jake said. Could be worse than beach bums and nature freaks, he thought. Sounds like Molly Pemberton had gone surfing in some murky waters.
Jake nodded toward a greenhouse. "Say, what's this outfit here?"
"This is Heidrun Meadery. Come on, I'll give you a taste."
What the hell, it was almost noon. "Not bad," Jake said, draining the glass. "What d'ya know—honey, with a kick." That reminded him, there was a honey-blonde dame who needed finding. "Thanks for the hooch, chief."
When Jake finally pulled into Bolinas, he circled through town and spied a likely place to start asking questions—some longhairs playing guitar on a dock. Just as he got out of his car, two dames in a Volkswagen bus zipped by in front of him, headed out of town. On the roof was a surfboard—mango orange. . . .
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When will Apple fix the Mac App Store?
On its 40th anniversary, 40 things we love about Apple
Day One 2: Journal app users unhappy with pricing and sync options
iPad Pro: Apple's dumb decision to cripple the Pencil in iOS 9.3
Eye on Apple
By Jim Lynch, star Thought Leader, CIO | PT
Eye On Apple covers the latest hot news stories, rumors and illuminating discussions about Apple and its products. Product coverage includes Apple Watch, Mac, iPhone, iPad, Apple Pay, Apple TV.
Should the iOS and Mac app stores have a 15 minute refund window?
Some users would like Apple to add a 15 minute refund window to the Mac and iOS app stores. But Apple might do better by adding usable demo versions of apps in both app stores.
Apple has had a great deal of success with its iOS App Store, and somewhat less success with its Mac App Store. But one of the common problems of both stores is the lack of usable demo versions of apps.
This has led some users to buy an app while still unsure of whether it will do what they need it to do. Sometimes users get stuck with apps that looked good at first but turned out to be duds. And the user ends up frustrated about picking the wrong app.
A 15 minute refund window for the Mac and iOS app stores
One way that Apple could help users avoid getting stuck with unwanted apps is to add a 15 minute refund window to both app stores. That would let users download and install apps, try them out and get an immediate refund without having to go through the headache of contacting Apple to get their money back.
I'll share my thoughts below, but this idea came up in a recent thread on the Apple subreddit and redditors there weren't shy about sharing their opinions about it:
Khoker: "There's far too much noise in the app stores. Just now, I wanted to make an observation on how noisy a particular work environment was. I open the App Store on my iPhone and search for a decimal meter. There are several. Living the dream, right?
Wrong. The problem is that the free ones are garbage and, while the paid ones look nice enough, I have no clue which one I'd prefer to use the most (the decibel example is trivial, any one them will work, but that's not exactly the point).
Note, I have no issue whatsoever paying a few dollars for a polished app. I encourage developers to charge what they feel is fair. At the same time, I don't want to spend $15 between a half-dozen decibel meters to find the one I like the best.
This problem seems so simple for Apple to solve, encourages developers to make better apps, rewards developers who make better apps, and benefits the user at the same time. Has Apple made any public admission as to why they've not implemented a refund window?"
Smpx: "They actually do have an automated refund system for awhile now, it's just not publicized. Basically, go to your app purchase history, then "Report a problem", then click that this wasn't the app you were looking for. It refunds your money automatically and removes the app from your account (so you can't download it again). I've done this to apps I've used for like a week.
I do think they should have an easier system with a refund window, but then they would have to get rid of the current system which effectively lets you trial an app for a much longer period of time."
Nerdwithatan: "Please please please don't do this unless the app is truly broken and unusable. You are actually stealing from developers if you do this since apple takes the full amount of the purchase price not just the 70% we originally get from you.
EllenPoo: "That's somehing between the developers and apple, not the consumer's business. It is obviously unfair that apple charges that much for a refund, but it is more unfair to not be able to get a refund as a consumer. So I will still use that option. Devs aren't running a charity, apple is not running a charity, but consumers also aren't running a charity. And without consumers the developers would be nothing. (trickle up economics yo)"
Owlsrule: "You can get a refund on any app. Pretty sure it's not even just a 15 minute window.
To be fair, that's not the same as a trial window and reflects poorly on a developer to file a complaint about their app and request your money back.
As said above, specifically request the option for trials on Apple feedback. Write that you'd like a way to experience the app before buying, rather than just seeing non interactive screenshots and marketing video previews."
Cyanletters: "What the App Store really needs is actual trials. It takes longer than 15 minutes to really determine if an app is right for you."
More at Reddit
15 minutes might not be enough time for users to evaluate an app
As a short term measure to assist users in deciding if an app is right for them, a 15 minute window isn't a bad idea at all. It would at least help prevent users from being stuck with bad apps that looked good at first glance but then turned out to be stinkers or simply didn't do what the user needed them to do.
But let's face it, 15 minutes is not all that long a period of time. And some apps might require a lot more time to properly evaluate. Obviously the more simple apps would not be a problem in this sense, but once you get past them and into more complex software I can't see 15 minutes being nearly long enough.
I suppose that Apple could extend the refund window to a full hour instead of the shorter time period. That would be a lot more useful when it comes to more complex productivity apps and other software that requires a longer time period to properly evaluate.
But no matter how long the refund window is, it's still really just a stop-gap measure that doesn't deal with the real problem of letting users try out an app before actually buying it.
Apple needs to add the ability for usable demos in both app stores
Instead of a refund window, Apple needs to add fully usable demos of apps to the Mac and iOS app stores. That way a user can download the software, use it for a certain period of time and then pay for it if they want to keep it.
And rather than Apple setting the specific time for an app to expire, each developer could make that decision for himself or herself. Some developers such as those make gaming apps might want a much shorter evaluation time in their demos, while folks that make productivity software might want users to have a much longer evaluation period.
But the bottom line here is that usable demos of apps should be at the top of Apple's priority list for apps in the Mac and iOS app stores. It's somewhat shocking that this still hasn't happened, and it hasn't served developers or users well at all.
Let's hope that Apple has been paying attention and will hurry up and add usable demo versions of apps to both app stores very soon. If not, users will continue to be frustrated and stuck with apps that they don't want, and that's not a good thing for anybody.
Did you miss a post? Check the Eye On Apple home page to get caught up with the latest news, discussions and rumors about Apple.
Jim Lynch is a technology analyst and online community manager who has also written for many leading industry publications over the years, including ITworld, InfoWorld, CIO, PCMag, ExtremeTech, and numerous others.
The opinions expressed in this blog are those of Jim Lynch and do not necessarily represent those of IDG Communications, Inc., its parent, subsidiary or affiliated companies.


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Guernica Editions: Now Open to Manuscript Submissions
Updated March 12th: In spite of not stating this on their website, Guernica makes it clear that they need additional funds to publish books by international authors, either through pre-agreed book purchases, and/or "external funding". They say this is to make up for the money they would lose by not receiving funding by the Canadian…
Arsenal Pulp Press: Now Accepting Manuscript Submissions
Updated October 2020 Arsenal Pulp Press is a Canadian small press based out of Vancouver. They have won the Jim Douglas Publisher of the Year Award (from the Association of Book Publishers of British Columbia), and they have been a finalist for Small Press Publisher of the Year (awarded by the Canadian Booksellers Association) five…
Nobrow Press and Flying Eye: Now Accepting Submissions
Updated January 20th, 2020: They are currently closed to submissions, but they are planning to re-open to submissions with a redesigned process. Nobrow Press is a respected publisher of graphic novels and Flying Eye is their children's book imprint. Flying Eye publishes both fiction and nonfiction picture books. Nobrow Press and Flying Eye are both…
Manuscript Publishers By Category
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We have a good assortment of new Kawai pianos, both vertical and grands, in our Fairbanks showroom.
Why Should You Tune Your Piano?
Fairbanks Piano Center is the authorized dealer for Kawai acoustic pianos and digital pianos in the Fairbanks, Alaska area. We are the only dealer in Alaska for Kawai acoustic pianos. We carry a good inventory of new Kawai pianos and keyboards in our Fairbanks showroom along with an always-changing variety of great quality used pianos.
We believe that after-sales service is important so we offer expert piano repair, tuning and rebuilding. Because of this area's dry climate we specialize in the installation and maintenance of Dampp-Chaser piano humidifier systems.
If it's any aspect of living with a piano, we do it!
Please make an appointment and come see us!


