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ART & CULTUREREVIEW
The Museum of Non-Artists – A Review of The Museum of Everything.
Maddie BurrowsNov 22, 20170353
There is a strange divide in the world of art: between the art of academic elites, and the art of ordinary people. An artist creates to express their thoughts, emotions, desires, and beliefs. So how does one define what makes an "art maker" an "artist"?
You've probably asked yourself a similar question while wandering through Hobart's modern, controversial art museum that is MONA. Modern art can be so minimalistic, it barely seems to be 'art' at all! How could we forget the gallery hoax of 2016, when a 17 year old prankster placed a pair of glasses on the floor of the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art, and people gawked at its artistic splendor. The 'artist' knew it wasn't art. But people believed it was, and he henceforth became an accidental artist, featured in one of the most prestigious galleries in the world.
It seems that contemporary art has stooped to an all-time low. Where is the skill and attention to detail, I ask? Thankfully, The Museum of Everything at MONA, a collection of 'non-art' that contradicts all that we know about the academic art world, is here to restore your faith in the ancient ritual that is artmaking. The travelling institution opened in London in 2009, and features a collection of nearly 2000 artworks by 200 non-artists and private art makers. The exhibition arrived at MONA in June this year, and will be on display until April 2018, making it MONA's longest running exhibition to date.
James Brett is the mastermind behind the institution, which features a collection of ordinary people who create extraordinary and fascinating artworks. So can the works of these non-artists be considered "art"? The work on display, though not created with the intent of ever being displayed in a gallery, is often far from amateur.
The Museum of Everything aims to stretch preconceived ideas of who has the right to be an artist. These artists featured don't have art degrees, but what they do have is a vision. Some are mentally or physically ill. They do not create as a means of expressing intellectual ideas, themes and storytelling. This art is the product of each individual's intense drive to create.
They are the self-taught architects, the scientists of space, and inventors or new language and visual folklore. They produce art within their own homes, or even whilst residing in hospital or prison. They are the unknown makers who produce art outside the established art world, for their own personal cause. The focus of this art is on the creation, the ritual process, and the transcendent connection between artist and method.
The Museum occupies the entire basement level of MONA's underground gallery floors. The entrance is the set of a three story, brick Victorian terrace home. Beyond the door are over 25 exhibition rooms of varying shapes and sizes. In contrast to the spacious, minimal aesthetic MONA's previous large exhibition, On The Origin of Art, this Museum has a homely feel, with nostalgic furniture, old couches, wallpaper, and curtains that lead you from room to room.
Photo by Maddie Burrows
Sculptural and two-dimensional works that explore personal and world culture are found within the first large room. If you're a fan of collage or visual communication, you will enjoy the large, mathematical drawings that utilise headline style typography, contrasted with detailed, hand written lists and graphs. These works are products of the photographic memory of the artist, detailing historical events like the sinking of the Titanic. In the centre of the room, we see a collection of biologically perfect dinosaur fossils, made from found objects and rubbish. Children smile and laugh at a triceratops made entirely from plastic toy dinosaurs. There is a central theme that draws together the context of artworks in each exhibition room. However, the formal qualities and content of each work are greatly different.
The next few rooms of the Museum explore themes of faith, focussing heavily on American exceptionalism and religious fundamentalism at the turn of the 19th century. A 'faith room' includes a reinterpretation of Leonardo da Vinci's famous painting,The Last Supper of Jesus Christ. This work was made by an electrician who used found objects and lights to express his intense religious belief through sculpture. Within the same room are a collection of detailed paintings that illustrate both real and fanciful Catholic cathedrals. Travel next through rooms of African American independence, and religious freedom! They say 'The Lord is good!', and the gospel has never looked more colourful and bright. These spiritual works evoke a sense of hope, love and fundamentalism. Each work is an expression of the artist's deep devotion to their faith.
Beyond the evangelistic faith artworks, we enter a room that is filled with religious works that reference hell and death. These artists are less driven by hope, but more by fear of 'the end'. Horrific paintings of the apocalypse are displayed, alongside satirical collages and humorous illustrations of the Devils of Play that torment humans.
As we leave the collective rooms of religious expression, we enter the arousing room of 'desire' full of sexual fantasy, illusions of gender, and imagery of witchcraft. The Museum then explores the themes of 'love', 'youth' and 'childhood', which form a visual timeline of mixed-matched art. These are followed by the room of 'power', displaying war, guns, and heroic figures in bold colour. At this stage the Museum has taken the viewer through a journey of religious expression, human emotion, and now begins to explore human invention, capability, and scientific endeavour.
Half way through the Museum is a library, with bookcases, retro armchairs, and tables in a cozy, small room. Here you can sit and read about folk art, and self-taught art. Unfortunately there are also televisions on the wall, which makes the room less relaxing. But these show MONA-made films of the exhibition, the works, and the installation of the Museum which was fascinating to watch. The library is a quaint, relatively quiet space where you pause to engage further with the history of non-professional artists.
After the library, you enter the 'cosmos' room. This room features 20 cardboard airplanes, some several metres in length, hanging in the centre of the space. You can walk between the colossal paper flying machines, while you gaze at paintings of spaceship graphs and diagrams of planets the fill the walls. The content of these works connects back to the earlier rooms that explored spirituality. The journey to the moon can be compared with the religious quest to reach the divine. The Museum concludes with an exploration of 'ritualism', 'utopia', 'architecture', 'landscape', and 'creatures'.
The colossal size of the Museum is rather daunting, but at the end you can sit down and enjoy a nice French biscuit in the Gift Shop Tea Room as you reflect upon the Museum. Lay back on the fake grass while you gaze at the red and white awning above the gift shop counter. If you're as lucky as me, you may even get your tea and madeleine biscuit served to you by a charming, handsome Frenchman.
The Museum of Everything challenges the concept of 'art' and 'the artist'. To appreciate its very nature, we must forget our preconceived ideas of the gallery and the art world. The exhibition does not require or ask us to find meaning or context from each work. Instead it poses the question, why do we create? What is this desire artists have to externally express their internal thoughts? We are left standing in awe of the splendor of human creativity, spirituality, and the intense drive that caused these 'outsiders' to draw, paint, sculpt, and embody their lives with their artwork.
Gallery photos also by Maddie Burrows
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Saatchi Art's curators have worked with artists from around the world to hand-pick every artwork we offer on Limited in order to provide you with an unmatched selection of limited edition prints. We are proud to offer "KASKADE" by Ross Van Hunt, which is available exclusively on Limited.
Artworks in a limited edition have a set number of prints available for each size offered. For the 10x10 size edition, "KASKADE" comes in a limited edition of only 100 prints. Once all 100 of the prints in this edition size have sold out, there will be no other prints of "KASKADE" available in the size of 10 inches high by 10 inches wide. Limited edition prints of this artwork may be available in other sizes.
KASKADE 16x16 Oil on Wood Panel People Will always see something different when viewing a piece. I can only hope they enjoy it as much as I do.
Painting in the style of Gerhard Richter, Ross Van Hunt channels energy and spirit into his colorful abstract paintings. In his Texas studio, Ross uses thick layers of oil to construct unexpected and textured strokes of paint on wood.


