text:
A conceptual framework for integrated STEM education
Todd R. Kelley1 &
J. Geoff Knowles2
International Journal of STEM Education volume 3, Article number: 11 (2016) Cite this article
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The global urgency to improve STEM education may be driven by environmental and social impacts of the twenty-first century which in turn jeopardizes global security and economic stability. The complexity of these global factors reach beyond just helping students achieve high scores in math and science assessments. Friedman (The world is flat: A brief history of the twenty-first century, 2005) helped illustrate the complexity of a global society, and educators must help students prepare for this global shift. In response to these challenges, the USA experienced massive STEM educational reforms in the last two decades. In practice, STEM educators lack cohesive understanding of STEM education. Therefore, they could benefit from a STEM education conceptual framework. The process of integrating science, technology, engineering, and mathematics in authentic contexts can be as complex as the global challenges that demand a new generation of STEM experts. Educational researchers indicate that teachers struggle to make connections across the STEM disciplines. Consequently, students are often disinterested in science and math when they learn in an isolated and disjoined manner missing connections to crosscutting concepts and real-world applications. The following paper will operationalize STEM education key concepts and blend learning theories to build an integrated STEM education framework to assist in further researching integrated STEM education.
Many global challenges including "climate change, overpopulation, resource management, agricultural production, health, biodiversity, and declining energy and water sources" need an international approach supported by further development in science and technology to adequately address these challenges (Thomas and Watters 2015, p. 42). Yet numerous educational research studies have indicated that students' interest and motivation toward STEM learning has declined especially in western countries and more prosperous Asian nations (Thomas and Watters). Concern for improving STEM education in many nations continues to grow as demand for STEM skills to meet economic challenges increasingly becomes acute (English 2016; Marginson et al. 2013; NAE and NRC 2014). Driven by genuine or perceived current and future shortages in the STEM workforce, many education systems and policy makers around the globe are preoccupied with advancing competencies in STEM domains. However, the views on the nature and development of proficiencies in STEM education are diverse, and increased focus on integration raises new concerns and needs for further research (English 2016; Marginson et al. 2013).
Although the idea of STEM education has been contemplated since the 1990s in the USA, few teachers seemed to know how to operationalize STEM education several decades later. Americans realized the country may fall behind in the global economy and began to heavily focus on STEM education and careers (Friedman 2005). STEM funding for research and education then increased significantly in the USA (Sanders 2009). The urgency to improve achievement in American Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics education is evident by the massive educational reforms that have occurred in the last two decades within these STEM education disciplines (AAAS 1989, 1993; ABET 2004; ITEA 1996, 2000, 2002, 2007; NCTM 1989, 2000; NRC 1989, 1994, 1996, 2012). Although these various documents seek to leverage best practices in education informed by research on how people learn (NRC 2000a, 2000b), competing theories and agendas may have added confusion to the complexity of integrating STEM subjects. Recent reforms such as Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS) (NGSS Lead States 2013) and Common Core State Standards for Mathematics (CCSSM) (National Governors Association Center for Best Practices & Council of Chief State School Officers 2010) advocate for purposefully integrating STEM by providing deeper connections among the STEM domains. One of the most recent NAE and NRC (2014) documents, STEM Integration in K-12 Education: Status, Prospects, and an Agenda for Research, recognize problems with competing agendas, lack of coherent effort, and locating and teaching intersections for STEM integration. The Committee on Integrated STEM Education was charged to assist STEM education stakeholders by (a) carefully identifying and characterizing existing approaches to integrated STEM education, (b) review evidence of impact on student learning, and (c) help determine priorities for research on integrated STEM education. This report was created as a way to move STEM educators forward by creating a common language of STEM integration for research and practice. This effort indicates that further work remains to improve STEM integration in practice and establishes a need to conduct more research on integrated STEM education (NAE and NRC 2014).
One outcome of improving achievement in STEM education in many countries is preparing a workforce that will improve national economies and sustain leadership within the constantly shifting and expanding globalized economy. Wang, Moore, Roehrig, and Park (2011) stated that:
Growing concern about developing America's future scientists, technologists, engineers, and mathematicians to remain viable and competitive in the global economy has re-energized attention to STEM education. To remain competitive in a growing global economy, it is imperative that we raise student's achievement in STEM subjects. (p. 1)
European STEM educators and industrialists have identified a widening STEM skills gap among the workforce. Improving STEM education is driven increasingly by economic concerns in developing and emerging countries as well (Kennedy and Odell 2014). While STEM student enrollment and motivation has declined in many western countries, various studies have shown an increased interest among young people in developing nations such as India and Malaysia (Thomas and Watters 2015).
Seeking coherency in STEM education
Much ambiguity still surrounds STEM education and how it is most effectively implemented (Breiner et al. 2012). STEM education is often used to imply something innovative and exciting yet it may, in reality, remain disconnected subjects (Abell and Lederman 2007; Sanders 2009; Wang et al. 2011). However, an integrated curricular approach could be applied to solve global challenges of the modern world concerning energy, health, and the environment (Bybee 2010; President's Council of Advisors on Science and Technology (PCAST) 2010). Kennedy and Odell (2014) noted that the current state of STEM education:
has evolved into a meta-discipline, an integrated effort that removes the traditional barriers between these subjects, and instead focuses on innovation and the applied process of designing solution to complex contextual problems using current tools and technologies. Engaging students in high quality STEM education requires programs to include rigorous curriculum, instruction, and assessment, integrate technology and engineering into the science and mathematics curriculum, and also promotes scientific inquiry and the engineering design process. (p. 246)
STEM education can link scientific inquiry, by formulating questions answered through investigation to inform the student before they engage in the engineering design process to solve problems (Kennedy et al. 2014). Quality STEM education could sustain or increase the STEM pipeline of individuals preparing for careers in these fields (Stohlmann et al. 2012). Improving STEM education may also increase the literacy of all people across the population in technological and scientific areas (NAE and NRC 2009; NRC 2011).
As the USA and other countries work to build their capacity in STEM education, they will need to interact with each other in order to enhance their efforts in international scientific engagement and capacity building to provide quality education to all of their students (Clark 2014, p. 6).
Defining integrated STEM education
Over the last few decades, STEM education was focused on improving science and mathematics as isolated disciplines (Breiner et al. 2012; Sanders 2009; Wang et al. 2011) with little integration and attention given to technology or engineering (Bybee 2010; Hoachlander and Yanofsky 2011). Furthermore, STEM subjects often are taught disconnected from the arts, creativity, and design (Hoachlander and Yanofsky 2011). Sanders (2009) described integrated STEM education as "approaches that explore teaching and learning between/among any two or more of the STEM subject areas, and/or between a STEM subject and one or more other school subjects" (p. 21). Sanders suggests that outcomes for learning at least one of the other STEM subjects should be purposely designed in a course—such as a math or science learning outcome in a technology or engineering class (Sanders 2009). Moore et al. (2014) defined integrated STEM education as "an effort to combine some or all of the four disciplines of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics into one class, unit, or lesson that is based on connections between the subjects and real-world problems" (p. 38). Integrated STEM curriculum models can contain STEM content learning objectives primarily focused on one subject, but contexts can come from other STEM subjects (Moore et al.). We, however, define integrated STEM education as the approach to teaching the STEM content of two or more STEM domains, bound by STEM practices within an authentic context for the purpose of connecting these subjects to enhance student learning.
The authors acknowledge that there are limits to this approach to teaching integrated STEM education. Some might view this approach too focused on career pathways with emphasis on STEM practices and authentic application of STEM knowledge. The authors acknowledge that teaching STEM from the proposed approach is not possible in all circumstances and could limit the content taught from this approach. Some necessary knowledge in mathematics and sciences that are theoretically focused may not provide authentic engineering design applications as well as common STEM practices limited by current technology.
Limits of current integrated practices
Making crosscutting STEM connections is complex and requires that teachers teach STEM content in deliberate ways so that students understand how STEM knowledge is applied to real-world problems. Currently, crosscutting connections remain implicit or can be missing all together (NAE and NRC 2009). The Committee on Integrated STEM Education noted that:
Connecting ideas across disciplines is challenging when students have little or no understanding of the relevant ideas in the individual disciplines. Also, students do not always or naturally use their disciplinary knowledge in integrated contexts. Students will thus need support to elicit the relevant scientific or mathematical ideas in an engineering or technological design context, to connect those ideas productively, and to reorganize their own ideas in ways that come to reflect normative, scientific ideas and practices. (NAE and NRC 2014, p. 5)
Increased integration of STEM subjects may not be more effective if there is not a strategic approach to implementation. However, well-integrated instruction provides opportunities for students to learn in more relevant and stimulating experiences, encourages the use of higher level critical thinking skills, improves problem solving skills, and increases retention (Stohlmann et al. 2012). Building a strategic approach to integrating STEM concepts requires strong conceptual and foundational understanding of how students learn and apply STEM content. The following theoretical framework for integrated STEM seeks to propose such an approach.
Conceptual framework for integrated STEM education
Research in integrated STEM can inform STEM education stakeholders to identify barriers as well as determine best practices. A conceptual framework is helpful to build a research agenda that will in turn inform STEM stakeholders to realize the full potential of integrated STEM education. We propose a conceptual framework around learning theories and pedagogies that will lead to achieving key learning outcomes. Developing a conceptual framework for STEM education requires a deep understanding of the complexities surrounding how people learn, specifically teaching and learning STEM content. Research shows STEM education teaching is enhanced when the teacher has sufficient content knowledge and domain pedagogical content knowledge (Nadelson et al. 2012). Instead of teaching content and skills and hoping students will see the connections to real-life application, an integrated approach seeks to locate connections between STEM subjects and provide a relevant context for learning the content. Educators should remain true to the nature in which science, technology, engineering, and mathematics are applied to real-world situations. The Next Generation Science Standards (NRC 2012) suggest closer study of practices may help to provide a framework for integrating STEM subjects.
The proposed framework as presented is intended for secondary education, specifically high school level educators and learners. The following graphic (Fig. 1) helps capture a conceptual framework for integrated STEM education and will also serve as a frame for the core concept of the paper. We will reference the graphic throughout the paper to further explain key concepts and make connections across STEM practices. The aim of this paper is to propose a conceptual framework to guide STEM educators and to build a research agenda for integrated STEM education.
Graphic of conceptual framework for STEM learning
