Launch Camp teams working in Design Factory Melbourne.
Swinburne has expanded its partnership with CSIRO, becoming the first university to adopt its Launch Camp program.
Launch Camp, a part of the ON accelerator series, is designed to help researchers test and validate ideas in the early stages of translation or implementation.
Swinburne's Innovation Precinct had 10 teams of academics, staff and PhD students complete the first phase of the program at the university's Design Factory Melbourne last week.
Swinburne Pro Vice-Chancellor (Research Development, Innovation and Commercialisation) Professor Matthew Cuthbertson says Launch Camp is the first in a series of programs the Innovation Precinct plans to roll out.
"We already know there are extensive research and innovation capabilities across the university and these programs create a new platform for those capabilities to be channelled into the creation of new technology, products and services.
Innovation Precinct director Professor Sally McArthur says the framework of the program was adapted to reach beyond science and engineering to include any type of innovation that connected back to Swinburne's research capabilities.
Ideas included a social network analysis platform for professional sports clubs, an intergenerational robotics and coding program to address social isolation, and a sensor array capable of measuring the behaviour of single cells.
Each team was partnered with a mentor from within Swinburne and Professor McArthur says the development of the teams over the two days was exceptional.
"We asked each team to pitch their idea to us on early on the first day and then again at the end of the second day and the difference in focus and ability to describe their concept was incredible.
"The program is designed to challenge assumptions and to question ways of thinking. It requires team members and mentors to get out of their comfort zones, attempt to validate their assumptions and really connect with the problems their idea can solve. This approach obviously had a huge impact on the participants.
The teams will meet again in two weeks to continue the development of their unique value propositions and business canvases.
ON is funded via the Federal Government's National Innovation and Science Agenda (NISA).


text:
Padunia bikinensis är en nattsländeart som beskrevs av Martynov 1934. Padunia bikinensis ingår i släktet Padunia och familjen stenhusnattsländor. Inga underarter finns listade i Catalogue of Life.

Källor

Stenhusnattsländor
bikinensis

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


Shelmar Kennels Texas dog trainer offers a few dog obedience training tips for people who believe dog is mans best friend, yet their canine companion will not listen. If you cannot gain control in the park during a walk or your dog refuses to be house trained, you have a problem.
What relationship do you have with your dog?
Pretty important question if you are browsing our site looking for training advice or even a training program. The relationship most people have with their dog coming to our kennel is one of being their dog's best friend. The next question would be is there anything wrong with that?
The answer is tricky – it depends on the type of dog you have. If your pups the perfect pooch, loves taking his walks, friendly with everyone he meets, has several canine friends that love to romp and play together and, finally, after a day spent being your perfect companion, falls asleep at your feet, you are on the wrong web site. Most people don't have that luxury nor may I even say a 'fairytale' storybook of a dog.
I know I'll get 1000 emails saying that their dogs are angels without wings etc etc etc don't bother sending them!
I'm dealing with dogs that are not like that. The people I deal with everyday are confused, frustrated and sometimes scared. Raising a dog was not as easy as they thought and their perfect bundle of fur at 8 weeks has turned into a Tasmanian devil dog by 5 or 6 months old.
Of course I'm making a point – not everything about them is terrible but a dog that bolts across a road when you lose control in the park and simply will not listen, that's scary. Dogs that tear up the back yard because they have been relegated there for incessant jumping up isn't fair to dog or owner.
I have a list elsewhere on the site but all the problems we encounter are NORMAL behavior for dogs given their training. The main question being, what do I do about it and how can I make it stick?
The adage I want you to remember is that a dog is Mans Best Friend. We have all heard the phrase. To make your dog your companion you have to be a leader. Dogs don't respond to weakness, they respond to and respect strength. This is where reinforcement of your commands comes into play. Obedience training is as easy as remembering the last thing you told your dog to do and making them do it!
I want you to make a choice between love and respect right now. Love has no place in training a dog. Dogs confuse kindness for weakness. Training is simply making your dog obey what you are showing him to do through repetition. There are many methods of training from treat training to forcing. Most dogs respond best to a regular schedule and repetition.
Don't get me wrong, I love and adore my dogs, but when I'm training I expect them to perform and learn. I demand attention from them and high levels of concentration.
Want to know a secret – they LOVE being pushed to learn, made to concentrate and they egt a massive feeling of accomplishment when they do things right and reward is given.
Your role as the leader of the pack must be clearly defined. The dog must understand that it is subordinate to you and is one of your followers not the leader.
I ask all my clients if their dog has a job, if he brings home a paycheck. The answer is always NO. Most dogs are unable to even feed themselves. This puts them at the bottom of the food chain, therefore they need to be led and have a leader. Through training and spending time with them, dogs become comfortable with this; they feel they have a place in your life and you and your family become very important to them.