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Criminalising Love: working together to challenge state-sponsored homophobia
23 September 2014 22 September 2014
By Fionnuala Murphy, International HIV/AIDS Alliance
More than 70 countries around the world currently criminalise homosexuality, with punishments including life imprisonment, flogging and the death penalty. The last two years have brought a particularly virulent wave of criminalisation. Russia, Nigeria and Uganda have all introduced new laws which ban private and public expressions of homosexuality, while last December the Indian Supreme Court overturned an earlier High Court ruling that section 377 of the Indian Penal Code did not apply to same sex acts among consenting adults.
Criminalisation seriously undermines LGBT people's human rights, and it also stands in the way of an effective HIV response. Globally, men who have sex with men are 19 times more likely to contract HIV than other men, and transgender people are up to 49 times more likely to become HIV positive than the general population. In countries where it is a crime to be gay, these populations are often afraid to come forward and access HIV prevention, testing or treatment for fear of being stigmatised, turned away or even reported to the police.
The International HIV/AIDS Alliance has worked with LGBT communities since 1994, supporting groups in Africa, Asia and Latin America to bring about step-by-step change. In Uganda for example we have provided support and funding over the last five years to strengthen the national network, Sexual Minorities Uganda (SMUG). With assistance from partners in India, we have worked with SMUG on a monitoring framework which has since enabled them to demonstrate unprecedented levels of violence, arrest and other human rights abuses against LGBT people since the Ugandan parliament voted for the Anti Homosexuality Act in December 2013. Using data from the framework, SMUG and other petitioners recently persuaded the Ugandan High Court to hear a constitutional challenge against the Act. On August 1st, the Court declared the new law illegal.
The International HIV/AIDS Alliance has also supported LGBT organisations in Uganda and other countries to improve their advocacy skills and to build links with the international community. Through our own advocacy, we have urged donor countries including the UK to adopt long term strategies to advance LGBT rights, and to ensure consequences for governments or individuals that incite hatred or violate LGBT people's rights.
Our latest briefing, Challenging Criminalisation of LGBT People, calls for multi-sectoral approaches which build coalitions between civil society, trade unions, the health sector, faith groups, businesses and others. In partnership with Brunswick we have brought together a number of major multinationals, several of whom now plan to establish a global group of businesses against homophobia.
Labour has a brave track record on LGBT rights. The last Labour government introduced civil partnerships, banned discrimination in employment, goods and services and equalised the age of consent. Labour also has an outstanding record on international development and on HIV. In its 2005 manifesto, Labour included a pledge of universal access to HIV treatment. Tony Blair and Gordon Brown went on to secure support for this target at the 2005 G8 summit in Scotland, saving millions of lives and revolutionising the global AIDS response.
Building on this proud history, the International HIV/AIDS Alliance is keen to explore how a Labour government could work with other sectors to challenge the rise in state-sponsored homophobia around the world. We are hosting a panel debate at next week's Labour Party Conference which will bring together MPs, civil society, the private sector and the trade union movement.
The debate is a rare opportunity to hear directly from Frank Mugisha, Executive Director of Sexual Minorities Uganda and winner of the Robert F. Kennedy Human Rights Award. Frank will be joined by Pamela Nash MP, Chair of the APPG on HIV and AIDS and Shadow DFID Health Spokesperson, and Kerry McCarthy MP, Shadow Minister for Foreign Affairs, alongside Maria Exall, Chair of the TUC LGBT Committee and Richard Meredith, Co-Head of Brunswick's Crisis Advisory Group.
The panel debate takes place today, Tuesday 23 September, 12.45-14.15, in the Global Development Hub at Charter Gallery, Manchester Central, inside the secure zone. Lunch is provided. For further information, please contact Leila Zadeh: lzadeh@aidsalliance.org.
The International HIV/AIDS Alliance is a unique alliance of national civil society organisations dedicated to ending AIDS through community action.
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Prince Harry calls Camilla "dangerous"
In 60 minutes interview before the release of his book. The Spare gives much more details to the royal family happenings.
byGwen January 12, 2023, 4:10 am
Prince Harry dropped a bombshell with the release of his book Spare. The reality and the truth about the happenings inside the royal family, from Harry's perspective, have been hard times for the royals to deal with, as it immediately follows the docuseries of Harry and Meghan on Netflix. Harry even opens up about his relationship with his stepmother, Camilla Parker Bowles, who now takes the place of his mother Diana.
Harry says Camilla's intention to gain positive opinions made her "dangerous" when it came to the reputation of the royals. The Prince spilled information during the episode of 60 minutes with Anderson Cooper, saying, "Her need to rehabilitate her image made her dangerous because of the connections that she was forging within the British press," prior to the release of his book. The book Spare also gives the reader an insight into the occurrences before the wedding of King Charles and Queen Consort. It is made clear that Camilla insisted particularly on the royal wedding and the title following it. Harry was obviously not supportive of his father's choice and asked him not to marry her. The book reads, "Shortly after our private meetings with her, she began to develop her long-term strategy, a campaign directed at marriage and with time, the Crown with the blessing of our father, we supposed." At last everything ended up as Camilla wanted.
Harry vents his emotions regarding his mother Diana's death
Harry reveals about what he was like during his mother's death
Millions of people cried over the untimely passing of their beloved princess Diana's death, which shocked the entire world. But Prince Harry admitted that he did not cry after learning of her passing in his eagerly expected memoir "Spare." IHarry's memoir Spare, which will be out by 10th of January is considered to be a great destruction to the royal family. The passing of Princess Diana occupies the top rank, despite the fact that Harry had revealed many intricate details about his interactions with the members of the royal family and more about his estranged brother Prince William.
"What I do remember with stunning clarity is that I did not cry. Not a tear. My father did not hug me," wrote Harry in his memoir
Harry discusses the occasion and his emotions surrounding the passing of his dear mother. He remembers the day he and his brother Prince William were at their late grandparents' Balmoral Castle in Scotland when they learned that Diana had died in an accident. He recalls how their father, then Prince Charles, told them about their mother's passing without even giving them a hug. Young Harry speculated that Diana may have faked her death so she could live a peaceful life after hearing about her death.
"With nothing to do but roam the castle and talk to myself, a suspicion took hold, which then became a firm belief. This was all a trick. And for once the trick wasn't being played by the people around me, or the press, but by Mummy. Her life's been miserable, she's been hounded, harassed, lied about, lied to. So she's staged an accident as a diversion and run away," revealed Harry in his memoir.
Prince Harry claims in his new book Spare that he was grabbed by his brother William
The most anticipated book Spare details the fight between the brothers
Prince Harry's new book claims the fight that happened in 2019 between the two brothers. "It all happened so fast. So very fast. He grabbed me by the collar, ripping my necklace, and he knocked me to the floor"
"I landed on the dog's bowl, which cracked under my back, the pieces cutting into me. I lay there for a moment, dazed, then got to my feet and told him to get out."
When William claims he was trying to help him, Harry said: "Are you serious? Help me? Sorry – is that what you call this? Helping me?"