Figure 1 illustrates the proposed conceptual framework for integrated STEM education. The image presents a block and tackle of four pulleys to lift a load, in this case "situated STEM learning." Block and tackle is a pulley system that helps generate mechanical advantage to lift loads easier. The illustration connects situated learning, engineering design, scientific inquiry, technological literacy, and mathematical thinking as an integrated system. Each pulley in the system connects common practices within the four STEM disciplines and are bound by the rope of community of practice. A complex relationship of the pulley system must work in harmony to ensure the integrity of the entire system. The authors are not suggesting that all four domains of integrated STEM must occur during every STEM learning experience but STEM educators should have a strong understanding of the relationship that can be established across domains and by engaging a community of practice. Like any mental model, there are limits to looking at integrated STEM education using this approach. We will seek to provide support for this mental model while acknowledging the limits in viewing STEM education this way. Each part of the conceptual framework will be described in detail. We encourage readers to refer back to Fig. 1 to help better understand the various aspects of this proposed framework.
Situated STEM learning
The authors would advocate most content in STEM can be grounded within the situated cognition theory (Brown et al. 1989; Lave and Wenger 1991; Putnam and Borko 2000). Foundational to this theory is the concept that understanding how knowledge and skills can be applied is as important as learning the knowledge and skills itself. Situated cognition theory recognizes that the contexts, both physical and social elements of a learning activity, are critical to the learning process. When a student develops a knowledge and skill base around an activity, the context of that activity is essential to the learning process (Putnam and Borko 2000). Often when learning is grounded within a situated context, learning is authentic and relevant, therefore representative of an experience found in actual STEM practice. When considering integrating STEM content, engineering design can become the situated context and the platform for STEM learning.
Certainly, there is some STEM content that cannot be situated in authentic contexts, therefore limiting this model to only content that can be applied through situated learning approaches. Within Fig. 1, the analogy of situated learning as a "load" to lift may present a limited perspective of this educational model.
Pulley #1: engineering design
Engineering design can provide the ideal STEM content integrator (NAE and NRC 2009; NRC 2012). Moreover, an engineering design approach to delivering STEM education creates an ideal entry point to include engineering practices into existing secondary curriculum. Using engineering design as a catalyst to STEM learning is vital to bring all four STEM disciplines on an equal platform. The very nature of engineering design provides students with a systematic approach to solving problems that often occur naturally in all of the STEM fields. Engineering design provides the opportunity to locate the intersections and build connections among the STEM disciplines, which has been identified as key to subject integration (Frykholm and Glasson 2005; Barnett and Hodson 2001).
Science education can be enhanced by infusing an engineering design approach because it creates opportunity to apply science knowledge and inquiry as well as provides an authentic context for learning mathematical reasoning for informed decisions during the design process. The Conceptual Frameworks for New Science Education Standards (NRC 2012) in the USA recommend that students are given opportunities to design and develop science investigations and engineering design projects across all K-12 grade levels (p. 9). The analytical element of the engineering design process allows students to use mathematics and science inquiry to create and conduct experiments that will inform the learner about the function and performance of potential design solutions before a final prototype is constructed. This approach to engineering design allows students to build upon their own experiences and provide opportunities to construct new science and math knowledge through design analysis and scientific investigation. According to Brown et al. (1989), these are necessary experiences for effective learning:
Engineering and technology provide a context in which students can test their own developing scientific knowledge and apply it to practical problems; doing so enhances their understanding of science—and, for many, their interest in science—as they recognize the interplay among science, engineering, and technology. We are convinced that the engagement in the practices of engineering design is as much a part of learning science as engagement in the practices of science. (p.12)
In engineering practice, engineering design and scientific inquiry are interwoven through an intricate process of design behaviors and scientific reasoning (Purzer et al. 2015). Though there is a notable difference between engineering design and scientific inquiry, two central ways they converge according to Purzer et al. (2015) are "(a) reasoning processes such as analogical reasoning as navigational devices to bridge the gap between problem and solution and (b) uncertainty as a starting condition that demands expenditure of cognitive resources…" (p. 2). Additionally, both engineering design and scientific inquiry accentuate learning by doing (Purzer et al. 2015). Similar to situated learning theory, approaching all STEM content through engineering design is not always possible. For example, some science content is currently theoretically based and cannot be taught by design-based instruction.
Pulley #2: scientific inquiry
Learning science in a relevant context and being able to transfer scientific knowledge to authentic situations is key to genuine understanding. An inquiry approach to instruction requires teachers to "encourage and model the skills of scientific inquiry, as well as the curiosity, openness to new ideas, and skepticism that characterize science" (National Research Council 1996, p. 37). Scientific inquiry prepares students to think and act like real scientists, ask questions, hypothesize, and conduct investigations using standard science practices. However, an inquiry-based approach involves a high level of knowledge and engagement on the part of the teachers and students. Teachers often feel unprepared because they are lacking authentic scientific research and inquiry experiences themselves (Nadelson et al. 2012). They harbor misconceptions about hands-on instruction, viewing a series of tasks and lab activities as being equivalent to scientific inquiry. However, practical and procedurally based hands-on activities are not equivalent to true science inquiry but must include "minds-on" experiences embedded within constructivist approaches to science learning (National Research Council 1996, p. 13). Students can become drivers of their learning when given the opportunity to construct their own questions related to the science content they are investigating. Key to effectively preparing teachers to teach through inquiry requires improving their pedagogical content knowledge while experiencing authentic science investigations and experimentation practices. Powell-Moman and Brown-Schild (2011) note that "in-service teachers see direct benefits when scientist-teacher partnerships associated with professional development are used to develop content knowledge, along with scientific process and research skill through collaboration on research projects" (p. 48).
Pulley #3: technological literacy
Fully understanding the "T" in STEM education seems to escape many educators who fail to move beyond merely the use of educational technology to enhance STEM learning experiences (Cavanagh 2008). STEM educators with only this view point fail to acknowledge that technology consists of a body of knowledge, skills, and practices. The term technology means so many different things to people rendering the term almost useless, and further study of technology definitions will not bring clarity to the subject (Barak 2012). Herschbach (2009) suggested there are two common views of technology; an engineering view of technology and a humanities perspective of technology. The engineering view, also referred to as the instrumental perspective (Mitcham 1994; Feenberg 2006), indicates that "Technology is equated with the making and using of material objects—that is, artifacts" (p. 128). However, the humanities view of technology focuses on the human purpose of technology as a response to a specific human endeavor; therefore, it is the human purpose that provides additional meaning for technology (Achterhuis 2001; Mitcham 1994). The humanities view of technology recognizes that technology is value-laden (Feenberg 2006) and thus, provides opportunities to explore technology impacts including cultural, social, economic, political, and environmental (ITEA 2000).
Table 1 provides critical elements of distinction between these two views of technology.
Table 1 Two views of technology
Mitcham (1994) combines these two views together when he identified four different ways of conceptualizing technology. He identifies technology as (a) objects, (b) knowledge, (c) activities, and (d) volition. Often, people associate technology as artifacts or objects; unfortunately, many only view technology in this way and overcoming this limited view of technology may be critical for teaching STEM in an integrated approach. Mitcham also contends that technology consists of specific and distinct knowledge and therefore is a discipline. He views technology as a process with activities that include designing, making, and using technology. Technology as volition is the concept that technology is driven by the human will and as a result is embedded within our culture driven by human values. Herschbach (2009) contends that technology leverages knowledge from across multiple fields of study. DeVries (2011) in Barak (2012) writes:
Engineering can differ from technology in that engineering only comprises the profession of developing and producing technology, while the broader concept of technology also relates to the user dimension. Technologists, more than engineers, deal with human needs as well as economic, social, cultural or environmental aspects of problem solving and new product development. (in Barak 2012, p. 318)
Barak (2012) suggests that both engineering and technology are so closely related that they should be taught in unison within technology education and suggests teaching them as one school subject called Engineering Technology Education (ETE).
In 2000, the International Technology Education Association (ITEA) drafted the Standards for Technological Literacy: Content for the Study of Technology (STL) to define the content necessary for K-12 students to become technologically literate citizens living in the twenty-first century. The STLs have been revised twice (ITEA 2002, 2007) and also include student assessment and professional development standards (ITEA 2003). The Standards for Technological Literacy identify content standards for grades K-12 that provide students opportunities to think critically about technology beyond technology as an object and in doing so prepare students to become technologically literate. STEM educators should provide students opportunities to think through technology as a vehicle for change with both positive and negative impacts on culture, society, politics, economy, and the environment.
Pulley #4: mathematical thinking
Studies have shown that students are more motivated and perform better on math content assessment when teachers use an integrated STEM education approach. A recent study found that students performed better on post math content assessments and increased STEM attitudinal scores when engaging in learning activities that included engineering design and prototyping solutions using 3D printing technology (Tillman et al. 2014). Williams (2007) noted that contextual teaching can give meaning to mathematics because "students want to know not only how to complete a mathematical task but also why they need to learn the mathematics in the first place. They want to know how mathematics is relevant to their lives" (p. 572). Incorporating STEM practices that include mathematical analysis necessary for evaluating design solutions provide the necessary rational for students to learn mathematics and see the connections between what is learned in school with what is required in STEM career skills (Burghardt and Hacker 2004). The authors again acknowledge that not all secondary education math content can be applied to engineering design approaches. Similarly, secondary education students may not have the cognitive development necessary to connect mathematical thinking within all engineering design problems.
The rope: a community of practice
Additionally, the concept of learning as an activity not only leverages the context of the learning but also the social aspect of learning. Lave and Wenger (1991) describe this as legitimate peripheral participation when the learning takes place in a community of practitioners assisting the learner to move from a novice understanding of knowledge, skills, and practices toward mastery as they participate "in a social practice of a community" (p. 29).
In a community of practice, novices and experienced practitioners can learn from observing, asking questions, and actually participating alongside others with more or different experience. Learning is facilitated when novices and experienced practitioners organize their work in ways that allow all participants the opportunity to see, discuss, and engage in shared practices. (Levine and Marcus 2010, p. 390)
Integrated STEM education can create an ideal platform to blend these complementary learning theories by providing a community of practice through social discourse. As educational leaders have wrestled with the concept of integrating STEM disciplines, key elements of situated learning have emerged. For example, Berlin and White (1995) argued that efforts to integrate mathematics and science should be founded, in part, on the idea that knowledge is organized around big ideas, concepts, or themes, and that knowledge is advanced through social discourse.
When engaging students into a community of practice, we suggest that the learning outcomes be grounded in common shared practices. Community of practice can provide opportunity to engage local community experts as STEM partners such as practicing scientists, engineers, and technologists who can help focus the learning around real-life STEM contexts regardless of the pedagogical approach.
