text:
ACP, 10, 3645–3663, 2010
Articles | Volume 10, issue 8
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 10, 3645–3663, 2010
Special issue: Results from the field experiments in the Reactive Halogens...
Measurements of iodine monoxide at a semi polluted coastal location
K. L. Furneaux et al.
Related subject area
Subject: Gases | Research Activity: Field Measurements | Altitude Range: Troposphere | Science Focus: Chemistry (chemical composition and reactions)
Evaluating the sensitivity of radical chemistry and ozone formation to ambient VOCs and NOx in Beijing
Lisa K. Whalley, Eloise J. Slater, Robert Woodward-Massey, Chunxiang Ye, James D. Lee, Freya Squires, James R. Hopkins, Rachel E. Dunmore, Marvin Shaw, Jacqueline F. Hamilton, Alastair C. Lewis, Archit Mehra, Stephen D. Worrall, Asan Bacak, Thomas J. Bannan, Hugh Coe, Carl J. Percival, Bin Ouyang, Roderic L. Jones, Leigh R. Crilley, Louisa J. Kramer, William J. Bloss, Tuan Vu, Simone Kotthaus, Sue Grimmond, Yele Sun, Weiqi Xu, Siyao Yue, Lujie Ren, W. Joe F. Acton, C. Nicholas Hewitt, Xinming Wang, Pingqing Fu, and Dwayne E. Heard
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 21, 2125–2147, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-2125-2021,https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-2125-2021, 2021
To understand how emission controls will impact ozone, an understanding of the sources and sinks of OH and the chemical cycling between peroxy radicals is needed. This paper presents measurements of OH, HO2 and total RO2 taken in central Beijing. The radical observations are compared to a detailed chemistry model, which shows that under low NO conditions, there is a missing OH source. Under high NOx conditions, the model under-predicts RO2 and impacts our ability to model ozone.
Global trends and European emissions of tetrafluoromethane (CF4), hexafluoroethane (C2F6) and octafluoropropane (C3F8)
Daniel Say, Alistair J. Manning, Luke M. Western, Dickon Young, Adam Wisher, Matthew Rigby, Stefan Reimann, Martin K. Vollmer, Michela Maione, Jgor Arduini, Paul B. Krummel, Jens Mühle, Christina M. Harth, Brendan Evans, Ray F. Weiss, Ronald G. Prinn, and Simon O'Doherty
Perfluorocarbons (PFCs) are potent greenhouse gases with exceedingly long lifetimes. We used atmospheric measurements from a global monitoring network to track the accumulation of these gases in the atmosphere. In the case of the two most abundant PFCs, recent measurements indicate that global emissions are increasing. In Europe, we used a model to estimate regional PFC emissions. Our results show that there was no significant decline in northwest European PFC emissions between 2010 and 2019.
Non-target and suspect characterisation of organic contaminants in ambient air – Part 1: Combining a novel sample clean-up method with comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography
Laura Röhler, Pernilla Bohlin-Nizzetto, Pawel Rostkowski, Roland Kallenborn, and Martin Schlabach
A novel non-destructive, sulfuric-acid-free clean-up method for high-volume air samples was developed and evaluated with organic chemicals covering a wide range of polarities (logP 2–11). This method, providing quantitative results of comparable quality to traditional methods, was combined with newly developed data treatment strategies for simultaneous suspect and non-target screening. The application to air samples from southern Norway revealed 90 new potential chemicals of emerging concern.
Low-NO atmospheric oxidation pathways in a polluted megacity
Mike J. Newland, Daniel J. Bryant, Rachel E. Dunmore, Thomas J. Bannan, W. Joe F. Acton, Ben Langford, James R. Hopkins, Freya A. Squires, William Dixon, William S. Drysdale, Peter D. Ivatt, Mathew J. Evans, Peter M. Edwards, Lisa K. Whalley, Dwayne E. Heard, Eloise J. Slater, Robert Woodward-Massey, Chunxiang Ye, Archit Mehra, Stephen D. Worrall, Asan Bacak, Hugh Coe, Carl J. Percival, C. Nicholas Hewitt, James D. Lee, Tianqu Cui, Jason D. Surratt, Xinming Wang, Alastair C. Lewis, Andrew R. Rickard, and Jacqueline F. Hamilton
We report the formation of secondary pollutants in the urban megacity of Beijing that are typically associated with remote regions such as rainforests. This is caused by extremely low levels of nitric oxide (NO), typically expected to be high in urban areas, observed in the afternoon. This work has significant implications for how we understand atmospheric chemistry in the urban environment and thus for how to implement effective policies to improve urban air quality.
Seasonal variation and origins of volatile organic compounds observed during 2 years at a western Mediterranean remote background site (Ersa, Cape Corsica)
Cécile Debevec, Stéphane Sauvage, Valérie Gros, Thérèse Salameh, Jean Sciare, François Dulac, and Nadine Locoge
This study provides a better characterization of the seasonal variations in VOC sources impacting the western Mediterranean region, based on a comprehensive chemical composition measured over 25 months at a representative receptor site (Ersa) and by determining factors controlling their temporal variations. Some insights into dominant drivers for VOC concentration variations in Europe are also provided, built on comparisons of Ersa observations with the concomitant ones of 17 European sites.
Ambient nitro-aromatic compounds – biomass burning versus secondary formation in rural China
Christian Mark Garcia Salvador, Rongzhi Tang, Michael Priestley, Linjie Li, Epameinondas Tsiligiannis, Michael Le Breton, Wenfei Zhu, Limin Zeng, Hui Wang, Ying Yu, Min Hu, Song Guo, and Mattias Hallquist
High-frequency online measurement of gas- and particle-phase nitro-aromatic compounds (NACs) at a rural site in China, heavily influenced by biomass burning events, enabled the analysis of the production pathway of NACs, including an explanation of strong persistence in the daytime. The contribution of secondary processes was significant, even during the dominant wintertime influence of primary emissions, suggesting the important role of regional secondary chemistry, i.e. photochemical smog.
Secular change in atmospheric Ar∕N2 and its implications for ocean heat uptake and Brewer–Dobson circulation
Shigeyuki Ishidoya, Satoshi Sugawara, Yasunori Tohjima, Daisuke Goto, Kentaro Ishijima, Yosuke Niwa, Nobuyuki Aoki, and Shohei Murayama
The surface Ar / N2 ratio showed not only secular increasing trends, but also interannual variations in phase with the global ocean heat content (OHC). Sensitivity test by using a two-dimensional model indicated that the secular trend in the Ar / N2 ratio is modified by the gravitational separation in the stratosphere. The analytical results imply that the surface Ar/N2 ratio is an important tracer for detecting spatiotemporally integrated changes in OHC and stratospheric circulation.
Pan-European rural monitoring network shows dominance of NH3 gas and NH4NO3 aerosol in inorganic atmospheric pollution load
Y. Sim Tang, Chris R. Flechard, Ulrich Dämmgen, Sonja Vidic, Vesna Djuricic, Marta Mitosinkova, Hilde T. Uggerud, Maria J. Sanz, Ivan Simmons, Ulrike Dragosits, Eiko Nemitz, Marsailidh Twigg, Netty van Dijk, Yannick Fauvel, Francisco Sanz, Martin Ferm, Cinzia Perrino, Maria Catrambone, David Leaver, Christine F. Braban, J. Neil Cape, Mathew R. Heal, and Mark A. Sutton
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 21, 875–914, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-875-2021,https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-875-2021, 2021
The DELTA® approach provided speciated, monthly data on reactive gases (NH3, HNO3, SO2, HCl) and aerosols (NH4+, NO3−, SO42−, Cl−, Na+) across Europe (2006–2010). Differences in spatial and temporal concentrations and patterns between geographic regions and four ecosystem types were captured. NH3 and NH4NO3 were dominant components, highlighting their growing relative importance in ecosystem impacts (acidification, eutrophication) and human health effects (NH3 as a precursor to PM2.5) in Europe.
Measurement report: Changing characteristics of atmospheric CH4 in the Tibetan Plateau: records from 1994 to 2019 at the Mount Waliguan station
Shuo Liu, Shuangxi Fang, Peng Liu, Miao Liang, Minrui Guo, and Zhaozhong Feng
We analyzed 26-year CH4 measurements at Mount Waliguan in the Tibetan Plateau, China. The CH4 increased ~ 133 parts per billion (ppb) with a rate of 5.1 ± 0.1 ppb yr-1 from 1994 to 2019. Major source regions were identified in northeast and southwest. The influence of human activities is more and more serious, and northern India has possibly become a stronger contributor than city regions were in the past. It has become urgent to control CH4 emissions in the Tibetan Plateau.
Soil–atmosphere exchange flux of total gaseous mercury (TGM) at subtropical and temperate forest catchments
Jun Zhou, Zhangwei Wang, Xiaoshan Zhang, Charles T. Driscoll, and Che-Jen Lin
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 20, 16117–16133, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-20-16117-2020,https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-20-16117-2020, 2020
Mercury (Hg) emissions from natural resources have a large uncertainty, which is mainly derived from the forest. A long-term and multiplot (10) study of soil–air fluxes at subtropical and temperate forests was conducted. Forest soils are an important atmospheric Hg source, especially for subtropical forests. The compensation points imply that the atmospheric Hg concentration plays a critical role in inhibiting Hg emissions from the forest floor. Climate change can enhance soil Hg emissions.
Measurement report: Long-term variations in carbon monoxide at a background station in China's Yangtze River Delta region