The most anticipated book Spare details the relationship between them. The book is about to be released on January 10. They had already chosen different paths. The name of the book Spare comes from the senior royal belief that the first child is born for the titles and power whereas the second is the spare when something happens to the firstborn.
In an interview, a clip from the ITV channel Harry said, "I would like to get my father back, I would like to have my brother back."
Prince Harry's memoir to spill tea about royalty?
Memoir: 'Spare' to reveal a lot about Harry's life happenings
In 2020, Prince Harry stepped down from the royal family, and fast forward to nearly three years later, his memoir will be published in 2023. The memoir is titled "Spare" and provides elements of expectation of how "raw, unflinching honesty" the book will be. The title of the book probably gets its source from the title given to the royal brothers, Harry and William, as "the heir and the spare," referring to Prince William as the next successor, "heir," and Prince Harry as the "spare" to the throne.
In an interview with Oprah Winfrey, Harry, along with Meghan, opened up about how the people in and around the royal family treated his wife. These set an expectation for how candidly the book will carry information about the happenings inside the royal family. The book will supposedly touch upon the death of the "Queen of the People's Heart," Princess Diana, the mother of Prince Harry, and a few more events in his life, including love and dismay.
The memoir will reach its readers in January 2023, as the death of Queen Elizabeth altered the schedule.
Prince's memoir has a 'time bomb'
Harry's memoir may have something against the Royal family
Prince Harry wants to make changes to his memoir which was scheduled for release from Penguin Random House in November.
Tom Bower who wrote the book, "Revenge: Meghan, Harry, and the War between the Windsors" told in an interview that Harry's memoir is a 'time bomb.'
As the Duke of Sussex is desperate to rewrite the book after Queen Elizabeth II's death Sep 8, 2022, the book will reach the publishing stage sometime next year.
Some reports said that Harry might downplay the matters he has written about King Charles III, Queen Consort Camilla, Prince William, and Princess of Wales. On the other hand, Tom Bower said that he didn't think that can happen.
Bower also mentioned that Harry has added a new chapter on the Queen's funeral and added, "There'll just be more material about how they were snubbed and all the rest of the invective against the royal family. So I think to that extent, the delay will add to the poison."
Meanwhile, some royal experts said that King Charles III will decide whether to bestow the title of prince and princess to Harry and Meghan once their media projects are released.
The couple, Harry and Meghan, is also working on a Netflix series that will probably get released in late 2023.
Prince Harryroyal family
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Carcinogenic effects of N-nitroso compounds in the environment
Divya Jain
Department of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Banasthali Vidyapith, Rajasthan
Priya Chaudhary
Banasthali Vidyapith, Rajasthan
Nidhi Varshney
Pracheta Janmeda
N-nitroso compounds (NOC) are produced by the acid catalyzed reaction of nitrite with certain nitrogen compounds. The gastrointestinal tract (GI) is the main site for the formation of reactive nitrogen species (RNS). Bacteria present on the GI tract surface reduced the dietary nitrate or nitrite into Nitric oxide NO and other related compounds. The clinical sign of NOC carcinogenicity varies according to species, dose, and route of administration. Humans are exposed to preformed N-nitroso compounds and endogenous NOC via the environmental food chain. Several NOC are potential human carcinogens, including DENA and NDMA, but evidence from population studies is inconsistent.
Jain, D., Chaudhary, P., Varshney, N. ., & Janmeda, P. (2020). Carcinogenic effects of N-nitroso compounds in the environment. Environment Conservation Journal, 21(3), 25-41. https://doi.org/10.36953/ECJ.2020.21304
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Megan Christopher
Megan Christopher is a freelance film and culture journalist based in Manchester, UK. After graduating from the University of Manchester in 2017, Megan co-founded Much Ado About Cinema, a film website dedicated to the amplification of diverse voices in criticism. From here, she has gone on to cover festivals such as Cannes, Berlinale and BFI Flare. Since leaving Much Ado in 2019 to focus on freelance work, Megan has written for outlets such as Sight & Sound, Little White Lies and Gay Essential, podcasted for Screen Queens and spoken in front of hundreds on her favourite subject: Cersei Lannister. Her writing tends to focus on issues of identity and sexuality. Outside of journalism, Megan's main interests are WKD, crop tops and lesbianism. She tweets at @tinyfilmlesbian.
Megan's essay entitled "I Pretended to Like Boys Because of High School Musical" appears in She Found it at the Movies.
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Type of bridge
The 1915 Çanakkale Bridge on the Dardanelles strait in Turkey, connecting Europe and Asia, is the longest suspension bridge in the world. [3] [2]
Underspanned suspension bridge; see also cable-stayed bridge
Self-anchored suspension bridge
Pedestrians, bicycles, livestock, automobiles, trucks, light rail
Span range
Medium to long
Steel rope, multiple steel wire strand cables or forged or cast chain links
Design effort
Falsework required
The double-decked George Washington Bridge, connecting New York City to Bergen County, New Jersey, is the world's busiest suspension bridge, carrying 102 million vehicles annually.
A suspension bridge is a type of bridge in which the deck is hung below suspension cables on vertical suspenders. The first modern examples of this type of bridge were built in the early 1800s. [6] [7] Simple suspension bridges, which lack vertical suspenders, have a long history in many mountainous parts of the world.
Chain bridges
Wire-cable
Bridge main components
Comparison with cable-stayed bridge
Underspanned
Suspension cable types
Deck structure types
Use other than road and rail
Construction sequence (wire strand cable type)
Longest spans
Notable collapses
Besides the bridge type most commonly called suspension bridges, covered in this article, there are other types of suspension bridges. The type covered here has cables suspended between towers, with vertical suspender cables that transfer the live and dead loads of the deck below, upon which traffic crosses. This arrangement allows the deck to be level or to arc upward for additional clearance. Like other suspension bridge types, this type often is constructed without the use of falsework.
The suspension cables must be anchored at each end of the bridge, since any load applied to the bridge is transformed into a tension in these main cables. The main cables continue beyond the pillars to deck-level supports, and further continue to connections with anchors in the ground. The roadway is supported by vertical suspender cables or rods, called hangers. In some circumstances, the towers may sit on a bluff or canyon edge where the road may proceed directly to the main span, otherwise the bridge will usually have two smaller spans, running between either pair of pillars and the highway, which may be supported by suspender cables or their own trusswork. In the latter case, there will be very little arc in the outboard main cables.
The Manhattan Bridge, connecting Manhattan and Brooklyn in New York City, opened in 1909 and is considered to be the forerunner of modern suspension bridges; its design served as the model for many of the long-span suspension bridges around the world.
For bridges where the deck follows the suspenders, see simple suspension bridge.
The earliest suspension bridges were ropes slung across a chasm, with a deck possibly at the same level or hung below the ropes such that the rope had a catenary shape.