Using a community of practice approach to integrated STEM can be challenging for teachers as they need to continually network with experts and be open to allowing members of the community of practice into their classroom. Additionally, not all students learn best in social settings so these students may struggle to fully engage in a community of practice and this may limit their ability to learn using this educational approach.
STEM community of practice
The Next Generation Science (NGS) Framework (NRC 2012) carefully uses language that describes common practices of scientist and engineers. These practices become science learning outcomes for students. Equally important to learning science concepts, scientific practices and skills are also emphasized as key outcomes (NRC 2012). Engineering practices are also identified within the NGS framework because some of the practices of scientists and engineers are shared. An integrated STEM approach can provide a platform through a community of practice to learn the similarities and differences of engineering and science. Table 2 shows descriptions of common science practices and engineering practices providing opportunity to compare similarities and differences (NRC 2012).
Table 2 Comparison of science and engineering practices
The study of STEM practices can provide a better understanding of each domain and help teachers identify key learning outcomes necessary to achieve STEM learning. Table 3 below identifies key practices that build the unique set of knowledge, skills, as well as a unique language to form common practices of science and technology while investigating and solving problems (Kolodner 2002).
Table 3 A selection of science and technology skills and practices
Table 4 identifies the math standards for math practice located in the Common Core standards for mathematics identifying common practices necessary when solving mathematical problems. Understanding these mathematical practices can be critical for effective integrated STEM education because mathematical analysis can be found in all the other STEM domains.
Table 4 Mathematical standards for mathematical practice
Upon review of these practices across science, engineering, technology, and mathematics, the very nature of these disciplines as well as the context in which the practices occur provide the learner with authentic examples that could help to illustrate crosscutting STEM connections. Locating intersections and connections across the STEM disciplines will assist STEM educators who understand these practices and how they are uniquely similar and different. An integrated STEM approach should leverage the idea that STEM content should be taught alongside STEM practices. Both content and practices are equally important to providing the ideal context for learning and the rationale for doing so. Locating crosscutting practices will help students identify similarities in the nature of work conducted by scientists, technologists, engineers, and mathematicians and could help students make more informed decisions about STEM career pathways.
Integrated STEM research agenda
The proposed conceptual framework must be tested through educational research methods to determine if these concepts improve the teaching and learning of STEM content. A research agenda must be crafted to test theories under a variety of conditions to determine the best approach to integrated STEM. In the USA, the Committee on Integrated STEM Education developed several recommendations directed at multiple stakeholders in integrated STEM education including those designing initiatives for integrated STEM, those developing assessments, and lastly for educational researchers (NAE and NRC 2014). For further investigation in integrated STEM education, researchers need to document in more detail their interventions, curriculum, and programs implemented, especially how subjects are integrated and supported. More evidence needs to be collected on the nature of integration, scaffolding used, and instructional designs applied. Clear outcomes need to be identified and measured concerning how integrated STEM education promotes learning, thinking, interest, and other characteristics related to these objectives. Research focused on interest and teacher and student identity also needs to address diversity and equity, and include more design experiments and longitudinal studies (NAE and NRC 2014). Though these recommendations were made in the context of the American education system, they could prove helpful in many other countries' educational systems as well.
One example: Teachers and Researchers Advancing Integrated Lessons in STEM (TRAILS)
A current National Science Foundation I-TEST project can serve as an example of research created to assess the proposed framework. Todd Kelley is the principal investigator of the TRAILS project that aims to improve STEM integration in high school biology or physics classes and technology education classes. TRAILS partners science and technology teachers during a 2-week summer professional development workshop to prepare the teachers to integrate STEM content through science inquiry and engineering design in the context of entomology. 3D printing technology is used to allow students to create engineering designed bio-mimicry solutions. Students' use mathematical modeling to predict and assess design performance. Lessons are created to address technological literacy standards and well as math and science standards. The goals of the TRAILS project are as follows:
Goal 1: Engage in-service science and technology teachers in professional development building STEM knowledge and practices to enhance integrated STEM instruction.
Goal 2: Establish a sustainable community of practice of STEM teachers, researchers, industry partners, and college student "learning assistants."
Goal 3: Engage grades 9–12 students in STEM learning through engineering design and 3D printing and scanning technology.
Goal 4: Generate strategies to overcome identified barriers for high school students in rural schools and underserved populations to pursue careers in STEM fields.
The TRAILS project research will be guided by assessing the following:
Science and technology education teacher's self-efficacy in teaching STEM through an integrated STEM approach.
Assessing students and teacher's awareness of STEM careers.
Assess students' ability to use twenty-first century skills while creating engineering design solutions to TRAILS challenges.
Assess students' growth in students' STEM career interest, self-efficacy in learning STEM content, and growth in STEM content knowledge.
We theorize that teachers will increase self-efficacy teaching these subjects after participation in the TRAILS program, and this would indicate a stronger foundation for effective teaching (Stohlmann et al. 2012). Measurements of teacher self-efficacy parallels and extends the work of Nadelson et al. (2012), and additionally measures student self-efficacy in learning STEM. Self-efficacy is a good predictor of performance, behavior, and academic achievement (Bandura 1978, 1997). Research projects like TRAILS provide researcher opportunities to explore the impact of an integrated STEM teacher professional development on teachers teaching practices as well as assess impact on students' learning STEM content. TRAILS also focuses on how the project may impact students' interest in STEM careers. This project serves as one example of how future research on integrated STEM teaching can assess teaching and learning of STEM content as well as help to identify barriers that exist in current educational systems. Projects like TRAILS are needed to help inform educational researchers and the greater STEM education community what works effectively and what does not when integrating STEM subjects in secondary education. The proposed theoretical models need to be tested and vetted within the STEM education greater community. The current TRAILS project provides an ideal platform to conduct research on this approach to integrated STEM to seek to identify the benefits as well as limitations.
Conclusion and implications
The recent STEM education literature provides rationale to teach STEM concepts in a context which is most often delivered in project, problem, and design-based approaches (Carlson and Sullivan 1999; Frykholm and Glasson 2005; Hmelo-Silver 2004; Kolodner 2006; Kolodner et al. 2003; Krajcik et al. 1998). It could prove helpful if integrated STEM educators learned the various "STEM languages" and STEM practices outlined above. The reality is secondary education in the US silo STEM subjects within a rigid structure with departmental agendas, requirements, content standards, and end-of-year examinations. If these barriers remain in education in the USA and in other nations, they may constrain the successful implementation of an integrated STEM program therefore jeopardizing the entire STEM movement.
The authors suggest that the key to preparing STEM educators is to first begin by grounding their conceptual understanding of integrated STEM education by teaching key learning theories, pedagogical approaches, and building awareness of research results of current secondary STEM educational initiatives. Furthermore, professional development experiences for in-service teachers could also provide a strong conceptual framework of an integrated STEM approach and build their confidence in teaching from an integrated STEM approach. Kennedy and Odell (2014) indicated that STEM education programs of high quality should include (a) integration of technology and engineering into science and math curriculum at a minimum; (b) promote scientific inquiry and engineering design, include rigorous mathematics and science instruction; (c) collaborative approaches to learning, connect students and educators with STEM fields and professionals; (d) provide global and multi-perspective viewpoints; (e) incorporate strategies such as project-based learning, provide formal and informal learning experiences; and (f) incorporate appropriate technologies to enhance learning.
Finally, further research and discussion is needed on integrated STEM education so that effective methodologies can be implemented by teachers in the classroom and further assess the strategies this overall framework proposes here (Stohlmann et al. 2012). The TRAILS project feature above is just one example of funded research that seeks to better identify the best conditions to teach STEM subjects in an integrated approach to teaching as well as learn what level of support students and teachers require to improve STEM education.
NSF disclaimer
Elements of this paper are supported by the National Science Foundation, award #DRL-1513248. Any opinions and findings expressed in this material are the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of NSF.
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Hoachlander, G., & Yanofsky, D. (2011). Making STEM real: by infusing core academics with rigorous real-world work, linked learning pathways prepare students for both college and career. Educational Leadership, 68(3), 60–65.
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International Technology Education Association. (2000/2002/2007). Standards for technological literacy: Content for the study of technology. Reston: Author.
International Technology Education Association. (2003). Advancing excellence in technological literacy: Student assessment, professional development, and program standards. Reston: Author.
Kennedy, T., & Odell, M. (2014). Engaging students in STEM education. Science Education International, 25(3), 246–258.
Kolodner, J. L. (2002). Facilitating the learning of design practices: lessons learned from an inquiry into science education. Journal of Industrial Teacher Education, 39(3), 1–31.
Kolodner, J. L. (2006). Case-based reasoning. In K. L. Sawyer (Ed.), The Cambridge handbook of learning sciences (pp. 225–242). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Kolodner, J. L., Crismond, D., Fasse, B., Gray, J., Holbrook, J., & Puntembakar, S. (2003). Putting a student-centered Learning by Design™ curriculum into practice: lessons learned. Journal of the Learning Sciences, 12(4), 495–548.
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Powell-Moman, A. D., & Brown-Schild, V. B. (2011). The influence of a two-year professional development institute on teacher self-efficacy and use of inquiry-based instruction. Science Educator, 20(2), 47–53.
Purzer, S., Goldstein, M., Adams, R., Xie, C., & Nourian, S. (2015). An exploratory study of informed engineering design behaviors associated with scientific explanations. International Journal of STEM Education, 2(9), 1–12.
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President's Council of Advisors on Science and Technology (PCAST). (2010). Prepare and inspire: K-12 education in science, technology, engineering, and math (stem) for America's future. Washington: Author.
Sanders, M. (2009). STEM, STEM education, STEMmania. The Technology Teacher, 68(4), 20–26.
Stohlmann, M., Moore, T., & Roehrig, G. (2012). Considerations for teaching integrated STEM education. Journal of Pre-College Engineering Education Research., 2(1), 28–34. doi:10.5703/1288284314653.
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Grant number is DRL-1513248.
The following provides a review of the co-author contributions. Both authors collaborated on the writing of the manuscript so much so that it is a blend of both authors' ideas. However, here is a general description of the author's individual contributions. TRK started the first draft of the manuscript and crafted the general conceptual framework. JGK was able to provide additional assistance leveraging current literature to support the ideas of the manuscript. JGK crafted the introduction and provided the majority of the supporting literature in this section. TRK crafted the conceptual framework section. Both JGK and TRK collaboratively created the graphic and TRK provided the conceptual framework components of the graphic. JGK contributed to collecting supporting literature and assisted TRK refining the writing for clarity. Both authors have read and approved the final manuscript.
342 Young Hall, West Lafayette, IN, 47907, USA
Todd R. Kelley
Ivy Tech Community College, Purdue University, 2325 Phil Ward Blvd, Crawfordsville, IN, 47933, USA
J. Geoff Knowles
Correspondence to Todd R. Kelley.
Kelley, T.R., Knowles, J.G. A conceptual framework for integrated STEM education. IJ STEM Ed 3, 11 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40594-016-0046-z
Received: 13 August 2015
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s40594-016-0046-z
Integrated STEM
STEM pedagogies