The holidays season is here, and The Law Offices of Clyde Burleson wants to warn Houston about holiday drunk drivers. As a law firm, we want to inform you that December is National Impaired Driving Prevention Month, a time to raise awareness about the consequences of driving under the influence. Due to holiday celebrations, many drivers under the influence of drugs or alcohol will get behind the wheel of a vehicle without thinking about the serious consequences they may cause.
How to Spot an Intoxicated Driver?
What Should You Do When You See a Drunk Driver?
Do not second guess yourself, if you find yourself behind a car that seems suspicious, automatically drive away from the vehicle. Do not stay on the road, drive too closely to the car or try to pass the vehicle because this may result in a car accident. Make sure everyone in your vehicle is wearing a seatbelt in case the drunk driver's vehicle approaches yours.
Does It Do Any Good to Report a Drunk Driver?
Yes, you should report a drunk driver. Do NOT wait to contact your local law enforcement. There might be children or other passengers in the driver's car and their lives are at risk. If you spot a reckless driver make sure to take notice of the license plate, model, and color of the vehicle. First, pull over and away from that vehicle. Then, call 9-1-1, provide the location, and the car's description. Do not risk your life in order to get this information. The information you provide will help police officers identify the driver if he/she were to cause a serious accident down the road.
If you plan on drinking this holiday season, make sure to call a taxi or designate a sober driver beforehand. The Law Offices of Clyde Burleson is warning houston about holiday drunk drivers, and wants you to stay safe this holiday season! If you would like to speak to a Driving While Intoxicated (DWI) Attorney call 713-628-1503.


Students in 2nd through 8th grades can participate in the St. Margaret Mary School Choir under the direction of Mrs. Cheryl Pelzer. The choir leads our sung worship in weekly school Masses. In addition, they perform at select parish Masses, the annual school Advent Concert, Senior Advent Dinner, Spring Arts Evening and other special events throughout the academic year.
Choir students in 5th through 8th grades also have the opportunity to train and sing as cantors. These students are an integral part of school Masses.


Dispensing closure for mixing the contents of two vessels.
A dispensing closure for a vessel comprising a chamber , a vessel interface and an openable barrier intermediate the chamber and the interface, the vessel interface configured for insertion on to a vessel, and comprising a cam mechanism and a hinge arranged such that by virtue of relative movement of the chamber and a vessel, in use, the cam mechanism opens the barrier and permits material held within the chamber to be dispensed into a vessel. The barrier may include an elongate support structure and a closure cap.


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Q: Is there an automated way to generate NuGet package ready for publishing to nuget.org from VS project When I have a .csproj class library project, it already has some NuGet Dependencies and output files. (At least ProjectName.dll).
I've learned that I need to create a .nuspec file (as one of the steps) in order to publish the NuGet Package to a global repository.
.nuspec file will include metadata for the project + dependencies (another NuGet Packages) that are added along with my NuGet Package.
Is the a way (a tool, an app) that will automatically generate a .nuspec file for me, to include at least the dependencies, so I don't have to manually get an ID of each one and put then into .xml?

A: Generating a .nuspec file based on your project is not supported by NuGet.exe but you could write one. I do not know of anything that does this. However did you look at using the nuget pack command line?
nuget pack YourProject.csproj

This will generate your NuGet package file (.nupkg) and automatically add any dependencies for NuGet packages your project references.
You can include extra metadata in your .nuspec or just use the metadata in your compiled project binary.