The Tibetan siddha and bridge-builder Thangtong Gyalpo originated the use of iron chains in his version of simple suspension bridges. In 1433, Gyalpo built eight bridges in eastern Bhutan. The last surviving chain-linked bridge of Gyalpo's was the Thangtong Gyalpo Bridge in Duksum en route to Trashi Yangtse, which was finally washed away in 2004. [8] Gyalpo's iron chain bridges did not include a suspended-deck bridge, which is the standard on all modern suspension bridges today. Instead, both the railing and the walking layer of Gyalpo's bridges used wires. The stress points that carried the screed were reinforced by the iron chains. Before the use of iron chains it is thought that Gyalpo used ropes from twisted willows or yak skins. [9] He may have also used tightly bound cloth.
The first iron chain suspension bridge in the Western world was the Jacob's Creek Bridge (1801) in Westmoreland County, Pennsylvania, designed by inventor James Finley. [10] Finley's bridge was the first to incorporate all of the necessary components of a modern suspension bridge, including a suspended deck which hung by trusses. Finley patented his design in 1808, and published it in the Philadelphia journal, The Port Folio, in 1810. [11]
An early plan for the chain bridge over the Menai Strait near Bangor, Wales, completed in 1826
Early British chain bridges included the Dryburgh Abbey Bridge (1817) and 137 m Union Bridge (1820), with spans rapidly increasing to 176 m with the Menai Bridge (1826), "the first important modern suspension bridge". [12] The first chain bridge on the German speaking territories was the Chain Bridge in Nuremberg. The Sagar Iron Suspension Bridge with a 200 feet span (also termed Beose Bridge) was constructed near Sagar, India during 1828-1830 by Duncan Presgrave, Mint and Assay Master. [13] The Clifton Suspension Bridge (designed in 1831, completed in 1864 with a 214 m central span), is similar to the Sagar bridge. It is one of the longest of the parabolic arc chain type. The current Marlow suspension bridge was designed by William Tierney Clark and was built between 1829 and 1832, replacing a wooden bridge further downstream which collapsed in 1828. It is the only suspension bridge across the non-tidal Thames. The Széchenyi Chain Bridge, (designed in 1840, opened in 1849), spanning the River Danube in Budapest, was also designed by William Clark and it is a larger-scale version of Marlow Bridge. [14]
An interesting variation is Thornewill and Warham's Ferry Bridge in Burton-on-Trent, Staffordshire (1889), where the chains are not attached to abutments as is usual, but instead are attached to the main girders, which are thus in compression. Here, the chains are made from flat wrought iron plates, eight inches (203 mm) wide by an inch and a half (38 mm) thick, rivetted together. [15]
The first wire-cable suspension bridge was the Spider Bridge at Falls of Schuylkill (1816), a modest and temporary footbridge built following the collapse of James Finley's nearby Chain Bridge at Falls of Schuylkill (1808). The footbridge's span was 124 m, although its deck was only 0.45 m wide.
Development of wire-cable suspension bridges dates to the temporary simple suspension bridge at Annonay built by Marc Seguin and his brothers in 1822. It spanned only 18 m. [16] The first permanent wire cable suspension bridge was Guillaume Henri Dufour's Saint Antoine Bridge in Geneva of 1823, with two 40 m spans. [16] The first with cables assembled in mid-air in the modern method was Joseph Chaley's Grand Pont Suspendu in Fribourg, in 1834. [16]
In the United States, the first major wire-cable suspension bridge was the Wire Bridge at Fairmount in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Designed by Charles Ellet Jr. and completed in 1842, it had a span of 109 m. Ellet's Niagara Falls suspension bridge (1847–48) was abandoned before completion. It was used as scaffolding for John A. Roebling's double decker railroad and carriage bridge (1855).
The Otto Beit Bridge (1938–1939) was the first modern suspension bridge outside the United States built with parallel wire cables. [17]
Drawing of the Tibetan-built Chaksam bridge south of Lhasa, constructed in 1430, with long chains suspended between towers, and vertical suspender ropes carrying the weight of a planked footway below.
"View of the Chain Bridge invented by James Finley Esq." (1810) by William Strickland. Finley's Chain Bridge at Falls of Schuylkill (1808) had two spans, 100 feet, and 200 feet.
Sagar Iron Suspension Bridge, by Major Presgrave, 1828-1830, near Sanodha, Sagar district India constructed using locally produced iron.
Wire Bridge at Fairmount (1842, replaced 1874).
The slender lines of the Severn Bridge
Two towers/pillars, two suspension cables, four suspension cable anchors, multiple suspender cables, the bridge deck. [18]
Comparison of a catenary (black dotted curve) and a parabola (red solid curve) with the same span and sag. The main forces in a suspension bridge of any type are tension in the cables and compression in the pillars. Since almost all the force on the pillars is vertically downwards, and the bridge is also stabilized by the main cables, the pillars can be made quite slender, as on the Severn Bridge, on the Wales-England border. In a suspended deck bridge, cables suspended via towers hold up the road deck. The weight is transferred by the cables to the towers, which in turn transfer the weight to the ground.
The catenary represents the profile of a simple suspension bridge or the cable of a suspended-deck suspension bridge on which its deck and hangers have negligible mass compared to its cable. The parabola represents the profile of the cable of a suspended-deck suspension bridge on which its cable and hangers have negligible mass compared to its deck. The profile of the cable of a real suspension bridge with the same span and sag lies between the two curves.
The main cables of a suspension bridge will form a catenary; the cables will instead form a parabola if they are assumed to have zero weight. One can see the shape from the constant increase of the gradient of the cable with linear (deck) distance, this increase in gradient at each connection with the deck providing a net upward support force. Combined with the relatively simple constraints placed upon the actual deck, that makes the suspension bridge much simpler to design and analyze than a cable-stayed bridge in which the deck is in compression.
Cable-stayed bridges and suspension bridges may appear to be similar, but are quite different in principle and in their construction.
In suspension bridges, large main cables (normally two) hang between the towers and are anchored at each end to the ground. The main cables, which are free to move on bearings in the towers, bear the load of the bridge deck. Before the deck is installed, the cables are under tension from their own weight. Along the main cables smaller cables or rods connect to the bridge deck, which is lifted in sections. As this is done, the tension in the cables increases, as it does with the live load of traffic crossing the bridge. The tension on the main cables is transferred to the ground at the anchorages and by downwards compression on the towers.
Difference between types of bridges
Cable-stayed bridge, fan design
In cable-stayed bridges, the towers are the primary load-bearing structures that transmit the bridge loads to the ground. A cantilever approach is often used to support the bridge deck near the towers, but lengths further from them are supported by cables running directly to the towers. By design, all static horizontal forces of the cable-stayed bridge are balanced so that the supporting towers do not tend to tilt or slide and so must only resist horizontal forces from the live loads.
A suspension bridge can be made out of simple materials such as wood and common wire rope.
Longer main spans are achievable than with any other type of bridge.
Less material may be required than other bridge types, even at spans they can achieve, leading to a reduced construction cost.
Except for installation of the initial temporary cables, little or no access from below is required during construction and so a waterway can remain open while the bridge is built above.
They may be better able to withstand earthquake movements than heavier and more rigid bridges.
Bridge decks can have deck sections replaced in order to widen traffic lanes for larger vehicles or add additional width for separated cycling/pedestrian paths.