This mini favour bag is an amazing idea for a beach themed wedding. Fill with candies or treats and don't forget to personalize with our trims and ribbons for a nice finished and polished look.
• Bags only. Contents sold separately.


Chinese Premier Li Keqiang's visit to the UK is our cover story (P40). With US$24 billion worth of deals signed during his four-day visit, can the UK finally begin to catch up with other European nations in trading with China?
Xinjiang province is the focus of our in-depth report (P12), meanwhile. We examine the recent turbulence in the autonomous region, and look back at the history of the region the separatists now call East Turkestan.
Any martial art fans should check out our piece on modern martial arts in China on page 30. With the Ultimate Fighting Championship taking a foothold in China, can the country reconcile its proud kung-fu history with the brutal, take-no-prisoners style of today's mixed martial arts (MMA)?


text:
Q: In Rails, how to do a complex nested join I'm trying to generate this SQL statement via Rails:
SELECT * FROM reward_cards
INNER JOIN reward_card_payments
  ON reward_card_payments.reward_card_id = reward_cards.id
INNER JOIN payments
  ON payments.id = reward_card_payments.payment_id AND payments.amount < 0;

Is there a 'rails' way similar to this:
RewardsCard.joins(reward_card_payments => {:payments => payments.amount < 0})

A: The best way I could find is
RewardsCard.joins(:reward_card_payments).joins(
  'INNER JOIN payments
    ON payments.id = reward_card_payments.payment_id AND payments.amount < 0'
)