Don't miss to meet and play with some of the top payers in the world!
THE INTERNATIONAL SINGLES, DOUBLES & NATIONS PROFESSIONAL Table soccer tournament will be held in Bulgaria! SOFIA INTERNATIONAL SERIES 2016 is a Official ITSF Competition for Sport Calendar 2016. Foosball Players from all over the world are taking part in the only high ranked ROBERTO SPORT Tournament in 2016!
Official ITSF Roberto Sport IS Tournament Valid for the Ranking of the Sports calendar 2016. Special conditions for the Winners in Open and Women Singles, Classic and SpeedBall Doubles - men, women, junior and senior. The event will be played on the Official SpeedBall Tables 2016. Special Players Packages, Players Party & NEW Official ITSF National Event! Free Entry for all visitors and livestreaming available on spot!
SPECIAL: Winners of the main Women and Men SINGLES disciplines are entitled to take part in the most prestigious closed tournament of the year - World Championships! Travel package included! NEW: NATIONAL TEAM EVENT 2016, CLASSIC & SPEEDBALL DOUBLES and PLAYERS PARTY! Licensed by: Bulgarian & International Table Soccer Federation. Free entry for spectators! More details soon!
Here you can find all the Tournament information.
Bulgaria, Sofia, UNIVERSIADA SPORT VENUE - 2 Shipchenski Prohod Str.
Competition: 28 - 30 October 2016. Registration deadline: 20 October 2016.
Find out more information about the REGISTERED PLAYERS & TEAMS.
Check our awesome media partners!
See our Special Rates for players!
Official Rules of the game.
Special Party for all Players. Come, play and have fun!
Check out the latest news from the biggest foosball competition at the Balkans - Sofia International Series!
SPCIAL AWARDS for the Winners in OS & WS, NEW: Speedball & Classic doubles!
The finalists of the Open and Women Singles Disciplines as well as the winners of the NEW: SPEEDBALL & CLASSIC DOUBLES in each category will receive the title Roberto Sport Title Holders for 2016 and will be seeded to take part in the WORLD CHAMPIONSHIPS 2017!
They will receive their prize money and ADDITIONALLY GRANTED TRAVEL PACKAGES of 250 EUR each for the event in 2017!


text:
<?php
namespace Wargame\Mollwitz\Hastenbeck;

/**
 * Created by JetBrains PhpStorm.
 * User: markarianr
 * Date: 5/7/13
 * Time: 7:06 PM
 * To change this template use File | Settings | File Templates.
 */
class hastenbeckVictoryCore extends \Wargame\Mollwitz\victoryCore
{
    public function reduceUnit($args)
    {
        $unit = $args[0];
        $mult = 1;
        if($unit->class == "cavalry" || $unit->class == "artillery"){
            $mult = 2;
        }
        $this->scoreKills($unit, $mult);
    }

    public function specialHexChange($args)
    {
        $battle = \Wargame\Battle::getBattle();

        list($mapHexName, $forceId) = $args;
        if(in_array($mapHexName,$battle->specialHexA)){
            if ($forceId == Hastenbeck::ALLIED_FORCE) {
                $this->victoryPoints[Hastenbeck::ALLIED_FORCE]  += 5;
                $battle->mapData->specialHexesVictory->$mapHexName = "+5 Allied vp";
            }
            if ($forceId == Hastenbeck::FRENCH_FORCE) {
                $this->victoryPoints[Hastenbeck::ALLIED_FORCE]  -= 5;
                $battle->mapData->specialHexesVictory->$mapHexName = "-5 Allied vp";
            }
        }
        if(in_array($mapHexName,$battle->specialHexB)){
            $vp = 5;

