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The Decline and Fall of the Western Roman Empire
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Justin Ott
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Ott, Justin, "The decline and fall of the Western Roman Empire" (2009). Graduate Theses and Dissertations. Paper 10500.
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A thesis submitted to the graduate faculty
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Major: History
Program of Study Committee:
David Hollander, Major Professor
Rachael Meyers
Charles Dobbs
Copyright Justin Ott, 2009. All rights reserved.
The Roman Army
The Roman Economy
For hundreds of years the city of Rome and its inhabitants fought with their neighbors
and expanded their territory until they established a vast empire which encompassed much of
modern day Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East. As Roman territory grew, conquest
continued to fuel further conquest, but this was not a pattern that could continue indefinitely.
Eventually new conquests simply became unprofitable, as can be seen from the Emperor
Trajans conquest of Dacia which failed even to pay the expenses of the expedition. 1 This led to
the Roman Empire becoming largely stagnant by the mid-third century and both exterior and
interior pressures combined to pull the empire apart, culminating in 476 C.E. with the final
collapse of the Western Roman Empire.
Numerous scholars have sought to explain the collapse of this once great empire. Edward
Gibbon, who published six volumes on The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire during the
final quarter of the 18th century, was one of the earliest scholars to advocate for a primary
catalyst behind the Western Roman collapse. While Gibbon covered at least two dozen factors
which contributed to the ultimate collapse, his chapters on Christianity portrayed his true
feelings. Gibbons arguments in these sections can be accurately summarized as the insensible
penetration of Christianity in the empire fatally undermined the genius of a great people. 2 The
problem with this conclusion is two-fold. First of all, this explanation is too narrow as it is
difficult to believe one single factor brought down the empire. More importantly, it is clear that
Tainter,JosephA.,TheCollapseofComplexSocieties.(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1988),129.
Jordan, David P. Gibbon and his Roman Empire. (Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1971), 213.
the Eastern Roman Empire was by far more Christian than the West, therefore if Christianity was
behind the fall, the East should have fallen first.
The argument for lead poisoning fatally weakening the empire provides another example
of scholars searching to explain the fall of the Western Empire with one factor above all others.
Jerome Nriagu argues that the one incontestable historical fact about the Roman aristocracy is
that its ranks declined quite rapidly during the last century of the Republic and during the early
centuries of the Empire. 3 In Nriagus mind, lead poisoning led to aristothanasia and
furthermore one would expect the progeny of great men to be mainly imbeciles and
underachievers. 4 This conclusion is the product of both false conclusions and a lack of
understanding of lead poisoning symptoms. Sufficient evidence is not available to support a
significant decline in the aristocracy and even if this decline took place, numerous other factors
such as war or plague could just as easily be held up as explanations. More importantly, the
author tends to count any description of bellyache or other abdominal symptoms as lead
poisoning. Many modern scholars believe true cases of ancient lead poisoning are not difficult to
identify and the descriptions used by Nriagu from the Hippocratic corpus and from the Sanskrit
Susruta almost certainly are not true cases of lead poisoning. 5 While evidence indicates that lead
poisoning did occur in antiquity, it did so on an infrequent basis and certainly did not bring down
the Roman Empire.
Numerous recent scholars hold more conventional explanations for the fall of the empire.
Louis West argued that in a word, the poor and the army had eaten up the capital of the thrifty
Nriagu, Jerome O. Lead and Lead Poisoning in Antiquity. (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1983), 407.
Nriagu,411.
Waldron, H. A. Review of Lead and Lead Poisoning in Antiquity by Jerome O. Nriagu. Isis 76, no. 1 (Mar 1985),
and the western half of Europe sank into the dark ages. 6 A.H.M. Jones was on a similar path
when he argued the evidence does suggest that over taxation played a significant role in the
decline of the empire. Jones further argues that this over taxation led to the progressive
abandonment of lands and in turn the impoverishment of the empire. 7 On the other hand, Arther
Ferrills work stressed that strictly military considerations must play a large part in any
explanation of the fall of the Roman Empire. 8 Each of these explanations contains the flaw of
resorting to a single catalyst to examine above all others. While this serves to stress one key area
and is good for a work with a narrow focus, this approach often leads to key information being
omitted and ignored. Only by examining a wide range of economic and military factors can one
find a more complete picture of the fall of the Western Roman Empire.
The purpose of this study is to examine a wide range of economic and military factors
from the Third-Century Crisis to the fall of the Western Empire. My investigation of the Roman
Economy focuses on taxation, inflation, coinage, mining, slavery and coloni. In the section on
the Roman Army, I address policy decisions of emperors, logistics, pay and supply of the armies,
military losses and recruitment, strategies and tactics, and the overall decline in population
across the empire. By taking this broad approach and examining numerous factors, I will present
a more complete explanation for the decline and eventual collapse of the Western Roman
Empire. This explanation will show how the slow erosion of both the Roman economy and
military from the third-century onward fatally weakened the Western Roman Empire causing it
to fall apart.
West, Louis C. The Economic Collapse of the Roman Empire. The Classical Journal 28, no. 2 (Nov 1932), 106.
Jones, A. H. M. The Roman Economy. Edited by P. A. Brunt. (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1974), 88.
Ferrill, Arther. The Fall of the Roman Empire: The Military Explanation. (London: Thames and Hudson, 1986), 7.
The Roman military was the very life force which held the empire together. Without a
strong army, the Romans could never have created their vast empire. From the mid-third century
onward, this vital component to the success and stability of the empire slowly withered away.
Poor imperial strategy combined with the declining quality of the soldiery opened the empire to
increasing barbarian attacks. Over time, these attacks simply overwhelmed the remaining Roman
military forces.
Third-Century Crisis
Following the murder of Emperor Severus Alexander in 235, the Roman Empire plunged
into a near fifty year period of chaos know as the Third-Century Crisis. 9 This bleak time in
Roman history found the empire engaged in a never-ending series of foreign and civil wars
which led to widespread destruction within many of the provinces. During this period, there were
27 recognized emperors and numerous other claimants to the throne.10 Several key external
factors made the threat of outside invasion greater than ever. The first of these was the gradual
development of many smaller Germanic tribes into larger and more closely-knit groups. From
this reorganization groups such as the Franks, Saxons, Goths and Alemanni developed. This is
not to imply these groups functioned internally like anything that would resemble a state or
nation, but what it did mean was that these groups could mobilize men for war on a previously
unheard of scale. The second key development occurred in the east with the rise of the Sassanid
Persian Empire. This new ruling class galvanized the Persian Empire into a military power which
could rival Rome for control of the east. The Persians relied on heavily armored shock cavalry
Penrose, Jane, ed. Rome and Her Enemies: An Empire Created and Destroyed by War. (Oxford: Osprey Publishing
Ltd., 2005), 173.
Tainter,137.
and had increased siege capabilities. This allowed the Persian Emperor Shapur I, who came to
power in 241, to attack deep into Roman territory going so far as to temporarily capture
Antioch. 11
The practice of emperors personally leading their troops into battle during much of this
period was disastrous for the stability of the empire. An early example of this comes from the
short-lived Emperor Maximinus who ruled from 235 through 238. Maximinus attempted to play
up his personal bravery to both the people and senate in Rome by fighting against Germanic
tribes in 235. His attempt at incurring their favor failed and he was murdered in 238 during a
revolt within his army. 12 At least Maximinus managed not to die in battle. In 251, Emperor
Decius and much of his army died fighting against the Goths. 13 In 259, Emperor Valerian
suffered an even worse fate when Persian forces surrounded and captured both him and his army
at Edessa. 14
These crushing defeats and continued instability throughout the empire led to the
development of new tactics for fending off barbarian invaders. After 260, senators ceased to
command legions. Equestrian prefects replaced them and this was a key move away from
amateur leadership towards a more professional military elite. The infantry continued to fight
much as it always had, with throwing spears and short stabbing swords, but the new change for
the army was a much greater reliance upon cavalry. 15 Large numbers of cavalry units were of the
Williams, Stephen. Diocletian: And the Roman Recovery. (London: B. T. Batsford Ltd., 1985), 15-7.
Herodian, 7.2. Quoted in The Roman Army, 31 BC- AD 337: A Sourcebook, Edited by Brian Campbell, 234.
(London: Routledge Publishing, 1994), 234.
Kulikowski, Michael. Romes Gothic Wars: From the Third Century to Alaric. (New York: Cambridge University
Press, 2007), 18.
Williams,21.
Campbell, Brian. The Army, in The Cambridge Ancient History: The Crisis of Empire, A.D. 193-337, Edited by
Alan K. Bowman, Peter Garnsey, and Averil Cameron, 2nd ed. Vol. 12, 110-130. (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 2005), 111-117.
utmost importance especially under the system of elastic defense developed in the late 250s
and utilized by Emperors Gallienus, Claudius, and Aurelian. Under this system, fixed frontier
lines disappeared in favor of meeting invaders within Roman territory. The mobility of the
cavalry, as they were able to travel up to 50 miles a day on good roads, was essential in meeting
and dealing with these threats. The drawback of this tactic was that invaders could cause
significant amounts of damage to the provinces before they were finally defeated, as the
Alemanni did during one such incursion in 258 before they were finally defeated at Milan.16
Emperor Gallienus may well have been the first to establish independent cavalry regiments
making this defensive system more manageable. 17
Throughout this period, a trend developed where large numbers of auxiliary troops served
to help the regular army deal with threats. By 235, at least 400 of these units served the empire
and they played a significant role in defending against these near constant invasions. 18 These
auxiliary units would have strongly supplemented the 33 legions known to have existed in 235. 19
In spite of these additional military units, it does not appear that adequate troops were always
available to deal with barbarian incursions even in the heart of provinces. This was especially
true if large incursions occurred on multiple fronts at the same time. The collapse of the frontier
between the Rhine and the Danube by the year 260 took place during a time of massive pressure
in the east, as Persian Emperor Shapur captured Antioch in 256. 20 An additional series of raids
by Germanic peoples into Gaul in the 270s led to the sacking of nearly 60 towns, including Paris.
As the military was unable to provide adequate protection, many of these towns took the
Williams,923.
Campbell,115.
Luttwak, Edward N., The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire: From the First Century A.D. to the Third.
(Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1976), 152.
initiative to erect strong walls to prevent future disasters. 21 An inscription from Dacia dated to
248 indicates widespread fortification projects began early during this period. The inscription
states that in order to protect the community of their own colony of Romula, they built the
circuit of the walls from the base up by means of a body of soldiers. 22 Around 271, Emperor
Aurelian constructed a wall around the city of Rome. 23 This indicates that the army was no
longer capable of adequately protecting the general population against foreign threats.
While the Roman military was badly battered during this period of crisis, it still retained
its ability to win substantial victories and this allowed the army, and the empire, to survive
through the Third-Century Crisis. 24 In 268, Emperor Claudius II appears to have won a smashing
victory over the Goths. While the claim by the likely fictitious Trebellius Pollio that the emperor
killed 320,000 Goths and destroyed 2,000 of their ships is clearly exaggerated, it seems
reasonable to assume this is a defeat which the Goths would have felt for some time to come. 25
In 271, Emperor Aurelian appears to have further punished the Goths by invading and defeating
them on their own territory, even though he decided to abandon the province of Dacia as being
indefensible. 26 Victories such as these would have made barbarians think twice before they
invaded the Roman Empire. Through his numerous successes, Emperor Aurelian was able to
push back many of the barbarians and retake a number of provinces which had been previously
lost, which restored at least some stability throughout the empire. 27
ILS 510. Quoted in The Roman Army, 31 BC- AD 337: A Sourcebook, Edited by Brian Campbell, (London:
Routledge Publishing, 1994), 124-5.