Yijing Chen, Qianli Ma, Weili Lin, Xiaobin Xu, Jie Yao, and Wei Gao
CO is one of the major air pollutants. Our study showed that the long-term CO levels at a background station in one of the most developed areas of China decreased significantly and verified that this downward trend was attributed to the decrease in anthropogenic emissions, which indicated that the adopted pollution control policies were effective. Also, this decrease has an implication for the atmospheric chemistry considering the negative correlation between CO levels and OH radical's lifetime.
UK surface NO2 levels dropped by 42 % during the COVID-19 lockdown: impact on surface O3
James D. Lee, Will S. Drysdale, Doug P. Finch, Shona E. Wilde, and Paul I. Palmer
Efforts to prevent the COVID-19 virus spreading across the globe have included travel restrictions and the closure of workplaces, leading to a significant drop in emissions of primary air pollutants. This provides for a unique opportunity to examine how air pollutant concentrations respond to an abrupt and prolonged reduction. We examine how NO2 and O3 have been affected at several urban measurement sites in the UK. We look at the change in NO2 compared to previous years and the effect on O3.
Airborne measurements of fire emission factors for African biomass burning sampled during the MOYA campaign
Patrick A. Barker, Grant Allen, Martin Gallagher, Joseph R. Pitt, Rebecca E. Fisher, Thomas Bannan, Euan G. Nisbet, Stéphane J.-B. Bauguitte, Dominika Pasternak, Samuel Cliff, Marina B. Schimpf, Archit Mehra, Keith N. Bower, James D. Lee, Hugh Coe, and Carl J. Percival
Africa is estimated to account for approximately 52 % of global biomass burning (BB) carbon emissions. Despite this, there has been little previous in situ study of African BB emissions. This work presents BB emission factors for various atmospheric trace gases sampled from an aircraft in two distinct areas of Africa (Senegal and Uganda). Intracontinental variability in biomass burning methane emission is identified, which is attributed to difference in the specific fuel mixtures burnt.
Surface–atmosphere fluxes of volatile organic compounds in Beijing
W. Joe F. Acton, Zhonghui Huang, Brian Davison, Will S. Drysdale, Pingqing Fu, Michael Hollaway, Ben Langford, James Lee, Yanhui Liu, Stefan Metzger, Neil Mullinger, Eiko Nemitz, Claire E. Reeves, Freya A. Squires, Adam R. Vaughan, Xinming Wang, Zhaoyi Wang, Oliver Wild, Qiang Zhang, Yanli Zhang, and C. Nicholas Hewitt
Air quality in Beijing is of concern to both policy makers and the general public. In order to address concerns about air quality it is vital that the sources of atmospheric pollutants are understood. This work presents the first top-down measurement of volatile organic compound (VOC) emissions in Beijing. These measurements are used to evaluate the emissions inventory and assess the impact of VOC emission from the city centre on atmospheric chemistry.
Elevated levels of OH observed in haze events during wintertime in central Beijing
Eloise J. Slater, Lisa K. Whalley, Robert Woodward-Massey, Chunxiang Ye, James D. Lee, Freya Squires, James R. Hopkins, Rachel E. Dunmore, Marvin Shaw, Jacqueline F. Hamilton, Alastair C. Lewis, Leigh R. Crilley, Louisa Kramer, William Bloss, Tuan Vu, Yele Sun, Weiqi Xu, Siyao Yue, Lujie Ren, W. Joe F. Acton, C. Nicholas Hewitt, Xinming Wang, Pingqing Fu, and Dwayne E. Heard
The paper details atmospheric chemistry in a megacity (Beijing), focussing on radicals which mediate the formation of secondary pollutants such as ozone and particles. Highly polluted conditions were experienced, including the highest ever levels of nitric oxide (NO), with simultaneous radical measurements. Radical concentrations were large during "haze" events, demonstrating active photochemistry. Modelling showed that our understanding of the chemistry at high NOx levels is incomplete.
Measurement report: Important contributions of oxygenated compounds to emissions and chemistry of volatile organic compounds in urban air
Caihong Wu, Chaomin Wang, Sihang Wang, Wenjie Wang, Bin Yuan, Jipeng Qi, Baolin Wang, Hongli Wang, Chen Wang, Wei Song, Xinming Wang, Weiwei Hu, Shengrong Lou, Chenshuo Ye, Yuwen Peng, Zelong Wang, Yibo Huangfu, Yan Xie, Manni Zhu, Junyu Zheng, Xuemei Wang, Bin Jiang, Zhanyi Zhang, and Min Shao
Based on measurements from an online mass spectrometer, we quantify volatile organic compound (VOC) concentrations from numerous ions of the mass spectrometer, using information from laboratory-obtained calibration results. We find that most VOC concentrations are from oxygenated VOCs (OVOCs). We further show that these OVOCs also contribute significantly to OH reactivity. Our results suggest the important role of OVOCs in VOC emissions and chemistry in urban air.
Characterisation of African biomass burning plumes and impacts on the atmospheric composition over the south-west Indian Ocean
Bert Verreyken, Crist Amelynck, Jérôme Brioude, Jean-François Müller, Niels Schoon, Nicolas Kumps, Aurélie Colomb, Jean-Marc Metzger, Christopher F. Lee, Theodore K. Koenig, Rainer Volkamer, and Trissevgeni Stavrakou
Biomass burning (BB) plumes arriving at the Maïdo observatory located in the south-west Indian Ocean during August 2018 and August 2019 are studied using trace gas measurements, Lagrangian transport models and the CAMS near-real-time atmospheric composition service. We investigate (i) secondary production of volatile organic compounds during transport, (ii) efficacy of the CAMS model to reproduce the chemical makeup of BB plumes and (iii) the impact of BB on the remote marine boundary layer.
Measurement report: Aircraft observations of ozone, nitrogen oxides, and volatile organic compounds over Hebei Province, China
Sarah E. Benish, Hao He, Xinrong Ren, Sandra J. Roberts, Ross J. Salawitch, Zhanqing Li, Fei Wang, Yuying Wang, Fang Zhang, Min Shao, Sihua Lu, and Russell R. Dickerson
Airborne observations of ozone and related pollutants show smog was pervasive in spring 2016 over Hebei Province, China. We find high amounts of ozone precursors throughout and even above the PBL, continuing to generate ozone at high rates to be potentially transported downwind. Concentrations even in the rural areas of this highly industrialized province promote widespread ozone production, and we show that to improve air quality over Hebei both NOx and VOCs should be targeted.
A measurement and model study on ozone characteristics in marine air at a remote island station and its interaction with urban ozone air quality in Shanghai, China
Yixuan Gu, Fengxia Yan, Jianming Xu, Yuanhao Qu, Wei Gao, Fangfang He, and Hong Liao
High levels and statistically insignificant changes of ozone are detected at a remote monitoring site on Sheshan Island in Shanghai, China, from 2012 to 2017; 6-year observations suggest regional transport exerted minimum influence on the offshore oceanic air in September and October. Both city plumes and oceanic air inflows could contribute to ozone enhancements in Shanghai, and the latter are found to lead to 20–30 % increases in urban ozone concentrations based on WRF-Chem simulations.
Measurements of higher alkanes using NO+ chemical ionization in PTR-ToF-MS: important contributions of higher alkanes to secondary organic aerosols in China
Chaomin Wang, Bin Yuan, Caihong Wu, Sihang Wang, Jipeng Qi, Baolin Wang, Zelong Wang, Weiwei Hu, Wei Chen, Chenshuo Ye, Wenjie Wang, Yele Sun, Chen Wang, Shan Huang, Wei Song, Xinming Wang, Suxia Yang, Shenyang Zhang, Wanyun Xu, Nan Ma, Zhanyi Zhang, Bin Jiang, Hang Su, Yafang Cheng, Xuemei Wang, and Min Shao
We utilized a novel online mass spectrometry method to measure the total concentration of higher alkanes at each carbon number at two different sites in China, allowing us to take into account SOA contributions from all isomers for higher alkanes. We found that higher alkanes account for significant fractions of SOA formation at the two sites. The contributions are comparable to or even higher than single-ring aromatics, the most-recognized SOA precursors in urban air.
Long-term variations in ozone levels in the troposphere and lower stratosphere over Beijing: observations and model simulations
Yuli Zhang, Mengchu Tao, Jinqiang Zhang, Yi Liu, Hongbin Chen, Zhaonan Cai, and Paul Konopka
Variability in gaseous elemental mercury at Villum Research Station, Station Nord, in North Greenland from 1999 to 2017
Henrik Skov, Jens Hjorth, Claus Nordstrøm, Bjarne Jensen, Christel Christoffersen, Maria Bech Poulsen, Jesper Baldtzer Liisberg, David Beddows, Manuel Dall'Osto, and Jesper Heile Christensen
Mercury is toxic in all its forms. It bioaccumulates in food webs, is ubiquitous in the atmosphere, and atmospheric transport is an important source for this element in the Arctic. Measurements of gaseous elemental mercury have been carried out at the Villum Research Station at Station Nord in northern Greenland since 1999. The measurements are compared with model results from the Danish Eulerian Hemispheric Model. In this way, the dynamics of mercury are investigated.
Role of the dew water on the ground surface in HONO distribution: a case measurement in Melpitz
Yangang Ren, Bastian Stieger, Gerald Spindler, Benoit Grosselin, Abdelwahid Mellouki, Thomas Tuch, Alfred Wiedensohler, and Hartmut Herrmann
We present HONO measurements from the TROPOS research site in Melpitz, Germany. Investigations of HONO sources and sinks revealed the nighttime formation by heterogeneous conversion of NO2 to HONO followed by a significant surface deposition at night. The evaporation of dew was identified as the main HONO source in the morning. In the following, dew measurements with a self-made dew collector were performed to estimate the amount of evaporated HONO from dew in the atmospheric HONO distribution.