            if ($forceId == Hastenbeck::FRENCH_FORCE) {
                $this->victoryPoints[Hastenbeck::FRENCH_FORCE]  += $vp;
                $battle->mapData->specialHexesVictory->$mapHexName = "+$vp French vp";
            }
            if ($forceId == Hastenbeck::ALLIED_FORCE) {
                $this->victoryPoints[Hastenbeck::FRENCH_FORCE]  -= $vp;
                $battle->mapData->specialHexesVictory->$mapHexName = "-$vp French vp";
            }
        }
        if(in_array($mapHexName,$battle->specialHexC)){
            $vp = 5;

            $prevForceId = $battle->mapData->specialHexes->$mapHexName;
            if ($forceId == Hastenbeck::FRENCH_FORCE) {
                $this->victoryPoints[Hastenbeck::FRENCH_FORCE]  += $vp;
                $battle->mapData->specialHexesVictory->$mapHexName = "+$vp French vp";
                if($prevForceId !== 0) {
                    $this->victoryPoints[Hastenbeck::ALLIED_FORCE] -= $vp;
                    $battle->mapData->specialHexesVictory->$mapHexName = "-$vp Allied vp";
                }
            }
            if ($forceId == Hastenbeck::ALLIED_FORCE) {
                $this->victoryPoints[Hastenbeck::ALLIED_FORCE]  += $vp;
                $battle->mapData->specialHexesVictory->$mapHexName = "+$vp Allied vp";
                if($prevForceId !== 0) {
                    $this->victoryPoints[Hastenbeck::FRENCH_FORCE] -= $vp;
                    $battle->mapData->specialHexesVictory->$mapHexName .= "-$vp French vp";
                }
            }
        }
    }

    protected function checkVictory($battle){
        $gameRules = $battle->gameRules;
        $turn = $gameRules->turn;
        $frenchLateWin = $frenchWin = $frenchThreeObjectives = $angloWin = false;
        $mapData = $battle->mapData;
        $objectiveHexes = array_merge($battle->specialHexB, $battle->specialHexC ?? []);

        $alliedVictoryPointsNeeded = 45;
        $frenchVictoryPointsNeeded = 60;
        $lead = 10;

        if(!$this->gameOver){
            $frenchObjectives = 0;
            foreach($objectiveHexes as $objectiveHex){
                if($mapData->getSpecialHex($objectiveHex) == Hastenbeck::FRENCH_FORCE){
                    $frenchObjectives++;
                }
            }
            if($frenchObjectives >= 3){
                $frenchThreeObjectives = true;
            }

            if($this->victoryPoints[Hastenbeck::ALLIED_FORCE] >= $alliedVictoryPointsNeeded){
                $angloWin = true;
            }
            if($frenchThreeObjectives && ($this->victoryPoints[Hastenbeck::FRENCH_FORCE] >= $frenchVictoryPointsNeeded)){
                if($turn <= 10) {
                    $frenchWin = true;
                }else{
                    $frenchLateWin = true;
                }
            }
            if($turn == $gameRules->maxTurn+1){
                if($angloWin && !$frenchWin){
                }
                if($frenchWin && !$angloWin){
                }
                if($frenchWin && $angloWin){
                    $this->winner = 0;
                    $angloWin = $frenchWin = false;
                    $gameRules->flashMessages[] = "Tie Game";
                    $gameRules->flashMessages[] = "Game Over";
                    $this->gameOver = true;
                    return true;
                }
                if(!$angloWin && !$frenchWin){
                    if(!$frenchLateWin){
                        $angloWin = true;
                        $gameRules->flashMessages[] = "French Fail to Win";
                    }else{
                        $this->winner = 0;
                        $gameRules->flashMessages[] = "Tie Game";
                        $gameRules->flashMessages[] = "Game Over";
                        $this->gameOver = true;
                        return true;
                    }