Boak,ArthurE.R.ManpowerShortageandtheFalloftheRomanEmpireintheWest.(AnnArbor:Universityof
MichiganPress,1955),25.
S.H.A. The Deified Claudius, VIII.
Kulikowski,20.
Recruitment during this period is difficult to quantify, but some sources indicate the use
of barbarians in the army, especially in the case of barbarians previously settled within the
borders of the empire. Emperor Marcus Aurelius provides an example of this when he settled the
defeated Germanic Marcomanni tribe on Roman lands in exchange for them providing recruits
for the army. 28 Evidence of Gothic troops serving among Roman units during this period comes
from a battle inscription created by Persian Emperor Shapur.29 After defeating invading
Germanic tribes, Emperor Probus took 16,000 of the captives as recruits and spread them
throughout the provinces in detachments of 50 or 60. He is quoted as stating that the aid of
barbarian auxiliaries must be felt but not seen. 30 The total number of barbarian auxiliaries that
served with Roman units during this period is unknown, but it is clear that the Roman Empire
was experiencing a shortage in new recruits.
The effect of the instability and destruction of the Third-Century Crisis on the general
population could have been nothing short of devastating. This is especially true considering the
fact that the general population may not have recovered from the severe plague which struck the
empire from 165-180, and likely again in 189. 31 J.F. Gilliam convincingly argues that this plague
did not kill half of the population as many early historians believed, but he may have gone too
far in the other direction by estimating that it killed only 1 to 2 percent of the population. A 7 to
10 percent mortality rate for the empire seems more reasonable. 32 Whatever the exact percentage
was, it seems clear that this plague disrupted patterns in many archaeological data sets. These
data sets show a considerable drop in meat consumption and a decline in the length of the
S.H.A.Probus,XIV.
Littman R. J. and M. L. Littman. Galen and the Antonine Plague. The American Journal of Philology 94, no. 3
(Autumn 1973), 243-5.
LittmanR.J.andM.L.Littman,252.
average Roman femur, indicating a shorter and less healthy population. The argument that the
climate of Europe at this time was cooler and dryer, if true, would only have contributed to the
severity of the plague. 33 Based on the evidence available, this plague contributed greatly to the
overall population loss which took place during this period.
Less than a century later during the worst portion of the Third-Century Crisis from 250 to
270, another large-scale plague struck the Roman Empire, this one starting in the east and
spreading quickly, likely due to the movement of soldiers. When this plague is coupled with the
widespread barbarian raids of this era it is reasonable to assume that the peasant population
dropped substantially. This is especially true when one factors in the scores of slaves and tenant
farmers, many of Germanic origin, who would have taken the opportunity presented by the
confusion and disruption of this period to flee from their lands and masters.34 It was from this
diminished population that the army had to find enough recruits to defend the empire. 35
Emperor Diocletians relatively stable reign from 284 to 305 helped the Roman Empire
emerge from the dark shadow of the Third-Century Crisis. Diocletian reorganized both the
government and the frontiers in an attempt to permanently stabilize the empire. Following a
serious revolt in Egypt in 297, Diocletian became convinced multiple rulers were needed to
effectively run the empire. This led him to create the Tetrarchy, or rule of four, with two senior
members known as Augusti and two junior members called Caesars. The purpose of this system
Jongman, Willem M. Gibbon was Right: The Decline and Fall of the Roman Economy. Roman Economic
History as World History (2006), 192-5.
Boak, 24-6.
Boak,1245.
was to allow multiple rulers to deal with multiple threats at the same time. 36 In 298, the junior
Emperor Galerius won a key victory over the Persians and made peace with them under
extremely advantageous terms. The new established frontier was both more advanced and more
easily defensible than the previous frontier had been. Elsewhere, the abandonment of certain
territories made the frontiers easier to defend. In the west, the province of Dacia was recognized
as lost and all territory beyond the Rhine-Danube line was abandoned. In North Africa, the
southern limes of Volubilis were evacuated, as was territory in southern Nubia. In all, the
frontiers were simplified, with exposed salients being abandoned in favor of more easily
defensible lines, and only in the east was new territory added, but even here this contributed to
the overall defensibility of the frontier. 37
This reorganization of the frontiers served as an integral part of Diocletians new
defense-in-depth strategy. This new strategy called for the engagement of invaders within
Roman territory, but still very near to the borders. To ensure deep penetrations into Roman lands
did not occur, this strategy called for hard points to be set up at the frontiers and then continuing
back into the province. These hard points included walled towns and numerous military forts set
up at strategic locations such as river crossings, strategic passes through rough terrain, and along
roads. 38 The hard points would be combined with mobile field forces, including a large number
of cavalry units, organized on a regional level to respond to barbarian threats. When invaders
crossed the frontier, the hard points served the purpose of slowing down and channeling the
enemy penetration, and thus making barbarian invaders much easier to intercept and defeat
Luttwak,1529.
Luttwak,155161.
before they could cause significant amounts of damage to the provinces. 39 Several surviving
ancient writers seem to indicate that this new strategy met with a high degree of success.
Zosimus states that by the forethought of Diocletian, the frontiers of the empire everywhere
were covered, as I have stated, with cities, garrisons and fortifications which housed the whole
army. 40 Eumenius further indicates the extensiveness of the system by commenting who can
count the numbers of forts of cavalry and infantry that have been rebuilt along the whole length
of the Rhine, the Danube, and the Euphrates? 41 This defense-in-depth system appears to have
been largely successful at holding back the barbarians. At the very least, it would have been a
powerful psychological tool which may very well have discouraged many potential invaders
from risking an attack on Roman territory.
For this strategy to be successful, the Roman army needed a vast expansion. It is
estimated that the army stood at 400,000 strong when Diocletian came to power and by the end
of his reign had been increased to between 500,000 and 600,000 men. 42 At the very least, the 33
legions of the Severan Era had increased to 67 legions by the end of Diocletians reign in 305.
However, this massive increase in the size of the army would have led to severe recruitment
problems. Under Diocletian, it was the responsibility of city governments or individual
landowners to produce recruits annually. Instead of providing recruits, many landowners simply
gave money to help encourage enlistment from barbarians either within, or outside of Roman
territory through enlistment bonuses. 43 The practice of settling barbarians within the Roman
Empire in exchange for military service was now to become all the more common. Around 295,
Zosimus. New History. Translated by Ronald Ridley. (Canberra: Australian Association for Byzantine Studies,
Campbell,1236.
the defeated tribes the Chamavi and the Frisians received vacant lands in Gaul as part of a
program designed to repopulate Gaul and provide a reserve of recruits for the upcoming war to
reconquer Britain. 44 In 307, the junior Emperor Galerius settled the defeated Carpi on lands
south of the Danube as defeated subjects under the condition that they provide him with recruits
for his army. 45 An anonymous Gallic orator summed this practice up quite well in 297 when he
Now the barbarian farmer produces corn and indeed even if he is summoned
for the levy he presents himself speedily, reduced to complete compliance and
totally under our control, and is pleased that he is a mere slave under the name of
military service. 46
This system appears to have worked well at this time, which explains why it was widely used.
The drawback to the system was that nothing guaranteed that these barbarian federates, as they
were called, would continue to maintain their loyalty to Rome.
Evidence from this period suggests that Diocletian was worried about being able to
adequately provision his armies. In the preamble of his Edict of Maximum Prices, Diocletian
states his concern for the soldiers and the ability to supply them when he proclaimed that
sometimes in a single purchase a soldier is deprived of his bonus and salary, and that the
contribution of the whole world to support our armies falls to the abominable profit of thieves. 47
This preamble and the tables of maximum prices taken together give a strong indication that
Diocletians chief concern was not as much the high cost of the necessities of life, but instead the
high cost of supplying the armies. 48 A key development initiated by Diocletian was the
Frank, Tenney. An Economic Survey of Ancient Rome. vol. 5, Rome and Italy of the Empire. (Baltimore: Johns
Hopkins Press, 1940), 314.
West, Louis C. Notes on Diocletians Edict. Classical Philology 34, no. 3 (July 1939), 239.
innovation of state run arsenals managed by army personnel and manned by skilled artisans
conscripted for military service. Approximately twelve of these arsenals were initially
established, with more being added by his successors. This direct state control soon spread to all
industries considered key to the survival of the Roman Empire such as textiles, brickworks,
mining and pottery just to name a few. State supervision over the industrial capacity of the
empire ensured the manufacture of enough provisions to supply the army with all of its needs.
Future emperors maintained, and some even expanded, the level of state control over
production. 49 Evidence of pay to the armies is confined to surviving Egyptian papyrus which
requests the authorities of Panopolis to pay military units in Upper Egypt, and while this papyrus
is difficult to interpret, it does seem to indicate that military pay was nominal compared to the
rate of inflation. Regular donatives on the birthday and accession of ruling emperors, along with
smaller donatives for the consulships of junior emperors would have significantly boosted the
soldiers income. In addition, Roman legionaries received an allowance of meat and salt, while
auxiliaries received corn. 50
Following the abdication of Diocletian and Maximian in 305, the Tetrarchy fell apart,
largely over the choice of two of Galerius close supporters as Caesars instead of the sons of
Galerius and Constantius who had just become Augusti. On Constantius death in 306, his son
Constantine was acclaimed emperor and in 307, a series of civil wars began. 51 Shortly before
confronting the usurper Maxentius, Constantine appears to have had a dream during which he
received the message from a god to use a standard in the form of a cross to protect him from his
enemies. 52 Whether or not this actually happened is debatable, but it is a fact that after his
victory over Maxentius at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge, Constantine did convert to
Christianity. It is difficult to say how much of an effect this conversion would have had on the
army, but it does appear that soldiers in the army were overwhelmingly pagan at this time. 53
Constantine established powerful field armies for empire-wide service and to field these
armies, provincial forces had to be correspondingly reduced. 54 There is some indication that
Diocletian had a field army, but it does not appear to have been critical to his overall strategy. 55
On the contrary, under Constantine and his system of concentrated mobile forces the highest
priority was not protecting the provinces themselves, but protecting the emperor. The mobile
army and the frontiers now fell under a separate command structure. This was very similar to the
system used during the worst portion of the Third-Century Crisis, and while the frontiers were
certainly not abandoned, they no longer had the manpower to resist serious enemy incursions.
The experience Constantine had in fighting civil wars clearly influenced his decision on the
development of this large mobile army. 56 This mobile army placed a high priority on cavalry
units which could be deployed quickly to affected regions. 57
At least one ancient writer appears to have felt that Constantines weakening of frontier
defenses and creation of a mobile army was a major mistake. Speaking on the frontiers, Zosimus
writes that:
Eusebius. Life of Constantine the Great. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Nicene and Post-Nicene
Fathers, vol. 1, Life of Constantine the Great. (Peabody: Hendrickson Publishers, 1995), 490.
Penrose,233.
Luttwak,178.
Constantine destroyed this security by removing most of the troops from the
frontiers and stationing them in cities which did not need assistance, thus both
stripping of protection those being molested by the barbarians and subjecting the
cities left alone by them to the outrages of the soldiers, so that henceforth most
have become deserted. Moreover he enervated the troops by allowing them to
devote themselves to shows and luxuries. In plain terms, Constantine was the
origin and beginning of the present destruction of the empire. 58
While this criticism is quite harsh and shows Zosimus strong dislike for Constantine, he makes
several very good points. There does appear to be a qualitative decline in soldiers during this
period, but it is unclear if this came from a relaxed standard of recruitment or simply a general
loss of discipline within the army. 59 Estimates for the size of Constantines army range as high as
650,000 men. A law issued by Constantine in 313 requiring soldiers sons to serve in the military
indicates that recruitment had become a problem. Evasion of this law appears to have been
widespread because from 319 to 398 there were twenty-two additional laws issued regarding
attempts to evade military service. 60 Recruitment of large numbers of barbarians to fill out the
ranks would certainly have been possible, and even likely, when the difficulty in finding recruits
for the mobile army is factored in. As this army could be stationed anywhere, many individuals
would have avoided joining it at all costs because they did not wish to be stationed far from their
home provinces. 61 Whatever the qualitative drop may have been, it still appears that this mobile
field army could defeat attacking enemies, but in many cases this was only done after they had
caused much damage to the provinces. The cumulative effect of this damage may very well have
led to the erosion of the logistical base for the empire. 62
Zosimus,39.