Emission of biogenic volatile organic compounds from warm and oligotrophic seawater in the Eastern Mediterranean
Chen Dayan, Erick Fredj, Pawel K. Misztal, Maor Gabay, Alex B. Guenther, and Eran Tas
We studied the emission of biogenic volatile organic compounds from both marine and terrestrial ecosystems in the Eastern Mediterranean Basin, a global warming hot spot. We focused on isoprene and dimethyl sulfide (DMS), which are well recognized for their effect on climate and strong impact on photochemical pollution by the former. We found high emissions of isoprene and a strong decadal decrease in the emission of DMS which can both be attributed to the strong increase in seawater temperature.
Impact of the South Asian monsoon outflow on atmospheric hydroperoxides in the upper troposphere
Bettina Hottmann, Sascha Hafermann, Laura Tomsche, Daniel Marno, Monica Martinez, Hartwig Harder, Andrea Pozzer, Marco Neumaier, Andreas Zahn, Birger Bohn, Greta Stratmann, Helmut Ziereis, Jos Lelieveld, and Horst Fischer
During OMO we observed enhanced mixing ratios of hydroperoxides (ROOH) in the Asian monsoon anticyclone (AMA) relative to the background. The observed mixing ratios are higher than steady-state calculations and EMAC simulations, especially in the AMA, indicating atmospheric transport of ROOH. Uncertainties in the scavenging efficiencies likely cause deviations from EMAC. Longitudinal gradients indicate a pool of ROOH towards the center of the AMA associated with upwind convection over India.
Non-methane hydrocarbon (NMHC) fingerprints of major urban and agricultural emission sources for use in source apportionment studies
Ashish Kumar, Vinayak Sinha, Muhammed Shabin, Haseeb Hakkim, Bernard Bonsang, and Valerie Gros
Source apportionment studies require information on the chemical fingerprints of pollution sources to correctly quantify source contributions to ambient composition. These chemical fingerprints vary from region to region, depending on fuel composition and combustion conditions, and are poorly constrained over developing regions such as South Asia. This work characterises the chemical fingerprints of urban and agricultural sources using 49 non-methane hydrocarbons and their environmental impacts.
Estimation of reactive inorganic iodine fluxes in the Indian and Southern Ocean marine boundary layer
Swaleha Inamdar, Liselotte Tinel, Rosie Chance, Lucy J. Carpenter, Prabhakaran Sabu, Racheal Chacko, Sarat C. Tripathy, Anvita U. Kerkar, Alok K. Sinha, Parli Venkateswaran Bhaskar, Amit Sarkar, Rajdeep Roy, Tomás Sherwen, Carlos Cuevas, Alfonso Saiz-Lopez, Kirpa Ram, and Anoop S. Mahajan
Iodine chemistry is generating a lot of interest because of its impacts on the oxidising capacity of the marine boundary and depletion of ozone. However, one of the challenges has been predicting the right levels of iodine in the models, which depend on parameterisations for emissions from the sea surface. This paper discusses the different parameterisations available and compares them with observations, showing that our current knowledge is still insufficient, especially on a regional scale.
Observations of atmospheric 14CO2 at Anmyeondo GAW station, South Korea: implications for fossil fuel CO2 and emission ratios
Haeyoung Lee, Edward J. Dlugokencky, Jocelyn C. Turnbull, Sepyo Lee, Scott J. Lehman, John B. Miller, Gabrielle Pétron, Jeong-Sik Lim, Gang-Woong Lee, Sang-Sam Lee, and Young-San Park
To understand South Korea's CO2 emissions and sinks as well as those of the surrounding region, we used flask-air samples collected for 2 years at Anmyeondo (36.53° N, 126.32° E; 46 m a.s.l.), South Korea, for analysis of observed 14C in atmospheric CO2 as a tracer of fossil fuel CO2 contribution (Cff). Here, we showed our observation result of 14C and Cff. SF6 and CO can be good proxies of Cff in this study, and the ratio of CO to Cff was compared to a bottom-up inventory.
Sources of nitrous acid (HONO) in the upper boundary layer and lower free troposphere of the North China Plain: insights from the Mount Tai Observatory
Ying Jiang, Likun Xue, Rongrong Gu, Mengwei Jia, Yingnan Zhang, Liang Wen, Penggang Zheng, Tianshu Chen, Hongyong Li, Ye Shan, Yong Zhao, Zhaoxin Guo, Yujian Bi, Hengde Liu, Aijun Ding, Qingzhu Zhang, and Wenxing Wang
We analyzed the characteristics and sources of HONO in the upper boundary layer and lower free troposphere in the North China Plain, based on the field measurements at Mount Tai. Higher-than-expected levels and broad daytime peaks of HONO were observed. Without presence of ground surfaces, aerosol surface plays a key role in the heterogeneous HONO formation at high altitudes. Models without additional HONO sources largely underestimated the oxidation processes in the elevation atmospheres.
Decoupling of urban CO2 and air pollutant emission reductions during the European SARS-CoV2 lockdown
Christian Lamprecht, Martin Graus, Marcus Striednig, Michael Stichaner, and Thomas Karl
Atmos. Chem. Phys. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-2020-1080,https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-2020-1080, 2020
Revised manuscript accepted for ACP
The first European SARS-CoV2 wave and associated lockdown provided a unique sensitivity experiment to study air pollution. We find significantly different emission trajectories between classical air pollution and climate gases (e.g. carbon dioxide). The analysis suggests that European policies, shifting residential, public and commercial energy demand towards cleaner combustion, have helped to improve air quality more than expected.
Measurement report: Short-term variation in ammonia concentrations in an urban area increased by mist evaporation and emissions from a forest canopy with bird droppings
Kazuo Osada
Various sources and meteorological conditions affect the short-term variation in NH3 concentrations in the urban atmosphere. An analysis of 2 years of hourly data suggests that mist evaporation and stomata exchange of tree leaves after the effects of bird droppings engenders a rapid increase in NH3 concentrations. Emissions from urban tree canopies are a new mode of passing reactive nitrogen that has never before been described as an important source in the literature.
Speciation of VOC emissions related to offshore North Sea oil and gas production
Shona E. Wilde, Pamela A. Dominutti, Stephen J. Andrews, Stephane J.-B. Bauguitte, Ralph R. Burton, Ioana Colfescu, James France, James R. Hopkins, Anna E. Jones, Tom Lachlan-Cope, James D. Lee, Alastair C. Lewis, Stephen D. Mobbs, Alexandra Weiss, Stuart Young, and Ruth M. Purvis
We use airborne measurements to evaluate the speciation of volatile organic compound (VOC) emissions from offshore oil and gas (O&G) installations in the North Sea. The composition of emissions varied across regions associated with either gas, condensate or oil extraction, demonstrating that VOC emissions are not uniform across the whole O&G sector. We compare our results to VOC source profiles in the UK emissions inventory, showing these emissions are not currently fully characterised.
Sources and sinks driving sulfuric acid concentrations in contrasting environments: implications on proxy calculations
Lubna Dada, Ilona Ylivinkka, Rima Baalbaki, Chang Li, Yishuo Guo, Chao Yan, Lei Yao, Nina Sarnela, Tuija Jokinen, Kaspar R. Daellenbach, Rujing Yin, Chenjuan Deng, Biwu Chu, Tuomo Nieminen, Yonghong Wang, Zhuohui Lin, Roseline C. Thakur, Jenni Kontkanen, Dominik Stolzenburg, Mikko Sipilä, Tareq Hussein, Pauli Paasonen, Federico Bianchi, Imre Salma, Tamás Weidinger, Michael Pikridas, Jean Sciare, Jingkun Jiang, Yongchun Liu, Tuukka Petäjä, Veli-Matti Kerminen, and Markku Kulmala
We rely on sulfuric acid measurements in four contrasting environments, Hyytiälä, Finland; Agia Marina, Cyprus; Budapest, Hungary; and Beijing, China, representing semi-pristine boreal forest, rural environment in the Mediterranean area, urban environment, and heavily polluted megacity, respectively, in order to define the sources and sinks of sulfuric acid in these environments and to derive a new sulfuric acid proxy to be utilized in locations and during periods when it is not measured.
Characterizing the spatiotemporal nitrogen stable isotopic composition of ammonia in vehicle plumes
Wendell W. Walters, Linlin Song, Jiajue Chai, Yunting Fang, Nadia Colombi, and Meredith G. Hastings
This article details new field observations of the nitrogen stable isotopic composition of ammonia emitted from vehicles conducted in the US and China. Vehicle emissions of ammonia may be a significant source to urban regions with important human health and environmental implications. Our measurements have indicated a consistent isotopic signature from vehicle ammonia emissions. The nitrogen isotopic composition of ammonia may be a useful tool for tracking vehicle emissions.
Assessing contributions of natural surface and anthropogenic emissions to atmospheric mercury in a fast-developing region of eastern China from 2015 to 2018
Xiaofei Qin, Leiming Zhang, Guochen Wang, Xiaohao Wang, Qingyan Fu, Jian Xu, Hao Li, Jia Chen, Qianbiao Zhao, Yanfen Lin, Juntao Huo, Fengwen Wang, Kan Huang, and Congrui Deng
The uncertainties in mercury emissions are much larger from natural sources than anthropogenic sources. A method was developed to quantify the contributions of natural surface emissions to ambient GEM based on PMF modeling. The annual GEM concentration in eastern China showed a decreasing trend from 2015 to 2018, while the relative contribution of natural surface emissions increased significantly from 41 % in 2015 to 57 % in 2018, gradually surpassing those from anthropogenic sources.