                }
            }

            if($angloWin){
                $this->winner = Hastenbeck::ALLIED_FORCE;
                $gameRules->flashMessages[] = "Allies Win";
            }
            if($frenchWin){
                $this->winner = Hastenbeck::FRENCH_FORCE;
                $msg = "French Win";
                $gameRules->flashMessages[] = $msg;
            }
            if($angloWin || $frenchWin){
                $gameRules->flashMessages[] = "Game Over";
                $this->gameOver = true;
                return true;
            }
        }
        return false;
    }
}

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaGithub


Discussion in 'Street, Documentary, and Portrait' started by Jorge Ledesma, Sep 9, 2011.
My name is Jorge Ledesma and I wanted to introduce myself to this section of forum. I love street photography and I currently shoot with Ricoh GRD III and Nikon D80. Just today, I received my Panny G1 and I'm in the process of acquiring a few legacy lenses and the 20mm 1.7 prime as well.
I primarily shoot street scenes, street portraits, moments, and just about anything relating to street photography. In my blog, The Decisive Moment, I also host a series of interviews titled "Togs Series" you're more than welcome to have a look. Its an invite series and primarily choose them from Flickr street photography scene and I'll be looking here as well as I'm happy to be joining this community. I've been a silent reader for the past couple of months reading threads, researching, etc, but I wanted to formally say "hello" and that I hope to contribute some street shots to this forum.
I use Lightroom 3 and Silver Efex Pro 2 to edit my work and I consider myself an enthusiast with a keen addiction to blogging and sharing.
I'm very active on Flickr as well as my blog and again I hope to active here as well. I dumped my Nikon kit for :43: as I think its better for my street photography style, most likely I'll write a post explaining that journey but that's the premise. Here's my most recent image posted to Flickr and my blog, its got an accompanying narrative which may be of interest here as well as it relates to street photography.
Welcome to our house Jorge, make your self at home.
You have an interesting style and I'm impressed with the first image you've shown. What a beauty. I've been looking at it for a minute and still don't know whats happening. But it's got me interested.
Hey, welcome! Is that a person in the first pic? WTF!
Yeah man, its rough being on the streets, poor lady, it was a tough photograph, glad to be here.
Oooooooh I love the color photos processing!
Welcome. I'll haft check out yer blog tomorrow!
Excellent images. I especially like the 3rd portrait. Welcome!
Love the colours in your fourth image.
Thanks so much, its a new trend in my photography.
Thank you, I appreciate it, glad to be here.
Awesome work Jorge! Welcome to the community.
Thanks guys, it's good to see you both here can't wait to get my lenses.


In April 2013, African community-based organizations and community leaders requested that the Mayor and DC Council allocate funds to be distributed competitively to community-based organizations serving Africans. Following this, a Budget Support Act title awarded the Mayor's Office on African Affairs (MOAA) grant making authority for the first time, and allocated a total of $100,000 dollars to organizations serving the rapidly growing African community in the District.
The African Community Grant is intended to fund community-based organizations whose programs provide culturally and linguistically targeted services and resources to the District's African residents and businesses. These programs should reflect the Mayor's top priority areas, and the documented needs and priorities of the District's African constituency.


I am a 26 year old female looking to make new muslim female friends. Not sure if this is going to work and whether anyone out there would be interested but thought I would give this a shot. Many of my friends are married now or live in other cities so I would just like to meet any girls that are looking for friendship. Please message me if you're intrested.