Tainter,1414.
Constantine rewarded soldiers who fulfilled their term of service, likely twenty years,
with significant retirement bonuses. Veterans received two options. They could receive
unoccupied land to farm along with 25 folles in cash to buy the necessities of rural life. In
addition to this, veterans choosing this option were to receive a pair of oxen and 100 modii of
assorted seeds. Under the second option, veterans received the lump sum of 100 folles in cash so
that they could go into business. 63 This law shows both the incentive given to soldiers to join the
army and serve out their full term, and it also indicates enough vacant land was available for
them to receive upon the completion of their term of service.
Death of Constantine through Theodosius
Shortly after the death of Constantine in 337, the Roman Empire was once again plunged
into civil war. In 354, Emperor Constantius II emerged victorious from this series of civil wars to
control the Roman world. Beginning at this time the ancient historian Ammianus Marcellinus
provides us with detailed accounts of the reigns, achievements, and abilities of Roman emperors
through 378. Understanding how these emperors were perceived, as well as exactly what they
accomplished, provides key insights into just how capable they were at maintaining stability
throughout the empire. First, we hear from Ammianus of the cruelty of the Constantius IIs coemperor Gallus. During his reign, a number of people were found guilty and condemned
through mere misty suspicion. 64 Some of these people were killed, while others had their
property confiscated, and still others were exiled penniless. Constantius executed Gallus after a
reign of only four years. Following this Constantius promoted his only remaining relative, Julian
as his new co-emperor. 65 With this we can see that Gallus was not running his portion of the
Theodosian Code. 7, 20.3.
Amm. Marc. 14.1.
Amm.Marc.14.11.
empire up to the standard which was expected of him. It is also clear that instead of helping him
or persuading him to change his ways, Constantius simply found it more expedient to have him
removed. While Gallus may very well have been killed because of his excess cruelty, the same
exact charge is leveled at Constantius by Ammianus who states Constantius narrow and
sensitive mind treated the slightest rumor as evidence of an actual or projected attempt on his
life, and made his victory an occasion of mourning by the slaughter of the innocent. 66 It would
appear that neither Gallus nor Constantius would have enjoyed a high level of support among the
population.
Following the death of Gallus, Julian proceeded to administer the western portion of the
empire quite skillfully. He managed to reconquer Cologne and the area around it which
Ammianus describes as being virtually deserted of fortifications, thus illustrating the lack of
attention that had been paid to this portion of the frontier.67 The situation changed early in 360,
when Constantius demanded that Julian send a portion of his army east to fight against the
Persians. While Julian was attempting to arrange this, his soldiers mutinied and proclaimed
Julian to be emperor, thus once again illustrating the difficulty in forcing troops from one region
of the empire to move to another. Also seen from this is a strong sense of loyalty displayed by
the troops that Julian had personally led to victories in battle. 68 Before another full-scale civil
war began, Constantius died of natural causes leaving Julian sole emperor. On his accession,
Ammianus tells us that people beyond the Tigris and the Armenians sued for peace, and that
Indian peoples competed to send him gifts. The Moors offered him their services and previously
Amm.Marc.14.5.
unknown tribes from the Black Sea region offered to pay him tribute to be left in peace. 69 While
this is likely an exaggeration, it still shows the level of respect that a proven emperor with a
record of military victories could obtain. The downside to being an emperor who led troops in
battle is that this is a hazardous way to rule as Julian found out in 363 while campaigning against
the Persians. During a skirmish, Julian received a wound from a cavalry spear and died shortly
thereafter. 70 The army then elected a man named Jovian as emperor who concluded a disastrous
peace agreement with the Persians, surrendering huge amounts of territory even though
Ammianus states, the Romans had the upper hand in almost all the fighting. Jovian then died
before he could even make it back to the heart of the empire. 71 This clearly illustrates how the
untimely death of an emperor, especially in combat, could have disastrous consequences for the
The Roman military elite made Valentinian the next emperor and despite advice to the
contrary, he appointed his brother Valens as co-emperor. 72 Valentinian was the last Roman
Emperor who systematically patrolled and fortified the western frontiers and he ran his portion of
the empire with both skill and vigor. 73 Ammianus described Valentinians belief that it was a
greater service to keep the barbarians in check by frontier barriers than to defeat them in
battle. 74 Following the formal division of the empire made by Valentinian and Valens in 364,
the two portions increasingly governed and regulated their own affairs without consulting each
Brown, Peter. The World of Late Antiquity: AD 150-750. (London: Thames and Hudson Ltd, 1971), 119.
other. 75 Even though Valens was ruling primarily on his own, throughout much of his reign he
managed to keep his portion of the empire largely intact. This was of course until he made the
fateful decision to give battle against the Goths at Adrianople, even though the western emperor
Gratian was fast approaching with an army to support him in crushing these invaders. This
decision cost him both his army and his life. 76
With the accession of Emperor Theodosius in 379, the role of the emperor began to
change. No longer did the emperor directly lead troops into battle or reside in frontier regions.
Theodosius spent much of his reign in Constantinople, leaving for extended periods only to
suppress the usurpations of Maximus and Eugenius. 77 Theodosius lack of involvement in
campaigns and on the battlefield would not have allowed him to develop the loyalty of his
soldiers as Julian had done before him. On the other hand, it also ensured that he would not die
in battle. With his death in 395, Theodosius left the empire to his two young and inexperienced
sons Honorius and Arcadius. This lack of experienced leadership gave rise to a power vacuum of
which powerful generals took full advantage, especially in the west. 78 With the death of
Theodosius came the final division of the Roman Empire between east and west. After
Theodosius, no single emperor was able to reunite the two portions of the empire ever again. As
we shall see, this was extremely bad for the western portion of the empire which was
Errington, R. Malcolm. Roman Imperial Policy from Julian to Theodosius. (Chapel Hill: University of North
Carolina Press, 2006), 109.
Amm.Marc.31.123.
Mitchell, Stephen. A History of the Later Roman Empire (AD 284-641). (Malden: Blackwell Publishing Ltd.,
Lee, A.D. The Army, in The Cambridge Ancient History: The Late Empire, A.D. 337-425, Edited by Averil
Cameron and Peter Garnsey, Vol. 13, 211-237. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 229.
economically inferior and was strategically more vulnerable due to the vast length of the
frontiers which had to be protected. 79
We know more about the fighting abilities and styles of Romes primary enemies during
this period than in virtually any other era during the late Roman Empire. In a victory over the
Alamanni by Constantius, Ammianus states the defeated barbarians threw away their armor to
run faster, and thus gives a rare mention of Germanic peoples wearing armor. 80 In a separate
engagement with these same barbarians won by Julian, Ammianus states the Alamanni held the
advantage in both strength and height giving a key glimpse into the physical stature likely shared
by many Germanic tribes. 81 In a description of Persian troops, Ammianus tells us that their
military training and discipline, combined with their practice of maneuvers and arms drills made
them formidable opponents. They relied heavily upon their cavalry, manned by the nobility, and
their regular infantry were armed like Roman gladiators. 82 The Persians are also said to have
been clad in mail armor which covered their entire bodies and the only spots a weapon could
lodge were the tiny holes left for the eyes and nostrils. Ammianus acknowledged the
proficiency of their archers when he stated that they practiced from the very cradle in a skill in
which that people most excel. 83 The Persians were not lacking in siege warfare capabilities
either. At the siege of Singara in 360, the Persians employed an exceptionally powerful ram as
well as many other engines and were able to breach a round tower and take the fortress. 84 The
primary enemies of Rome at this time were quite formidable, with the Germanic tribes holding
the advantage in physical stature, while the Persians may have reached parity with Rome in
armor, training, and military technology.
The Roman army possessed at least the same level of technology as the Persians, but their
system of organization did not provide any artillery at all to the ordinary legions. Instead, they
appear to have raised separate legions of ballistarii. The reason behind this was that the Roman
Empire suffered from a shortage of qualified personnel to build and operate their artillery. 85
During the siege of Amida, Ammianus mentions two Magnentian legions which had recently
been transferred to the east from Gaul that were supposed to assist with the defensive machinery,
but that these legions were useless in siege warfare. 86 There is no reason to believe that these
Magnentian legions were exceptions to the rule in the fourth century. Full utilization of artillery
was further complicated by the lack of commanders who were able to appreciate what engines of
war could do for them, and as such, artillery was not as large of a factor for the late Roman army
as it otherwise could have been. 87
There is some evidence that as the fourth century progressed, the Roman army went away
from its previous practice of wearing body armor as more and more barbarians joined the army.
While a fourth century set of mail armor has been discovered at Caerleon in South Wales, the
lack of additional surviving evidence of infantry armor indicates that perhaps only the cavalry
remained heavily armored so that it could deal with enemy cavalry which was likewise
armored. 88 Vegetius states that while the cavalry remained armored in the example of the Goths,
Alans, and Huns, the infantry ceased to wear armor or helmets beginning with Emperor Gratian.
Marsden, E. W. Greek and Roman Artillery: Historical Development. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1969),
196-7.
Marsden,1968.
Simkins, Michael. The Roman Army from Hadrian to Constantine. (Oxford: Osprey Publishing Ltd., 1979), 39.
He further claimed that the reason for this was neglect of leadership in enforcing the soldiery to
wear their armor and even after many defeats; no one had bothered to restore armor or helmets to
the infantry. 89
If large numbers of barbarian units served in the army during this period, it would make
sense that the discipline and abilities of the Roman army would have declined significantly. This
would have especially been true in the west where the barbarian recruits would almost certainly
have been Germanic in origin, and the conflicts in the west frequently involved Germanic tribes.
At the Battle of Strasbourg in 357, Ammianus specifically states that the Romans enjoyed the
advantage in training and discipline and this would have been difficult to achieve if the army did
not consist largely of regular Roman units. Furthermore, Ammianus never gives the impression
that an overall barbarization of the army took place.90 On the issue of armor, Ammianus
specifically stated at the Battle of Adrianople in 378, the weight of their armor weakened the
Roman soldiers. During the battle itself he indicated that on both sides helmets and breast plates
were split into pieces, thus seemingly confirming that at least a majority of the Roman army
that fought here was armored. 91
It seems likely that only after Adrianople were large numbers of barbarians recruited into
the army and the widespread armoring of the infantry may well have been abandoned. The losses
suffered by the army at Adrianople and in battles leading up to Adrianople had been enormous,
especially in the east. After Amida fell to the Persians almost all of the seven legions stationed
there were lost. 92 At least two further legions were lost when Singara fell shortly thereafter. 93
Veg. Mil. 1.20.