Considerable stiffness or aerodynamic profiling may be required to prevent the bridge deck vibrating under high winds.
The relatively low deck stiffness compared to other (non-suspension) types of bridges makes it more difficult to carry heavy rail traffic in which high concentrated live loads occur.
Some access below may be required during construction to lift the initial cables or to lift deck units. That access can often be avoided in cable-stayed bridge construction.
Micklewood Bridge as illustrated by Charles Drewry, 1832
Squibb Park Bridge, Brooklyn, built 2013
Eyebar chain cables of Clifton Suspension Bridge
The Yichang Bridge, a plate deck suspension bridge, over the Yangtze River in China
In an underspanned suspension bridge, also called under-deck cable-stayed bridge, [19] the main cables hang entirely below the bridge deck, but are still anchored into the ground in a similar way to the conventional type. Very few bridges of this nature have been built, as the deck is inherently less stable than when suspended below the cables. Examples include the Pont des Bergues of 1834 designed by Guillaume Henri Dufour; [16] James Smith's Micklewood Bridge; [20] and a proposal by Robert Stevenson for a bridge over the River Almond near Edinburgh. [20]
Roebling's Delaware Aqueduct (begun 1847) consists of three sections supported by cables. The timber structure essentially hides the cables; and from a quick view, it is not immediately apparent that it is even a suspension bridge.
A former steam pipeline suspension bridge on the Lake Näsijärvi in Tampere, Finland, in 1979
The main suspension cables in older bridges were often made from a chain or linked bars, but modern bridge cables are made from multiple strands of wire. This not only adds strength but improves reliability (often called redundancy in engineering terms) because the failure of a few flawed strands in the hundreds used pose very little threat of failure, whereas a single bad link or eyebar can cause failure of an entire bridge. (The failure of a single eyebar was found to be the cause of the collapse of the Silver Bridge over the Ohio River.) Another reason is that as spans increased, engineers were unable to lift larger chains into position, whereas wire strand cables can be formulated one by one in mid-air from a temporary walkway.
Suspender-cable terminations
Poured sockets are used to make a high strength, permanent cable termination. They are created by inserting the suspender wire rope (at the bridge deck supports) into the narrow end of a conical cavity which is oriented in-line with the intended direction of strain. The individual wires are splayed out inside the cone or 'capel', and the cone is then filled with molten lead-antimony-tin (Pb80Sb15Sn5) solder. [21]
Most suspension bridges have open truss structures to support the roadbed, particularly owing to the unfavorable effects of using plate girders, discovered from the Tacoma Narrows Bridge (1940) bridge collapse. In the 1960s, developments in bridge aerodynamics allowed the re-introduction of plate structures as shallow box girders, first seen on the Severn bridge, built 1961–1966. In the picture of the Yichang Bridge, note the very sharp entry edge and sloping undergirders in the suspension bridge shown. This enables this type of construction to be used without the danger of vortex shedding and consequent aeroelastic effects, such as those that destroyed the original Tacoma Narrows bridge.
Three kinds of forces operate on any bridge: the dead load, the live load, and the dynamic load. Dead load refers to the weight of the bridge itself. Like any other structure, a bridge has a tendency to collapse simply because of the gravitational forces acting on the materials of which the bridge is made. Live load refers to traffic that moves across the bridge as well as normal environmental factors such as changes in temperature, precipitation, and winds. Dynamic load refers to environmental factors that go beyond normal weather conditions, factors such as sudden gusts of wind and earthquakes. All three factors must be taken into consideration when building a bridge.
Cable-suspended footbridge at Dallas Fort Worth Airport Terminal D
The principles of suspension used on a large scale also appear in contexts less dramatic than road or rail bridges. Light cable suspension may prove less expensive and seem more elegant for a cycle or footbridge than strong girder supports. An example of this is the Nescio Bridge in the Netherlands, and the Roebling designed 1904 Riegelsville suspension pedestrian bridge across the Delaware River in Pennsylvania. [22] The longest pedestrian suspension bridge, which spans the River Paiva, Arouca Geopark, Portugal, opened in April 2021. The 516 metres bridge hangs 175 meters above the river. [23]
Where such a bridge spans a gap between two buildings, there is no need to construct special towers, as the buildings can anchor the cables. Cable suspension may also be augmented by the inherent stiffness of a structure that has much in common with a tubular bridge.
The Little Belt suspension bridge in Denmark was opened in 1970.
Manhattan Bridge in New York City with deck under construction from the towers outward.
Suspender cables and suspender cable band on the Golden Gate Bridge in San Francisco. Main cable diameter is 36 inches (910 mm), and suspender cable diameter is 3.5 inches (89 mm).
Lions' Gate Bridge with deck under construction from the span's center
Typical suspension bridges are constructed using a sequence generally described as follows. Depending on length and size, construction may take anywhere between a year and a half (construction on the original Tacoma Narrows Bridge took only 19 months) up to as long as a decade (the Akashi-Kaikyō Bridge's construction began in May 1986 and was opened in May 1998 – a total of twelve years).
Where the towers are founded on underwater piers, caissons are sunk and any soft bottom is excavated for a foundation. If the bedrock is too deep to be exposed by excavation or the sinking of a caisson, pilings are driven to the bedrock or into overlying hard soil, or a large concrete pad to distribute the weight over less resistant soil may be constructed, first preparing the surface with a bed of compacted gravel. (Such a pad footing can also accommodate the movements of an active fault, and this has been implemented on the foundations of the cable-stayed Rio-Antirio bridge.) The piers are then extended above water level, where they are capped with pedestal bases for the towers.
Where the towers are founded on dry land, deep foundation excavation or pilings are used.
From the tower foundation, towers of single or multiple columns are erected using high-strength reinforced concrete, stonework, or steel. Concrete is used most frequently in modern suspension bridge construction due to the high cost of steel.
Large devices called saddles, which will carry the main suspension cables, are positioned atop the towers. Typically of cast steel, they can also be manufactured using riveted forms, and are equipped with rollers to allow the main cables to shift under construction and normal loads.
Anchorages are constructed, usually in tandem with the towers, to resist the tension of the cables and form as the main anchor system for the entire structure. These are usually anchored in good quality rock but may consist of massive reinforced concrete deadweights within an excavation. The anchorage structure will have multiple protruding open eyebolts enclosed within a secure space.
Temporary suspended walkways, called catwalks, are then erected using a set of guide wires hoisted into place via winches positioned atop the towers. These catwalks follow the curve set by bridge designers for the main cables, in a path mathematically described as a catenary arc. Typical catwalks are usually between eight and ten feet wide and are constructed using wire grate and wood slats.
Gantries are placed upon the catwalks, which will support the main cable spinning reels. Then, cables attached to winches are installed, and in turn, the main cable spinning devices are installed.