text:
Q: Why Manila?
A: We chose Manila because Manila chose us.
Q: How did Manila choose you?
A: We received an invitation from the Central Luzon Conference to conduct a citywide evangelistic campaign in Manila. We go where God opens the doors.
Q: Have you been to Manila before?
A: In 1984, when I was a pastor in Sydney, my wife Beverley came up with the idea to take the young people in our Wahroonga church to Manila. We took a team of almost 100! It was the experience of a lifetime for them, and for us.
Australian and Filipino campaign team members.
Q: What happened?
A: We were young, inexperienced, full of hope and expectations. We saw God's glory as the Philippine International Convention Center was packed night after night. We were thrilled as we witnessed more than 2,000 souls baptized, including several Catholic priests.
More than 2,000 souls were baptized!
Q: Why did you take so many young people?
A: To get them away from the secularism and materialism of a big affluent Australian city. We wanted to see a spiritual breakthrough, and it happened. Their lives were powerfully impacted for Jesus, and transformed by His grace.
Q: What do you expect to see happen this time in Manila?
A: If opposition and difficulties are indications of coming success, then we expect to see mighty things happen. We have had one problem after another, but God has been casting down "strongholds" of satanic opposition, and opening doors.
Q: What has been one significant problem?
A: Getting the contract signed for the PICC, a great auditorium in Manila. It's been a "Yes," and "No," game and this has been a bit of a strain. Just last week we signed the contract that took care of the difficulties. Praise God!
Q: What other challenges are you facing?
A: When you do this work of evangelism, you must expect many challenges. We have experienced this, time after time. It is never easy. The problems never end, but we hope and trust in God. I ask our friends and supporters to pray for us at this crucial time. Pray also that the contractors and officials we are working with in Manila will do the right thing.
Q: Who pays all the expenses? Who is responsible for the costs?
A: Ultimately, our God is responsible because He told us to do this work, and He is faithful and true. The total costs will be around half a million dollars (US$500,000.00).
Q: Doesn't that seem a lot to spend on an evangelistic campaign?
A: It all depends on what you believe and what your priorities are. We believe that people are lost without Christ. That means an unhappy life now, with nothing to look forward to. We believe that Christ died for this lost world, paid the price for all our sins, and that it is our responsibility to lead lost sinners to salvation through faith in Jesus.
Q: Not everyone today in the Church would agree with you. Why are you so certain?
A: Because it is the clear teaching of the Holy Bible. I am not a proponent of liberal Christianity. I have been a devoted student of Scripture for more than 50 years, and I have a fair idea what it teaches. We are saved through Christ alone. As my friend Marshall Kelly sang, "Do you know the world is dying for the story of His love?"
Q: What are some of the Manila expenses?
A: Here we go:
The Philippine International Convention Center – $58,000.00
Public Address System & Video Walls – $100,000.00
TV advertising for Metro Manila – $100,000.00
Radio advertising – $50,000.00
Billboards – $25,000.00
500,000 handbills – $25,000.00
Plus: accommodation, airfares, food, rental of swimming pool for baptism, Bibles etc., etc.
Q: Do you worry about being responsible for all this expenditure?
A: Not when I have God on my side and you as my partner. Thank you.
~ PHILIPPIANS 4:13 NKJV
LETTERS OF ENCOURAGEMENT
Thank you for your great letter of encouragement in June. You have convinced me through your preaching on 3ABN. You've also convinced me of the Sabbath (Saturday) as the true Day of the Lord. As a 76-year-old, it's hard to change from a lifetime of Sunday worship to the Seventh-day Adventist Church worship, on the true Sabbath. I live in the far out back of New South Wales, Australia. I know that I AM SAVED, yet I know that I have still much to learn. Thanking you for taking the time to write to me. I am not well off, as a pensioner, I will send you what I can for I perceive you are a man of God.
W. Overgaauw
Grawin Opalfields, NSW
Dear Sir/Madam:
The services provided by The Carter Report are valuable and necessary in our present day circumstances. When I think of all the people you have helped and the vast number of people still in need, we are grateful for your courage and vision. I hope this donation provides at least a small amount of assistance toward the continuation of your services.
J & B Edouard
"And my God shall supply all your need according to His riches in glory by Christ Jesus."
March 2020 OFFICIAL CARTER REPORT NEWS RELEASE. URGENT… URGENT. READ NOW! CORONAVIRUS GOVERNMENT STOPS ALL…