The subsequent loss of the powerful fortress at Bezabde cost the Romans at least another three
legions. 94 Even worse, during a failed counter-attack on Bezabde by Constantius, the Romans
suffered severe and grievous losses of which the effect would long be felt. 95 By far the worst
losses were still to come when at Adrianople an entire field army perished. Ammianus puts this
loss into perspective when he states it is certain that hardly a third of our army escaped. No
battle in our history except Cannae was such a massacre. 96 The losses suffered during the late
fourth century had a lasting effect on the future composition of the army, and after Adrianople
the myth of invincibility held by the professional Roman army may have been forever
shattered. 97
The Romans required at least 20,000 new recruits just to replace the losses to the field
army after Adrianople, and these men would not have been easy to find. 98 This is especially true
due to the difficulties in recruitment that existed in the late fourth century. Speaking on the
character of the Gauls in 355 Ammianus writes, no one here ever cuts off his thumb to escape
military service, as happens in Italy, where they have a special name for such malingerers
(murci). 99 Additional law codes indicate the problems with recruitment in Italy likely permeated
much of the empire. In 364, Valentinian and Valens issued a law reconfirming the previous law
established by Constantine that the sons of soldiers must serve in the military. 100 The next year
an additional law was issued stating that if a person of low status helped a deserter then he would
Liebeschuetz, Wolfgang. The end of the Roman army in the Western Empire, in War and Society in the Roman
World, edited by John Rich and Graham Shipley, 265-276. (London: Routledge Publishing, 1993), 265.
Ferrill, Arther. The Fall of the Roman Empire: The Military Explanation. (London: Thames and Hudson, 1986),
Theodosian Code. 7, 1.5.
be sent to the mines and if a high status individual helped a deserter then he would be fined half
of his total property. 101 A third law issued in 368 stated that if a person cuts off his fingers to
avoid military service he will be sentenced to death and if his master fails to prevent him from
this he will be severely punished. 102 Writing five years after Adrianople Themistius stated,
Thrace was overrun, Illyricum was overrun, armies vanished altogether, like shadows. 103 In
382 unable to defeat the Goths, Emperor Theodosius made peace with them by granting them
lands in Thrace. 104 In these desperate times where recruitment was extremely difficult, any and
all means of rebuilding an army would have been used, including the large scale recruitment of
barbarians. The first mention of this on a significant scale comes from Emperor Theodosius
employment of 20,000 barbarians at the Battle of Frigidus in 394. These barbarians fought under
native commanders and were less disciplined than Roman soldiers, but the Romans needed
manpower and this was something the barbarians could provide, for a price. 105
The danger in this arrangement was that the barbarians were not likely to be as loyal as
regular soldiers were. During a campaign against the Alamanni in 354, the discovery of a
fordable river crossing potentially could have led to the destruction of the Alamanni:
had not a few men of the same race, who had attained high rank in our army, sent
a secret warning to their compatriots. That at any rate was what some believed,
and suspicion fell on Latinus, count of the household troops, Agilo, the
superintendant of the stables, and Scudilo, the general of the Scutarii, all men who
were held in high respect as pillars of the state. 106
It is likely that although all three of these men were raised in the Roman Empire, they still
considered themselves to be ethnically Alemanni and it is very possible they gave away the
Theodosian Code. 17, 18.1.
Kulikowski,143.
Kulikowski,1523.
Ferrill,835.
invasion plans to prevent their countrymen from being slaughtered. 107 The Alemanni and
Constantius were still able to come to a peace agreement, but this type of betrayal could not be
taken lightly. 108 The Romans were so worried after Adrianople that they called forward all recent
Gothic recruits, who had entered into the army in the eastern provinces, under the auspice of
paying them money that they were due and executed them. 109 The danger of relying on large
numbers of barbarians in the army was certainly apparent to the Romans who knew these groups
could not always be trusted.
The pay of the Roman army did increase during the late fourth century and by 364
soldiers received pay in gold coin. At this time, the infantry received five solidi annually while
the cavalry received nine solidi. 110 Julian provides an example that proves soldiers still received
donatives. When his troops proclaimed him emperor, he promised them each five pieces of gold
and a pound of silver. 111 Julian also made sure that the troops posted along the Danube should
not lack either arms and clothing or pay and food. 112 At least during times of stability soldiers
were receiving the supplies they needed. Several examples from Julians expedition against the
Persians suggest that on campaign supplies were much harder to come by. While marching
through Assyria for example the soldiers were delighted to have ample subsistence without
having to draw on the supplies carried by the ships. 113 Later on in the campaign the army
marched through a region with many fields that contained vines and fruit trees and the army
Drinkwater, John F. The Alamanni and Rome 213-496 (Caracalla to Clovis). (Oxford: Oxford University Press,
Harl, Kenneth W. Coinage in the Roman Economy, 300 B. C. to A. D. 700. (London: Johns Hopkins University
satisfied its appetite with ample food from this source, and where as men previously dreaded a
dearth there was now a serious fear that they would overeat. 114 These examples illustrate that
while the army did travel with supplies these were often inadequate to support the full needs of
the army on a lengthy campaign. When Jovian accepted the horrendous peace offer of the
Persians to end this campaign, it seems the Roman army was on the verge of starvation. 115 A
greater abundance of supplies for this campaign could very well have saved the Roman army
from this desperate situation.
Death of Theodosius to fall of Western Empire
For the early fifth century, the most abundant information available on recruitment,
training and the supply of the Roman army comes from Vegetius. While his writing is difficult to
date it still provides useful insights that are not otherwise available. He states that skill and
training, not numbers and untaught bravery produce victories. This indicates the preference for a
professional army. Curiously, he follows this by suggesting that recruits for the army should be
chosen from colder climates. Vegetius justifies this by stating people from warmer climates are
more intelligent, but have less blood and are therefore more afraid of wounds, while recruits
from cooler climates are less intelligent, but possess more blood and as such have a strong
contempt for wounds and death. This is interesting as Italy and much of the Roman Empire had
what could be termed a warm climate and Germanic peoples would almost exclusively reside
in cooler climates. Exactly what this comment means is difficult to decipher as regions of the
Roman Empire such as Gaul also have cooler climates, but this could signify an increased
recruitment of Germanic peoples into the army. Vegetius also states recruits should come from
the country and not the city as the toil of the country better prepares men to be soldiers than does
the ease of city life. 116 This point makes sense, and as the vast majority of the population still
lived in the country, did not significantly narrow the potential recruitment pool.
On the subject of supply, large armies were difficult to support and Vegetius cites
examples such as Xerxes, Darius, and Mithridates, whose extremely large armies fared poorly in
combat due to their size. Vegetius recommends that armies remain smaller so that they can move
more quickly and are easier to supply. 117 Furthermore, stating that armies are more often
destroyed by starvation than battle, Vegetius writes that the only remedy to the problem of
supply is to store large quantities of provisions in advance within fortified locations. If taxes in
kind proved inadequate, then advance payments of gold should be used to secure everything that
is needed. 118 Much of this advice is quite sound and suggests the base elements of recruitment,
training, and supply were not lost in the early fifth century. It is more likely circumstances
simply dictated that the only way to rebuild the army after the disasters of the fourth century was
through the recruitment of large numbers of barbarian federates.
Dating to around 400, the Notitia Dignitatum provides a list of all military units in both
the East and the West. These units have a total estimated strength of 645,000 men, but this does
not take into account the fact that many of these units were likely under strength. A current
argument by Wolfgang Liebeschuetz states that at least 25% of the units given in the list were
comprised of men with Germanic or non-citizen origins. These non-Roman units were known as
Veg.Mil.1.11.3.
Veg.Mil.3.1.
federates and throughout the first half of the fifth century, they grew in importance to the point
that they vastly outnumbered regular Roman units in the field armies. 119
This was the army inherited by the Roman general Stilicho, who effectively ruled the
West for the young Emperor Honorius following the death of Theodosius in 395. 120 From the
beginning, Stilicho faced numerous barbarian invasions. The Roman policy of settling Visigoths
within the empire had worked well from 382 to 395, but after this time Gothic forces roamed
virtually unchecked through the empire. 121 Their leader, Alaric, had led auxiliary units for
Emperor Theodosius helping to win several key victories, but when he did not receive a proper
military command for his efforts, Alaric led a Gothic rebellion in 395. In 402, Alaric invaded
Italy, but Stilicho was able to force him to retreat, though the engagements appear to have been
indecisive. 122 Alaric became the least of Stilichos problems when in 405 a massive invasion
crossed into Roman territory under the Gothic leader Radagaisus. To counter this threat, Stilicho
mobilized 30 regiments from the field army of Italy and supplemented this with a contingent
from the Rhine frontier, as well as Alan and Hunnic auxiliaries. With this force, Stilicho was
able to trap Radagaisus in 406 and he even convinced a large portion of this barbarian army to
join the Roman army. Radagaisus attempted to flee and was captured and executed. 123
Stilicho was much less effective at dealing with the Vandals, Alans, and Suevi who burst
across the Rhine on December 31, 406. 124 Stilicho is often accused of stripping the frontier of
soldiers leading up to this invasion to provide soldiers for his field army. While there is little
Liebeschuetz,2657.
Ferrill,119120.
Kulikowski,164170.
Heather, Peter. The Fall of the Roman Empire: A New History of Rome and the Barbarians. (Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 2006), 205-6.
Heather,206.
doubt that he removed troops, whether or not he recklessly ran down western defenses is
debatable. 125 What is not debatable is Stilichos failure to stop these incursions. The poet
Orientus summed up the immediate effect of this invasion with the phrase, all Gaul was filled
with the smoke of a single funeral pyre. 126 The situation was so desperate that even slaves were
permitted to enlist in the army, and would receive their freedom if they served faithfully. 127 In
407, at the height of this confusion Alaric once again invaded Italy. This time Stilicho managed
to convince the senate to buy him off with a payment of 4,000 pounds of gold. 128 The senator
Lampadius famously observed that such a gesture bought not peace but servitude. This payoff
to Alaric severely weakened Stilichos position at court.129 On August 13, 408 a number of
Stilichos chief supporters died during a revolt started by the followers of Radagaisus, the same
ones Stilicho had convinced to join him a mere few years earlier. Shortly thereafter Stilicho was
himself murdered in Ravenna likely at the behest of Emperor Honorius. 130
Following the death of Stilicho, soldiers loyal to Honorius slaughtered thousands of
barbarians quartered in Italy, including women and children. 131 Zosimus states that 30,000
federates who survived this massacre deserted to Alaric when he again invaded Italy in 408, and
with this loss, rendered the Roman army in Italy ineffective. 132 This explains the lack of a
military response to Alaric who three times put the city of Rome under siege, and finally as the
Romans continued to ignore his demands, which actually shrank over time, sacked the city in
Drinkwater,3223.
Theodosian Code. 7, 13.16.
Mitchell,93.
Heather,2223.
Liebeschuetz,267.
August of 410. 133 From his position in Jerusalem, Saint Jerome captured the shock of this
disaster by writing, the city which had taken the whole world was itself taken; nay, it fell by
famine before it fell by the sword. 134 Jeromes shock could have been lessened had he known
just how weak the Roman army actually was due to its heavy reliance on barbarian federates.
While this was happening in Italy, in 409 the Vandals Alans and Suevi entered Spain and by 411
had made themselves masters of the entire peninsula. 135 This led the Romans to reemploy the
same group of Goths which had only recently sacked Rome, though their leader Alaric was now
dead, to fight once more for the empire in an attempt to rid Spain of barbarians. Following
successful campaigning, these Gothic federates were settled on lands in Gaul. 136 By 418, these
Goths fully established themselves in the region of Aquitania as rulers of the land. This helps to
illustrate how the barbarian federates were taking over not only the army, but much of the
territory within the Roman Empire as well. 137
Flavius Aetius was the other prominent figure to come to power for the Romans in the
fifth century, becoming the leading general following the accession of Emperor Valentinian III in
433 and virtual ruler of the Western Empire. 138 Aetius rise to power was made possible only
because he had at his disposal a strong force of Hunnic federates. 139 Despite his relatively
successful military career, Aetius was unable to prevent the fall of North Africa to the Vandals in
439. This cost Rome its richest remaining province along with the primary source of food for the
city of Rome. Being unable to launch an expedition to recover North Africa, Aetius was forced
Jerome. Select Letters of St Jerome. Translated by F. A. Wright. (London: Heinemann, 1954), 463.