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaStackExchange


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Science magazines
Astronomy and Cosmology: Cosmology
Any set of beliefs about the overall nature of the universe is a cosmology. Various societies' cosmologies have been shaped throughout history by cultural, religious, philosophical, political, and other forces. The world "cosmology" comes from the Greek words kosmos, order or universe, and logia, speech or discourse about a subject.
Modern cosmology is the scientific study of the overall properties of the universe, including its origin, age, size, structure, composition, and likely future. According to the modern cosmological picture, the universe is finite in size, growing at an accelerating pace, and about 13.7 billion years old. The modern cosmological picture is supported by many kinds of evidence, although some important questions remain unresolved.
Historical Background and Scientific Foundations
From Myth to Cosmos
The earliest speculations about the origin and nature of the world took the form of religious myths. Almost all ancient cultures developed cosmological stories to explain the basic features of the cosmos: Earth and its inhabitants, sky, sea, sun, moon, and stars. For example, for the Babylonians, the creation of the universe was seen as born from a primeval pair of human-like gods. In early Egyptian cosmology, eclipses were explained as the moon being swallowed temporarily by a sow or as the sun being attacked by a serpent. For the early Hebrews, whose account is preserved in the biblical book of Genesis, a single God created the universe in stages within the relatively recent past. Such pre-scientific cosmologies tended to assume a flat Earth, a finite past, ongoing active interference by deities or spirits in the cosmic order, and stars and planets (visible to the naked eye only as points of light) that were different in nature from Earth.
Philosophical speculation, characterized by curiosity and abstraction, was developed by the Greeks during the sixth century BC. Greek philosophers pondered the nature of things, including the causes of the motions and the substance of the celestial bodies. Using the principle of uniform circular motion—motion in a circle at an unchanging speed, believed by these thinkers to be the most perfect and therefore fundamental kind of motion—they created mathematical models to predict planetary positions in the sky. The Greek cosmology was standard among educated Europeans for about 2,000 years, being replaced by a modern scientific cosmology only since the 1500s. In the last 100 years, cosmological knowledge has expanded greatly, establishing as fact an unforeseen picture of the universe whose only common feature with early myth is that the universe is finite in age.
The earliest Greek cosmological speculations may be seen as secularized (non-religious) myths based on analogies from everyday experience. Some early Greek philosophers envisioned a single fundamental substance from which the universe was created, and a means by which this creation might have occurred. For Thales (c.625–547 BC), that substance was water. Anaximander (c.610–545 BC) held that it was a featureless mass that gave rise to various features through a swirling process by which heavy matter moved toward the center, while fire and air moved outward and became celestial bodies.
The followers of Pythagoras (c.580–500 BC) speculated on the nature of the planets and their motions. Ecphantus (fl. 350 BC), taught that Earth rotates about it own center, and that the planets move in uniform circles.
By the sixth century BC, Earth and celestial bodies were held to be spherical. The planets were thought to revolve around Earth at different speeds and distance. According to Anaxagoras (c.500–428 BC), celestial and terrestrial matter are the same. The universe is full, without any empty spaces: there can be no such thing as a vacuum. The moon—Earth-like in nature, with hills, rivers, and inhabitants—shines by reflected light, and eclipses are due to its interposition between the sun and Earth. The sun is a red-hot rock much smaller than Earth.
The concept of matter as composed of unbreakable atoms and void (empty space) was put forward by Democritus (460–370 BC), who also proposed an infinite number of worlds with an infinite range of sizes. These, Democritus taught, varied in different ways from our own: some lacked a moon; some had a larger sun or even two suns. Some worlds, he believed, are always being born and others are dying.
Apart from Earth's roundness, which Greeks verified by scientific observation, none of these teachings were based on experiment or measurement: they were speculations. Some turned out to be remarkably foresightful, while many others turned out to have no relationship to fact.
Plato (427–347 BC) advanced a cosmology in the book Timaeus in which matter and space have always existed, but time was created by a divine craftsman—the Demiurge—who formed the components of the universe out of a primary substance. Sun, moon, and planets move at different speeds about a motionless Earth and are divine in nature. The stars, Plato taught, have souls.
Plato's most famous pupil, Aristotle (384–322 BC), articulated the cosmology that would prove most influential in world intellectual history until the advent of modern scientific cosmology. According to Aristotle, the cosmos is spherical, with Earth at its center. Earth is surrounded by a set of nested transparent spheres, one for each planet. Earth, he posited, is composed of four elements: earth, water, air, and fire. All matter is a combination of varying amounts of these elements. Bodies composed mostly of earth or water tend to move toward the center of Earth, which is also the center of the universe, because that is their proper place, and they have an affinity for it. Bodies made mostly of air and fire tend upward to the limit of terrestrial matter, that is, the sphere of the moon.
The heavens, Aristotle believed, are composed of a fifth element, the ether, which tends to move in uniform circular motion around the center of the universe (i.e., Earth's center). The moon, Mercury, Venus, the sun, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, and the fixed stars are each embedded in their own spheres. Outside all is the primum mobile ("first mover"), which imparts motion to all the spheres it contains. The Aristotelian cosmos is finite in size, eternal in time, and without any void spaces or vacuum.
However, the Greeks did not hew to any single view: philosophers proposed conflicting speculations and disputed them with each other. For example, Aristarchus (c.310–230 BC) proposed that Earth revolves about the sun. He also discovered the angular measurements and geometrical assumptions necessary to estimate Earth's distance from the sun and moon, concluding that the universe was much larger than commonly thought.
The epitome of Greek astronomical discovery working in the cosmological scheme of Aristotle was the work of Claudius Ptolemy (AD c.90–c.168). His He mathematike syntaxis, known in the West from its Arabic title as the Almagest, was essentially a series of mathematical models and techniques for predicting the positions of the celestial bodies.
European Cosmology in the Middle Ages
Early Christians leaned heavily on biblical creation accounts for their cosmology. By the fourth century AD, theologians such as St. Augustine (354–430) were attempting to reconcile apparently contradictory passages, particularly in Genesis. Some asserted that the "days" of biblical creation, for example, were not 24 hours long; some accepted, others rejected, Earth's sphericity. The order and stability of the universe were viewed as evidence of divine creation. After the fall of the Roman Empire, European scholars lost contact with many Greek books and scientific ideas for centuries. They did retain a basically Aristotelian cosmology, with a spherical Earth at the center and vast crystalline spheres carrying the moon, sun, planets, and stars around that central point. (It is not true, as popularly believed, that Christopher Columbus had anything to do with discovering or proving that Earth is spherical: all educated persons had believed for many centuries that Earth is round.)
During the spread of Islam, Muslims came in contact with Greek science and began to make extensive translations of these works from AD 750–850. Scholarly contacts between West Europeans and Muslims began to develop in the eleventh century, and translations were made from Arabic into Latin. As a result, cosmological ideas, as proposed in Plato's Timaeus, began to expand in the West. In the twelfth century Europe reacquired Ptolemy's Almagest, with its star charts and mathematical formulae describing heavenly motions, by translation from Arabic.
During the Middle Ages Aristotle's ideas were blended with Islamic and Christian beliefs. For example, the eternity of the universe was rejected in favor of a definite creation date (as in Genesis). The possibility of multiple worlds, an infinite universe, the motion of Earth, the cause of planetary motion, and the existence of vacuums were all discussed, but the Aristotelian foundation remained unchanged. The cause of planetary motion, originally thought to be caused by angelic spirits, was replaced by "impetus"—a source of motion embedded by God in the creation of the universe.
The Renaissance and the Copernican Challenge
The heliocentric (sun-centered) universe proposed in the revolutionary 1543 De revolutionibus orbium caelestium (On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres) of Nicolaus
Copernicus (1473–1543) was inspired largely by neoPlatonism, a philosophy according to which the sun was the proper regent or king of the universe and so should, properly, reside at its center. The Copernican system accounted for the observed motions of the planets by use of spheres centered on the sun rather than on Earth (except for the moon, which still went around Earth). Contrary to a popular myth, the Copernican system was not, at first, significantly simpler or more accurate than the Ptolemaic system it challenged, though it did eventually become so.
The Copernican system was attacked on theological and physical grounds, and the church decided that it could only be advocated as a theoretical construct, not as physical reality, lest it conflict with geocentrism (argued to be required by the Bible).
During the sixteenth century, precision became increasingly important in commerce, crafts, politics, time measurement, and the sciences. Tycho Brahe (1546–1601) actively pursued greater precision in astronomical observation and created the most precise measuring instruments yet known. As a result of his observations, he began to question some of Aristotle's time-honored principles concerning the nature of the heavens. In 1572 a very bright star appeared that would now be called a supernova. A number of astronomers determined that it was farther away than the moon, in a realm where Aristotle had claimed nothing new could occur because all change was forbidden. Clearly, change could and did occur beyond the moon. Five years later a comet appeared, and observations showed that it too was beyond the sphere of the moon. Its passage around the sun appeared, in fact, to be in the same sphere as Venus.
During the latter part of the sixteenth century there were few Copernicans. Among them, however, was one who speculated that the universe might be infinite in size—another departure from Aristotelian cosmology. Thomas Digges (1546–1595) published his Prognostication Everlastinge in 1576, in which he postulated that the stars extended out to infinity. It is one of the stranger twists of scientific fate that the old, Aristotelian belief in a finite universe would prove to be closer to the truth than this apparently more rational, scientific belief—although the true size of the universe would prove to be many billions of times greater than imagined by any thinker in the Aristotelian cosmological tradition.
The Union of Astronomy and Physics
Johannes Kepler (1571–1630) modified the Copernican theory in substantial ways, using Tycho's data. He held that planetary orbits are elliptical, not circular, and that planetary velocities vary by distance from the sun, becoming more rapid when closer to it, with an imaginary line from the sun to the planet sweeping out equal areas in equal times. He also proposed that a quasi-magnetic force centered on the sun caused planetary motion, a theory that would concern astronomers and cosmologists for the rest of the century.
Another challenge to the Aristotelian cosmos was provided by Galileo Galilei (1564–1642), who in the first years of the seventeenth century became the first person to use a telescope for celestial observation. Galileo discovered that the moon had mountains, and that Venus had phases (changing patterns of illumination, like those seen on the Moon, showing that it is a sphere). He also discovered that Earth is not the only planet that had a satellite: Jupiter had several. The sun, once thought to be perfect, had spots, and it rotated. Galileo was banned from teaching Copernican cosmology by the church, but his works remained available and continued to influence European thinkers.
By the middle of the seventeenth century Aristotelian natural philosophy had been widely replaced by what came to be called the mechanical philosophy. One of the century's leading proponents of this philosophy was René Descartes (1596–1650), who believed that God had created an indefinite amount of matter in a swirling universe composed of three kinds of particles moving in an infinite number of vortices or swirls, each of which carried planets around a star. Step by step, with many errors and misconceptions, a view of the universe that we would recognize as physically true was gradually emerging.
English physicist Isaac Newton (1642–1727) transformed concepts of the universe through his laws of
motion and of universal gravitation, published in Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy, 1687), as well as his creation of the calculus. By incorporating the works of Kepler, Galileo, and others, he proved the inadequacy of the Cartesian system and showed how the attractive forces of all bodies, both terrestrial and celestial, were dependent on their masses and inversely proportional to the squares of their distances. Newton's work was continued and advanced by many other scientists.