High strength wire (typically 4 or 6 gauge galvanized steel wire), is pulled in a loop by pulleys on the traveler, with one end affixed at an anchorage. When the traveler reaches the opposite anchorage the loop is placed over an open anchor eyebar. Along the catwalk, workers also pull the cable wires to their desired tension. This continues until a bundle, called a "cable strand" is completed, and temporarily bundled using stainless steel wire. This process is repeated until the final cable strand is completed. Workers then remove the individual wraps on the cable strands (during the spinning process, the shape of the main cable closely resembles a hexagon), and then the entire cable is then compressed by a traveling hydraulic press into a closely packed cylinder and tightly wrapped with additional wire to form the final circular cross-section. The wire used in suspension bridge construction is a galvanized steel wire that has been coated with corrosion inhibitors.
At specific points along the main cable (each being the exact distance horizontally in relation to the next) devices called "cable bands" are installed to carry steel wire ropes called Suspender cables. Each suspender cable is engineered and cut to precise lengths, and are looped over the cable bands. In some bridges, where the towers are close to or on the shore, the suspender cables may be applied only to the central span. Early suspender cables were fitted with zinc jewels and a set of steel washers, which formed the support for the deck. Modern suspender cables carry a shackle-type fitting.
Special lifting hoists attached to the suspenders or from the main cables are used to lift prefabricated sections of the bridge deck to the proper level, provided that the local conditions allow the sections to be carried below the bridge by barge or other means. Otherwise, a traveling cantilever derrick may be used to extend the deck one section at a time starting from the towers and working outward. If the addition of the deck structure extends from the towers the finished portions of the deck will pitch upward rather sharply, as there is no downward force in the center of the span. Upon completion of the deck, the added load will pull the main cables into an arc mathematically described as a parabola, while the arc of the deck will be as the designer intended – usually a gentle upward arc for added clearance if over a shipping channel, or flat in other cases such as a span over a canyon. Arched suspension spans also give the structure more rigidity and strength.
With the completion of the primary structure various details such as lighting, handrails, finish painting and paving is installed or completed.
Main article: List of longest suspension bridge spans
Suspension bridges are typically ranked by the length of their main span. These are the ten bridges with the longest spans, followed by the length of the span and the year the bridge opened for traffic:
Çanakkale 1915 Bridge Turkey 2023 m (6637 ft) 2022
Akashi Kaikyō Bridge Japan 1991 m (6532 ft) 1998
Yangsigang Bridge China 1700 m (5577 ft) 2019
Xihoumen Bridge China 1650 m (5413 ft) 2009
Great Belt Bridge Denmark 1624 m (5328 ft) 1998
Osman Gazi Bridge Turkey 1550 m (5085 ft) 2016
Yi Sun-sin bridge South Korea 1545 m (5069 ft) 2012
Runyang Bridge China 1490 m (4888 ft) 2005
Fourth Nanjing Yangtze Bridge China 1418 m (4652 ft) 2012
Humber Bridge United Kingdom 1410 m (4626 ft) 1981
Yavuz Sultan Selim Bridge Turkey 1408 m (4619 ft) 2016
See also: History of longest vehicle suspension bridge spans
(Chronological)
Union Bridge (England/Scotland, 1820), the longest span (137 m) from 1820 to 1826. The oldest suspension bridge in the world still carrying road traffic.
Roebling's Delaware Aqueduct (USA, 1847), the oldest wire suspension bridge still in service in the United States.
John A. Roebling Suspension Bridge (USA, 1866), then the longest wire suspension bridge in the world at 1,057 feet (322 m) main span.
Brooklyn Bridge (USA, 1883), the first steel-wire suspension bridge.
Bear Mountain Bridge (USA, 1924), the longest suspension span (497 m) from 1924 to 1926. The first suspension bridge to have a concrete deck. The construction methods pioneered in building it would make possible several much larger projects to follow.
Benjamin Franklin Bridge (USA, 1926), replaced Bear Mountain Bridge as the longest span at 1,750 feet between the towers. Includes an active subway line and never-used trolley stations on the span. [24]
San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge (USA, 1936). This was once the longest steel high-level bridge in the world (704 m). [25] The eastern portion (a cantilever bridge) has been replaced with a self-anchored suspension bridge which is the longest of its type in the world. It is also the world's widest bridge.
Golden Gate Bridge (USA, 1937), the longest suspension bridge from 1937 to 1964. It was also the world's tallest bridge from 1937 to 1993, and remains the tallest bridge in the United States.
Mackinac Bridge (USA, 1957), the longest suspension bridge between anchorages in the Western hemisphere.
Si Du River Bridge (China, 2009), the highest bridge in the world, with its deck around 500 meters above the surface of the river.
Rod El Farag Bridge (Egypt, 2019), a modern Egyptian steel wire-cables based suspension bridge crossing the river Nile, which was completed in 2019 and holds the Guinness World Record for the widest suspension bridge in the world with a width of 67.3 meters, and with a span of 540 meters.
Broughton Suspension Bridge (England) – Iron chain bridge built in 1826. One of Europe's first suspension bridges, it collapsed in 1831 due to mechanical resonance induced by troops marching in step. As a result of the incident, the British Army issued an order that troops should "break step" when crossing a bridge.
Silver Bridge (USA) – Eyebar chain highway bridge, built in 1928, that collapsed in late 1967, killing forty-six people. The bridge had a low-redundancy design that was difficult to inspect. The collapse inspired legislation to ensure that older bridges were regularly inspected and maintained. Following the collapse a bridge of similar design was immediately closed and eventually demolished. A second similarly-designed bridge had been built with a higher margin of safety and remained in service until 1991.
Tacoma Narrows Bridge, (USA), 853 m – 1940. The Tacoma Narrows bridge was vulnerable to structural vibration in sustained and moderately strong winds due to its plate-girder deck structure. Wind caused a phenomenon called aeroelastic fluttering that led to its collapse only months after completion. The collapse was captured on film. There were no human deaths in the collapse; several drivers escaped their cars on foot and reached the anchorages before the span dropped.
Yarmouth suspension bridge (England) – Built in 1829 and collapsed in 1845, killing 79 people.
Peace River Suspension Bridge (Canada) The north anchor's soil support for the suspension bridge, which was completed in 1943, failed over a few days in October 1957, and the entire bridge subsequently collapsed.
On 30 October 2022, Jhulto Pul, a pedestrian suspension bridge over the Machchhu River in the city of Morbi, Gujarat, India collapsed, leading to the deaths of at least 141 people.
Category: Suspension bridges — for articles about specific suspension bridges.
List of longest suspension bridge spans
Timeline of three longest spans whether bridge, aerial tramway, powerline, ceiling or dome etc.
Cable-stayed bridge — superficially similar to a suspension bridge, but cables from the towers directly support the roadway, rather than the road being suspended indirectly by additional cables from the main cables connecting two towers.
Inca rope bridge — has features in common with a suspension bridge and predates them by at least three hundred years. However, in a rope bridge the deck itself is suspended from the anchored piers and the guardrails are non-structural.
Self-anchored suspension bridge — combining elements of a suspension bridge and a cable-stayed bridge.
Simple suspension bridge — a modern implementation of the rope bridge using steel cables, although either the upper guardrail or lower footboard cables may be the main structural cables.