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


text:
Ozzy Osbourne Set To Be Inducted Into The WWE Hall Of Fame
By James Holder. Published 5th April 2021.
It has been reported that Heavy Metal pioneer Ozzy Osbourne is set to be inducted into the WWE Hall of Fame.
As noted by Dave Meltzer of the Wrestling Observer Newsletter, Osbourne was inducted along with the combined classes of 2020 and 2021, when the ceremony was taped last week.
The legendary Black Sabbath frontman wasn't present at the event, but did appear via taped video message.
It was first rumoured that Osbourne would be a late inductee when he appeared in a commercial for the Hall of Fame, which aired during WWE SmackDown on April 2nd.
Ozzy Osbourne has featured numerous times in WWE over the last 35 years, most notably as a guest host of Monday Night RAW alongside wife Sharon in 2009. The 'Crazy Train' singer's other notable appearance was at WrestleMania 2, where he managed The British Bulldogs along with Captain Lou Albano, as they defeated Brutus Beefcake and Greg Valentine for the WWF Tag Team Titles. Osbourne is one of many celebrities to appear at the Show of Shows.
Booker T Blasts Idea Lita Is Taking A Young Star's Spot In The Royal Rumble – "That's Ridiculous"
New 'Gunther Stark' Trademark Draws Controversy For WWE
Osbourne's music has also been used by WWE as theme music for pay-per-views.
John "Ozzy" Osbourne was born in Aston, Birmingham, England in 1948. He rose to prominence during the 1970's as the frontman for Heavy Metal band, Black Sabbath. The Prince of Darkness, would later go on to enjoy a successful solo career, before starring in The Osbournes on MTV. Osbourne's health has deteriorated in recent years, with the star being diagnosed with Parkinson's disease in 2019.
The WWE 2021 Hall of Fame ceremony is set to air on Tuesday April 6th. However, the show has already been filmed with inductee Sean Waltman noting that there no inductors present.
The classes of 2020 and 2021 were joined together for the ceremony. With Osbourne being inducted alongside the likes of the nWo and the British Bulldog.


The Internet continues to change the way we ask and answer questions. The invention of services like Twitter, for example, has made us just a little bit lazier when it comes to doing our own investigative research. Rather than taking the time to uncover answers for ourselves, some of us now rely on Twitter's fast-acting and real time community to gather swifter responses.
Unfortunately, many of our questions tend to go unanswered or receive silly responses that are in no way helpful to the information we were aiming to find in the first place.
Recognizing this problem, Y Combinator backed InboxQ founders Joe Fahrner and Jason Konrad launched a San Francisco based service in 2009 that currently aims to build bridges between those on Twitter who have questions, and those who have the answers.
InboxQ is the best way to ask or answer questions on Twitter. We measure the demonstrated knowledge of millions of Twitter users and make that knowledge easily searchable on our site. If you have a questions about hotels in San Francisco or the best recipe for a mojito cocktail, we can help you find the best person to ask on Twitter. Our goal is to help people with questions get great answers while also letting people show off what they know.
As Jo Johnson hasn't taken the time to actually claim his profile page on InboxQ, you'll see the big red "Unclaimed" badge hovering over his information. Assuming he actually claims his page, Jo Johnson will then be able to answer the stream of questions coming in that load below his info.
You'll also see a box on his profile that allows you to send your question directly from your Twitter account to Jo (or whoever else you might be interested in asking). Having signed up for an InboxQ account myself, I shot Jo a Twitter question through the service.
Seems like a successful test run to me.
In this way, InboxQ hopes to spotlight thought leaders who are able to demonstrate their expertise. It seems to make sense. Why ask Twitter at large when you can directly ask the people who actually have the answers?
Some of InboxQ's more notable investors include Founder and Managing Partner of SoftTech VC Jean-Francois "Jeff" Clavier, former Head of Special Initiatives at Google Inc Chris Sacca, and boutique early stage venture firm Trinity Ventures.
Head on over to InboxQ to claim your profile page, then let us know about your experience.