The Birth of Stellar Astronomy: Stretching Space and Time
To explain why, under universal gravitation, all stars do not collapse into a single body, Thomas Wright (1711–1786) proposed that all stars and planets revolve about a common center, with the resulting centrifugal force keeping them from falling together under the pull of their mutual gravitation. Both Wright and philosopher Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) proposed the continual development of the cosmos and speculated that the universe was finite and disk-like, with the solar system near its middle; there might even be other universes, outside our own. Kant posited that the constituent elements of the universe at the moment of its creation were in a chaotic state, completely filling space. With the existence of universal gravitation, larger particles served as nuclei for the attraction of others. Particles of greater mass grew by accretion. There was a force of repulsion that is the source of circular motions and the flattening of vortices. Vortices or whirls were created around the sun, which was not yet hot. The planets were formed from belts of swirling matter, whose orbits were slightly inclined to one another. Many elements of these ideas have survived into modern cosmology, though greatly modified, expressed in the precise language of mathematics, and tested against observations that literally could not have been imagined in the eighteenth century.
William Herschel (1738–1822) was another influential figure in the birth of stellar astronomy and the expansion of post-Aristotelian cosmological ideas. In the course of his effort to map the heavens in 1781, he noted that stars were often found in clusters, some denser than others. This led him to the idea of "island universes"—what we now call galaxies.
Herschel also worked to produce bigger and better telescopes. About 2,000 stars are visible with the naked eye; a 4-inch (10.16-cm) refractor can reveal a million stars. Herschel's telescopes showed vast numbers of astronomical objects, and they were not all alike. By 1781 over 300 nebulae—smeared-out, gaseous-looking objects (nebula is Latin for "mist")—had been discovered. The first catalogue of them by Charles Messier (1730–1817) was published in that year. By the early nineteenth century, several thousand nebulae and star clusters had been located.
After Herschel's death, his work was continued by his son John (1792–1871), who spent four years at the Cape of Good Hope at the southern tip of Africa, classifying double stars and nebulae in the southern hemisphere. The younger Herschel concluded that the sun was embedded in a system of stars distributed with some regularity, shaped like a convex lens, and that the sun is displaced from the center of this lens-shaped cloud of stars. We would now say that John Herschel had correctly identified Earth's position in the Milky Way galaxy.
English astronomer Edmond Halley (1656–1742), proposed in 1811 that spiral nebulae may be Milky Way-type "island universes." In 1814 he speculated that the Milky Way would eventually be resolved into globular clusters and raised the possibility of devising a celestial time scale. He also concluded that the universe was finite.
Astrochemistry, Astrophysics, and New Instruments
In the seventeenth century, there were only two well established observatories—in Paris, France, and Greenwich, England. By the end of the nineteenth century, there were many more throughout Europe and at the Cape of Good Hope, with larger and better telescopes, including instruments that could measure angles and times more precisely. William Parsons, third earl of Rosse (1800–1867), a wealthy Irish nobleman, spent 18 years and a substantial sum building the "Leviathan," a telescope with a 6-foot (1.8-m) mirror, and a magnification of 650. By 1850 he had seen 14 spiral nebulae, with branching arms from their nuclei. Like Halley, he speculated that they were outside our universe and similar to it. In this, of course, the two men were basically correct, although it would be many more years before their conjecture was proved.
There was a lag in picking up on Herschel's work on cosmic structure. Cosmology was thought to be in the realm of speculation; there was not enough hard data to go on. Stellar astronomy was confined to the study of the proper stellar motions and distances by observable parallax. However, as Europe industrialized in the nineteenth century, instruments that significantly improved astronomical precision were built. This led to the first observation of the long-sought stellar parallax. Parallax is the shift in the apparent relative positions of two or more objects at different distances from an observer as the observer changes position: astronomers had long reasoned that as Earth swings around the sun, the apparent relative positions of the stars should shift slightly, showing parallax. From this parallax, the distances of stars could be calculated. However, the stars are so far away that the parallax effects even of such a large change in position as is given by Earth's orbit were hard to detect. Parallax was detected in 1838 by German mathematician and astronomer Friedrich Bessel (1784–1846) for 61 Cygni. Parallaxes for other stars were found shortly thereafter. The measurement of parallaxes yielded shockingly large distances. Alpha Centauri was 272,000 times farther away than the distance between Earth and the sun (1 astronomical unit or AU, about 93 million miles = 150 million kilometers) (AU); 61 Cygnus was at 691,000 AU.
The Twentieth Century's Cosmological Revolution
In 1900 the Milky Way, the galaxy in which our solar system resides, was the only one known, although there had been speculation that spiral nebulae were similar "island universes." In 1920, Heber Doust Curtis (1872–1942) and Harlow Shapley (1885–1972) engaged in what became known as the "Great Debate," with Shapley arguing that this galaxy comprises the entire universe and Curtis countering that the universe contains many such galaxies. The argument was resolved in 1923, when American astronomer Edwin P. Hubble (1889–1953) used spectral analysis (dissection of the mixed types of light coming from a star or other body) to show that the stars in the Andromeda Nebula—the most easily observed spiral nebula—are 25 times farther away than the most remote inside the Milky Way. He did this by using stars called Cepheid variables, a type of star whose brightness changes regularly over time.
It had already been shown that the absolute brightness of a Cepheid variable is closely related to the frequency with which it dims and brightens: measuring a Cepheid's period (rate of dimming and brightening) thus reveals how bright the star is, which can be compared to its apparent brightness (which diminishes with distance) to show the star's true distance. Such objects are called standard candles by astronomers.
Hubble, analyzing Cepheids in the M33 galaxy, calculated them to be 700,000 light years away. (A light year is the distance traveled by light in 1 year, about 6 billion miles or 9.5 billion kilometers.) Soon distances of a million light years had been observed. In 1925, images from the Mt. Wilson observatory in California showed galaxies stretching outward without end. The true vastness of the universe was becoming apparent through direct observation.
Relativity and Cosmology
A profound transformation of modern concepts of space, time, and mechanics—and thus of the very nature of the universe—occurred when Albert Einstein (1879–1955) proposed his theories of special and general relativity. Equally significant was the development of quantum theory by Niels H.D. Bohr (1885–1962) and others in the early twentieth century, though it would be decades before the close connection of quantum physics (the physics of the very small) to cosmology (the physics of the very large) would become apparent.
The general theories of relativity (published in 1915) posited that space itself is curved and that the universe is finite, though unbounded, with no edges and no center. It was assumed that the universe could be neither expanding nor contracting, since either of these conditions would imply a finite lifespan for the universe, which was assumed to be eternal. However, in a static (unmoving), finite universe, mutual gravitational attraction, if unopposed by any other force, would result in contraction. Einstein therefore added a "cosmic constant" to his equations of gravity to provide a cosmic repulsion or antigravity that would counterbalance universal gravitation, allowing a non-expanding, non-contracting universe to be stable.
Alexander A. Friedmann (1888–1925) suggested eliminating the cosmological constant in 1922; it was unnecessary if one assumed that the universe is either expanding or contracting. The cosmological constant may be plus, minus, or constant. Meanwhile, evidence for expansion was accumulating as astronomers measured spectral (color) shifts in light coming from distant nebulae. When an object moves away from an observer, its light is reddened in proportion to its velocity. By 1917 the analysis of 15 nebulae showed recession up to 400 miles per second (644 km/s). By 1922, 42 nebulae were shown to be receding up to 1,100 miles per second (1,770 km/s).
Hubble's law, formulated in 1929, stated that galaxies recede with velocities proportional to distance: v= Hr (distance); where H is Hubble's constant, 14 miles per second per million light years, and r is the distance of the galaxy from us. That is, the farther away a galaxy is from us, the faster it is moving away from us. Measuring the red shift in a galaxy's spectrum indicates its velocity of recession—as long as one knows the value of Hubble's constant, H. This, however, proved difficult to measure exactly.
It had become clear that the universe is not only big but getting bigger—expanding, as Friedmann had urged was possible. In an expanding universe, all galaxies are flying away from each other, although individual galaxies do not expand. This expansion, imagined backward in time, implies a time when all the galaxies were together at a single point. In 1927, Belgian priest and astronomer Georges-Henri Lemaître (1894–1966) proposed the big bang theory of the origin of the universe. Beginning with Einstein's cosmological constant and Hubble's law, Lemaître posited that before the creation of the universe, all matter was condensed into a tightly packed "primeval atom," a region about one astronomical unit across. The primeval atom, Lemaître proposed, contained all space, time, and matter. Its average density increased according to Hubble's law. At the moment of creation—cause unknown, but not necessarily miraculous—it exploded. Gravitation began to slow down the expansion. The universe might eventually collapse again under its own weight, or continue to expand forever, as the stars burned out and eternal darkness closed in.
In 1946, American astronomer George Gamow (1904–1968) proposed the prevailing evolutionary theory. In the first few minutes after the big bang, the lightest few elements were built up by collisions between originally free neutrons and protons; all heavier elements (including those of which Earth and our bodies are made) were forged later, in the hearts of exploding stars, a process called nucleosynthesis. The present distribution of the elements agrees well with the predictions of this theory.
The steady-state theory, proposed by Thomas Gold (1920–2004), Hermann Bondi (1919–2005), and Fred Hoyle (1915–2001), derived from a philosophical distaste for an expanding universe that led to eternal dispersion and darkness. In the steady-state model, there is continuous creation of hydrogen atoms throughout space to replace matter being dispersed by cosmic expansion. Created out of nothing in space, these atoms begin to coalesce into groups and subgroups by gravitation. Compression creates high pressures, nuclear processes begin, and stars form in a continuous process.
According to this view, the universe is eternal in a steady state. There is no cosmogony or moment of cosmic beginning, but systems continue to evolve. Stars age and disappear over the edge of observation. The steady-state theory, however, disagrees with a number of astronomical observations: for example, it predicts that the velocity of recession slows with distance, but it does not. Indeed, in the late 1990s observation showed that the universe's expansion is accelerating, and that something similar to Einstein's long-abandoned cosmological constant was in fact real.
Cosmic background microwave radiation, strong evidence for the big bang theory, was discovered by Arno Penzias (1933–) and Robert Wilson (1936–). This is weak, low-temperature radio radiation that shines from every part of the sky and was predicted by the big bang theory as an afterglow of the primordial explosion.
Modern Cultural Connections
The present state of scientific cosmology can be summarized as follows: The universe originated in a big bang about 13.7 million years ago. The big bang commenced with a period of rapid inflation, during which the universe increased in size so rapidly that subatomic-scale variations in the quantum field were amplified to universe-spanning dimensions. Eventually the material of the big bang cooled and dissipated until atoms could form, then, millions of years later, galaxies and stars. Atoms of heavy elements were forged in the cores of exploding early-generation stars and blown into space by supernova explosions. These materials later re-formed as new stars and planets, including our own. The observable part of the universe contains about 100 billion galaxies, each containing anywhere from a few million to many billions of stars. These galaxies are all receding from each other as the universe expands at an ever-accelerating rate due to a still-mysterious force that astronomers have dubbed dark energy.
The equations of quantum physics seem to indicate that our whole universe may be one of an infinite number of universes continually sprouting from divergent quantum events—an infinite number of big bangs, each possibly resulting in a universe with different physical laws from our own. A number of such theories, termed multiverse theories, are debated today among cosmologists. No physical evidence is yet known for the existence of other universes, however, and in the twenty-first century the possible existence and nature of a multiverse is debated among cosmologists. There is no consensus or majority view on the topic of whether the observable universe is unique.