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaStackExchange


Extremadura in southwestern Spain, bordering with Portugal, may require a little more effort to get to (a 3-hour drive from the nearest international airport; Madrid), yet for foodies and wine lovers, it is more than worth it. Rich in agriculture, yielding an extensive range of vegetable crops such as tomatoes, peppers, green beans, cucumbers, rice, carrots, and asparagus. Extremadura also competes with Andalusia as a producer of olives. The region is home to outstanding meat and dairy products; the Iberian black pig providing Ibérico hams, cured pork loins, chorizos (pork sausage), morcilla (black sausage), salchichón. Whilst both goats and sheep provide the milk for cheeses such as Torta del Casar, Queso de La Serena, and Ibores. With such fantastic local produce, the cuisine is kept simple; dishes include "migas", a rustic fry of breadcrumbs, garlic, bacon, chorizo and peppers, and lamb "caldereta", a shepherd's dish flavored with rich and smoky pimentón de La Vera – paprika, the star spice of this region. The wine region here is DO Ribera del Guadiana, which spans most of Extremadura was established fairly recently in 1999, although as with most of Spain, Extremadura wine history goes back to the Romans, or maybe even earlier. The first testimony of wine in Extremadura comes from a document which explains its uses in funerals around the 550 BC. A lot has been invested in the last 20 years to modernize and improve and today there are numerous vineyards producing top wines.
You will have a private chauffeured Mercedes throughout the tour and so you can sit back, relax and enjoy. Your tour will begin in either Madrid or Toledo, from where you will be swept away through the beautiful "extremeño" countryside taking in the magical hamlet of Trujillo, UNESCO world heritage old town of Cáceres and Roman city, Mérida. You will receive VIP tours and tastings at a number of fantastic wine estates, namely Bodegas Habla, artisan cheese producers, and top "jamón" (Iberian ham) farms. Dining is always an important aspect of our wine tours and you will have a wide range of gastronomic experiences from Michelin starred dining to rustic and authentic tapas. Your carefully selected Boutique hotels are situated in stunning locations and provide comfort and luxury. Private guides will provide both information and entertain you. If you are looking for an upscale private tour of southwestern Spain and love food and wine, contact us for more information!
Your private chauffeur will collect you in Madrid or Toledo, both good places to start this exciting food and wine tour of one of Spain's most undiscovered jewels. You have a good 2-hour 20-minute drive ahead, so sit back and relax in your comfortable Mercedes. You will arrive in beautiful Trujillo in time for lunch, today it's a relaxed affair at Corral del Rey. Here you will sample some of the best local produce prepared simply but to perfection. Most likely starting with a selection of local cured meats and cheeses, followed by exquisite sirloin hot off the grill or "Rabo de toro estofado con boletus" (bull tail stew with wild mushrooms). After your welcoming "extremeño" feast you will be able to stretch your legs and take in a digestive walk around this magical hamlet. Your own private guide will show you the highlights of pretty Trujillo, home to one of Spain's infamous conquistadores, Pizarro, filling you in on the history, with plenty of fun anecdotes.
Then you can settle into your hotel, a restored Palace "Palacio de Santa Marta", the perfect place to relax, and rest up from the journey. Your hotel is situated just off the main square "Plaza Mayor", so you could even pop out for a light meal or some local tapas. The Plaza Mayor is beautiful at any time of day but looks exceptionally romantic lit-up at night. Welcome to Extremadura!
At 10 a.m. your chauffeur will meet you and drive you a short 40-minute drive to nearby Montánchez. Here you will have time to stroll around the streets and browse the shops, where you will quickly discover that they are dominated by culinary delights with a wide variety of cured hams. However more famous than these is the ham of the same name "Montánchez". This ham has had royal recognition right back to Emperor Charles V who insisted that a plate of Iberian ham be served at every meal he attended. The reason for such exquisite ham being produced in Montánchez is due to the climate and growing conditions for the acorns, the principal diet of the black Iberian pigs. You will visit Casa Baptista, a family run business since 1925. Here you will learn about the production and then enjoy a fabulous tasting of their cured meats and hams. The perfect aperitif, then lunch is next and will be at a charming tavern with Iberian cured ham as the signature ingredient.
Then in the afternoon, heading back in the direction of Trujillo you will stop at the wonderful Bodegas Habla. Your welcoming hosts will take you through their viticultural process and then moving into the winery you will be able to taste their wines currently in the market as well as see their cute museum which holds all of the mythical Habla wines since the beginning. The setting is stunning and for equine lovers, you can admire their Spanish Pure breeds. A short 10 minute back to Trujillo, where you can enjoy a free evening with our recommendations if you wish to explore some more.
Enjoy a leisurely start or maybe one last stroll around this special hamlet, as today you will move on to Cáceres. Your first stop will be at an artisan Torta de Casal cheese farm, such as "Queseria Dona Francisca". Torta del Casar- is a heavenly cheese made with organic sheep's milk and is one of the most tantalizing gourmet goodies in the WORLD. The cheese is circular and the inside is soft, semi-liquid and has an almost melted texture. It is usually served with crackers or bread and can be topped with caramelized onions, chutney or relish or as a sauce on solomillo steak. Production of Torta del Casar in Extremadura is thankfully still on a small and artisan basis and the quality is ultra high. Enjoy this local delight accompanied by a glass or two of local red – heavenly!
Moving on to Cáceres, where a guided walk around the town will undoubtedly be appreciated. The old town of Caceres, a UNESCO world heritage center oozes history and culture, but monuments aside Cáceres is a favorite place for birdwatchers due to its wealth of natural resources, which include the Monfragüe National Park and a nature reserve. Next, settle into your hotel for the following few nights; it's a real treat the Gastronic Atrio Restaurant Hotel. Make the most of some free time in your hotel or explore Cáceres by night with our recommendations, of course.
A slightly earlier start today, as you will be touring some of the region's most beautiful and interesting locations. At 9:30 a.m. your driver will collect you for about a 2-hour drive to Jerez de Los Caballeros, a fascinating city where artistic and architectural heritage merge. Your driver will then transfer you to Zafra, a small market town full of charm and history. Here you will have a casual, yet creative lunch at "El Acebuche". A stone's throw from the beautiful Parador, you can enjoy local ingredients and traditional dishes prepared with a modern, creative touch. It would be a crime to be so close to the historic, very handsome Parador and not go in – why not enjoy a digestif there?
Then you will move on to Merida to discover its Ancient Roman history. With so much heritage and history to absorb, you will have a friendly and well-informed private guide to lead the way. The list is endless, but some highlights include the Amphitheatre and the Roman theatre, where a summer festival of Classical theatre is presented, the Forum, including the Temple of Diana, and the Roman Provincial Forum, including the so-called Arch of Trajan or the remains of the Circus Maximus (1st century BC), one of the best preserved Roman circus buildings. Then back to Cáceres to spend another night at your wonderful gastronomic boutique hotel.
At 10:30 a.m. your driver will collect you; today you are going to discover the star spice of Extremadura – Pimenton. You will taste some great specialties in the quaint town of Jarandilla de la Vera. Moving on you will enjoy a panoramic driving tour that will include Medieval Cuacos de Yuste and Plasencia. Cuacos de Yuste declared historic-artistic site in 1959. A must-see here is its 3 squares; the Plaza de Don Juan de Austria, shaped like an oval and lined with houses that have wooden balconies and porches; Plaza de España; and Plaza de Los Chorros, with a harmonious popular atmosphere. The parish church of Nuestra Señora de Asunción, from the 15th century, is also one of the most elaborate and interesting temples in the region.
Heading another 40 minutes' drive east, you will arrive at Plasencia, this medieval city on the banks of the River Jerte boasts two Cathedrals, the Old Cathedral Romanesque, whilst the New Cathedral has many Gothic and Renaissance elements. The Parador is the best place to enjoy more magnificent Extremaduran food, however, we recommend that you choose a lighter lunch today, as this evening you are in for a real gourmet treat. After a full day of touring, you will return to your hotel, where you'll have time to freshen up and dress for the Michelin starred gourmet dinner that awaits you in your hotel's restaurant, Atrio. But first, you will be taken on a VIP tour of the kitchen and cellar, before settling down to a sensational meal accompanied by exquisite wines of course. What a finale to your Gourmet Extremadura Food and Wine Tour!
After a terrific breakfast, depart for Madrid or your next port of call. This concludes an extraordinary food and wine tour of Extremadura. We hope you have had an amazing time!


text:
Contents tagged "privacy"
There are 10 contents with this tag:
Laura Kalbag
This One Weird Trick Tells Us Everything About You
2 webmentions
The web, and Big Tech at large, is tracking our every move, habit, and facial expression. As designers and developers who are also users, we both contribute to the surveillance system and are exploited by it. But it doesn't have to be this way.
After GDPR, The New York Times cut off ad exchanges in Europe — and kept growing ad revenue
advertisement, privacy
Great demonstration that GDPR is not a threat for publishers who favor quality:
Aral Balkan
Apple just killed Offline Web Apps while purporting to protect your privacy: why that's A Bad Thing and why you should care
privacy, PWA, Apple
deleting all local storage (including Indexed DB, etc.) after 7 days effectively blocks any future decentralised apps using the browser (client side) as a trusted replication node in a peer-to-peer network. And that's a huge blow to the future of privacy.
Katharine Schwab
Google's new reCAPTCHA has a dark side
privacy, security, Google
Because reCaptcha v3 is likely to be on every page of a website, if you're signed into your Google account there's a chance Google is getting data about every single webpage you go to that is embedded with reCaptcha v3—and there many be no visual indication on the site that it's happening, beyond a small reCaptcha logo hidden in the corner.
Yoav Weiss
Intent to Deprecate and Freeze: The User-Agent string
Web, privacy, User-Agent
User-Agent sniffing, used for example to (try to) perform dynamic serving instead of true responsive web design, has always been a really bad practice, for different reasons:
Boris Schapira
Trackers on Your Domain, Revenue Risk
WebPerf, privacy, security, ethics
In this article, Boris shows how new practices around third party trackers hidden as first party assets, to "escape" GDPR and trackers blockers, can lead to security and performance issues, leading to potential business loss.
I Visited 47 Sites. Hundreds of Trackers Followed Me.
For several days this spring, I lived my life through this Invasive Firefox, which logged every site I visited, all the advertising tracking servers that were watching my surfing and all the data they obtained. Then I uploaded the data to my colleagues at The Times, who reconstructed my web sessions into the gloriously invasive picture of my digital life you see here.
Jack Schofield
Can I buy a phone that doesn't use anything from Google or Apple?
Google, Apple, privacy, mobile
Here's a good overview of mobile (smart)phones alternative to Google and Apple ones (or lack thereof), if you want to make sure you're not spied on.
Opquast
Web Quality Checklist
quality, WebPerf, privacy, accessibility
The Web Quality Checklist is intended for all professionals who create websites. It is designed in a collaborative way by a community of Web professionals, led by the French company Opquast (Open Quality Standards).
Your Apps Know Where You Were Last Night, and They're Not Keeping It Secret
privacy, geolocation
The mobile location industry began as a way to customize apps and target ads for nearby businesses, but it has morphed into a data collection and analysis machine.
See all tags.