Measurements of carbonyl compounds around the Arabian Peninsula: overview and model comparison
Nijing Wang, Achim Edtbauer, Christof Stönner, Andrea Pozzer, Efstratios Bourtsoukidis, Lisa Ernle, Dirk Dienhart, Bettina Hottmann, Horst Fischer, Jan Schuladen, John N. Crowley, Jean-Daniel Paris, Jos Lelieveld, and Jonathan Williams
Carbonyl compounds were measured on a ship travelling around the Arabian Peninsula in summer 2017, crossing both highly polluted and extremely clean regions of the marine boundary layer. We investigated the sources and sinks of carbonyls. The results from a global model showed a significant model underestimation for acetaldehyde, a molecule that can influence regional air chemistry. By adding a diurnal oceanic source, the model estimation was highly improved.
Retrieving tropospheric NO2 vertical column densities around the city of Beijing and estimating NOx emissions based on car MAX-DOAS measurements
Xinghong Cheng, Jianzhong Ma, Junli Jin, Junrang Guo, Yuelin Liu, Jida Peng, Xiaodan Ma, Minglong Qian, Qiang Xia, and Peng Yan
We carried out 19 city-circle-around Car MAX-DOAS experiments on the 6th Ring Road of Beijing in Jan, Sep, and Oct 2014. The tropospheric VCDs of NO2 are retrieved and their temporal and spatial distributions are investigated. Then the NOx emission rates in urban Beijing are estimated using the measured NO2 VCDs together with the refined wind fields, NO2-to-NOx ratios, and NO2 lifetimes simulated by the LAPS-WRF-CMAQ model system, and results are compared with the MEIC inventory in 2012.
Measurement report: Statistical modelling of long-term trends of atmospheric inorganic gaseous species within proximity of the pollution hotspot in South Africa
Jan-Stefan Swartz, Pieter G. van Zyl, Johan P. Beukes, Corinne Galy-Lacaux, Avishkar Ramandh, and Jacobus J. Pienaar
Statistical modelling of interdependencies between local, regional and global parameters on long-term trends of atmospheric SO2, NO2 and O2 within proximity of the pollution hotspot in South Africa indicated that changes in meteorological conditions and/or variances in source influences contributed to temporal variability. The impact of increased anthropogenic activities and energy demand was evident, while the El Niño–Southern Oscillation made a significant contribution to O3 levels.
Global-scale distribution of ozone in the remote troposphere from the ATom and HIPPO airborne field missions
Ilann Bourgeois, Jeff Peischl, Chelsea R. Thompson, Kenneth C. Aikin, Teresa Campos, Hannah Clark, Róisín Commane, Bruce Daube, Glenn W. Diskin, James W. Elkins, Ru-Shan Gao, Audrey Gaudel, Eric J. Hintsa, Bryan J. Johnson, Rigel Kivi, Kathryn McKain, Fred L. Moore, David D. Parrish, Richard Querel, Eric Ray, Ricardo Sánchez, Colm Sweeney, David W. Tarasick, Anne M. Thompson, Valérie Thouret, Jacquelyn C. Witte, Steve C. Wofsy, and Thomas B. Ryerson
Investigation of several proxies to estimate sulfuric acid concentration in volcanic plume conditions
Clémence Rose, Matti P. Rissanen, Siddharth Iyer, Jonathan Duplissy, Chao Yan, John B. Nowak, Aurélie Colomb, Régis Dupuy, Xu-Cheng He, Janne Lampilahti, Yee Jun Tham, Daniela Wimmer, Jean-Marc Metzger, Pierre Tulet, Jérôme Brioude, Céline Planche, Markku Kulmala, and Karine Sellegri
Atmos. Chem. Phys. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-2020-636,https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-2020-636, 2020
Sulfuric acid (H2SO4) is commonly accepted as a key precursor for atmospheric new particle formation. However, direct measurements of [H2SO4] remain challenging, thus motivating the development of proxies. Using data collected in two different volcanic plumes, we show, in these specific conditions, the good performance of a proxy from the literature and highlight as well the benefit of the newly developed proxies for the prediction of the highest [H2SO4] concentrations.
Atmospheric mercury in the Southern Hemisphere – Part 2: Source apportionment analysis at Cape Point station, South Africa
Johannes Bieser, Hélène Angot, Franz Slemr, and Lynwill Martin
We use numerical models to determine the origin of air masses measured for elemental gaseous mercury (GEM) at Cape Point (CPT), South Africa. Our analysis is based on 10 years of hourly GEM measurements at CPT from 2007 to 2016. Based on GEM concentration and the origin of the air mass, we identify source and sink regions at CPT. We find, that the warm Agulhas Current to the south-east is the major Hg source and the continent the major sink.
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and oxy- and nitro-PAHs in ambient air of the Arctic town Longyearbyen, Svalbard
Tatiana Drotikova, Aasim M. Ali, Anne Karine Halse, Helena C. Reinardy, and Roland Kallenborn
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 20, 9997–10014, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-20-9997-2020,https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-20-9997-2020, 2020
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are not declining in Arctic air despite reductions in global emissions. We studied PAHs and oxy- and nitro-PAHs in gas and particulate phases of Arctic aerosol, collected in autumn 2018 in Longyearbyen, Svalbard. PAHs were found at comparable levels as at other background Scandinavian and European air sampling stations. Statistical analysis confirmed that a coal-fired power plant and vehicle and marine traffic are the main local contributors of PAHs.
Source characterization of volatile organic compounds measured by proton-transfer-reaction time-of-flight mass spectrometers in Delhi, India
Liwei Wang, Jay G. Slowik, Nidhi Tripathi, Deepika Bhattu, Pragati Rai, Varun Kumar, Pawan Vats, Rangu Satish, Urs Baltensperger, Dilip Ganguly, Neeraj Rastogi, Lokesh K. Sahu, Sachchida N. Tripathi, and André S. H. Prévôt
Scattered coal is the largest source of ambient volatile organic compounds during the heating season in Beijing
Yuqi Shi, Ziyan Xi, Maimaiti Simayi, Jing Li, and Shaodong Xie
Beijing had suffered from severe haze pollution prior to the rigorous emission limitations enacted in 2017. We identified scattered coal burning as the largest contributor to ambient volatile organic compounds (VOCs) during the heating season before 2017. The prohibition of scattered coal burning mitigated VOC emissions during winter, but traffic-related sources then became the greatest contributor. However, in other regions, scattered coal burning might still be the key to improve air quality.
Non-target and suspect characterisation of organic contaminants in Arctic air – Part 2: Application of a new tool for identification and prioritisation of chemicals of emerging Arctic concern in air
Laura Röhler, Martin Schlabach, Peter Haglund, Knut Breivik, Roland Kallenborn, and Pernilla Bohlin-Nizzetto
A new clean-up method for the SUS and NTS of organic contaminants was applied to high-volume Arctic air samples. A large number of known and new potential organic chemicals of emerging Arctic concern were identified and prioritised with GC×GC-LRMS; 60 % of the identified contaminants (not yet detected in Arctic samples) do not meet currently accepted criteria for LRATP into polar environments. Without our empirical confirmation, they would not be considered potential Arctic contaminants.
Measurements of traffic-dominated pollutant emissions in a Chinese megacity
Freya A. Squires, Eiko Nemitz, Ben Langford, Oliver Wild, Will S. Drysdale, W. Joe F. Acton, Pingqing Fu, C. Sue B. Grimmond, Jacqueline F. Hamilton, C. Nicholas Hewitt, Michael Hollaway, Simone Kotthaus, James Lee, Stefan Metzger, Natchaya Pingintha-Durden, Marvin Shaw, Adam R. Vaughan, Xinming Wang, Ruili Wu, Qiang Zhang, and Yanli Zhang
Significant air quality problems exist in megacities like Beijing, China. To manage air pollution, legislators need a clear understanding of pollutant emissions. However, emissions inventories have large uncertainties, and reliable field measurements of pollutant emissions are required to constrain them. This work presents the first measurements of traffic-dominated emissions in Beijing which suggest that inventories overestimate these emissions in the region during both winter and summer.
Reviewing global estimates of surface reactive nitrogen concentration and deposition using satellite retrievals
Lei Liu, Xiuying Zhang, Wen Xu, Xuejun Liu, Xuehe Lu, Jing Wei, Yi Li, Yuyu Yang, Zhen Wang, and Anthony Y. H. Wong
Excessive atmospheric reactive nitrogen (Nr) deposition can cause a series of negative effects. Thus, it is necessary to accurately estimate Nr deposition to evaluate its impact on the ecosystems and environment. Scientists attempted to estimate surface Nr concentration and deposition using satellite retrievals. We give a thorough review of recent advances in estimating surface Nr concentration and deposition using satellite retrievals of NO2 and NH3 and summarize the existing challenges.
Source identification of atmospheric organic vapors in two European pine forests: Results from Vocus PTR-TOF observations
Haiyan Li, Manjula R. Canagaratna, Matthieu Riva, Pekka Rantala, Yanjun Zhang, Steven Thomas, Liine Heikkinen, Pierre-Marie Flaud, Eric Villenave, Emilie Perraudin, Douglas Worsnop, Markku Kulmala, Mikael Ehn, and Federico Bianchi
For the first time, we performed binPMF analysis on the complex mass spectra acquired with the Vocus PTR-TOF in two European pine forests and identified various primary emission sources and secondary formation pathways of atmospheric organic vapors, i.e., terpenes and their oxidation products with varying oxidation degrees. This study provides a more comprehensive picture of gas-phase source identifications of organic compounds.
Atmospheric reactivity and oxidation capacity during summer at a suburban site between Beijing and Tianjin