Ausonius. vol. 2, Translated by H. G. Evelyn White. (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1921), 347-9.
to make peace with the Vandals who were supposed to become a client kingdom of federates,
and for a time they did provide a small quantity of grain to help feed the city of Rome. 140
The most difficult challenge Aetius had to face arrived in 451, as the Huns invaded the
West under their powerful ruler Attila. As Attila advanced he burned Metz to the ground along
with all of its inhabitance and would likely have done the same to Orleans had Aetius not arrived
with his Gothic and Frankish allies. These forces engaged Attila in battle and forced him to
retreat. 141 During this large-scale engagement, there is not a single specific reference to a unit of
Roman soldiers fighting in the battle under Aetius. It is therefore possible the entire force which
defeated Attila consisted of federates, and that professional Roman units had ceased to exist in
the field army. 142 Attila returned the following year to invade Italy, and Pope Leo took credit for
stopping this invasion. He claimed to have convinced Attila to desist from his war and return to
his homeland in peace. 143 A more likely reason for Attilas retreat was the famine and plague
which was sweeping through his army. Furthermore, Aetius, along with the Eastern Emperor
Marcian were harassing Attilas troops in Italy, while additional forces from the East had
launched an invasion northward into Attilas heartland. Attila had no choice but to retreat. While
preparing for a third invasion of the West, Attila died suddenly early in 453, removing this dire
threat to the survival of the West. 144
Heather,28992.
Gregory of Tours. The History of the Franks. Translated by Lewis Thorpe. (New York: Penguin Books, 1974),
Stevenson, J. ed. Creeds, Councils, and Controversies: Documents Illustrative of the History of the Church AD
337-461. (London: SPCK, 1966), 359.
With the Hunnic threat removed, in September 454 Emperor Valentinian had Aetius
assassinated. 145 After the death of Aetius and the loss of much of his federate army, the West
desperately needed a regular field army, but this required regular supplies and it does not appear
these could be squeezed from the western economy. Too much of the territory in the West was
under the direct control of federates, and those units which did serve in the army in Italy were
made up primarily of units from the tribal groups now dominant in Gaul and Spain. 146 Emperor
Valentinian was then himself assassinated by supporters of Aetius in March 455.147 The lack of a
significant military presence in Italy is apparent from the complete absence of any attempt to
prevent the Vandals from sacking Rome in June 455. 148 One final attempt was made to save the
West when in 468 what remained of western forces, combined with a massive expedition sent by
Eastern Emperor Leo, attempted to reconquer North Africa from the Vandals. Vandal fire ships
badly defeated this force at ruinous cost to the East. 149 With no more help available and no
regular army to guard Italy, there was nothing the Romans could do to prevent the last Western
Roman Emperor, Romulus Augustulus, from being deposed in 476. 150
The population loss of the second and third centuries caused a severe manpower shortage
for the Roman military and this situation only got worse over time. The decision by Constantine
to withdraw part of the military from the borders to create field armies was a serious mistake.
More easily penetrable borders combined with increasingly formidable barbarian opponents led
Whitby, Michael. The Army: 420-602, in The Cambridge Ancient History: Late Antiquity: Empire and
Successors, A.D. 425-600, Edited by Averil Cameron, Bryan Ward-Perkins, and Michael Whitby, Vol. 14, 288-314.
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 296-8.
Mitchell,311.
The Chronicle of Theophanes Confessor. Byzantine and Near Eastern History AD 284-813. Translated by Cyril
Mango and Roger Scott. (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1997), 180.
to numerous wars which stretched the Roman military to the breaking point. When recruits could
not be found for the army, barbarian federates became increasingly important for filling out the
ranks. By the early fifth century, this situation reached a critical level and the examples provided
by Stilicho and Aetius show us that the Roman army could no longer function without its
federate units. However, these are only the military reasons for the western collapse. By
examining the Roman economy, we can gain the full picture behind the fall of the Western
Roman Empire.
The basis for the late Roman economy was agriculture, and the taxation of agricultural
production provided the majority of imperial income. Over time, ever-increasing taxation placed
a massive burden on the Roman people with the majority of these taxes falling on the poorest
members of society. The plight of the masses slowly ate away at the foundation of the Roman
economy, especially following the final division of the empire in 395. The Roman economy in
the West simply lost the ability to function in the face of overwhelming exterior and interior
pressures.
By the onset of the Third-Century Crisis, the expenses of the Roman Empire were
enormous. These included civilian administrative employees, the cost of the emperors
household and court, handouts and entertainment for civilians and soldiers, building programs,
gifts to important individuals, foreign subsidies, and the salary, discharge and maintenance costs
of the vastly expanded army. 151 Military costs were by far the most expensive. In 235, there were
an estimated 33 legions needing financial support with each soldier receiving 750 denarii per
year. By comparing this figure with the 25 legions established under Emperor Augustus with
each soldier receiving 225 denarii per year, the escalating costs of the Roman military become
apparent. 152
Not all imperial expenses functioned with the strict purpose of running the empire, and
many had the sole purpose of incurring favor with the people. Several examples from the
Historia Augustae can help illustrate just how expensive this process could be. When mutinous
soldiers murdered Emperor Gallienus in the hope of booty, the military elite placated them by
the usual means of winning their favor by giving each soldier 20 aurei. 153 In the early 270s,
Emperor Aurelian gave a daily ration of bread, pork, and oil to all men within the city of Rome
and planned to give them wine also, but restrained himself from this. 154 A final example coming
from the early 280s shows the waste of imperial resources quite clearly. The most noteworthy
event from the reigns of Carus, Carinus, and Numerian was the series of games that they gave
the Roman people. 155 It is worth noting that the reigns of all three of these emperors were quite
short, Carus likely died from a battle wound and both Carinus and Numerian fell to assassins,
which might suggest they were not successful in their efforts to achieve popularity. The primary
problem with these attempts was that they established precedents that future emperors were
expected to follow. Giving donatives to the soldiers, feeding the people of Rome, and providing
extravagant games could not be avoided if an emperor wished to retain his throne for an
Duncan-Jones, Richard. Money and Government in the Roman Empire. Cambridge: (Cambridge University
Press, 1994), 35-44.
S.H.A. The Two Gallieni, XV.
S.H.A.TheDeifiedAurelian,XLVIII.
S.H.A.Carus,Carinus,Numerian,XIX.
extended period of time. In the late imperial period, these obligations became increasingly
burdensome for the imperial administration.
To meet the growing expenses of the Roman Empire, increased taxation was required to
bring in necessary revenue. Taxation on agriculture seems to have produced over 90 percent of
imperial revenues. 156 However, taxation had always been extremely unpopular and tax evasion
was not uncommon. 157 When this is combined with the severe instability during the ThirdCentury Crisis, collecting taxes would have proven phenomenally difficult on an empire-wide
basis. Where taxes could still be collected it appears that the level of taxation was beyond
oppressive as can be seen in a petition to Emperor Philip the Arab in 245:
We are suffering extortion and illegal exactions beyond all reason at the hands of
those who ought to be preserving the public welfareSoldiers, powerful men
from the cities, and your own officials leave the highways, descend on us, take us
from our work, seize our plough and oxen and illegally extort what is not due to
them. 158
The evidence above allows two conclusions to be drawn. First, those who could be taxed were
taxed at extremely high levels, and secondly, in spite of this heavy taxation the Roman
government still did not have enough money to meet its financial obligations.
This shortage of revenue is evident from the policy of many emperors during this period
to heavily debase the coinage. This was not a new phenomenon as debasement of the coinage
had occurred as far back as Emperor Nero, but the rate of the debasement took place on a scale
never before seen in the Roman Empire. 159 After 235, emperors debased silver coinage, and
raised taxes repeatedly to meet financial shortages hoping that windfall profits from military
victories would make these measures temporary. The problem with this theory was that there
Williams, Stephen. Diocletian: And the Roman Recovery. (London: B. T. Batsford Ltd., 1985), 20.
were no windfall profits to be had as wars were simply no longer profitable. Every emperor from
Decius to Claudius II debased the silver antoninianus condemning his predecessors money to
the melting pot. By 260, rapid recoinages of currency only a few years old destroyed public
confidence in imperial money. 160 This loss of confidence in imperial coinage is further
confirmed by an Egyptian document from 260 which states:
Whereas the bankers stand publically accused of closing the money exchanges
because they will not accept the divine coin of the emperors, it has become
necessary to issue this order to them to open again, and exchange all coin except
the truly spurious and counterfeit. 161
Not only had confidence in imperial coinage dissipated, but this text also reveals a further
problem involving counterfeit coinage. This problem had likely existed as long as money has
exchanged hands as a medium of exchange, but it seems probable that counterfeiting at this time
was much easier due to the plethora of debased coinage in circulation. In 275, the emperor
Tacitus attempted to address this counterfeiting problem when he ordained that if anyone, either
officially or privately, alloyed silver with copper, or gold with silver, or copper with lead, it
should be a capital offence, involving confiscation of property. 162
With the imperial currency in shambles, the requisition of supplies became largely the
same as taxation in kind. 163 While collecting revenue in the form of taxes in kind did help to
cover many of the states needs, the state still required money for such important tasks as
maintaining and paying the army. 164 However, by the rule of Emperor Gallienus in the 260s the
Press, 1996), 128-132.
S.H.A.Tacitus,IX.
DuncanJones,3.
antoninianus contained less than five percent silver. 165 This meant that when imperial coinage
actually was accepted, it was only done so well below its rated value. For example, from the time
of the early empire to that of Emperor Gallienus, the price of wheat had risen over a hundred
times, while during the same period a soldiers wage had barely doubled. 166 The empire required
extreme currency reforms and there is evidence that Emperor Aurelian made some progress in
this area in 274. During his reign, Aurelian reconquered many of the previously lost Roman
provinces and appears to have reestablished regular tax collection throughout the Roman world.
He also made attempts at restoring the reputation of imperial coinage and he fixed rates of
exchange to help roll back prices. 167 The level of success of these measures taken by Aurelian is
difficult to determine due to a severe lack of documentation that plagues the entire period of the
Third-Century Crisis, but at the very least, the empire continued to hold itself together.
One key explanation for the severe debasement of the coinage during the Third-Century
Crisis, and under many emperors thereafter is a sharp decline in mining during the late empire.
An initial look at mining in the Iberian Peninsula might on the surface support this conclusion as
large-scale mines show a marked drop in production of gold, silver, and tin after the first and
second centuries C.E. However, the mines known about today which existed during this period
are primarily only the large-scale mining operations, and little is known about smaller-scale
mining. This is because the mines that have been identified are largely those that have been
reopened in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, and only larger mines were worth the time
and effort to reopen, and as such many small-scale mines have yet to be identified. Over time,
easily obtainable ore from larger mines became exhausted and this very well could have led to
Harl,1456.
the development of numerous smaller mines. The current evidence seems to indicate that it is
possible and even likely that a large number of smaller mines could have supplied much of the
metal needs for the late empire, meaning that debasement was not just a side effect from a lack
of raw metal. 168 Severe shortages in raw metals, while they did occur, were more due to periods
of instability than they were a cause of mining operations not having the potential to meet the
requirements of the empire. This helps to explain how Emperor Aurelian may have been able to
restore the reputation of imperial currency. There is evidence that even with the loss of Dacian
mines, following the evacuation of Dacia in the early 270s, he was able to reopen enough mines
to offset these mineral losses, and as such a higher level of purity could have been obtained for
his imperial coinage. 169
As the Roman Empire emerged from the Third-Century Crisis, the devastation wrought
by this terrible period fell disproportionately on the lower classes. The origins of this can be
traced back to 212. When in this year Emperor Caracalla gave Roman citizenship to virtually all
free Romans, the entitlements and privileges of Roman citizenship were lost. New class
distinctions began to develop between the wealthy upper class, known as the honestiores, and the
rest of the population called the humiliores. As time went by the wealthy devised methods to
more directly exploit the poorer masses from their positions of power and the gap between the
honestiores and the humiliores continued to widen. This impoverishment and exploitation of the
masses was the primary cause of peasants becoming increasingly tied to the land throughout the
late empire. 170 With the economic condition of peasants in a steady decline, there was no
incentive for peasants to have large families, as these could not be supported. While specific
Edmondson, J. C. Mining in the Later Roman Empire and Beyond: Continuity or Disruption? The Journal of
Roman Studies 79 (1989), 85-93.