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


text:
using System;
using System.Collections.Generic;
using System.Collections.Concurrent;
using System.Linq;
using System.Text;
using System.Threading;

namespace Jhu.PhotoZ
{
    public abstract class Template
    {

        public Template(TemplateParameter aRedshift, TemplateParameter aLuminosity = null) : this()
        {
            parameterList = new List<TemplateParameter>(5);

            if (!ReferenceEquals(aLuminosity, null))
            {
                parameterList.Add((TemplateParameter)aLuminosity.Clone());
                parameterList.Last().Name = "Luminosity"; //Making sure the name of the parameter is correctly set
                IgnoreLuminosity = false;
                IterationStepsWhenIgnoringLuminosity = Constants.missingInt;
            }
            else
            {
                parameterList.Add(new TemplateParameterMultiplicative() { Name = "Luminosity", Value = 1.0 });
                IgnoreLuminosity = true;
                IterationStepsWhenIgnoringLuminosity = 21;
            }
            parameterList.Add((TemplateParameter)aRedshift.Clone());
            parameterList.Last().Name = "Redshift"; //Making sure the name of the parameter is correctly set

            iterationStartID = Constants.missingInt;
            iterationLastID = Constants.missingInt;

            currentSpectrum = null;
            syntheticFluxCache = new ConcurrentDictionary<Filter, double[]>();

            redshiftCoverageSize = Constants.missingInt;
            redshiftIndexInCoverage = Constants.missingInt;
            savedRedshiftParameter = null;
        }

        protected Template() {}

        //Creates a lightweight copy so that the fitting steps can be run parallelly
        public abstract Template CloneLightWeight();

        protected void CloneLightWeighValues(Template other)
        {
            other.parameterList = new List<TemplateParameter>(parameterList.Select(x => (TemplateParameter)x.CloneForIteration()));

            other.IgnoreLuminosity = IgnoreLuminosity;
            other.IterationStepsWhenIgnoringLuminosity = IterationStepsWhenIgnoringLuminosity;

            other.iterationStartID = iterationStartID;
            other.iterationLastID = iterationLastID;

            other.redshiftCoverageSize = redshiftCoverageSize;
            other.redshiftIndexInCoverage = redshiftIndexInCoverage;
            if (!ReferenceEquals(savedRedshiftParameter, null))
            {
                other.savedRedshiftParameter = (TemplateParameter)savedRedshiftParameter.Clone();
            }
            else
            {
                other.savedRedshiftParameter = null;
            }

            if (!ReferenceEquals(currentSpectrum, null))
            {
                other.currentSpectrum = new Spectrum(currentSpectrum);
            }
            else
            {
                other.currentSpectrum = null;
            }

            other.syntheticFluxCache = syntheticFluxCache;
        }

        private ConcurrentDictionary<Filter, double[]> syntheticFluxCache;
        private int redshiftCoverageSize;
        private int redshiftIndexInCoverage;
        private TemplateParameter savedRedshiftParameter;

        //Luminosity and redhsift are "post-process" parameters, they are passed to the spectrum object
        //So they are handled separately, in that they always occupy slot 1 and 2, respectively, in the parameter list
        //All the other parameters (that create the restframe spectrum) follow them
        protected List<TemplateParameter> parameterList;

        //The option to ignore luminosity in the parameter iteration
        //This has to be used when fitting the constant magnitude shift for the minimum chi-square fit
        //Also used when we do not want to cover a fixed range in the luminosity, but instead iterate
        //around a central (min chi-square) magnitude value in magnitudes
        public bool IgnoreLuminosity { get; set; }

        //When iterating around a central (min chi-square) magnitude/flux value, these values specify how many positions to evaluate
        //The size of the steps is currently hardcoded in Templatefit.cs to span 3 times the average error in both directions
        public int IterationStepsWhenIgnoringLuminosity { get; set; }

        //Helper values that enable the iteration process
        private int iterationStartID;
        private int iterationLastID;

        //Keeping the lastly generated spectrum during iteration so that simple transformations
        //can be done without recalculating everything
        private Spectrum currentSpectrum;

        public abstract Spectrum GenerateSpectrum();

        //Returns the actual parameter list so that a prior can be calculated
        //Parameters should not be externally modified inside an iteration
        //(Except luminosity with IgnoreLuminosity==true)
        public List<TemplateParameter> GetParameterList()
        {
            return parameterList;
        }

        public bool SetParameterList(List<TemplateParameter> aParams)
        {
            if (parameterList.Count != aParams.Count)
            {
                return false;
            }

            for (int i = 0; i < parameterList.Count; ++i)
            {
                if (parameterList[i].Name != aParams[i].Name)
                {
                    return false;
                }
            }

            parameterList = new List<TemplateParameter>(aParams.Select(x => (TemplateParameter)x.Clone()));
            return true;
        }

        public List<double> GetParameterCoverage(string paramName)
        {
            foreach (TemplateParameter param in parameterList)
            {
                if (param.Name == paramName)
                {
                    return param.GetParameterCoverage();
                }
            }

            return new List<double>(0);
        }

        public int GetParameterIndexInCoverage(string paramName)
        {
            foreach (TemplateParameter param in parameterList)
            {
                if (param.Name == paramName)
                {
                    return param.GetParameterIndexInCoverage();
                }
            }

            return Constants.missingInt;
        }

        public double GetClosestParameterValueInCoverage(string paramName, double paramValue)
        {
            foreach (TemplateParameter param in parameterList)
            {
                if (param.Name == paramName)
                {
                    return param.GetClosestParameterValueInCoverage(paramValue);
                }
            }

            return Constants.missingInt;
        }

        public double GetParameterValue(string paramName)
        {
            foreach (TemplateParameter param in parameterList)
            {
                if (param.Name == paramName)
                {
                    return param.Value;
                }
            }

            return Constants.missingDouble;
        }

        public bool SetParameterValue(string paramName, double aValue)
        {
            foreach (TemplateParameter param in parameterList)
            {
                if (param.Name == paramName)
                {
                    param.Value = aValue;
                    return true;
                }
            }

            return false;
        }

        public double GetParameterValue(int paramIndex)
        {
            if (paramIndex>=0 && paramIndex < parameterList.Count)
            {
                return parameterList[paramIndex].Value;
            }

            return Constants.missingDouble;
        }

        public bool SetParameterValue(int paramIndex, double aValue)
        {
            if (paramIndex>=0 && paramIndex < parameterList.Count)
            {
                parameterList[paramIndex].Value = aValue;
                return true;
            }

            return false;
        }

        public double LockRedshiftAtFixedValue(double aRedshift)
        {
            if (ReferenceEquals(savedRedshiftParameter, null))
            {
                savedRedshiftParameter = parameterList[1];
            }

            double closestRedshift = savedRedshiftParameter.GetClosestParameterValueInCoverage(aRedshift);
            redshiftIndexInCoverage = savedRedshiftParameter.GetParameterIndexInCoverage(closestRedshift);
            redshiftCoverageSize = savedRedshiftParameter.GetParameterCoverageSize();

            parameterList[1] = new TemplateParameterAdditive(closestRedshift, closestRedshift, 1.0) { Name = "Redshift", Value = closestRedshift };

            //Returns the value where it was actually locked, based on the coverage
            return closestRedshift;
        }

        public bool UnlockRedshiftFromFixedValue()
        {
            if (!ReferenceEquals(savedRedshiftParameter, null))
            {
                parameterList[1] = savedRedshiftParameter;
                savedRedshiftParameter = null;

                redshiftIndexInCoverage = Constants.missingInt;
                redshiftCoverageSize = Constants.missingInt;

                return true;
            }
            else
            {
                return false;
            }
        }

        public bool TryGetFluxFromCache(Filter aFilter, out double cachedFlux)
        {
            double[] fluxArray;
            int index = GetIndexInFluxCacheArray();

            if (index != Constants.missingInt && syntheticFluxCache.TryGetValue(aFilter, out fluxArray))
            {
                cachedFlux = Interlocked.CompareExchange(ref fluxArray[index], -1.0, -1.0);
                return cachedFlux != Constants.missingDouble;
            }
            else
            {
                cachedFlux = Constants.missingDouble;
                return false;
            }
        }

        public bool TryAddFluxToCache(Filter aFilter, double uncorrectedFlux)
        {
            double[] fluxArray;
            int index = GetIndexInFluxCacheArray();

            if (index == Constants.missingInt)
            {
                return false;
            }

            if (syntheticFluxCache.TryGetValue(aFilter, out fluxArray))
            {

                Interlocked.CompareExchange(ref fluxArray[index], uncorrectedFlux, Constants.missingDouble);

                return true;
            }
            else
            {
                fluxArray = new double[GetFluxCacheArraySize()];

                for (int i = 0; i < fluxArray.Length; ++i)
                {
                    fluxArray[i]=Constants.missingDouble;
                }

                fluxArray[index] = uncorrectedFlux;

                return syntheticFluxCache.TryAdd(aFilter, fluxArray);
            }
        }

        private int GetIndexInFluxCacheArray()
        {
            int blockSize = 1;
            int index = 0;

            int startingParam = 0;
            if (IgnoreLuminosity)
            {
                startingParam = 1;
            }

            int paramIndex, paramBlockSize;
            for (int i = startingParam; i < parameterList.Count; ++i)
            {
                if (i == 1 && redshiftCoverageSize != Constants.missingInt)
                {
                    paramIndex = redshiftIndexInCoverage;
                    paramBlockSize = redshiftCoverageSize;
                }
                else
                {
                    paramIndex = parameterList[i].GetParameterIndexInCoverage();
                    paramBlockSize = parameterList[i].GetParameterCoverageSize();
                }

                if (paramIndex >= 0 && paramIndex < paramBlockSize)
                {
                    index += paramIndex * blockSize;
                    blockSize *= paramBlockSize;
                }
                else
                {
                    return Constants.missingInt;
                }