Yuan Yang, Yonghong Wang, Putian Zhou, Dan Yao, Dongsheng Ji, Jie Sun, Yinghong Wang, Shuman Zhao, Wei Huang, Shuanghong Yang, Dean Chen, Wenkang Gao, Zirui Liu, Bo Hu, Renjian Zhang, Limin Zeng, Maofa Ge, Tuukka Petäjä, Veli-Matti Kerminen, Markku Kulmala, and Yuesi Wang
Source apportionment of atmospheric mercury in the remote marine atmosphere: Mace Head GAW station, Irish western coast
Danilo Custodio, Ralf Ebinghaus, T. Gerard Spain, and Johannes Bieser
Using a stereo algorithm, we reconstructed 99.9 % of the total atmospheric gas mercury and presented a new insight into atmospheric mercury source assessing, which can have great relevance for policy and regulations in light of the Minamata convention.
More articles (45)
Cited articles
Alicke, B., Hebestreit, K., Stutz, J., and Platt, U.: Iodine oxide in the marine boundary layer, Nature, 397, 572–573, 1999.
Allan, B., McFiggans, G., Plane, J., and Coe, H.: Observations of iodine monoxide in the remote marine boundary layer, J. Geophys. Res, 105, 14363–14369, 2000.
Atkinson, R., Baulch, D. L., Cox, R. A., Crowley, J., Hampson, R. F., Kerr, J. A., Rossi, M., and Troe, J.: Summary of evaluated kinetic and photochemical data for atmospheric chemistry, Tech. Rep., 2002.
Atkinson, R., Baulch, D., Cox, R., Crowley, J., Hampson, J. R., Kerr, J., Rossi, M., and Troe, J.: Summary of evaluated kinetic and photochemical data for atmospheric chemistry, IUPAC Subcommittee on Gas Kinetic Data Evaluation for Atmospheric Chemistry, 2004.
Atkinson, R., Baulch, D. L., Cox, R. A., Crowley, J. N., Hampson, R. F., Hynes, R. G., Jenkin, M. E., Rossi, M. J., and Troe, J.: Evaluated kinetic and photochemical data for atmospheric chemistry: Volume III �- gas phase reactions of inorganic halogens, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 7, 981–1191, 2007.
Bloss, W. J., Lee, J. D., Johnson, G. P., Sommariva, R., Heard, D. E., Saiz-Lopez, A., Plane, J. M. C., McFiggans, G., Coe, H., Flynn, M., Williams, P., Rickard, A. R., and Fleming, Z. L.: Impact of halogen monoxide chemistry upon boundary layer OH and HO2 concentrations at a coastal site, Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L06814, https://doi.org/10.1029/2004GL022084, 2005.
Bloss, W. J., Lee, J. D., Heard, D. E., Salmon, R. A., Bauguitte, S. J.-B., Roscoe, H. K., and Jones, A. E.: Observations of OH and HO2 radicals in coastal Antarctica, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 7, 4171–4185, 2007.
Burkholder, J. B., Curtius, J., Ravishankara, A. R., and Lovejoy, E. R.: Laboratory studies of the homogeneous nucleation of iodine oxides, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 4, 19–34, 2004.
Cainey, J. M., Keywood, M., Grose, M. R., Krummel, P., Galbally, I. E., Johnston, P., Gillett, R. W., Meyer, M., Fraser, P., Steele, P., Harvey, M., Kreher, K., Stein, T., Ibrahim, O., Ristovski, Z. D., Johnson, G., Fletcher, C. A., Bigg, E. K., and Gras, J. L.: Precursors to Particles (P2P) at Cape Grim 2006: campaign overview, Environ. Chem., 4, 143–150, 2007.
Chambers, R. M., Heard, A. C., and Wayne, R. P.: Inorganic Gas-Phase Reactions of the Nitrate Radical: I2}{+}{NO3 and I}+{NO3, J. Phys. Chem., 96, 3321–3331, 1992.
Cox, R. A., Bloss, W. J., Jones, R. L., and Rowley, D. M.: OIO and the Atmospheric Cycle of Iodine, Geophys. Res. Lett., 26, 1857–1860, 1999.
Davis, D., Crawford, J., Liu, S., McKeen, S., Bandy, A., Thornton, D., Rowland, F., and Blake, D.: Potential impact of iodine on tropospheric levels of ozone other critical oxidants, J. Geophys. Res., 101, 2135–2147, 1996.
Dillon, T. J., Tucceri, M. E., Sander, R., and Crowley, J. N.: LIF studies of iodine oxide chemistry, Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys., 10, 1540–1554, 2008.
Gilfedder, B. S., Lai, S. C., Petri, M., Biester, H., and Hoffmann, T.: Iodine speciation in rain, snow and aerosols, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 8, 6069–6084, 2008.
Gomez Martin, J. C., Spietz, P., and Burrows, J. P.: Kinetic and Mechanistic Studies of the I2}/{O3 Photochemistry, J. Phys. Chem. A, 111, 306–320, https://doi.org/{10.1021/jp061186c}, 2007.
Gomez Martin, J. C., Ashworth, S. H., Mahajan, A. S., and Plane, J. M. C.: The photochemistry of {OIO}: laboratory study and atmospheric implications, Geophys. Res. Lett., 36, L09802, https://doi.org/10.1029/2009GL037642, 2009.
Gravestock, T., Blitz, M. A., and Heard, D. E.: Kinetics study of the reaction of iodine monoxide radicals with dimethyl sulfide, Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys., 7, 2173–2181, 2005.
Heard, D. E., Read, K. A., Methven, J., Al-Haider, S., Bloss, W. J., Johnson, G. P., Pilling, M. J., Seakins, P. W., Smith, S. C., Sommariva, R., Stanton, J. C., Still, T. J., Ingham, T., Brooks, B., De Leeuw, G., Jackson, A. V., McQuaid, J. B., Morgan, R., Smith, M. H., Carpenter, L. J., Carslaw, N., Hamilton, J., Hopkins, J. R., Lee, J. D., Lewis, A. C., Purvis, R. M., Wevill, D. J., Brough, N., Green, T., Mills, G., Penkett, S. A., Plane, J. M. C., Saiz-Lopez, A., Worton, D., Monks, P. S., Fleming, Z., Rickard, A. R., Alfarra, M. R., Allan, J. D., Bower, K., Coe, H., Cubison, M., Flynn, M., McFiggans, G., Gallagher, M., Norton, E. G., O'Dowd, C. D., Shillito, J., Topping, D., Vaughan, G., Williams, P., Bitter, M., Ball, S. M., Jones, R. L., Povey, I. M., O'Doherty, S., Simmonds, P. G., Allen, A., Kinnersley, R. P., Beddows, D. C. S., Dall'Osto, M., Harrison, R. M., Donovan, R. J., Heal, M. R., Jennings, S. G., Noone, C., and Spain, G.: The North Atlantic Marine Boundary Layer Experiment(NAMBLEX), Overview of the campaign held at Mace Head, Ireland, in summer 2002, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 6, 2241–2272, 2006.
Hoffmann, T., O'Dowd, C. D., and Seinfeld, J. H.: Iodine oxide homogeneous nucleation: An explanation for coastal new particle formation, Geophys. Res. Lett., 28, 1949–1952, 2001.
Jacob, D. J.: Heterogeneous chemistry and tropospheric ozone, Atmos. Environ., 34, 2131–2159, 2000.
Jenkin, M. E., Saunders, S. M., and Pilling, M. J.: The tropospheric degradation of volatile organic compounds: A protocol for mechanism development, Atmos. Environ., 31, 81–104, 1997.
Jenkin, M. E., Saunders, S. M., Wagner, V., and Pilling, M. J.: Protocol for the development of the Master Chemical Mechanism, MCM v3 (Part B): tropospheric degradation of aromatic volatile organic compounds, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 3, 181–193, 2003.
Jimenez, J. L., Bahreini, R., Cocker III, D. R., Zhuang, H., Varutbangkul, V., Flagan, R. C., Seinfeld, J. H., O'Dowd, C. D., and Hoffman, T.: New particle formation from photooxidation of diiodomethane ({CH2I2}), J. Geophys. Res., 108(D10), 4318, 2003.
Joseph, D. M., Ashworth, S. H., and Plane, J. M. C.: On the photochemistry of {IONO2}: aborsption cross section (240–370 nm) and photolysis product yields at 248 nm, Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys., 9, 5599–5607, 2007.
Kaltsoyannis, N. and Plane, J. M. C.: Quantum chemical calculations on a selection of iodine-containing species ({IO}, OIO, INO3, (IO)2, I2O3, I2O4, and {I2O5}) of importance in the atmosphere, Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys., 10, 1723–1733, 2008.
Kanaya, Y., Yokouchi, Y., Matsumoto, J., Nakamura, K., Kato, S., Tanimoto, H., Furutani, H., Toyota, K., and Akimoto, H.: Implications of iodine chemistry for daytime HO2 levels at Rishiri Island, Geophys. Res. Lett., 29, 1212, https://doi.org/10.1029/2001GL014061, 2002.
Keene, W. C., Long, M. S., Pszenny, A. A. P., Sander, R., Maben, J. R., Wall, A. J., O'Halloran, T. L., Kerkweg, A., Fischer, E. V., and Schrems, O.: Latitudinal variation in the multiphase chemical processing of inorganic halogens and related species over the eastern North and South Atlantic Oceans, Atmos. Chem. Phys. Discuss., 9, 11889–11950, 2009.
Kulmala, M., Pirjola, L., and Makela, J. M.: Stable sulphate clusters as a source of new atmospheric particles, Nature, 404, 66–69, 2000.
Langridge, J. M., Ball, S. M., Shillings, A. J. L., and Jones, R. L.: A broadband absorption spectromenter using light emitting diodes for ultrasensitive, in situ trace gas detection, Rev. Sci. Instrum., 79(123), 110–114, 2008.
Leigh, R. J., Corlett, G. K., Friess, U., and Monks, P.: A concurrent multi-axis differential optical absorption spectroscopy system for the measurement of tropospheric nitrogen dioxide, Appl. Optics, 45, 7504–7518, 2006.
Leigh, R. J., Ball, S. M., Whitehead, J., Leblanc, C., Shillings, A. J. L., Mahajan, A. S., Oetjen, H., Dorsey, J. R., Gallagher, M., Jones, R. L., Plane, J. M. C., Potin, P., and McFiggans, G.: Measurements and modelling of molecular iodine emissions, transport and photodestruction in the coastal region around Roscoff, Atmos. Chem. Phys. Discuss., 9, 21165–21198, 2009.
Mahajan, A. S., Oetjen, H., Saiz-Lopez, A., Lee, J. D., McFiggans, G. B., and Plane, J. M. C.: Reactive iodine species in a semi-polluted environment, Geophys. Res. Lett., 36, L16803, https://doi.org/10.1029/2009GL038018, 2009a.
Mahajan, A. S., Plane, J. M. C., Oetjen, H., Mendes, L., Saunders, R. W., Saiz-Lopez, A., Jones, C. E., Carpenter, L. J., and McFiggans, G. B.: Measurement and modelling of reactive halogen species over the tropical Atlantic Ocean, Atmos. Chem. Phys. Discuss., 9, 24281–24316, 2009b.
Makela, J. M., Hoffmann, T., Holzke, C., Vakeva, M., Suni, T., Mattila, T., Aalto, P. P., Tapper, U., Kauppinen, E. I., and O'Dowd, C. D.: Biogenic iodine emissions and identification of end-products in coastal ultrafine particles during nucleation bursts, J. Geophys. Res., 107(D19), 8110, 2002.
McFiggans, G., Plane, J. M. C., Allan, B. J., Carpenter, L. J., Coe, H., and O'Dowd, C.: A modeling study of iodine chemistry in the marine boundary layer, J. Geophys. Res., 105, 14371–14385, 2000.