LittmanandLittman,198.
methods of how peasants attempted to control the size of their families is unclear, throughout the
fourth and fifth centuries conditions never presented themselves to allow for the repopulation of
the Roman Empire. 171
Emperor Diocletian, who came to power in 284, helped restore order to the Roman
Empire. He stabilized the frontiers and checked all serious barbarian incursions. Beginning
largely in 293 with the creation of the Tetrarchy, imperial expenses increased greatly. This new
system divided the empire amongst four separate rulers, which meant the support of four
separate imperial courts and residences. Furthermore, Diocletian increased the number of
provinces to just over a hundred, nearly double the previous number, and all of these new
provinces needed numerous administrative officials. An equestrian vice-prefect headed each of
the twelve administrative dioceses created to run the provinces under this new system. By 305,
senatorial governors had all but disappeared, as the equestrian order now became the path to high
office under this new system. 172 Diocletian also increased the pay and size of the army.
Estimates for the size of Diocletians army range around 400,000 men at the beginning of his
reign to as high as 600,000 men by the time of his abdication in 305. 173 In 293, each soldier
received 360 silver clad nummi as their annual wage. 174 This would have placed a significant
financial burden on the imperial administration.
To fund these imperial expenditures, Diocletian initiated substantial reforms to the
system of taxation around 297. These reforms focused around two components, the iugum and
the caput. The iugum was theoretically the acreage that could be cultivated by one man to
Williams,1047.
Harl,217.
support his family, and this figure varied systematically according to the productivity of the land.
The caput stood for one man, with additions made for his household including women, children,
slaves and tenants often at less than one caput. For example, a woman or child might count as
only caput. A global survey of resources was carried out to properly determine the precise
amount of production throughout the empire and this was initially to be carried out every five
years, but was changed to every fifteen years at a later date. The goal of this system was to allow
taxes to be collected more fairly based on production throughout the entire empire. This new
system resulted in Italy losing its old privilege of tax exemption which it had enjoyed for
centuries. On September 1st of each year the states total requirements would be published and
could then be passed on to the provincial governors who were responsible for collecting their
share of the total tax obligation of the empire. 175 The ancient Christian writer Lactantius stated
that the beneficiaries of public expenditure, officials and soldiers, had become more numerous
than the taxpayers themselves. 176 Lactantius further believed that supporting the greatly
increased bureaucracy and army caused farmers resources to become exhausted, which led to
the desertion of fields and cultivated lands became forests. 177 It must be remembered however
that Lactantius was a Christian, and as Diocletian persecuted Christians throughout his reign, his
account may be extremely biased. Whatever the direct effects of this new system of taxation
were, it remained in place for the next century and subsequent emperors used it to revise the
imperial budget steadily upward. 178
Williams,119122.
Bernardi, Aurelio. The Economic Problems of the Roman Empire at the Time of its Decline, in The Economic
Decline of Empires, edited by Carlo M. Cipolla, 16-83. London: Methuen & Co. Ltd., (1970), 52.
Lactantius. De Mortibus Persecutorum. Edited and Translated by J. L. Creed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press,
1984) 11-13.
To facilitate this new system of taxation Diocletian drastically reformed imperial coinage,
taking three decisive steps in 293. First, he fixed the gold aureus at 60 to a pound. Next, he
reminted silver argentei at 96 to the pound rated at 25 denarii. 179 The purpose of this pure silver
coinage was largely to combat the high quality silver coinage issued by the rebel Carausius in
Britain at this time, and was not intended for long-term use. 180 Finally, Diocletian issued a new
silver-wash piece known as the nummus rated at 5 denarii. Diocletian intended the aureus and
the nummus to replace all other coinage, and he had hundreds of millions of nummi struck.
Unfortunately for Diocletian, lack of confidence in the nummus, combined with the nummus
appearing in such great numbers, flooded the market and required new sets of values to be
frequently set for coinage just to keep pace with inflation. Diocletians Edict of Maximum
Prices, issued in 301, stipulated a price of 72,000 denarii for a pound of gold which may have
helped stabilize the value of gold coinage. This first edict was followed the same year by a
second Monetary Edict which doubled the value of all denominations above one denarii. In a
single stroke all taxes, prices, and salaries computed in denarii were sliced in half, while the
rates of exchange among higher denominations were preserved. 181 In spite of all his efforts,
continued rampant inflation throughout his entire reign shows that Diocletian was unable to
stabilize the monetary system.
Diocletians Edict of Maximum Prices is one of the most famous inflationary control
documents to survive from antiquity, both for its scope, and for its colossal failure. Diocletian
clearly blamed inflation on the merchants as can be seen in the preamble to this edict that states,
men who, individually abounding in great riches which could completely satisfy whole nations,
Harl,148154.
try to capture smaller fortunes and strive for ruinous percentages. This was, of course, largely
untrue as many merchants were not wealthy, but they were convenient scapegoats and disliked
by elites in general. The preamble goes on to state that the edict is not trying to fix prices, it only
wishes to set a maximum to combat the greed of merchants and make goods affordable, and the
edict should be observed in the whole of our empire. The preamble ends by stating that anyone
who breaks this edict, including those who withdraw items from the general market, are subject
to capital punishment. 182
This edict immediately ran into problems of its own making. First of all, no allowance
was made for transportation costs. The price of Italian wine, for example, must have varied
greatly between places such as Rome, London and Antioch and these prices could have easily
exceeded the maximum set in the edict. The key failure of the edict proved to be that in many
cases the maximum prices were set too low. Two published prices that can be compared with the
edict from this time period come from Egyptian papyrus, listing the price of wheat at 300
drachmae per artaba and Macedonian petroselinum, which was a highly valued spice, at 800
drachmae per ounce. The maximum prices listed in the edict are 100 drachmae per artaba for
wheat and 170 denarii per pound for petroselinum. In the second example, the difference
between the market price and the maximum price set is enormous. 183 Lactantius certainly
believed the edict was a failure as he stated that it caused nothing to appear for sale and after
much blood was spent, the law was repealed. 184 Evidence indicates that Lactantius conclusion
Hopkins Press, 1940), 313-6.
Lactantius.DeMortibusPersecutorum.,1113.
was correct, because within several years, as prices continued to climb, the edict was quietly
allowed to lapse. 185
The Edict of Maximum Prices does give some very useful comparative data on the
subject of slavery. The maximum price of a male slave between the ages of 16 and 40 was listed
at 30,000 denarii and a female slave in the same age group has a maximum price of 25,000
denarii. By comparing this price with the wage of the top skilled labor worker listed in the edict,
a picture painter who received a mere 150 denarii per day, the evidence strongly suggests slaves
were becoming extremely expensive. This very well could have led to an increased used of
peasant coloni by wealthy landowners, as it is quite possible that they were significantly cheaper
and more abundant than slaves were. 186 Coloni did not have the high initial purchase cost as
slaves did, and furthermore they were relatively easy to keep from moving off their land while
many slaves might attempt to escape. Diocletian frequently settled barbarian tribes within the
Roman Empire as coloni, as can be seen from the Chamavi and the Frisians who were defeated
in 295 and settled on vacant lands in Gaul, so an overall increase in this segment of the
population is likely. 187
Coloni traditionally enjoyed freedom of movement from place to place, but in difficult
times, it was easy for these tenants to fall behind on rent payments and other debts to their
landlords, causing many to become tied to the land. Diocletian also began the process of turning
the Roman economy into a command economy. Beginning with arsenals designed to ensure
military production, and followed by strategic industries such as textiles, minting, and heavy
industry, the state began to directly supervise the production of all major facets of the economy
Diocletians Edict on Maximum Prices: ZPE 34 in Greek and Roman Slavery, Edited by Thomas Wiedemann,
105. (London: Croom Helm Ltd, 1981), 105.
until virtually every industry was under government control. With the need for skilled workers in
many of these industries, mobility within any industry would have been severely restricted. 188
Emperor Constantine came to power as emperor in 306 and gained control of the western
empire by defeating his rival Maximian at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge in 312. After his
victory, Constantine converted to Christianity, as he believed that the Christian God helped him
win the battle. 189 The reason or motive behind Constantines conversion has long been debated,
but this is much less important than the changes within the Roman Empire this conversion
caused. One of these changes was the need to support a new state religion. These expenses would
have included the costs of building, enlarging, decorating and maintaining numerous churches,
as well as supporting the poorer clergy of the church. Christian emperors often gave imperial
subventions or properties to help support and provide for the growth of the church. 190
Constantine also decided to build the new imperial capital at Byzantium known as
Constantinople. Constantinople was founded in 324 and dedicated in 330. To prepare this city to
become his capital, Constantine rebuilt the wall, constructed a Hippodrome, built a massive
imperial palace, as well as an exceedingly fine forum. 191 These were only the most noteworthy
building projects as the construction of Constantinople required 80,000 workers and as such, this
project likely placed a major strain on the imperial budget.192
Finn, Richard. Almsgiving in the Later Roman Empire: Christian Promotion and Practice (313-450). (Oxford:
Oxford University Press, 2006), 259.
Chronicon Paschale: 284-628 AD. Translated by Michael Whitby and Mary Whitby. (Liverpool: Liverpool
University Press, 1989), 15-6.
A more positive result of Constantines conversion was the unusual windfall of gold that
he was able to obtain through the confiscations of his rivals accumulated reserves and property,
and also through the confiscation of treasures from pagan temples. 193 Using this gold, and most
especially through the reminting of the heavy gold aurei of his pagan rivals, Constantine was
able to impose his gold solidus on the Roman world. 194 Constantine minted the gold solidus at 72
to the pound and the weight and purity of this coin was to remain unchanged for over seven
centuries. 195 This allowed the solidus to enjoy vast purchasing power in a society that was still in
the grip of massive inflation. 196 Dating from the last years of Constantines reign, large amounts
of new gold coinage appeared, likely as part of a plan to allow gold to be used in transactions and
exchanges throughout the empire. 197
While gold coinage was firmly in place, the silver coinage issued by Constantine and his
successors through the end of the fourth century did not meet with the same level of success as
the price of silver fluctuated greatly relative to the price of gold. 198 The stability of silver coinage
suffered greatly from Constantines repeated debasement of the nummi. In 307, Constantines
nummi lost 35 to 40 percent of its weight and silver content. By 325, the nummus was at 30
percent of the weight and less than 15 percent of the silver content of the nummus of 305. 199
Throughout the fourth century, inflation ruined Tetrarchic silver-clad coins in favor of token
bronze coins. 200 As long as an individual could deal in gold, inflation was not a significant
Edmondson,845.
Jones,2023.
Brown,Peter.TheWorldofLateAntiquity:AD150750.(London:ThamesandHudsonLtd,1971),37.
Banaji, Jairus. Agrarian Change in Late Antiquity Gold, Labour, and Aristocratic Dominance. (Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 2001), 49.
Jones,204.
Harl172.
problem, but the majority of the population was not wealthy, and for them dealing in gold was
simply not an option.