The ultimate fate of our own universe—which may or may not be the entire or only universe—is also debated. Some earlier theories proposed an eternal cycle of explosion, eventual collapse, and re-explosion, but this seems to have been ruled out by recent proof that the expansion of the universe is accelerating. Several otherpossibilities are discussed among cosmologists. Under some conditions, the universe may simply burn out and continue to expand through infinite time, dark and uneventful. If dark energy increases in density with time, it may eventually disintegrate all physical structures and end in a supreme, all-embracing singularity similar to a black hole. Or, quantum fluctuations at the horizon of observation might someday yield a new big bang. In some multiverse theories, various universes will experience different fates, some having finite duration, some infinite duration. No experimental evidence yet exists that could sift these possibilities. Indeed, it is possible that such evidence may be impossible to acquire. Cosmologists' arguments on these points are highly esoteric and mathematical: there is no consensus position at this time on the ultimate fate of the universe.
Social and Cultural Implications
The social and cultural implications of modern cosmology have been mostly negative. That is, the loss of the earlier, Aristotelian-Christian cosmology, which featured a spherical Earth placed meaningfully at the cosmic center, has entailed for some persons a sense of cosmic alienation or meaninglessness. This view has been well-expressed by American physicist Steven Weinberg (1933–), who wrote in The First Three Minutes (1977) that human life is "just a more-or-less farcical outcome of a chain of accidents reaching back to the first three minutes." The universe, Weinberg argued, is revealed by modern science to be "overwhelmingly hostile," evolved from "unspeakably unfamiliar early conditions." "The more the universe seems comprehensible," he wrote, "the more it also seems pointless." Almost the only bright spot in such a world is, in fact, Weinberg's own profession, physics: "The effort to understand the universe is one of the very few things that lifts human life a little above the level of farce, and gives it some of the grace of tragedy."
But such emotional responses are not dictated by science, which is value-neutral. Religious believers, in contrast to thinkers such as Weinberg, tend to see the scale and grandeur of modern cosmology as affirming their own belief in a transcendent Creator. Even multiverse theories have been embraced by some theologians, recalling early Christian theological resistance to the possibility of a finite universe, which was felt to be unworthy of an infinite God. Exposure to cosmological knowledge does not seem to reliably cause abandonment of religious beliefs or adoption of heroic nihilism like Weinberg's. Cosmology impacts individual life mostly at the level of religious (or anti-religious) convictions about the nature of the cosmos, but in this realm science is notoriously unable to dictate conclusions.
For some religious believers, however, the claims of modern cosmology are unacceptable, no matter how much astronomical evidence is mustered to support them. Millions of creationists in the United States and elsewhere continue to vigorously defend a pre-scientific worldview based on a literal reading of the biblical book of Genesis. (There are also non-Judeo-Christian forms of creationism appealing to other religious traditions.) According to biblical creationists, the universe was created out of nothing a mere 10,000 or so years ago. This class of believers reject the scientific account not only of biological evolution, but of the big bang and the age of the universe.
For many persons, questions about the structure, origin, and ultimate fate of the universe are fascinating in their own right. Some people, however, even in industrialized societies, are unaware of even the most basic elements of cosmological thought. A 1988 Gallup poll found that over 18% of Americans believed that the sun orbits Earth, rather than the other way around, while a further 8% percent responded that they had no opinion on the subject.
Primary Source Connection
The following article was written by Peter N. Spotts, the science and technology writer for The Christian Science Monitor. Founded in 1908, The Christian Science Monitor is an international newspaper based in Boston, Massachusetts. The article describes a cyclical model of the universe put forth in 2002 by scientists Paul Steinhardt and Neil Turok, in which the universe continually cycles through periods of expansion and contraction.
THE BIG BANG (ONE MORE TIME)
Just when it SEEMS the broad outline of the universe's origin is as safely in hand as money in the bank, along come two physicists who could prove to be the Butch Cassidy and Sundance Kid of cosmology.
For 20 years, Paul Steinhardt has played a key role in helping to write and refine the inflationary "big bang" origin of the universe.
But over the past few years, the Princeton University physicist and some of his colleagues have struggled with a vexing question. "Even if our story seems to describe what we see, how do we know it's the right story?" Dr. Steinhardt asks.
He decided to see if he could come up with a plausible alternative to the prevailing notion. The inflationary big-bang model posits that the universe began as a random fluctuation in empty space, grew with extraordinary speed through an "inflationary" period, then slowed, cooled, and formed all the matter and energy astronomers see and infer today. Steinhardt wanted to be able to describe the universe with as much precision as the inflation theory does but without some ofits "baggage," including the need for an inflationary period itself. The result: He and Cambridge University physicist Neil Turok have unveiled a model in which the universe has no beginning or end, but replenishes itself in a cycle of expansion and contraction. Each expansion is triggered by its own big bang.
Steinhardt adds that, among its other selling points, the new model naturally accounts for recent observations that the universe is entering an epoch of accelerated expansion, a feature he says is not directly predicted by the inflationary big bang.
The model, published late last month in the journal Science, is a work in progress. Some researchers, such as Princeton astrophysicist Jeremiah Ostriker, have hailed it as "extraordinarily exciting and… the first new big idea in cosmology in over two decades." Others, such as Stanford University's Andrei Linde, another inflation pioneer, are intensely skeptical.
The duo's rebellion against the reigning explanation for the universe's origin may seem out of character for what many people view as the staid world of science. "People have the idea that scientists and cosmologists believe something like it was dogma," says Rocky Kolb, a cosmologist at the Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory in Batavia, Ill. "We seem like a conservative lot, but … everybody wants to turn everything upside down."
But new ideas have to pass "sniff tests." And for some researchers, ideas posed in prose, with no math for backup, are sure-fire candidates for the circular file.
"Really beautiful ideas have experimental and observational consequences," although decades may pass before predicted results emerge, Kolb says.
He also points out that "a lot of ideas come from people in different fields or people you may not know. In 1980, not many cosmologists had heard of Alan Guth, who came up with inflation."
Drawing on quantum physics and Einstein's theories of relativity, the inflationary big bang begins 11 billion to 15 billion years ago, when a random change in an astonishingly small bit of all-encompassing vacuum grew very rapidly.
For a tiny fraction of a second, this burgeoning fluctuation in the vacuum expanded faster than light can travel. When the burst of inflation abruptly ended, the proto-universe reached enormous energies, temperatures, and pressures. As this roiling universe continued to expand at a more sedate rate and cooled, its matter, energy, and structure emerged.
The inflationary model has fended off all comers; it matches many observations and has described features of the early universe that astronomers searched for and found, Steinhardt says.
For Dr. Guth, a physics professor at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, inflation was a solution to a particle-physics conundrum. The problem emerged from efforts in the late 1970s to develop grand unified theories to describe the emergence of three of the four forces of nature and the associated subatomic particles from the big bang.
At the time, Guth and collaborator Henry Tye determined that grand unified theories predicted—and sometimes required—formation of magnetic monopoles. These "outrageously heavy" particles "had always been consistent with the laws of physics, but no one had ever seen one and there was no real reason to believe they existed," Guth says.
Prodded by Dr. Tye, Guth says he reluctantly calculated the number of these particles that would have been created during the big bang. They discovered that monopoles would have been as ubiquitous as protons—leading to a universe that would look much different from the one we inhabit.
Guth's calculations led him to conclude that a brief period of inflation stifled monopole formation. As a bonus, inflation also appeared to solve problems cosmologists had in squaring conventional big-bang thinking with astronomers' observations of the universe.
Particle-physics theorists were the most receptive to this view, Guth says. By contrast, he says, astronomers and cosmologists "took a wait-and-see attitude."
This same interplay between the world of the very tiny and the world of the very large weaves its way through Steinhardt's and Dr. Turok's cyclical universe. They hold that much of their model works well in a four-dimensional universe of height, depth, width, and space-time. They add that it finds its true home in the nine to 10 dimensions of string theory, which tries to explain how the four forces of nature emerged from one unified force early on.
One variation, known as M theory, holds that the universe consists of two parallel sheets, or membranes. The two membranes are separated by a "fifth" dimension a tiny fraction of a centimeter wide.
Steinhardt and Turok's calculations describe the membranes meeting in a slap, triggering the big bang. On the membrane humans inhabit, the bang yields the particles, energy, and forces familiar to scientists. The other contains "we know not what," Steinhardt says. The duo posits the second one may be home to "dark matter."
Over trillions of years, the membranes expand, growing darker, colder, and less dense, until the logic of Steinhardt's equations brings them back together in another cosmic slap. The membranes resume expanding, even as they drift apart, only to repeat the cycle.
Steinhardt says this model yields all the features of the inflationary model, without inflation. What his calculations don't show is what happens when membranes "bounce."
As always, nature will provide the ultimate reality check on his model. "There are many beautiful, insightful ideas that turn out not to be the way nature works. The cyclical universe may be one of them," Kolb says. "I don't think this is the way nature works. Maybe there'll be an application for it someday. Or some of the ideas may be used in some other way."
Steinhardt hasn't tossed in the towel on inflation, either: "I'm just hedging my bets."
Peter N. Spotts
spotts, peter n. "the big bang (one more time)." christian science monitor (may 9, 2002).
See Also Astronomy and Cosmology: A Mechanistic Universe; Astronomy and Cosmology: Big Bang Theory and Modern Cosmology.
Croswell, Ken. The Universe at Midnight: Observations Illuminating the Cosmos. New York: Free Press, 2001.
Kirshner, Robert P. The Extravagant Universe: Exploding Stars, Dark Energy, and the Accelerating Cosmos. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2002.
Weinberg, Steven. The First Three Minutes. New York: Basic Books, 1988.
Abrams, Nancy, and Joel Primack. "Cosmology and 21st-Century Culture." Science. 293 (2001): 1769–1770.
Associated Press. "Poll Finds Americans Are Ignorant of Science." The New York Times. (October 15, 1988).
Bennett, Charles L. "Cosmology from Start to Finish." Nature. 440 (2006): 1126–1131.
Cambridge University. "Cambridge Cosmology." 2008. http://www.damtp.cam.ac.uk/user/gr/public/cos_home.htmlle.html (accessed February 5, 2008).
U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration. "Cosmology: The Study of the Universe." September 29, 2006. http://map.gsfc.nasa.gov/m_uni.html (accessed February 5, 2008).
U.S. National Research Council. "Cosmology: A Research Briefing." 1995. http://www.nap.edu/readingroom/books/cosmology/ (accessed February 5, 2008).
Wilbur Applebaum
Scientific Thought: In Context
"Astronomy and Cosmology: Cosmology ." Scientific Thought: In Context. . Encyclopedia.com. 13 Jan. 2021 <https://www.encyclopedia.com>.
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"Astronomy and Cosmology: Cosmology ." Scientific Thought: In Context. . Retrieved January 13, 2021 from Encyclopedia.com: https://www.encyclopedia.com/science/science-magazines/astronomy-and-cosmology-cosmology
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In winter, as our thirst for enchantment increases, we chose to offer you a change of scene. Ready for the journey? Starting with a young American artist, Dylan Scott Pierce, who lived in Africa and now paints it with a passion, whether its beautiful people or its natural wonders.
Wales, another part of the world, is favored by Naomi Tydeman, who likes to render coastal sceneries at dawn or at dusk. Magical lighting effects indeed! Whereas Kim Johnson, who specializes in canine portraits, shares with us the pleasures – and challenges – of painting man's best friend. Also in this issue : rendering the mood of the city with Dusan Djukaric, painting the subtleties of the human face with Lynn Powers, a 12-page portfolio featuring a selection of works exhibited at the Shenzhen watercolour Biennial in China, and many more.
But let's not forget that two very talented artists, whom we had the honour to show you a few times in our pages, passed away this fall : Nicholas Slmmons and Paul Dmoch, to whom we pay tribute in our pages.