McFiggans, G., Cox, R. A., Mossinger, J. C., Allan, B. J., and Plane, J. M. C.: Active chlorine release from marine aerosol: roles for reactive iodine andnitrogen species, J. Geophys. Res., 107(D15), 4271, https://doi.org/10.1029/2001JD000383, 2002.
McFiggans, G., Coe, H., Burgess, R., Allan, J., Cubison, M., Alfarra, M. R., Saunders, R., Saiz-Lopez, A., Plane, J. M. C., Wevill, D., Carpenter, L., Rickard, A. R., and Monks, P. S.: Direct evidence for coastal iodine particles from Laminaria macroalgae �- linkage to emissions of molecular iodine, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 4, 701–713, 2004.
McFiggans, G., Bale, C. S. E., Ball, S. M., Beames, J. M., Bloss, W. J., Carpenter, L. J., Dorsey, J., Dunk, R., Flynn, M. J., Furneaux, K. L., Gallagher, M. W., Heard, D. E., Hollingsworth, A. M., Hornsby, K., Ingham, T., Jones, C. E., Jones, R. L., Kramer, L. J., Langridge, J. M., Leblanc, C., LeCrane, J.-P., Lee, J. D., Leigh, R. J., Longley, I., Mahajan, A. S., Monks, P. S., Oetjen, H., Orr-Ewing, A. J., Plane, J. M. C., Potin, P., Shillings, A. J. L., Thomas, F., von Glasow, R., Wada, R., Whalley, L. K., and Whitehead, J. D.: Iodine-mediated coastal particle formation: an overview of the Reactive Halogens in the Marine Boundary Layer (RHaMBLe) Roscoff coastal study, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 10, 2975–2999, 2010.
Mossinger, J. C., Shallcross, D. E., and Cox, R.: UV}-{VIS absorption cross-sections and atmospheric lifetimes of CH2Br2, CH2I2, and CH2BrI, J. Chem. Soc. Faraday T., 94, 1391–1396, 1998.
O'Dowd, C., McFiggans, G., Creasey, D. J., Pirjola, L., Hoell, C., Smith, M. H., Allan, B. J., Plane, J. M. C., Heard, D. E., Lee, J. D., Pilling, M. J., and Kulmala, M.: On the photochemical production of new particles in the coastal boundary layer, Geophys. Res. Lett., 26, 1707–1710, 1999.
O'Dowd, C. D., Jimenez, J. L., Bahreini, R., Flagan, R. C., Seinfeld, J. H., Hameri, K., Pirjola, L., Kulmala, M., and Jennings, S. G.: Marine aerosol formation from biogenic emissions, Nature, 417, 632–636, 2002.
Orlando, J. J. and Tyndall, G. S.: Rate Coefficients for the Thermal Decomposition of BrONO2 and the Heat of Formation of BrONO2, J. Phys. Chem., 100, 19398–19405, 1996.
Palmer, C. J., Anders, T. L., Carpenter, L. J., Kupper, F. C., and McFiggans, G. B.: Iodine and Halocarbon Response of Laminaria digitata to Oxidative Stress and Links to Atmospheric New Particle Production, Environ. Chem., 2, 282–290, 2005.
Passchier, A., Christian, J., and Gregory, N.: The ultraviolet-visible absorption spectrum of bromine between room temperature and 440 degrees {C}, J. Phys. Chem., 71, 937–942, 1967.
Pechtl, S., Lovejoy, E. R., Burkholder, J. B., and von Glasow, R.: Modeling the possible role of iodine oxides in atmospheric new particle formation, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 6, 505–523, 2006.
Pechtl, S., Schmitz, G., and von Glasow, R.: Modelling iodide �- iodate speciation in atmospheric aerosol: Contributions of inorganic and organic iodine chemistry, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 7, 1381–1393, 2007.
Peters, C., Pechtl, S., Stutz, J., Hebestreit, K., Hönninger, G., Heumann, K. G., Schwarz, A., Winterlik, J., and Platt, U.: Reactive and organic halogen species in three different European coastal environments, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 5, 3357–3375, 2005.
Pirjola, L., O'Dowd, C. D., Yoon, Y. J., and Sellegri, K.: Modelling Iodine Particle Formation and Growth from Seaweed in a Chamber, Environ. Chem., 2, 271–281, 2005.
Plane, J., Joseph, D., Allan, B., Ashworth, S., and Francisco, J.: An Experimental and Theoretical Study of the Reactions OIO{+}NO and OIO{+}OH, J. Phys. Chem. A, 110, 93–100, 2006.
Plane, J. M. C. and Saiz Lopez, A.: UV-Visible differential optical absorption spectroscopy (DOAS), chapter 3, in: Analytical Techniques for Atmospheric Measurement, edited by: Heard, D. E., Blackwell Publishing, Oxford, 2006.
Platt, U. and Hönninger, G.: The role of halogen species in the troposphere, Chemosphere, 51, 325–338, 2003.
Ravishankara, A. R.: Heterogeneous and multiphase chemistry in the troposphere, Science, 276, 1058–1065, 1997.
Read, K. A., Mahajan, A. S., Carpenter, L. J., Evans, M. J., Bruno, V. E. F., Heard, D. E., Hopkins, J. R., Lee, J. D., Moller, S. J., Lewis, A. C., Mendes, L., McQuaid, J. B., Oetjen, H., Saiz-Lopez, A., Pilling, M. J., and Plane, J. M. C.: Extensive halogen-mediated ozone destruction over the tropical Atlantic Ocean, Nature, 453, 1232–1235, 26 June, 2008.
Roehl, C. M., Burkholder, J. B., Moortgat, G. K., Ravishankara, A. R., and Crutzen, P. J.: Temperature dependence of UV absorption cross sections and atmospheric implications of several alkyl iodides, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 102, 12819–12829, 1997.
Saiz-Lopez, A. and Plane, J. M. C.: Novel iodine chemistry in the marine boundary layer, Geophys. Res. Letts., 31, 19215–19218, 2004.
Saiz-Lopez, A., Saunders, R. W., Joseph, D. M., Ashworth, S. H., and Plane, J. M. C.: Absolute absorption cross-section and photolysis rate of I2, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 4, 1443–1450, 2004.
Saiz-Lopez, A., Plane, J. M. C., McFiggans, G., Williams, P. I., Ball, S. M., Bitter, M., Jones, R. L., Hongwei, C., and Hoffmann, T.: Modelling molecular iodine emissions in a coastal marine environment: the link to new particle formation, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 6, 883–895, 2006.
Saiz-Lopez, A., Shillito, J. A., Coe, H., and Plane, J. M. C.: Measurements and modelling of I2, IO, OIO, BrO and NO3 in the mid-latitude marine boundary layer, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 6, 1513–1528, 2006.
Saiz-Lopez, A., Plane, J. M. C., Mahajan, A. S., Anderson, P. S., Bauguitte, S. J.-B., Jones, A. E., Roscoe, H. K., Salmon, R. A., Bloss, W. J., Lee, J. D., and Heard, D. E.: On the vertical distribution of boundary layer halogens over coastal Antarctica: implications for O3, HOx, NOx and the Hg lifetime, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 8, 887–900, 2008.
Sander, S P., Friedl, R R., Golden, D M., Kurylo, M J., Moortgat, C K., Keller-Rudek, H., Wine, P H., Ravishankara, A R., Kolb, C E., Molina, M J., Finlayson-Pitts, B J., Huie, R E., and Orkin, V L.: Chemical kinetics and photochemical data for use in atmospheric Studies, Evaluation number 15, NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Publication 06-2, 2006.
Saunders, R. W. and Plane, J. M. C.: Formation Pathways and Composition of Iodine Oxide Ultra-Fine Particles, Environ. Chem., 2, 299–303, 2005.
Saunders, S. M., Jenkin, M. E., Derwent, R. G., and Pilling, M. J.: Protocol for the development of the Master Chemical Mechanism, MCM v3 (Part A): tropospheric degradation of non-aromatic volatile organic compounds, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 3, 161–180, 2003.
Sellegri, K., Yoon, Y. J., Jennings, S. G., O'Dowd, C. D., Pirjola, L., Cautenet, S., Chen, H., and Hoffmann, T.: Quantification of Coastal New ultra-fine Particle Formation from In situ and Chamber Measurements during the BIOFLUX campaign, Environ. Chem., 2, 260–270, 2005.
Sommariva, R., Bloss, W. J., Brough, N., Carslaw, N., Flynn, M., Haggerstone, A.-L., Heard, D. E., Hopkins, J. R., Lee, J. D., Lewis, A. C., McFiggans, G., Monks, P. S., Penkett, S. A., Pilling, M. J., Plane, J. M. C., Read, K. A., Saiz-Lopez, A., Rickard, A. R., and Williams, P. I.: OH and HO2 chemistry during NAMBLEX: roles of oxygenates, halogen oxides and heterogeneous uptake, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 6, 1135–1153, 2006.
Stutz, J., Hebestreit, K., Alicke, B., and Platt, U.: Chemistry of Halogen Oxides in the tropsphere: Comparison of Model Calculations with Recent Field Data, J. Atmos. Chem., 34, 65–85, 1999.
Stutz, J., Pikelnaya, O., Hurlock, S. C., Trick, S., Pechtl, S., and von Glasow, R.: Daytime OIO in the Gulf of Maine, Geophys. Res. Lett., 34, L22816, https://doi.org/10.1029/2007GL031332, 2007.
Vogt, R., Crutzen, P. J., and Sander, R.: A mechanism for halogen release from sea-salt aerosol in the remote marineboundary layer, Nature, 383, 327–330, 1996.
Vogt, R., Sander, R., von Glasow, R., and Crutzen, P. J.: Iodine Chemistry and its Role in Halogen Activation and Ozone Loss in the Marine Boundary Layer: A Model Study, J. Atmos. Chem., 32, 375–395, 1999.
von Glasow, R. and Crutzen, P. J.: Treatise On Geochemistry: 4.02 Tropspheric Halogen Chemistry, Elsevier, iSBN (set): 0-08-043751-6, 2007.
Wada, R., Beames, J. M., and Orr-Ewing, A. J.: Measurement of IO radical concentrations in the marine boundary layer using a cavity ring-down spectrometer, J. Atmos. Chem., 58, 69–87, 2007.
Whalley, L. K., Furneaux, K. L., Gravestock, T., Atkinson, H. M., Bale, C. S. E., Ingham, T., Bloss, W. J., and Heard, D. E.: Detection of Iodine Monoxide Radicals in the Marine Boundary Layer using Laser Induced Fluorescence Spectroscopy, J. Atmos. Chem., 58, 19–39, 2007.
Whalley, L. K., Furneaux, K. L., Goddard, A., Lee, J. D., Mahajan, A., Oetjen, H., Read, K. A., Kaaden, N., Carpenter, L. J., Lewis, A. C., Plane, J. M. C., Saltzman, E. S., Wiedensohler, A., and Heard, D. E.: The chemistry of OH and HO2 radicals in the boundary layer over the tropical Atlantic Ocean, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 10, 1555–1576, 2010.
Whitehead, J. D., McFiggans, G. B., Gallagher, M. W., and Flynn, M. J.: Direct linkage between tidally driven coastal ozone deposition fluxes, particle emission fluxes and subsequent CCN formation, Geophys. Res. Lett., 105, L04806, https://doi.org/{https://doi.org/10.1029/2008GL035969}, 2009.
Results from the field experiments in the Reactive Halogens...