            }

            return index;
        }

        private int GetFluxCacheArraySize()
        {
            int blockSize = 1;

            int startingParam = 0;
            if (IgnoreLuminosity)
            {
                startingParam = 1;
            }

            for (int i = startingParam; i < parameterList.Count; ++i)
            {
                if (i == 1 && redshiftCoverageSize != Constants.missingInt)
                {
                    blockSize *= redshiftCoverageSize;
                }
                else
                {
                    blockSize *= parameterList[i].GetParameterCoverageSize();
                }
            }

            return blockSize;
        }

        public void InitializeIteration()
        {
            foreach (TemplateParameter param in parameterList)
            {
                param.ResetValue();
            }

            if (IgnoreLuminosity)
            {
                parameterList[0].Value = 1.0;
                iterationStartID = 1;
            }
            else
            {
                iterationStartID = 0;
            }

            iterationLastID = Constants.missingInt;

            currentSpectrum = null;
        }

        public bool IterateParameters()
        {
            int iterationCurrentID = iterationStartID;

            //Stepping the lowest-level parameter while possible
            //When not possible, stepping the following order, while resetting the lowest and continuing stepping the lowest
            //When stepping two levels are both not possible, stepping the third, while resetting first and second
            //And so on for all levels
            while (iterationCurrentID < parameterList.Count() && !parameterList[iterationCurrentID].StepValue())
            {
                parameterList[iterationCurrentID].ResetValue();
                ++iterationCurrentID;

                //Making sure that spectrum is generated at least once for parameters higher that redshift and luminosity
                if (iterationCurrentID > 1)
                {
                    currentSpectrum = null;
                }
            }

            iterationLastID = iterationCurrentID;

            return (iterationLastID < parameterList.Count());
        }

        public Spectrum GenerateIteratedSpectrum()
        {
            if (iterationLastID <= 1 && !ReferenceEquals(currentSpectrum, null))
            {
                currentSpectrum.Luminosity = parameterList[0].Value;
                currentSpectrum.Redshift = parameterList[1].Value;
            }
            else
            {
                currentSpectrum = GenerateSpectrum();
            }

            return currentSpectrum;
        }
    }
}

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaGithub


Using my real estate analogy this would be like buying a 20-unit apartment building and then keeping it empty of tenants, hoping you could sell it for more than you paid maybe 10 years from now, without receiving any rental income during those 10 years. Would that make sense?
If you were looking to buy an apartment building, you'd ask, "How much rent or income can this building produce?" In real estate this is called the "capitalization rate", or the rate of return on a property based on the income it is expected to generate. In the stock market, it's called current yield—how much annual income the stock produces relative to its current price.
Now the next important question for a landlord might be, "Who will be living in my building?" You want to check into your tenants' credit history, their past and present earnings, how much debt they have, and so on. Quality tenants tend to pay rent on time and will generally continue to do so even when the rent rises.
In my opinion, investors in dividend paying companies should do this too. You may be so focused on buying low and selling high that you don't do a thorough investigation into the quality of the stock. We seek quality companies that have a track record of paying their dividend on time with a tendency to increase that dividend over time.
For comparison, imagine your real estate agent calling you every day to tell you if the value of your building has gone up or down. It probably wouldn't take you long to ask them to stop calling. The most valuable part of owning the asset are the steady rent checks.
Like rent, any income generated by dividends may arrive on a schedule. Though not guaranteed, this income typically continues while the stock prices bounce up and down. We believe that dividend income can help investors build wealth in a more stable and calculable manner than relying on the underlying stock price.
For dividend paying companies total return is part income and part price accumulation. But the income provides flexibility. You can spend income or you can reinvest it. Though dividends may seem small, they tend to add up over time.
Conceivably, not only could you receive income from a stock—much like rent—but if you buy more shares, you could be getting even more income from the company if it raises its dividend. If you are a landlord, this is akin to taking money you'd earned from rental income and buying more units. Now you would likely increase your total rental income.
With dividend-paying stocks you may benefit from compounding over time without the same considerations of rental ownership.
If you're interested in learning more about our Dividend Investing Strategy or want to see how it might work for your portfolio, give us a call. Thanks for watching, I'm LPL Financial Advisor Pat Alfano.
The opinions voiced in this material are for general information only and are not intended to provide specific advice or recommendations for any individual. Investing involves risk, including the risk of loss. No strategy assures a profit or protects against loss.


Miracle Muffler & Trailer Hitch is Orange County's best value for comprehensive trailer repair and service. Since 1963, we've performed major and minor repairs on cargo, utility, travel, livestock, and dump trailers of all sizes. These repairs and modifications have included general welding and fabrication work, floor replacement, rack and shelving installation, suspension and steering repair, tongue jack replacement, electrical wiring, tail light installation and replacement, brake service, brake control installation axle and wheel bearing service, and collision repair. Every trailer repair and service is performed by one or both of our owners, who have over 40 years of experience each. With their accrued knowledge and skill, they've become highly adept at performing expert repairs that are safe, long-lasting, and exceptionally reliable.
Whether you need your trailer modified to accommodate a specific application or repaired following a major collision, Miracle Muffler will make sure that your trailer repair or service work is done right, the first time, ever time. We stand behind our work and aim for 100% customer satisfaction. As a testament to our commitment to quality service, we have more than 50,000 satisfied customers and a stellar reputation that brings us clients from San Clemente to Garden Grove. Not only do we use high-quality parts with the industry's best service techniques, but we'll also provide you with the fastest turnaround you can get in Orange County.
If you are looking for trailer repair or service in Orange County, contact licensed, bonded, and insured Miracle Muffler today. We provide honest recommendations and complete estimates, and complete most jobs in one to two days. We are open Monday through Friday from 8:00 am to 5:00 pm.


text:
Kaung Htet Soe (; * 1. Juni 1997 als Kaung Htet Zaw) ist ein myanmarischer Fußballspieler.

Karriere
Kaung Htet Soe stand von 2019 bis August 2021 bei Yangon United in Rangun unter Vertrag. Für den Erstligisten bestritt er 18 Ligaspiele und schoss dabei fünf Tore. Wo er von September 2021 bis August 2022 gespielt hat, ist unbekannt. Zu Beginn der Saison 2022/23 ging er nach Thailand, wo er sich dem Drittligisten Kamphaengphet FC anschloss. Mit dem Verein aus Kamphaengphet spielt er in der Northern Region der Liga.

Weblinks

Fußballspieler (Yangon United)
Fußballspieler (Kamphaengphet FC)
Teilnehmer an den Südostasienspielen (Myanmar)
Myanmare
Geboren 1997
Mann

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


Kids aren't cheap. There are diapers to buy, clothes, baby essentials and the like and if you're not careful, the expenses can really add up. But that doesn't mean you can find great steals and budget friendly options when it comes to baby gear – you just need to know where to look! Buying baby clothes isn't as easy as finding the lowest price possible, and you should be aware of a few things in order to get the most from your hard earned money. Apply these tips on how to shop for baby clothes and you'll score big!
Whenever you head to the store or look online, always look at the sale or clearance section before you go to the regular styles. You never know what sort of amazing deals you'll find in these sections. You'll most likely find similar items you're looking for! And the great thing is that they're less expensive that what you would have paid otherwise, allowing your dollar to go much further.
If you really want a great deal on baby clothes and don't want to spend a lot, consignment and second hand stores will have everything you need at great prices. These clothes are gently worn and are still in very good condition. You'll pay a quarter of the price if you were to buy new, so you'll be able to buy more pieces.
You'd be surprised at just what amazing deals and finds there are on Facebook's marketplace features. You can literally find anything on here, including lots of baby clothes. Many parents sell their old baby clothes for cheap, allowing you to score some amazing finds at affordable prices.
The latest thing on Facebook is buy/sell/trade (b/s/t) groups. There are groups for a variety of clothing brands and all you have to do is join the ones you like. From there, parents will post their baby clothes for sale and you simply claim by leaving your email address that associated with your PayPal account. They'll then ship the items in the mail after you've paid.