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This is a placeholder page for Kenneth Foster, which means this person is not currently on this site. We do suggest using the tools below to find Kenneth Foster.
You are visiting the placeholder page for Kenneth Foster. This page is here because someone used our placeholder utility to look for Kenneth Foster. We created this page automatically in hopes Kenneth Foster would find it. If you are not Kenneth Foster, but are an alumni of Belle Glade High School, register on this site for free now.


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Data reveals: the registration of new .ee domains continues to grow at a significant pace in 2021
While the growth in new .ee domain registrations clearly jumped higher than before due to Covid 19, then this year's results are even more obvious and total growth in registry size is 8.8%. It can therefore be concluded that, regardless of various foreign online platforms, a personal website is still considered to be one of the most important e-channels.
The largest increase in 2021 was in March, when 35.8% more .ee domains were registered than in March of the previous year. 2020 was somewhat similar – with the biggest jump taking place in the spring, in April, when the growth rate was 34.3%.
In terms of the three quarters, the month with the lowest activity was July, when 12% fewer domains were registered than the year before. Today, the total number of .ee domains in the registry is now more than 145,000.
Daily updated statistics regarding the national domain on our website can be seen here, click!
news internet ee domains statistics new registrations
ncMUFCMU19.08.2022
Total number of .ee domain grew by 4.7% in 2022
Here's a brief look back at the .ee registry in 2022 - how many domains were registered, how many abandoned, and what are the dynamics of the registry's growth in recent years?
About 60% of Estonian companies owning a .ee domain have a web address with the company's name
In 2021, more than 26,000 companies and nearly 27,000 new .ee domains were registered in Estonia. Comparing these two figures, it may be concluded that almost every company also registers a .ee domain in its name and everything is all right; however, this is not the case, and you will find both the results and the reasons below the picture.
NB! Domain auction portal is currently offline due to the technical reasons
We apologize for any inconvenience this may have caused to you and will work as quickly as possible to recover the normal status. Please be informed, that all domains that can't be auctioned during this offline period, will be auctioned right after portal's work has been re-established.


I tried to change my password after password reset(Forgot password) but it keeps complaining about 'Passwords do not match' in the new and confirm password entries.
I entered passwords with 12345678,aaaaaaaa,....still got the same error.
Can someone shed some lights on this!
I have this same problem,it´s gotta be somekinda bug,because I tested with numerous combinations and it still didnt work!
I hope it will be fixed soon!
Passwords where? Here in the forums?