Constantines reign also led to new changes for the peasant population. The programs
started under Diocletian to offer the government control over the production of the Roman
economy came into full force. The result of this was that generations of workers became bound
to their professions through hereditary obligations. 201 Not all social groups saw their status
deteriorate under the reign of Constantine; Constantine seems to have encouraged slave owners
to free their slaves by issuing the law that any master can proclaim his slave to be free in a
church as long as a bishop is present. 202 A separate law stated that a slave owner could beat his
slave with sticks and whips, but if the slave owner abuses his rights and performs an act with the
intention of killing the slave, then he may be accused of homicide. 203 A third law, dated from
322, states that:
We have learned that provincials suffering from lack of sustenance and the
necessities of life are selling or pledging their own children. There, if any such
person should be found who is sustained by no substance of family fortune and
who is supporting his children with suffering and difficulty, he shall be assisted
through Our fisc before he becomes a prey to calamity. 204
This law seems to indicate that the government did not wish to see poverty drive the population
into slavery. However, it also suggests that an advanced state of poverty already existed for the
masses, otherwise this law would not have been enacted. One additional decree issued by
Constantine stated that the governing bodies of communities be held liable for properties that
had been abandoned. 205 It stands to reason that if this law were being enacted, then large tracts
Theodosian Code. 4, 7.1
Theodosian Code. 9, 12.1
Theodosian Code. 11, 27.2
Codex of Justinian. 11,59 (58), 1.
of land must have been abandoned throughout the empire. This would then indicate that taxation
and oppression of the lower classes was leading to peasants either losing or abandoning their
lands, and with no other option open to them, many of these peasants would have become coloni.
While the very bottom of Roman society seems to have been receiving aid, the coloni
were rapidly losing their rights. The first direct evidence that coloni had become tied to the land
comes from a law dated from 332 that states:
Any persons with whom a colonus belonging to some other person is found, shall
not only restore him to his place of origin but be liable for his poll tax for the
period. It will furthermore be proper that coloni themselves who plan flight
should be put in irons like slaves, so that they may be compelled by a servile
penalty to perform the duties appropriate to them as free men. 206
By this period, it had become essential to keep the land and the workers on the land producing a
taxable income so the empire could continue to function normally. 207 This would explain why
tenants near Antioch, who did not have any land of their own, were registered for the purpose of
taxation under the estates of their landlords. 208 The freedom of the coloni was no longer a
concern for the emperor.
From the death of Constantine in 337 to the end of the fourth century, the Roman Empire
held together, in spite of the infighting that took place between Constantines sons and other
claimants to the throne, and the disastrous losses incurred at Adrianople in 378. While the empire
remained largely intact, this period was characterized by continued inflation and ever-increasing
taxation. Despite the increased oppression of taxation, emperors still were not frugal with their
Whittaker, C. R. Circes Pigs: From Slavery to Serfdom in the Later Roman World, in Classical Slavery, edited
by M. I. Finley, 111-154. London: Frank Cass Publishers, (2000), 128.
Liebeschuetz, J. H. W. G. Antioch: City and Imperial Administration in the Later Roman Empire. (Oxford:
Oxford University Press, 1972), 66.
money as can be seen from the example of Constantius who in 354, celebrated the 13th year of
his reign with extravagant shows in both the theatre and the circus. 209 Furthermore, the army was
becoming more and more expensive to fund and by 364 each infantryman received 5 solidi
annually and each cavalryman received 9 solidi per year. Added to this was the estimated annual
cost of supporting each soldier at 36 solidi, with an additional 20-25 solidi per year necessary to
support the horses of cavalrymen. 210 Emperors Constantius II and Theodosius, in the years 370
to 395, needed large numbers of pure solidi to pay tribes hired as federates and to pay barbarians
enrolled in elite Roman units who would only accept payment in high quality gold coinage.211
Donatives did not disappear either during this period, and it appears the troops were becoming
more and more difficult to win over. When Emperor Julian was on campaign against the Persians
in 363, he promised each man 100 pieces of silver following a successful siege, after which he
had to give a speech to pacify his men because the smallness of this sum was provoking
something not far from mutiny. 212
As previously mentioned, coinage was crucial for paying many of the expenses during
this period and efforts were made to save silver coinage so that it could serve the economy
alongside gold coinage. In 354, following his victory in civil war, Emperor Constantius II tried to
improve the monetary order by outlawing coins of the usurper Magnentius, removing low value,
debased coins from circulation, and by initiating new, more stable pieces. 213 Inflation, the enemy
of these reforms, made sure that they had no chance of saving silver coinage. In the forty year
period from 324 to the reign of Julian, the value of the denarius had sunk from 4,500 to the
solidus to about 30,000,000 to the solidus. 214
This same inflation did not affect gold coinage which continued to remain strong. In fact,
by the end of the fourth century, solidi had become so abundant that all taxes and salaries were
paid in gold and most transactions, except the smallest, were conducted in gold. 215 By the 380s,
small Syrian villages were even paying protection money directly in gold coinage. 216 The spread
of gold coinage did not prevent the rich from exploiting the poor as can be seen from Emperor
Julians time in Antioch beginning in July of 362. According to Julians own account, the people
complained of merchants and landowners possessing abundant goods, but selling them only at
extremely high prices. Julian attempted to convince the local elite to remedy the situation, but
when they failed to do so, Julian fixed prices to make goods more affordable. Just like Diocletian
before him, Julian failed in his attempt at economic interference. Now it is likely that wherever
the emperor went, inflation would follow him as he traveled with a large entourage at all times,
but this does not mean the gouging of the general population did not take place on a regular
basis. It is quite possible that the emperor being present was simply the only way for situations
like this to be brought to his attention. 217
There is strong evidence that taxation in the later portion of the fourth century was
becoming exceedingly burdensome for much of the population. Under Constantius II,
magistrates financed virtually all local services in cities, and this was imposed as a hereditary
Banaji,77.
Corcoran, Simon. The Empire of the Tetrarchs: Imperial Pronouncements and Government AD 284-324.
(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996), 216-9.
burden. 218 When future emperor Julian left Gaul in 355, he reduced the tax to 7 solidi per caput
instead of the 25 solidi per caput tax that had been in place when he arrived there. 219 This
strongly suggests that the rate of taxation that had been present in Gaul was too high. Ammianus
provides further evidence of this when in 357, Julian refused to allow the praetorian prefect
Florentius to make a special tax levy on Gaul. Ammianus believed that Julian realized that after
being plundered on all sides it was extremely difficult for them to produce normal taxes, and that
even torture could not get a supplement out of them. 220 Gaul had been recently attacked by
barbarians and as such taxes would have been harder to pay than would have normally been
expected, but there is no reason to believe that the extremely high rate of taxation found in Gaul
during this period was an exception to the level of taxation throughout the empire.
Emperor Valens, who came to power in the east in 364, appears to have had some
success in curbing the rising level of taxation, but his co-emperor in the West, Valentinian II, had
no such luck and taxes continued to rise. 221 This fact helps to illustrate the discrepancy in tax
revenues between the eastern and western portions of the empire. While rates of taxation in the
East stabilized and were able to support this portion of the empire, in the West these rates
continued to increase constantly. A decree issued by Valentinian and Valens in 366 indicates that
many individuals may have been cheating on their taxes. The goal of this decree was to crack
down on underweight or counterfeit solidi and it stated that all solidi collected into an account to
be paid as taxes must be reduced to a firm and solid mass of refined gold. The danger in being
caught dealing in underweight or fake coinage would have been great, so for this to be happening
enough that a law had to be issued against it, indicates high rates of taxation must have been
Bernardi,55.
Amm.Marc.17.3
forcing people to take desperate measures. 222 A key factor in rising taxation and tax evasion was
the giving away of imperial lands to federates who were not required to pay taxes to the Roman
government. Emperor Theodosius did this on a large-scale, especially in dealing with the Goths,
and this practice, which continued into the fifth century, steadily eroded the resource base of the
empire. 223
The exact effect that high levels of taxation had on the population of the empire during
this period is difficult to measure, but several key examples can help to illustrate the desperation
and anger that many people may have felt. Libanius provides one good example when he
described the affect that a drought had on the people of Antioch in 365. Everywhere there is
poverty, beggary, and tears; farmers think it better to be beggars than farmers, and the man to
give alms today is tomorrow himself in need of alms. 224 This suggests that farmers were unable
to maintain any kind of a reserve so when disaster struck, they had no safety net to prevent them
from losing everything. In 392, the churchs right of granting asylum was abolished with regard
to debtors of the treasury indicating that many people were unable to pay their taxes. 225 Suffering
from this extreme poverty, it would not be surprising that many people would have resented the
Roman government. The example of Balkan miners fighting alongside the invading Visigoths in
378 is a good example of how heavy taxation could lower the allegiance of Roman citizens to
their government. 226
The tying of larger and larger portions of the population to the land would not have
helped the popularity of the government, but this did take place during this period. By 367,
Whittaker, C. R. Trade and Frontiers of the Roman Empire, in Trade and Famine in Classical Antiquity, edited
by Peter Garnsey and C. R. Whittaker, 110-127. Cambridge: Cambridge Philological Society, (1983), 120-1.
Libanius. Selected Works. Translated by A. F. Norman. (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1969), 475-7.
children of a free man and a colona woman were required to follow the status of the mother. 227 A
law dated to 371 from Emperor Valentinian stated:
We declare that coloni and inquilini (tenant farmers) throughout Illyricum and the
neighboring regions cannot have the liberty of leaving the land on which they are
found to reside by virtue of their origin and descent. Let them be slaves of the
land, not by the tie of the tax, but under the name and title of coloni.
A more explicit example of this can be found in a constitution issued by Emperor Theodosius
between 392 and 395 which stated:
Throughout the entire diocese of Thrace the census of the poll tax is abolished
forever and only the land tax will be paid. And in case it may seem that
permission has been given to coloni, freed from the ties of their taxable condition,
to wander and go off where they will, they are themselves to be bound by the
right of origin, and though they appear to be free men by condition are
nevertheless to be held to be slaves of the land itself to which they were born, and
are not to have the right to go off where they will or change their domicile. The
landowners are to control them with the care of patrons and the power of
masters. 228
While there is some evidence in this second law of some much needed tax relief, the key point to
be taken from both of these laws is that coloni had fallen to the level of nothing more than slaves
of the land which they resided upon.
A rare mention of the lower classes receiving imperial aid comes from a law dated to 391
which again dealt with the subject of selling children into slavery. This law stated that all
freeborn children who had been sold as slaves must be set free and if this slave had worked for
his master for a considerable amount of time, then the master could not even ask for the price of
the slave to be repaid. 229 The government continued to pay close attention to the issue of poor
citizens, especially children, ending up as slaves, but there is no evidence the government was
doing anything to stop the institution of slavery itself. Ammianus mentions a slave receiving 300
Whittaker,127.
lashes for being slow in bringing his master hot water. 230 While Ammianus may have felt that
this punishment was extreme, the mention of a slave in this casual context indicates that slavery
as a practice was still extremely common. The late fourth century bishop Basil of Caesarra even
went so far as to speak out in favor of slavery, stating, it is better for a man who lacks
intelligence and self-control to become anothers possession. Governed by his masters
intelligence, he will become like a chariot driven by a skilled horseman.231 The church did not
condemn slavery nor did it die out in the late Roman world. The Roman government offered
protection against children being sold into slavery simply because controlling peasants as coloni
had become the preferred labor control method, thus making state support for slavery
unnecessary.