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text:
Stephen Clarke (born July 21, 1973) is a Canadian former competition swimmer and Olympic bronze medallist.

Clarke was born in Sutton Coldfield, England, and emigrated to Canada at an early age. He swam for the COBRA swim club in Brampton, Ontario, where he was the first member of the club to make the national team.

Clarke had a distinguished international swimming career, representing Canada at two Summer Olympics and a Commonwealth Games. At the 1992 Summer Olympics in Barcelona, Spain, he won a bronze medal by anchoring the Canadian team in the men's 4×100-metre medley, swimming with Mark Tewksbury, Jonathan Cleveland, and Marcel Gery. He swam in multiple events at the 1994 Commonwealth Games in Victoria, British Columbia, winning a gold medal in the men's 100-metre freestyle (50.21 seconds), a silver in the 100-metre butterfly (54.45 seconds), and a second silver for anchoring Canada's second-place relay team in the 4x100-metre medley relay (3:43.25), together with teammates Chris Renaud, Jon Cleveland, and Robert Braknis. At the 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta, Georgia, Clarke qualified for the event finals of the men's 100-metre butterfly, finishing seventh with a time of 53.3 seconds.

After the 1992 Olympics, Clarke accepted an athletic scholarship to attend the University of Florida in Gainesville, Florida, where he swam for the Florida Gators swimming and diving team from 1993 to 1995, and again in 1997. As a Gator swimmer, Clarke won two individual Southeastern Conference (SEC) championships, and was a member of five SEC championship relay teams. He earned twenty-three All-American honors, and was twice recognized as the team's most valuable swimmer (1995, 1997). After taking a year off from university to train full-time for the 1996 Summer Olympics, he returned for his final year of NCAA competition and graduated from the University of Florida with a bachelor's degree in exercise and sport science in 1997.

He was inducted into Brampton Sports Hall of Fame and the Ontario Aquatic Hall of Fame in 1992.

See also

 List of Commonwealth Games medallists in swimming (men)
 List of Olympic medalists in swimming (men)
 List of University of Florida alumni
 List of University of Florida Olympians

References

External links
 Stephen Clarke at Swimming Canada

1973 births
Living people
Commonwealth Games gold medallists for Canada
Florida Gators men's swimmers
Canadian male breaststroke swimmers
Canadian male butterfly swimmers
Canadian male freestyle swimmers
Olympic bronze medalists for Canada
Olympic bronze medalists in swimming
Olympic swimmers of Canada
Sportspeople from Sutton Coldfield
Swimmers at the 1992 Summer Olympics
Swimmers at the 1996 Summer Olympics
Swimmers at the 1994 Commonwealth Games
Medalists at the 1992 Summer Olympics
Commonwealth Games silver medallists for Canada
Commonwealth Games bronze medallists for Canada
Pan American Games silver medalists for Canada
Commonwealth Games medallists in swimming
Pan American Games medalists in swimming
Swimmers at the 1991 Pan American Games
Medalists at the 1991 Pan American Games
Medallists at the 1994 Commonwealth Games


Love is the vehicle of your humanity. It reaches to the deepest recesses of ones soul. It matters not how dim that spark is within you, for it has the ability to be a raging inferno, just by being caressed and cradled by an understanding smile. You and your lover are a reflection of what you are both willing to give, understand and appreciate in each other.
Love is the most selfish and selfless treasures you possess. Its the gift you give others, to yourself.
When you have a lover in your life, you are richly blessed. You have been given the gift of another person who has chosen to walk beside you. He or she will share your days and your nights, your bed and your burdens. He will see the secret part of you that no one else sees. He will touch places on your body that no one else touches. He will seek you out where you have been hiding and create a safe haven for you within his arms.


Paul Evans, Cupola Gallery and Longbarrow Press are proud to present an evening with poets James Caruth, Angelina D'Roza, Mark Goodwin and Peter Riley at the Cupola Gallery, Sheffield, on Wednesday 21 October, reading poems that respond to the Peak District landscapes of The Seven Wonders (an ongoing collaborative project initiated in 2010 by Evans). The reading will be introduced by Paul Evans, and marks the close of 'Between Water and Stone: The Wonders of The Peak', Evans' current exhibition at Cupola Gallery, in which new paintings and drawings appear alongside poems by Chris Jones, Helen Mort, Fay Musselwhite and the aforementioned poets.
The last day for the Between Water and Stone exhibition is Saturday 24 October (gallery opening hours 10am-6pm, Mon-Sat; admission free).
Where lies your landmark, seamark or soul's star?
The paintings, drawings and poems of the current phase of The Seven Wonders are brought together in Between Water and Stone: The Wonders of the Peak, a forthcoming exhibition of new work by Paul Evans at Cupola Contemporary Art, Sheffield. Created on paper and board with graphite, charcoal, oil paint and watercolour, these dynamic paintings and drawings are informed by a deeply felt physical and emotional engagement with Peak District landforms. Sometimes sliding into abstract terrain, each drawing/painting represents aspects of a 'dangerous, intensely passionate relationship' that has consumed the artist for over three and a half decades.
A number of these paintings will be accompanied by poetry from leading contemporary poets including Angelina D'Roza, Mark Goodwin, Fay Musselwhite, Alistair Noon, Peter Riley and Derbyshire Poet Laureate Helen Mort. The exhibition opens on Saturday 26 September 2015 (continuing to Saturday 24 October); please join us for the preview on Friday 25 September (from 7.30pm). A further event at Cupola Contemporary Art, featuring Paul Evans and some of the poets who have contributed to the Seven Wonders project, will take place on Wednesday 21 October; more details will be posted here in the near future.
Between Water and Stone: The Wonders of the Peak is kindly supported by Longbarrow Press.
Following the appearance of two extracts on this site in December 2012, Longbarrow Press is proud to announce the publication of Peter Riley's long-awaited new pamphlet, The Ascent of Kinder Scout, a meditation on this physical and cultural 'wonder' of the Peak District. The front and back covers feature two remarkable paintings of Kinder Downfall by Paul Evans (developed as part of The Seven Wonders series). Beautifully designed and produced, The Ascent of Kinder Scout is now available for just £5 (inc UK P&P). Click on the relevant PayPal option below to order your copy. Click here to read two extracts from The Ascent of Kinder Scout.
The seventh work in the current phase of The Seven Wonders focuses on the 'stone edge' that marks the border between Derbyshire and Sheffield: Stanage. Artist Paul Evans and Derbyshire Poet Laureate Helen Mort respond to this gritstone escarpment with a poem that references one of the climbing routes to be found on the steep buttress, and a painting that evokes the uncommon ground encountered at the end of the climb. Click here to view the poem and the painting. This is the first stage in an ongoing collaboration between Evans and Mort, informed by a series of visits to and conversations about Stanage Edge; click on the 'Play' button below to listen to an edited discussion about the collaboration (recorded in Evans' Sheffield studio on 23 October 2013). Further work will be posted here in the coming months.
For the latest collaboration in the Seven Wonders series, artist Paul Evans and poet Mark Goodwin travel to Alport Castles, a landslip feature in the Peak District, Derbyshire. The gritstone debris from this landslide towers over the valley for over half a mile; from a distance, the protruding mounds resemble castles. The instability of the site is reflected in Goodwin's poem, which is also a response to Evans' painting; you can view the poem and the painting here (for an enlarged view of the poem, click on the link to the PDF at the bottom of the page).
Further work from the Seven Wonders series will appear in 2014, including a new collaboration between Evans and the Derbyshire poet laureate Helen Mort.
The fifth (and final) work to develop from this year's Seven Wonders collaborations revisits the site(s) of a notable physical and cultural landmark of the Peak District: Kinder Scout. The Downfall (revisited) comprises two new paintings by Paul Evans and two excerpts from a new work by Peter Riley (The Ascent of Kinder Scout), marking 80 years since the mass trespass that eventually led to the 'right to roam' being legislated in the Countryside and Rights of Way Act 2000.
Kinder Downfall is the tallest waterfall in the Peak District, with a fall of 30 metres. The waterfall was formerly known as Kinder Scut, and it is from this that the Kinder plateau derives its name. You can read Peter Riley's texts and view Paul Evans' paintings here.
The fourth collaboration in the current phase of The Seven Wonders focuses on The Burbage Valley, which lies 8km north-west of Sheffield and is largely formed of millstone grit and shale.
In a departure from the practices that shaped earlier collaborations in this series, Paul Evans has created a sequence of six drawings in response to a new poem by Alistair Noon; the poem and drawings trace a route through the valley towards 'the developing relicts'.


text:
Rasimavičius ist ein litauischer männlicher Familienname.

Weibliche Formen
Rasimavičiūtė (ledig)
Rasimavičienė (verheiratet)

Personen
 Pranas Vytautas Rasimavičius (1930–2002),  Familienrechtler, Verfassungsrichter, Professor
 Liudvikas Narcizas Rasimavičius (* 1938),  Jurist und Politiker

Familienname
Litauischer Personenname