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Thoughts from Galicia, Spain: 9.4.19
Christopher Howse: A Pilgrim in Spain
Note: As it's Thursday, couple of the items below have been borrowed from Lenox Napier's Business Over Tapas
This is a tale of something or nothing but it reminds me that you are often (always?) reminded in Spanish museums half an hour before the official closing time that you need to leave within 15 minutes. Perhaps this wouldn't happen if the employees didn't have the ridiculously late working hours arising from Spain's split day.
Several news outlets have warned against car hire companies' 'Spanish practices', especially those of Gold Car. Whose performance is at least consistent. Here's the Guardian's take. And here's that of The Olive Press.
Andalucia has a reputation for being corrupt. After 30 years of PSOE rule, says Lenox, it was revealed were a lot of people and agencies drawing money while doing nothing. The region has had €100 billion from the EU over the years but remains one of the poorest regions in Europe. One is forced to wonder just how the money has been 'spent'.
Spanish sports commentators can be harsh. Some Barcelona players got a nil rating after the team's astonishing defeat in Liverpool.
Some amusing internet reactions to said defeat.
Talking of being amused . . . Here's The Local on the fun of the Sevilla fair.
More than merely amusing is the report from Rome of a congress for those who believe in the Devil and in exorcism. If you don't do so, says one priest, it's because the Devil is very active in social media and has already corrupted you. Impossible to argue with that . . .
Lenox addresses the issue below of what he doesn't like about Spain. Much the same as the rest of us expats, I guess.
You have to feel for Richard North . . . One of the particularly unwholesome characteristics of this country is a general lack of respect for intellectual effort. Thus, a vacuous demagogue [Guess who] can tour the country delivering meaningless speeches which offer no solutions to anything, yet be applauded for "doing something", while those are constructively seeking to provide answers are ignored – that is when the sneering classes are not simply trashing our work.
Little wonder that he feels that: If people can't be bothered to pursue a genuine grassroots movement [The Harrogate Agenda], and take no interest in the products of a number of keen and experienced minds, they have only themselves to blame. Let them chase after the demagogues and see how far that gets them.
Securing cross-party agreement is difficult enough but with two leaders like Mrs May and Mr Corbyn it is surely impossible given their personalities, one stubborn, the other ideologically blinkered. But even if they were both open-minded centrists, they wouldn't agree because consensus is considered a dirty word in British politics. Parties adopt aggressively hostile positions on major issues almost for the sake of it even if the disagreements between them are small. As a result few major decisions are taken and those that are are unravelled by the next administration. Our political architecture is literally set up for adversarial politics. The House of Commons is one of only two legislatures in the world where the parties face each other directly - two swords lengths apart to stop them in the past skewering each other with more than debating points. This encourages confrontation even when there is not an especially wide ideological gulf on specific points or when achieving a compromise solution is essential to the long-term well-being of the country, as in reforming the NHS or agreeing a new social care system. Both require an all-party approach if anything is to happen. . . . If politicians search for solutions that are popular only among their own core supporters they will never achieve anything. But there are consequences for leaders who consort with the enemy, as Mrs May is about to find out, and maybe Mr Corbyn, too.
As fr Mrs May . . . Please God, let the party and the Cabinet rise up and do what must be done [i.e. get shut of her]. It is not just the fate of the Conservative party that is at stake. It is the credibility of the country's governing class and the integrity of its democratic institutions - which are, after all, what the whole Brexit cause is supposed to be about - that are falling into disrepute. What is the point of defending the principle of accountable government if the elected government refuses to be accountable.
Here's the FT on the legacy of the ECB's bond-buying program.
Nice to finally see at least some of Fart's tax docs. And to hear his ridiculous response.
Almost as 'good' as his claim that this tariffs have cost the Chinese billions, when it's importers - and ultimately the US consumers - who pay them. The man is illiterate in so many ways. Would he stand a chance of re-election in any other Western state?
Word of the Day: Cria.
What I don't like about Spain - Lenox Napier
I was once asked to make a list of 'things I didn't like about Spain'. It would be easy enough to make one about the things I do like, and it would run to many pages, but the things I don't? Hum. Well, there's the bureaucracy which drives us all, Spaniards and foreigners alike, up the wall. Las cosas de palacio, van despacio, say the Spanish sententiously, as if by giving the creaking bureaucratic system an excuse, wrapped up in a popular saying, it all makes sense. In the past two years, for example, no one has managed to get Spanish nationality because the 25,000 people whose job it is to sort out the paperwork have instead taken a disturbingly long lunch-break.
People sometimes have to live rather poorly – a house with no water or electric for example – for a number of years because of some elusive bit of paper trapped in the bottom of a drawer belonging to a public official who has been off work with a runny nose for 36 months, but absolutely should be back any day now.
I try and live with the system, since I love it here. My Spanish wife knows nothing of HP Sauce and shepherd's pie, and she has never had a Yorkshire pudding or even a mushy pea. I am nevertheless proud of her as she sips her English tea with milk and one sugar (my only remaining British weakness).
But, we were talking about Spanish wrongs – like corruption. How they get away with it defeats me. The country is positively leaping with crooked bankers, politicians and manufacturers of ladies hosiery. They stash millions in off-shore financial paradises, pay no tax, and – most remarkable of all – are highly esteemed by large swathes of the population. OK, in my personal experience, I've had more trouble from thieving Brits that crooked Spaniards (lawyers maybe – there's always hungry lawyers here), but over the years, I've found that owning nothing helps keep them away, along with plenty of garlic.
So, the list. We've done bureaucracy and corruption, there's also littering.
How can a proud nation like the Spanish merrily toss as much garbage into the countryside as is humanly possible? The beaches, the roadside, the streets and the public buildings are caked in debris. Everywhere is thick with plastic, flattened beer cans, bottles, graffiti, cardboard and rubble. I take my trash home with me, or leave it on the back seat of the car for a few years, but our friends and neighbours? They scatter it everywhere across this great country with gleeful abandon.
There, was that enough? No? Well, those paper napkins in the bars are pointless. They don't soak up grease, they just smear it around. I have been here fifty years and they still use those paper servietas. Extraordinary!
Noise, I suppose. This country is deafening. Happily, with the passage of the years, I have become quite deaf, so am immune to the cacophony of the world's second loudest country (after Japan who, for Heaven's sake, have paper walls).
Lastly (and believe me, I've been thinking about this list for years), I would say, parking. There's never enough, as though the designers feel they can squeeze more money out of shops and buildings if there are as few parking spots as possible. Then the few spaces that are there will as likely as not have a caravan of dustbins clogging them up.
As if there was a serious litter problem here!
So, many people (at least in my local village) will park two abreast – en paralelo – with their warning lights on. 'I'm sorry, I really am, but I just needed to stop the car for a moment as I zip into the bank, buy a lottery ticket and have a very quick coffee with my lawyer'. You can always get past. Yesterday, I had to drive at least fifty metres along the pavement, because the road was completely blocked by two double-parked cars. Luckily for us all, they both had their warning lights on.
But what are a few minor niggles, when compared to the endless wonders of this great country we have chosen to call home?
Beware:
https://www.elprogreso.es/articulo/galicia/ya-esta-aqui-el-radar-en-cascada/201905082005311375255.html
sp said...
I remember a few years ago Ben Curtis wrote an article along the lines of "I love living in Spain, but if you forced me to mention a few things I don't like....".
He got death threats.
Colin Davies said...
Yes, indeed. We all do. . . .
Thoughts from the night train to Madrid early 31.....
Thoughts from León: 17.5.19
Thoughts from León, Spain: 15.5.19


We're sorry, but the selection you have chosen is not available until Tuesday, January 17th 2017. At this time, we do not allow prerelease orders for items that do not release in the next 90 days.
For many people, the beautiful trumpet-shaped white lily appearing on this letterhead symbolizes purity, virtue, innocence, hope and life--the spiritual essence of Easter. The scripture declares what Christians believe, the Lord is risen The standard letterhead size of 8.5" x 11" makes it a great stationery to share a special message for the season. It comes in packages of 50. This letterhead is part of a matching set along with regular and large size bulletins and an offering envelope. Use Abingdon's window envelopes; the letterhead design shows through to add festive color to the mailings.


Riwal has delivered the first JLG H340AJ to Xtra Materieel, an equipment rental company in the Netherlands.
JLG H340 AJ delivered to Xtra Materieel by Riwal.
Riwal is the JLG distributor for the Netherlands and Poland. This new hybrid boom lift is designed to bring together powerful performance with the benefits of hybrid efficiency, so jobs inside and outside can be tackled. Using 30% less fuel, the H340AJ is powered with four independent electric-drive motors and a diesel-powered generator. The JLG H340AJ reduces environmental impact and offers zero emissions inside and quieter operation.
Eric Westerhof, owner of Xtra Materieel commented, "Xtra Materieel decided to invest in the JLG H340AJ through Riwal, because we care about the environment and quality for our customers. Besides that, I think it is very important to promote corporate social responsibility in this industry by investing in hybrid machines. We have an excellent cooperation with Riwal, which we continue to build upon with additional JLG investments with them.


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Q: Storing user information in session or pull from mysql? Option 1:
Upon login, populate SESSION with basic users info (name, userid, account permissions, etc.)