Floating suspension bridge
The Brooklyn Bridge is a hybrid cable-stayed/suspension bridge in New York City, spanning the East River between the boroughs of Manhattan and Brooklyn. Opened on May 24, 1883, the Brooklyn Bridge was the first fixed crossing of the East River. It was also the longest suspension bridge in the world at the time of its opening, with a main span of 1,595.5 feet (486.3 m) and a deck 127 ft (38.7 m) above mean high water. The span was originally called the New York and Brooklyn Bridge or the East River Bridge but was officially renamed the Brooklyn Bridge in 1915.
John Augustus Roebling was a German-born American civil engineer. He designed and built wire rope suspension bridges, in particular the Brooklyn Bridge, which has been designated as a National Historic Landmark and a National Historic Civil Engineering Landmark.
A cable-stayed bridge has one or more towers, from which cables support the bridge deck. A distinctive feature are the cables or stays, which run directly from the tower to the deck, normally forming a fan-like pattern or a series of parallel lines. This is in contrast to the modern suspension bridge, where the cables supporting the deck are suspended vertically from the main cable, anchored at both ends of the bridge and running between the towers. The cable-stayed bridge is optimal for spans longer than cantilever bridges and shorter than suspension bridges. This is the range within which cantilever bridges would rapidly grow heavier, and suspension bridge cabling would be more costly.
The John A. Roebling Suspension Bridge, originally known as the Cincinnati-Covington Bridge, spans the Ohio River between Cincinnati, Ohio, and Covington, Kentucky. When opened on December 1, 1866, it was the longest suspension bridge in the world at 1,057 feet (322 m) main span, which was later overtaken by John A. Roebling's most famous design of the 1883 Brooklyn Bridge at 1,595.5 feet (486.3 m). Pedestrians use the bridge to get between the hotels, bars, restaurants, and parking lots in Northern Kentucky. The bar and restaurant district at the foot of the bridge on the Kentucky side is known as Roebling Point.
A self-anchored suspension bridge is a suspension bridge type in which the main cables attach to the ends of the deck, rather than directly to the ground or via large anchorages. The design is well-suited for construction atop elevated piers, or in areas of unstable soils where anchorages would be difficult to construct.
A through arch bridge, also known as a through-type arch bridge, is a bridge that is made from materials such as steel or reinforced concrete, in which the base of an arch structure is below the deck but the top rises above it. It can either be lower bearing or mid-bearing. Thus, the deck is within the arch, and cables or beams that are in tension suspend the central part of the deck from the arch.
A simple suspension bridge is a primitive type of bridge in which the deck of the bridge lies on two parallel load-bearing cables that are anchored at either end. They have no towers or piers. The cables follow a shallow downward catenary arc which moves in response to dynamic loads on the bridge deck.
The eastern span replacement of the San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge was a construction project to replace a seismically unsound portion of the Bay Bridge with a new self-anchored suspension bridge (SAS) and a pair of viaducts. The bridge is in the U.S. state of California and crosses the San Francisco Bay between Yerba Buena Island and Oakland. The span replacement took place between 2002 and 2013, and is the most expensive public works project in California history, with a final price tag of $6.5 billion, a 2,500% cost overrun from the original estimate of $250 million. Originally scheduled to open in 2007, several problems delayed the opening until September 2, 2013. With a width of 258.33 ft (78.74 m), comprising 10 general-purpose lanes, it is the world's widest bridge according to Guinness World Records.
The Three Sisters are three similar self-anchored suspension bridges spanning the Allegheny River in downtown Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania at 6th, 7th, and 9th streets, generally running north/south. The bridges have been given formal names to honor important Pittsburgh residents:
The Niagara Falls Suspension Bridge stood from 1855 to 1897 across the Niagara River and was the world's first working railway suspension bridge. It spanned 825 feet (251 m) and stood 2.5 miles (4.0 km) downstream of Niagara Falls, where it connected Niagara Falls, Ontario to Niagara Falls, New York. Trains used the upper of its two decks, while pedestrians and carriages used the lower. The bridge was the idea of Canadian politicians, and it was built by an American company and a Canadian company. It was most commonly called the Suspension Bridge, although other names included Niagara Railway Suspension Bridge, Niagara Suspension Bridge, and its official American name of the International Suspension Bridge.
A suspension bridge usually has main cables, anchored at each end of the bridge. Any load applied to the bridge is transformed into a tension in these main cables. The earliest suspension bridges had the cables anchored in the ground at either end of the bridge, but some modern suspension bridges anchor the cables to the ends of the bridge itself. The earliest suspension bridges had no towers or piers, but these are present in the majority of larger suspension bridges. Although the earlier types of suspension bridges are suitable only for relatively short spans, all of the 14 longest bridges in the world are suspension bridges. Ignoring the possibility of pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact, there were two independent inventions of the suspension bridge, in Eurasia and in Central and South America.
The Roberto Clemente Bridge, also known as the Sixth Street Bridge, spans the Allegheny River in downtown Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States.
Hampden Bridge is a heritage-listed single-span suspension bridge that carries Moss Vale Road (B73) across the Kangaroo River, in Kangaroo Valley, in the City of Shoalhaven local government area of New South Wales, Australia. The bridge was designed by Ernest de Burgh and built by Loveridge and Hudson. The property is owned by Transport for NSW. It was added to the New South Wales State Heritage Register on 2 August 2019.
Angers Bridge, also called the Basse-Chaîne Bridge, was a suspension bridge over the Maine River in Angers, France. It was designed by Joseph Chaley and Bordillon, and built between 1836 and 1839. The bridge collapsed on 16 April 1850, while a battalion of French soldiers was marching across it, killing over 200 of them.
The Androscoggin Swinging Bridge is a pedestrian suspension bridge spanning the Androscoggin River in Maine between the towns of Topsham in Sagadahoc County and Brunswick in Cumberland County. The bridge was built in 1892 as a timesaving approach for employees of the Cabot Manufacturing Company of Brunswick, could have safer and easier passage across the river.
The 1950 Tacoma Narrows Bridge is a suspension bridge in the U.S. state of Washington that carries the westbound lanes of Washington State Route 16 across the Tacoma Narrows strait, between the city of Tacoma and the Kitsap Peninsula. Opened on October 14, 1950, it was built in the same location as the original Tacoma Narrows Bridge, which collapsed due to a windstorm on November 7, 1940. It is the older of the twin bridges that make up the Tacoma Narrows Bridge crossing of the Tacoma Narrows, and carried both directions of traffic across the strait until 2007. At the time of its construction, the bridge was, like its predecessor, the third-longest suspension bridge in the world in terms of main span length, behind the Golden Gate Bridge and George Washington Bridge; it is now the 46th longest suspension bridge in the world.
The Silver Bridge was an eyebar-chain suspension bridge built in 1928 and named for the color of its aluminum paint. The bridge carried U.S. Route 35 over the Ohio River, connecting Point Pleasant, West Virginia, and Gallipolis, Ohio.
Spider Bridge at Falls of Schuylkill was an iron-wire footbridge erected in 1816 over the Schuylkill River, north of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Though a modest and temporary structure, it is thought to have been the first wire-cable suspension bridge in the world.