Whether due to high taxation or various other factors, there is strong evidence to support
the progressive abandonment of land in the late fourth century. In a survey of the province of
Asia, Emperor Valens found that of 6,736 fertile iuga, 703 were deserted and now in bad
condition and sterile. 232 This corresponds with an edict issued in 371 that forbade heirs to retain
only cultivated lands of their inheritance under the penalty of the confiscation of the whole. 233
This abandonment of land decreased the output of the empire as a whole, likely by a significant
amount, and the tax burden that would have fallen on the remaining population could only have
increased by a large margin. This would have been especially true for the western portion of the
empire after 395, as with the death of Emperor Theodosius in that year the empire was divided
between east and west for the last time, never to be reunited again. This placed the economically
Garnsey, Peter. Ideas of Slavery from Aristotle to Augustine. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996),
Jones,84.
weaker and strategically more vulnerable West at a severe disadvantage compared to its eastern
counterpart. This is not to say that there was no longer cooperation between East and West, but
each of these two portions of the empire would have looked after its own well-being before it
attempted to help the other. 234
The key addition to the imperial budget that took place in the early fifth century was the
extortionary payments that many emperors had to give barbarians to keep them from attacking
the empire. The payment of 4,000 pounds of gold to Alaric to keep him from invading Italy is a
prime example. 235 An additional example comes from Eastern Roman Emperor Theodosius II
paying the Huns an annual tribute of 700 pounds of gold in the 420s with this amount increasing
to 2,100 pounds by 447. It is possible that this represented 5% of imperial revenue. 236
Gold solidi continued to hold their value, which helped to ensure that the barbarians were
satisfied with their payoffs, but virtually all other Roman coinage disappeared. In 395, Western
Emperor Honorius outlawed all nummi except two extremely low value pieces. Soon after 400,
no silver or bronze coins stood between high level gold and the lowest level bronze coins. The
wave of barbarian assaults that struck the Roman world, especially in the west, from 395-417
would have been extremely disruptive to mining and tax collection operations throughout
Europe. This was especially true due to the almost complete loss of Gaul and Spain. Though
some of these lands were later recovered, it would have been extremely difficult to restore these
lands to a stable state of productivity. 237 This is not to say that these invasions led to a severe
shortage in gold coinage; there is no evidence to support this conclusion at all. It appears likely
that enough reserves in coinage were available for gold to continue to function as the currency of
the empire. Furthermore, these invasions did not cause mining to stop completely, even in
remote areas of the empire. A recent discovery provides evidence of a gold mining operation that
took place during the fifth and sixth centuries at Bir Umm Fawakhir in the Eastern Desert. 238
Previously it had been thought no mining had taken place in this region during this time period.
Additional gold mines of this era could be found in North-west Spain, when it was under
imperial control, and Illyricum. The Theodosian Code also mentions metallarii or miners in both
Italy and Gaul, and while these references are nonspecific, they could refer to gold miners.239 All
evidence points to mining continuing throughout the late empire at a much higher rate than had
been previously thought.
The final collapse of the Western Roman economy can be traced through taxation, or
more specifically, the lack of taxation which was actually being collected by the imperial
government. In 397, taxes owed by senators were in arrears throughout many of the remaining
provinces. 240 In 412, the Visigoths who ruled the Aquitaine region of Gaul not only did not have
to pay imperial taxes, but they even minted their own solidi. While these were not accepted on
par with Roman solidi, this does illustrate just how little control or sway the Western Roman
Empire had on these regions that had been given to federate peoples. 241 The Christian writer
Augustine gives an indication of the economic condition of North Africa in the early 420s when
he recorded:
Bagnall, R. S. Governmental Roles in the Economy of Late Antiquity. Production and Public Powers in
Classical Antiquity, edited by E. Lo Cascio and D. Rathbone. Cambridge, Cambridge Philological Society (2000),
There are so many of those in Africa who are commonly called slave dealers
that they seem to be draining Africa of much of its human population and
transferring their merchandise to the provinces across the sea. Almost all of
these are free persons. Only a few are found to have been sold by their parents,
and these people buy them, not as Roman laws permit, as indentured servants for
a period of twenty-five years, but in fact they buy them as slaves and sell them
across the sea as slaves. 242
This large slave population could only have been the result of worsening economic conditions
that forced numerous individuals into indentured servitude. This placed large numbers of poor
people at the mercy of these slave dealers and clearly shows the desperation that must have
been felt by many members of the lower classes.
The anger of the general population boiled over in the form of revolts, likely over
excessive levels of taxation, in 417, 435-7, and 442. Each case required strong military forces to
put down the revolt. A severe blow fell on what remained of the Western Roman Empire when in
439 the Vandals captured Carthage and with it conquered the Roman province of North Africa.
Not only had this been by far the wealthiest remaining province, which meant it had paid the
most in taxes, North Africa had also supplied the majority of the grain to feed the city of
Rome. 243 The abolishment of all tax privileges in 441 by the Emperor Valentinian III at the
request of the very landowners who directly benefited from them, indicates how serious
problems had become for the imperial treasury. 244 In 444, Emperor Valentinian publically
admitted that:
If we claim these expenses from the landowner in addition to what he already
pays, such an exaction will crush his last feeble strength: if again we demand
them from the merchants, they will inevitably sink under the weight of such a
burden. 245
Garnsey,601.
Even after this public declaration that further taxation would be disastrous, Valentinian still
imposed a 1/24 sales tax. 246 The final straw came in 468 when the Western Emperor Anthemius
and his eastern colleague Leo I launched a joint expedition, largely funded by the Eastern
Empire, against the Vandals with the goal of reconquering North Africa. This expedition ended
in total disaster and estimates for the cost of the expedition range between 7 and 9 million
solidi. 247 With no further help available, the now ruined western Roman economy could no
longer support even the most basic financial needs of its government.
As we have seen, from the third-century onward taxation increased throughout the
Roman Empire to a level which heavily overburdened the lower classes of society. This
excessive taxation, combined with the oppression of elites, forced many peasants to become
coloni. Over time, the rights of coloni declined substantially until they were little more than
peasants tied to the land on which they were born. This constant oppression of the peasant class
did not allow the population of the Roman Empire to recover from the losses that it had suffered
in centuries past, and thus the tax base of the empire could not expand. Following the final
division of the empire in 395, the economically weaker West quickly lost the ability to
financially support itself, which in turn led to economic crisis and eventual collapse.
The Western Roman Empire fell from the slow erosion of both the economy and military
from the third-century onward. This decline began with the population loss suffered during the
Third-Century Crisis. Instead of working to help the peasant class repopulate the empire, the
privileged honestiores focused on subjugating the general population which was already
overburdened by excessive taxation. This succeeded in turning the general population into
coloni, who were essentially serfs. This in turn removed the ability of peasants to support large
families, and thus indirectly acted as a type of population control. The high cost of slaves
indicated as early as the Edict of Diocletian, shows why the honestiores fought to keep this
system in place to maintain their status at the top of Roman society.
While this process was taking place, Constantines decision to create large field armies
and remove many troops from border defense could only have encouraged barbarian attacks.
While most barbarian societies were primitive by Roman standards, they were certainly capable
of understanding that an attack on Roman territory was more likely to penetrate the frontier and
acquire substantial booty if fewer Roman soldiers directly opposed them on the borders. Whether
or not a field army could defeat these barbarians at a later date would not likely have factored
highly into the barbarians decision to invade. Even if a field army did succeed in driving the
barbarians out of Roman territory, the destruction wrought by the invasion could not easily be
undone. The bottom line was that field armies increased security for emperors, but did so at the
direct expense of adequately defending Roman borders. This caused peasants living near many
borders to suffer greatly and likely led to abandonment of frontier lands at the first threat of
invasion.
The final division of the empire following the death of Theodosius in 395 had a
significantly negative impact on the West. The East benefited greatly from this, as this portion of
the empire was economically stronger and strategically less vulnerable. The East brought in tax
revenues estimated at three times greater than those produced in the West, while at the same time
the West had nearly double the length of frontier to defend. 248 This was a recipe for disaster. To
field the necessary forces to attempt to defend all of its borders, the Western Roman Empire
levied ever-greater taxes on its already overtaxed population. This massive financial burden may
well have caused large segments of the Roman population to prefeer barbarian rule to that of the
Romans. 249
While it is a controversial subject, criticism of the East for not doing more to help
the West during the fifth century ignores the many dire concerns facing the East. First and
foremost of these was Persia, which required large numbers of troops be kept in Armenia and
Mesopotamia to deal with this potential threat.250 A recent argument holds that the only sign that
the East even recognized the sack of Rome in 410 was the three days of public mourning
declared in Constantinople. 251 Stilicho likely did not receive support from the East because he
claimed guardianship over Theodosius other son, Eastern Emperor Arcadius, and hoped to oneday control both portions of the empire. The fall of Stilicho from power likely pleased the
eastern aristocracy, but there is no evidence of an eastern desire for Rome itself to fall. 252 As
previously stated, the East did help in dealing with Attila and they provided the bulk of the
money and troops for the attempted retaking of North Africa in 468. Lack of support from the
East was not a primary cause for the fall of the Western Roman Empire.
The increasing reliance upon barbarian federates during the fifth century significantly
weakened the Western Roman military. Following the disaster at Adrianople, increasing
numbers of less than reliable federates began to fill the military ranks. When Germanic
Brown,137.
barbarians crossed into Roman territory in 406, Stilicho was unable to use his field army, which
contained a large number of federates, to stop the invasion. Stilicho, following the previous
precedent of pulling troops away from border defense to comprise his field army, is at least
partially responsible for the ease with which the barbarians penetrated Roman frontier defenses.
With the death of Stilicho in 408, and subsequent desertion of a number of his federate soldiers,
the remaining Roman forces were incapable of preventing Alaric from sacking Rome.
To placate these invaders and maintain some semblance of control, Roman emperors
continuously gave invaders large tracts of land to settle on within the Roman Empire in exchange
for service as federates. The settlement of Gothic troops in Aquitania is a prime example of this.
These federates did not pay imperial taxes, which only further strained imperial resources and
led to a further dependence of federates for military support. The army commanded by Aetius
consisted largely of federates and after his death this army disappeared, and the West never again
fielded an effective army of its own. With the financial resources of the West exhausted and no
army to call on for defense, what remained of the Western Roman Empire fell quietly into the
While others have sought to find more narrow explanations for the fall of the Western
Roman Empire, this study has explained its fall as the result of a slow decline in both the Roman
military and economy. This explanation is certainly less flashy than Nriagus attempt to place
lead poisoning as the primary cause behind the fall of the empire, but it is vastly more accurate.
The fall cannot be attributed to the poor and the army as West would have us believe, nor was
taxation the primary cause as Jones suggests, nor should we examine military factors by
themselves as Ferrill argues. There simply was no catalyst which can be held up above all others
as the primary cause of the Western collapse. This becomes clear only after looking at a broad
spectrum of issues within both the Roman army and economy.
The key problems of excessive taxation and the slow decline in quality and effectiveness
of an overstretched military which contributed to the downfall of the Western Roman Empire,
are far from unique to one specific case or time. The problem of overextended military resources
intertwined with economic crisis can be applied to numerous empires throughout history. The
current situation in the United States falls into this very same pattern. The deployment of large
numbers of troops in both Afghanistan and Iraq has placed an enormous financial burden on an
already strained American economy. These two conflicts alone require an estimated $16-billion
worth of funding every month. The cost of these wars for every household in the United States is
approximately $100 per month. 253 When this is combined with the over $11-trillion worth of
public debt currently owed by the United States government which over the last several years has
increased by an average of $3.77 billion per day, the dire state of the American economy
becomes clear. 254 This massive budget deficit cannot continue forever. Unless a solution is found
quickly, the pressures of an overextended military fighting costly wars, combined with the everincreasing national debt, could destroy the United States, just as similar economic and military
issues brought down the Western Roman Empire.
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