*

*Pro: Usually none of the user information changes, so there is no need for a database call. Since SESSION is already being called, it might as well store information there.

*Con: When user information is changed in the database, a session update must occur

Option 2:
Store only uid, pull information every time

*

*Pro: No issue of session updates. Information is always current.

*Con: MySQL queries for users data (users basic info, permissions, etc.)

I've seen some posts that claim the session method is also faster than MySQL (though I doubt it would make any real difference).
Question: What's probably the best way to go, and why? My instincts say #2...

A: Load your data into a session (no point in hammering your database for mostly static info), and if there's an update to the database, update your session at the same time.

A: You can use combination of both, load the data which can only be change by user (name or any personal information) in the session and fetch data (e.g permissions) which can be changes by other users (e.g. admin) from the data base.


text:
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Addressing Anti-Semitism through Education: Increasing Knowledge about Jews and Judaism, Teaching Aid 1
Publishing date: 4 December 2019
Collections: Addressing Anti-Semitism through Education: Teaching Aids
Content type: Guide / manual / handbook
Where we are: OSCE Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights
What we do: Tolerance and non-discrimination
Publisher: Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe
This is the first of ten specialized teaching aids to support teachers to address anti-Semitism. They offer guidance for responding effectively to challenging questions or behaviour from students, provide brief but essential background information on contemporary manifestations of Anti-Semitism, and signpost other useful resources for further reading.
Barometer of Equal Opportunities
Publishing date: 21 November 2019
Content type: Study / report
Where we are: OSCE Mission to Skopje
What we do: Rule of law, Tolerance and non-discrimination
The survey 'Barometer of Equal Opportunities', developed by the OSCE Mission to Skopje, explores the perceptions, attitudes, knowledge and awareness of discrimination and inequality of the public at large. It also makes a comparative analysis of results of the three surveys conducted in 2009, 2013 and 2018, and provides an insight into the direction and intensity of changes of perceptions, attitudes, knowledge and awareness of discrimination and inequality in the country in the period from 2009 to 2018. The report examines replies of men and women regarding discrimination on seven grounds- gender, ethnicity, religion or belief, age, disability, sexual orientation and political affiliation.
Anti-Semitic Hate Crime
Publishing date: 18 September 2019
Collections: Hate Crime Factsheets
Content type: Factsheet
Anti-Semitism has affected Jewish communities for millennia, and found its most brutal expression in the Holocaust, during which millions of Jews were murdered. Despite the lesson of this horrific event, anti-Semitism continues to plague Jewish communities to this day, from conspiracy theories to violent attacks. Too often, this intolerance can morph into hate crimes against Jews. The impact of these crimes can be that Jewish individuals fear attending worship services, wearing religious attire or symbols, or abstain from identifying publicly as Jews either culturally or in religious identity. Anti-Semitism affects not only Jews, but society as a whole. Its existence underscores wider trends of intolerance towards other groups, and everyone has a role to play in countering thisand all forms of intolerance.
Annual Bulletin on Anti-Discrimination 2018
Publishing date: 15 August 2019
Content type: Brochure
The bulletin is a summary of information obtained from the first instance courts in relation to discrimination cases, and from the annual reports of the Anti-discrimination Commission, and the Ombudsman Institution from 2018. It provides data on cases of discrimination and activities of the state institutions and civil society organizations in the field of prevention and protection against discrimination, and it also provides the institutions with recommendations for improvement of the current situation. Not available in English.
Hate Crime Victimization Survey, Report
Publishing date: 27 June 2019
This report provides the results from a survey of hate crime victimization carried out in North Macedonia in June and July 2018. The survey, first of this kind carried in the country, presents a more comprehensive account of hate crime victimization in North Macedonia and its impact that had been available to date, as well as identifies the extent of underreporting of hate incidents by surveying a range of different communities of majority and minority social identity on the basis of ethnicity, religion, sexual orientation, disability, and political beliefs. The report aims at offering evidence as to the need to develop effective measures that respond to and combat the problem, guide targeted policy and strategy by national and local authorities, and support civil society organizations in their advocacy work.
Model Workshop Trainers' Manual: Building Coalitions for Tolerance and Non-Discrimination
Publishing date: 4 June 2019
Collections: Guides Related to Hate Crime
Coalition building is about individual organizations amplifying their voices by working together. Anti-Semitism, intolerance and discrimination are deeply embedded across the OSCE region and addressing them requires the combined efforts of many communities and organizations. It cannot be accomplished in any large measure by just one group acting on its own.
Using Bias Indicators: A Practical Tool for Police
Publishing date: 28 May 2019
This publication presents a comprehensive, but not exhaustive, list of indicators that suggest a crime may have been bias-motivated. The eight sections in this document correspond with the main types of bias indicators developed and recommended for use by the OSCE Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights (ODIHR). Each of the sections includes a set of questions to guide investigators in deciding whether a particular bias indicator type is present in the case before them.
Categorizing and Investigating Hate Crimes in Ukraine: A Practical Guide
This Guide provides practical advice on recognizing, recording and investigating hate crimes in Ukraine. As a brief and practical reference tool, it complements the efforts of the National Police Main Investigation Department, which drafted a detailed Methodological Recommendation on Investigating Hate Crimes, and will assist prosecutors overseeing the investigation process.
OSCE/ODIHR Annual Report 2018
Publishing date: 7 March 2019
Collections: ODIHR Annual Reports
Content type: Annual report
What we do: Combating trafficking in human beings, Democratization, Human rights, Education, Elections, Gender equality, Migration, Roma and Sinti, Youth, Rule of law, Tolerance and non-discrimination
This report provides a summary of key activities carried out by the OSCE Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights (ODIHR) in 2018.
Assessment of the Work of Bosnia and Herzegovina Institutions in Combating Discrimination
Publishing date: 19 March 2019
Where we are: OSCE Mission to Bosnia and Herzegovina
What we do: Human rights, Rule of law, Tolerance and non-discrimination
The Law on Prohibition of Discrimination (LPD) was adopted by the Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH) Parliamentary Assembly in 2009. It was subsequently amended in 2016, with the goal of strengthening BiH mechanisms designed to fight discrimination, particularly against persons of vulnerable social categories.


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The Journal of Values-Based Leadership
Home > Business > JVBL > Vol. 6 > Iss. 1 (2013)
Millennials: What They Offer Our Organizations and How Leaders Can Make Sure They Deliver
Paul R. Dannar
According to recent Pew research, ten thousand Baby Boomers reach age 65 every day in the United States and the pace will continue for the next 18 years; similar numbers are also reported for Canada and Europe. The effect on the workforce will be dramatic, perhaps even more dramatic than the effect they had when they arrived on the scene six decades ago. Thus, it falls not to Generation-X, as this generational cohort is too small to make a significant impact, rather the task shifts to the Millennials. Much has been said of the youngest generation currently in the workplace. The Millennials have been described as globally aware, socially inept, technologically sophisticated, needy, narcissistic, team-oriented, optimistic, lacking in work ethic, multi-tasking geniuses, ambitious, and curious. With such a wide spectrum of views this paper utilizes the popular and academic literature to provide clarity on these aspects of the Millennial Generation, focusing on their work values, and how their entrance into the workplace will impact organizational culture in the years to come. Finally, leadership approaches that will best align with their values, desires, and development will be addressed, focusing upon developing core competencies for leaders of all generations.
Dannar, Paul R. (2013) "Millennials: What They Offer Our Organizations and How Leaders Can Make Sure They Deliver," The Journal of Values-Based Leadership: Vol. 6 : Iss. 1 , Article 3.
Available at: https://scholar.valpo.edu/jvbl/vol6/iss1/3
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EARLY TO RISE... IT'S WORTH IT!
"If you live in the United States, west of about the middle of Kansas, you are not apt to have the flashing type of fireflies in your area. Although some isolated sightings of luminous fireflies have been reported from time to time from regions of the western U.S., fireflies that glow (and flash) are typically not found west of Kansas. The reason for this phenomenon is not known.
"Many firefly species tend to be found around water such as ponds, streams, marshes or even depressions, ditches, etc., that may retain moisture longer than surrounding areas. However, fireflies are also found in very dry regions of the world as well."
Thanks to you for that info. Do the rest of you have firefly info, legends, stories, questions, etc. to share? Contact R.A.T. (Rose About Town) at randrmoore@gmail.com.