text:
Округ Грін () — округ (графство) у штаті  Вірджинія, США. Ідентифікатор округу 51079.

Історія
Округ утворений 1838 року.

Демографія

За даними перепису 2000 року загальне населення округу становило 15244 осіб, усе сільське. Серед мешканців округу чоловіків було 7560, а жінок — 7684. В окрузі було 5574 домогосподарства, 4291 родин, які мешкали в 5986 будинках. Середній розмір родини становив 3,07.

Віковий розподіл населення поданий у таблиці:

Суміжні округи
 Медісон — північний схід
 Орандж — південний схід
 Албемарл — південь
 Рокінгем — захід
 Пейдж — північний захід

Див. також
 Список округів штату Вірджинія

Виноски

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


Newport Academy, a different kind of teen rehab, nurtures the physical, psychological, social, educational, and spiritual needs of adolescents and their families from a foundation of compassionate care, clinical expertise, and unconditional love.
Newport Academy provides a loving environment for teens to recover from teenage drug abuse and mental health struggles in a safe and supportive home-like setting. Research finds that gender-specific residential environments provide the most effective treatment for teen mental health, teenage depression, anxiety in teens, and teenage substance abuse. Each adolescent's individualized residential treatment program incorporates evidence-based clinical, experiential, and academic elements. We reveal and heal underlying issues that cause self-destructive behaviors. With a staff to resident ratio of 5:1, we provide each teen with the utmost support and guidance to gain lifelong skills for true happiness and health.
The Newport Academy Outpatient Program provides a nurturing environment that supports teenage mental health and the development of life skills, long-term recovery, and self-esteem. We treat teens aged 13–19 who are in recovery from substance abuse, mental health challenges, trauma, behavioral/social issues, anxiety symptoms in teens, teenage depression, and eating disorders.
Teens and families enrolled in the Outpatient Program have access to licensed Psychiatrists, Psychologists, Marriage and Family Therapists, Internal Medicine Physicians, Certified Chemical Dependency Counselors, Experiential Therapists, Equine Therapists, and other addiction and behavioral health treatment specialists who work together to tailor treatments to reach individualized goals. We pair clinical excellence with unconditional love and support as the core of our teen treatment model.
The Newport Academy Day Schools challenge the convention of what many most classify as schools for troubled teens. We offer a comprehensive, creative, and compassionate environment that supports mind, body, and spirit. We provide a balance between recovery counseling and academic programming to continue each student's growth. Newport Academy Day Schools ensure that students develop necessary life skills and receive a high school diploma, while remaining committed to abstinence from self-destructive behaviors. Newport Academy faculty customizes an educational plan to fit each student's specific needs to support students' academic success.
We are all products of a family system. At Newport Academy, we honor this fact by incorporating the entire family in treatment, offering a comprehensive family-systems approach to teen treatment and recovery. This philosophy of care recognizes that the family is a holistic system, naturally interconnected and interdependent. We know from experience that each family member plays a part in the wellness of the entire family. When one is affected, all are affected. It is from this foundation that the Newport Academy Treatment Team develops each teen's individual treatment plan.
Within our family-systems approach, Newport Academy uses a variety of modalities, including therapeutic process groups, experiential therapy, individual therapy, and psychoeducational work to ensure sustainable healing.


Tuesday, Dec. 6: Edmonton at Buffalo, 7 p.m.
Friday, Dec. 9: Washington at Buffalo, 7 p.m.
Tuesday, Dec. 13: Los Angeles at Buffalo, 7 p.m.
Friday, Dec. 16: NY Islanders at Buffalo, 7 p.m.
Saturday, Dec. 17: Buffalo at Carolina, 7 p.m.
This is the second of three meetings between the Sabres and Capitals this season.
The Sabres are 4-4-2 in their last 10 games vs. the Capitals; 3-6-1 at home.
This is the 154th game all-time between Buffalo and Washington; Buffalo has an 87-47-19 series record.
The Sabres are 41-26-10 on the road against the Capitals all-time.
The Sabres are 9-6-2 all-time on December 5.
December 5, 1971: Craig Ramsay records the first natural hat trick in Sabres history, leading the team to a 3-1 win at home against the Minnesota North Stars.
December 5, 1997: Dominik Hasek makes 38 saves in a 4-0 win against the Tampa Bay Lightning to record his third of a career-high 13 shutouts during the 1997-98 season.
The Sabres enter today's game with a 4-2-1 record in their last seven games.
Buffalo was ranked seventh in the NHL in power play percentage (22.5%) and fifth in team faceoff percentage (51.7%) entering play Sunday.
Brendan Guhle made his NHL debut on Saturday vs. Boston, logging 16:20 of ice time and a plus-1 rating. He led all Sabres with seven shot attempts and tied for the team lead with four shots on goal.
Cody Franson and Sam Reinhart both have a point (1+1) in each of their last two games against Washington.
Evander Kane has six career two-point games against the Capitals.
Jack Eichel recorded two assists in his only trip to Washington last season.
Tonight's game opens up Buffalo's third of a league-high 19 sets of back-to-back games this season, which continues tomorrow vs. Edmonton. The Sabres are 1-0-1 in the first game of back-to-back sets and 1-1-0 in the second game so far this season. Buffalo's point breakdown in previous back-to-back sets this season is: four points (1), three points (0), two points (0), one point (1) and zero points (0).
Sam Reinhart has seven points (2+6) in his last six games and enters tonight's game with points in four straight games, tying his best career stretch.
Kyle Okposo has six points (2+5) in his last six games.
Jack Eichel has 10 points (4+6) in his last eight games dating back to last season, including four points (3+1) in three games in 2016-17.
Evander Kane enters tonight's game on a three-game point streak (1+2) and is seeking his first four-game streak since he tallied points in eight straight from Feb. 12 to 26.
Rasmus Ristolainen has three assists in his last three games.
Jack Eichel returned to the Sabres' lineup on Tuesday at Ottawa after missing the team's first 21 games with a high-ankle sprain. In his first three games of the season, Eichel has recorded four points (3+1).
With wins on Tuesday and Thursday, the Sabres improved to 26-14-4 (.636) in Eichel's career when he records a point and 10-3-1 (.750) when he has at least two.
Buffalo's goaltenders had the fourth-best combined save percentage* (.926) in the league entering play Sunday. They also had the fifth-best save percentage during 5-on-5 play (.935).
The Sabres last finished a season with a combined save percentage* above .920 in the 2009-10 season (.924, Ryan Miller/Patrick Lalime/Jhonas Enroth) and have topped the team's current mark only two times in franchise history: 1998-99 (.930, Dominik Hasek/Dwayne Roloson/Martin Biron) and 1997-98 (.928, Hasek/Steve Shields).
Brooks Orpik grew up in Amherst, New York.
Coached Matt Niskanen for the Pittsburgh Penguins from 2010-2014 and Brooks Orpik from 2009-2014.
Played with Brett Connolly for Team Canada at the 2011 World Junior Championship held in Buffalo.
Played with Brooks Orpik at Boston College from 1998-2001. The Golden Eagles won the NCAA National Championship in 2001.
Teammates with Lars Eller for the Washington Capitals from 2010-2014.
Played with Dmitry Orlov for Russia at the 2008 World U-18 Championship.
Teammates with Alex Ovechkin for Russia at the 2010, 2011 and 2015 World Championships.
Represented Sweden alongside Marcus Johansson at the 2010 World Junior Championship.
Represented the United States alongside Taylor Chorney at the 2007 World Junior Championship and the 2010 World Championship.
Played with T.J. Oshie for the United States at the 2009 and 2010 World Championships. Matt Niskanen was also a part of the team in 2009.
Teammates with Brett Connolly for Canada at the 2009 World U18 Championship.
Played with Paul Carey for the Colorado Avalanche from 2013-2015.
Teammates with Daniel Winnik for the Colorado Avalanche from 2010-2012.
Sam Reinhart (2nd overall) and Jakub Vrana (13th overall) were both first-round picks in the 2014 NHL Draft.


text:
Fort Hood Shooter Still Receives a Military Paycheck
Kate Andrews
A coalition of Republican congressmen have introduced the Stop Pay for Violent Offenders Act, which would suspend pay for military service members if charged with a violent offense, including rape, sexual assault, or murder.
The bill comes as a response to the revelation that the alleged Fort Hood Massacre shooter, Nidal Hasan, has received over $278,000 worth of military pay while awaiting trial for charges of 13 counts of premeditated murder and 32 counts of attempted murder.
The representatives co-sponsoring the bill include Reps. Joe Barton (R-TX), Tim Griffin (R-AR), Tom Rooney (R-FL), and Frank Wolf, (R-VA).
"It is outrageous that taxpayers continue to pay an accused terrorist that killed more than a dozen people," said U.S. Rep. Joe Barton, R-Texas. "Does anyone think this make sense? You are innocent until proven guilty in this country, but that doesn't mean you should be rewarded while awaiting trial."
Hasan's trial, which began Tuesday, added fuel to the fire once Hasan, representing himself, admitted he was guilty of the charges held against him. During his brief opening statement, he confessed that he "is the shooter," and explained that his motivation came from jihadist principles, which led him to shoot American soldiers to stop the 'war on Islam.'
"Evidence from this trial will only show one side," he said. "I was on the wrong side but I switched sides."
Furthermore, Hasan's 'standby attorneys' assigned to his case have reason to believe Hasan is intentionally seeking the death penalty, hoping that his assassination by the 'American Government' will inspire the jihadist movement and extreme Islamists to act out against his death. His lawyers have spoken out against Hasan's tactics, saying it would be "morally repugnant" for them to help him achieve the death sentence for such purposes.
It is hard to reconcile how American tax dollars were used to the pay the salary of a man who has admitted to murdering American soldiers to promote the jihadist movement. The proposed bill to suspend the salary of military personnel accused of violent offenses is noble in principle; however, as criminal defense attorney Jeff Ifrah points out, it will be difficult to implement the bill in a fair and balanced way.
Such a bill would be harmful to military personnel who are accused, but found not guilty, of violent offenses. Suspending their salaries would have damaging effects on their personal lives (unable to pay mortgages, car payments, etc.), which is one way of dishing out punishment before the accused is found guilty.
Hasan's case is indeed rare and should not necessarily dictate government legislation that would place financial burden on military members, who are always innocent until proven guilty. However, American taxpayers deserve to know why Hasan's trial was delayed for years (mostly due to his requests) while he raked in nearly $300,000 of their hard-earned money.
Nidal Malik Hasan

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


Temperature Controller TC-3 - Camsco Electric Co., Ltd.
Model No. TC-3 full deviation indicator temperature controller.
TC-3 din size (96x96mm) temperature controller with P.D. function.
Operating voltage : 90% to 110% of rated voltage.
Wire When Temperature Under 600 Degree C CA (K) Type.