The Surtees Rail Bridge is a rail bridge on the Tees Valley Line over the River Tees in the Borough of Stockton-on-Tees. The bridge is south of Stockton-on-Tees town centre and just north of the adjacent Surtees Bridge which carries the A66 road. The bridge is built on the site of a series of Tees Bridges alternating between two adjacent crossing sites.
A chain bridge is a historic form of suspension bridge for which chains or eyebars were used instead of wire ropes to carry the bridge deck. A famous example is the Széchenyi Chain Bridge in Budapest.
"Why Turkey Built the World's Longest Suspension Bridge". The B1M. Retrieved 22 May 2022.
↑ "Groundbreaking ceremony for bridge over Dardanelles to take place on March 18". Hürriyet Daily News . 17 March 2017. Retrieved 22 May 2022.
↑ "Why Turkey Built the World's Longest Suspension Bridge". The B1M. Retrieved 22 May 2022.
↑ "Port Authority of New York and New Jersey - George Washington Bridge". The Port Authority of New York and New Jersey. Archived from the original on 20 September 2013. Retrieved 13 September 2013.
↑ Bod Woodruff; Lana Zak & Stephanie Wash (20 November 2012). "GW Bridge Painters: Dangerous Job on Top of the World's Busiest Bridge". ABC News. Archived from the original on 28 September 2013. Retrieved 13 September 2013.
↑ Chakzampa Thangtong Gyalpo – Architect, Philosopher, and Iron Chain Bridge Builder Archived 25 May 2014 at Wikiwix by Manfred Gerner. Thimphu: Center for Bhutan Studies 2007. ISBN 99936-14-39-4
↑ Lhasa and Its Mysteries by Lawrence Austine Waddell, 1905, p.313
↑ Bhutan. Lonely Planet. 2007. ISBN 978-1-74059-529-2.
↑ Gerner, Manfred (2009). Chakzampa Thangtong Gyalpo (PDF). Centre for Bhutan Studies. p. 61. doi:10.11588/xarep.00000311. ISBN 9789993614395. Archived (PDF) from the original on 25 May 2014.
↑ "Iron Wire of the Wheeling Suspension Bridge". Smithsonian Museum Conservation Institute. Archived from the original on 30 April 2011.
↑ Bridges: Three Thousand Years of Defying Nature. MBI Publishing Company. 12 November 2001. ISBN 978-0-7603-1234-6.
↑ "Menai Bridge - bridge, Wales, United Kingdom". britannica.com. Archived from the original on 13 April 2015. Retrieved 3 May 2018.
↑ The Sagar Iron Suspension Bridge Mechanics Magazine Volume 2, 1836 p. 49-53
↑ "Marlow Suspension Bridge". Retrieved 11 December 2008. Cove-Smith, Chris (2006). The River Thames Book. Imray Laurie Norie and Wilson. ISBN 0-85288-892-9.[ page needed ]
↑ "ICE Library". www.ice.org.uk. Archived from the original on 25 October 2016.
1 2 3 4 Peters, Tom F. (1987). Transitions in Engineering: Guillaume Henri Dufour and the Early 19th Century Cable Suspension Bridges. Birkhauser. ISBN 3-7643-1929-1. Archived from the original on 10 July 2014.
↑ Cleveland Bridge Company (UK) Archived 20 July 2008 at the Wayback Machine Web site Retrieved 21 February 2007, includes image of the bridge.
↑ diagram
↑ Ruiz-Teran, A. M.; Aparicio, A. C. (2008). "Structural behaviour and design criteria of under-deck cable-stayed bridges and combined cable-stayed bridges. Part 1: Single-span bridges". Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering. 35 (9): 938–950. doi:10.1139/L08-033. hdl:10044/1/14353. S2CID 248412344.
1 2 Drewry, Charles Stewart (1832). A Memoir of Suspension Bridges: Comprising The History of Their Origin And Progress. London: Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown, Green & Longman. Archived from the original on 16 June 2013. Retrieved 13 June 2009.
↑ T R Barnard (1959). "Winding Ropes and Guide Ropes:" Mechanical Engineering. Coal Mining Series (2nd ed.). London: Virtue. pp. 374–375.
↑ As exists with signage re the history.
↑ "World's longest pedestrian suspension bridge opens in Portugal". The Guardian. 29 April 2021. Retrieved 29 April 2021. {{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
↑ "DRPA :: Delaware River Port Authority". drpa.org. Archived from the original on 4 March 2009. Retrieved 3 May 2018.
↑ McGloin, Bernard. "Symphonies in Steel: Bay Bridge and the Golden Gate". Virtual Museum of the City of San Francisco. Archived from the original on 25 February 2011. Retrieved 12 January 2008.
Suspension bridges (category)
Look up suspension bridge in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Historic American Engineering Record (HAER) No. NJ-132, " Contextual Essay on Wire Bridges "
New Brunswick Canada suspension footbridges
Structurae: suspension bridges
American Society of Civil Engineers Archived 4 June 2009 at the Wayback Machine History and heritage of civil engineering – bridges
Bridgemeister: Mostly suspension bridges
Wilford, John Noble (8 May 2007). "How the Inca Leapt Canyons". The New York Times.
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Villa Relax : Brand new… this three bedroom villa located in Madiha Sri Lanka is perfect for both short and extended getaways. "Villa Relax" is aptly named. This modern and spacious three level villa is set on the "Chillax Villas" site, with incredible ocean/surf views. Offering absolute beachfront, barefoot luxury, yet wonderfully relaxed, with two modern open plan living areas, a large stylish chefs kitchen and all 3 bedrooms with ensuite and air conditioning. Satellite TV and Wi-Fi Internet are also included.
You can surf out the front with two intermediate surf breaks available, walk down the beach and swim in the rock pools or take a tour to Mirissa for Whale watching. Explore the historic colonial fort of Galle, or day trip to Yalla National Game Park to see Leopards, Elephants and Bears! Enjoy complete luxury with your very own Beachfront Infinity Pool with a Swim-up Bar and relax on one of the balcony's watching the surfers, turtles and amazing sunsets.
Villa Chill : Newly built… this three bedroom villa located in Madiha Sri Lanka is perfect for both short and extended getaways. "Villa Chill" is aptly named. This moderately priced villa is set on the "Chillax Villas" site, with great ocean/surf views. Offering absolute beachfront, barefoot luxury, yet totally chilled-out, with a modern open plan living area, stylish self-contained kitchen and two bathrooms.
You can surf right out the front with two intermediate surf breaks available, walk down the beach and swim in the rock pools or take a tour to Mirissa for Whale watching. Explore the historic colonial fort of Galle, or perhaps a day trip to Yalla National Game Park to see Leopards, Elephants and Bears! Just don't forget to grab some downtime and totally chill out with cable TV, Wi-Fi internet or an icy cold beverage on the balcony watching surfers, turtles and stunning sunsets.
Both of the chillax villas are fully self contained with spacious modern kitchens that adjoin the open plan living areas perfect for entertaining. As of january 2017 we will also provide an onsite chef service.
For dining out options there is a coffee shop, local and western restaurants and hotel bar within walking distance. The entertainment area of Mirissa beach is a short tuk-tuk ride away.