Leupold steel standard bases are the most versatile of any mounting system they offer and are designed to withstand the toughest recoil. Constructed of U.S. carbon steel and CNC machined, the one piece design provides solid mounting options for your Savage 99 rifle. Accepts any standard style rings.


Recently I was asked by a friend to check out Jean Liedloff's work on the "Continuum Concept." Jean Liedloff is an esteemed cultural anthropologist who is largely known for her work among primitive tribes, studying parenting and baby-raising. She is perhaps most famous for her work in Bali, and also the Yequana tribe. Much of her work has become the foundation of attachment parenting, which in America has taken the form of numerous books on slinging, co-bedding, breastfeeding on demand, etc.
I have to say I was fascinated by her articles. She is clearly good at what she does and committed to her work. And she has not, at least from what I can tell, overstepped her bounds as an academic by going into political arenas. In this sense, I give her work the benefit of the doubt that she is truly trying to help Western society deal with their dysfunctional childraising techniques… as a counselor she sees tons of problems that she doesn't see in her anthropological missions. Why is that?
She says, as all attachment theorists do, that it is because primitive societies use child-raising techniques which do not provoke anxiety. Specifically, they carry their babies all day, feed them on demand, and co-bed. And with their little children, they do not take an authoritarian stance or discipline them. Rather, they encourage the child to do adult tasks (like carry babies and help with the chores) and direct them only when necessary without an attitude of moral high-ground. Techniques such as these honor children as naturally social beings, says Liedloff, and therefore stave off rebellion, disobedience, and other less desired behavior that we see in almost every Western family.
"The World is My Oyster." You cannot pick and choose elements of one culture, put them in another, and get the same results. While it is important to be open and learn from other cultures, you cannot pick what you want and leave the rest. Well, you can, but don't expect the same results! Anthropologists have admired traits from all cultural and ethnic backgrounds: joy in Africans, social benevolence in Pacific Islanders, diligence in Asians, earth-tenderness from Native Americans… just to name a few. But if we think we can be the Super-Race by picking and choosing while we still live in our normal American context and geography, we are mistaken. Trust me that the average wars over Cocoa Puffs and X-box limits will compensate for any anxiety missed in the earlier years =) Our babies are going to grow up American, like it or not, because we live in America and have an entire system with unique pressures and rewards that aren't going to change whether or not we co-bed.
"I read half of it…" Most people who read Liedloff pick and choose only the elements they like from her observations. While she does advocate the standard attachment parenting practices, she also advocates unpopular principles: having a parent-centered regime, giving the baby a passive experience of life in the early months, having a non-entertainment worldview, etc. Rather than endorsing the permissive parenting style so common in America, she actually endorses a kind of authoritative one (with a spin on the traditional understanding). She also observes primitive parenting which is kind of startling at times, such as the responsibility given to preschoolers around fire or with younger siblings. And she refuses to endorse aspects of her observations which are not politically correct, such as very distinct gender roles, limited (if any) education, corporal punishment, religious beliefs and practices, and teasing or other tribal social dynamics to enforce conformity. But if you really want the premodern, "uncivilized" results, you need to have premodern, "uncivilized" package… they all go together.
"The Grass is Always Greener." There is nothing wrong with appreciating other people groups! But there are admirable traits in the West too, and to think that another group has it all right while we have it all wrong is an illusion. All groups have strengths and weaknesses, crimes and altruists, and good times and bad. Travel internationally just a little bit, and you will understand this at a gut level.
"Down with the West." While it is good to try and reduce anxiety and dysfunction, we can't forget that we value traits which are essentially non-Eastern and modern. Look at our heroes and icons, what we want our children to be when they grow up: statesmen, musicians, doctors, thinkers… these are Western and modern ideals which have given joy and blessing to multitudes of people. And no matter how we raise our babies, most of us switch over to raising modern Westerners at some point. (Orthodox communities such as Hassidim and FLDS are exceptions, of course). Most of us value, for example: creativity, imagination, individuality, expression, inventiveness, popularity, self-actualization, education, classical training (i.e. including art, music, sports), materialism/possessions, romanticism, achievement, citizenship, humanitarianism, contribution, travel, or science. These types of things cannot co-exist with primitive or pre-modern cultures, which is why democracy, urbanization, and industry always transform a culture. And why hospitals, welfare, charity, architecture, medicine, and other advances have only grown from Western soil. If we aren't going to be hypocritical, we have to acknowledge Western contributions to the world scene and not toss out the baby with the bathwater.
"Freud was right." Freudianism has been largely discredited. Liedloff, and her colleagues, are basically Freudian anthropologists (neo-Freudian, actually), but Freudianism has been largely disproved by science and discredited in psychology. Of course it has a prestigious history and esoteric counselors still charge a million dollars to the rich and famous for psychoanalysis. But the best points of Freudianism have been sublimated into other psychology paradigms which make much more sense. And most points have been dropped entirely. The idea, for example, that anxiety can cause neurosis is essentially true. But to say that morally training a child causes anxiety that will lead to a neurotic adult is a false conclusion. First of all, moral training is right whether or not we like the idea of it. Second of all, moral training can be done in a non-condemning way. Thirdly, anxiety can be caused by all kinds of things not related to moral training, including personality and environment. Fourthly, much of childhood experience is forgotten or reworked by adulthood when an individual has a chance to reflect on his or her life. Fifthly, any moral training that has caused anxiety can be addressed when one is an adult. And lastly—most importantly—moral training actually prevents neurosis by providing a good path for an individual to walk (i.e. a life of sexual freedom and promiscuity will cause more dysfunction in a twenty-something girl than a life of purity and chastity). False reasoning runs throughout Freudianism, which is basically a paradigm that blames Protestantism (with its strict moral codes, assumptions of sin and evil, and promise for judgment) for Western Culture's weaknesses. This perspective, while shared by many in academia, is a faith statement not a scientific one… an opinion. And the "science" purported to explain Freudian notions of sexuality, wish fulfillment, complexes, neurosis, etc., is very soft at best.
I would submit to the attachment parent that they have bought into some of these deceptions, which are worth carefully considering. While there certainly are child-raising practices which are bad, and a lot of personal dysfunction in Western society, we should be careful what we point to as the culprit. Is it morality? Authority? Nationalism? Industry? Education? Individualism? I would submit to the attachment parent that while these things can be abused, the biggest benefits to mankind have results from a proper implementation of these things (which Liedloffism is, by association, against). I would also argue that the disproportionate number of anxious and depressed Westerners in the last fifty years has been due to existentialism, or an abandonment of those culprits which Liedloffism targets. What we need is a more scientific and specific approach to fixing our civilization and its discontents. And we need one that recognizes the importance of the individual, the adult, and agency… not culture, the baby, and victimization.
Perhaps due to my British roots, I am big on good ol' traditional common sense. For whatever reason, in America people tend to lose their common sense. Politics, academia, diets, and especially in parenting… theories run wild about the best way to do things only to create an extreme worldview that no-one can keep up. The answer, I contend, is not a better philosophy as it is common sense.
Philosophy is important but people do things differently. That is the beauty of this nation. Rarely do you get locked up for your differences, so you can feel free to choose what goals and methods you'd like to use. In the field of parenting, we have become so confused about both goals and methods that the average parent doesn't know where to start. We end up "winging it" and getting better the second time around because of experience. We might try strange things with our first child—and God tends to give firstborns extra thick blood because of it—but by the second, we settle down a bit. Where we once tried making our own wipes, we now buy Huggies. Where we once ground our own baby food, we now have a jar or two of Gerbers on the shelf with big sister's graham crackers for back-up. And where we once demonized formula, there's often a bottle and packet or two of Similac somewhere in the house (just in case).
All of this is good. We need to let the religious view of parenting relax a little. Not because we care less but because we care more. We realize how important it is to keep the main thing, the main thing. Stressing over Cheerios versus organic Oatey-Os is no longer worth it. We have to figure out how to tend to a newborn AND help our toddler who is having nightmares. Or our elementary child who is struggling to read. These are the priorities of parenting, and worth our attention.
I write this because I think parenting in America has largely lost its compass. It has lost the fact that we are not raising our children to be children; we don't need brats, nuisances, trophies, guinea pigs, or the eternal baby. But what we do need eludes us. We don't know how to get the results we want… is what we want even possible? It seems we don't know where we're going so we don't know how to get there. Expert advice has made it hard for us to answer even the basic questions. Having babies becomes this existential experience that we barely survive, let alone thrive in.
Let me suggest that we are raising our children to be people. They are precious beyond belief, but they will leave us. When they do, our job is to have made them largely functioning people with strong physical, emotional, rational, and moral capacities. If any of these areas are missing, they will be in trouble. We don't deify their bodies, feelings, minds, or personalities, but we do look to help them be independent and successful. From day one, we look to make healthy, energetic, bright citizens who stand for something good, know how to work at it, and can withstand the various pressures and temptations of liberty. They will have to chart and navigate themselves through all kinds of choices and storms, as they tread the dear soil of their lives. As part of a free but suffering world, they will have to give to others but also take care of themselves. And they must love. They must give and receive love, or life will not be worth living. This is what we're looking for. This is where our parenting must take them.
It's a big job! From the moment they arrive in our eager, shaking arms, we have to prepare to let go. For we don't really know when our children will leave us. Maybe it will be eighteen years, but maybe it will be tomorrow. Or never. We have to start as we mean to go on, and put all our efforts into believing and obtaining the loving, capable, moral adult we want. If we do that, our children will be a success story. And sometimes achieving that story means abandoning "cool" parenting systems or principles that we have adopted for purely ideological reasons. Or because of pressure. Because if there is one thing that raising a child shouldn't be, it's political.
However soon they leave us, and whatever individual potential they have, they will be closer to the goal as long as we parent them. What a blessing! And what a challenge.