Rich & Sharon Walker's Resource for Austin, Texas Home Buyers.
Helpful information to guide you through the buying process in Austin, Texas.
The secret to making a successful home purchase in Austin is to have strategic information before you start looking. This helps you make a good buying decision and avoid paying too much or buying the wrong home. This page is a good starting point if you are buying your Austin home. Also, please email us with any questions you might have, or we'll be happy to set up a no-obligation meeting to discuss your unique situation. We're happy to see if we can help, you won't be obligated to work with us.
To order any of the following complimentary reports for buyers, just check the box to the left of the title and click "Send Me" at the bottom. You will then be prompted to enter your mailing information. We will send you the report(s) of your choice once we have received your request.
How soon are you looking to buy a home?


text:
BooksRead and Share
(3600 BC – 500 AD)
Ancient History & Civilisation
Post-classical History
(1500 – Present)
Wars, conflicts...
Biographies & MemoirsLeaders & Notable People
Common SectionDifferent Topics
ExamsPreparation
Video-LecturesQuick and easy
1900 Present: The recent past
1700-1900 Enlightenment and Revolution
1500-1600 Renaissance and Reformation
Before 1300 Ancient and Medieval history
Surveys of history
American civics
Crash Course: World History
A History of the Classical Greek World: 478-323 BC
Introduction to the Fourth Century The Common Peace
The fourth century can be divided into four sections, the first three of which are included in this book. (1) To about 360 Sparta, Athens and Thebes attempted in turn to dominate the Greek world, with Persia in the background as a power to be invoked by the currently predominant Greek city to reinforce its predominance. (2) From 359 to 336 Philip II of Macedon achieved a leading position in the Greek world, which he clothed in familiar Greek diplomatic forms, and at the end of his reign he took advantage of the Greeks' hankering after unity through another war against Persia, to plan such a war. (3) Philip was assassinated after he had sent out his advance forces; his successor Alexander III (336-323) undertook the campaign and conquered the Persian empire, but his increasing adoption of oriental practices alienated the more conservative Macedonians and Greeks. (4) Alexander died young, without leaving a viable heir; after his death his leading generals competed for supremacy, originally on behalf of a possible heir but later for themselves; and the first phase in this competition reached its climax when in 306–304 the leading contenders each took the title king and it became clear that the Graeco-Macedonian world was to centre on a plurality of large kingdoms.
For the second and third sections Macedon provides a unifying thread, but the first is more complex. In this chapter an outline narrative of the period 404–336 will be given, linked to a series of'common peace' treaties; in chapters 19–21 the years 404–359 will be explored in more detail, from the angles of Sparta, Athens and Thebes in turn, and in chapter 22 the internal affairs of Athens in the same period will be studied. This will involve some repetition, but will allow the most important themes and events to appear in different contexts.
Sources (cf. pp. 153–4, on 411–404)
Xenophon's Hellenica (probably resumed after a pause) covers the regime of the Thirty and the restoration of democracy in Athens in II. iii. 11-iv, and then continues to 362 in books III-VII. He spent most of that period as an exile from Athens, living in the Peloponnese as a dependant of the Spartans: not every sentence is favourable to Sparta (NB V. iv. 1: Sparta was deservedly punished for its occupation of Thebes in 382), but the general tendency of his account is, and in particular favourable to king Agesilaus; and, more seriously for those who want to use it as a historical source, it shows little interest in areas and episodes in which Sparta was not involved and/or which Xenophon found uncongenial. Nothing is said of the foundation of the Second Athenian League; the only mention of the new Arcadian capital Megalopolis is in a list of supporters of Thebes in 362 (VII. v. 5); and the Theban leaders Pelopidas and Epaminondas are similarly neglected. The Hellenica like Thucydides' history contains speeches, but it does not contain a declaration of policy on the speeches. A defender has argued that the substance of the speeches is usually authentic; at worst the speeches represent what a contemporary thought plausible that particular men should have said on particular occasions. Xenophon also wrote a separate work on Agesilaus, and his Anabasis gives an account of Cyrus' campaign against his brother Artaxerxes II (book I) and the return of Cyrus' mercenary army, in which Xenophon himself became one of the leaders, to the Greek world.
Diodorus continued to use Ephorus, and Ephorus for the period which it covered - to 386? - continued to use the Hellenica Oxyrhynchia. Diodorus' account is not consistent in its sympathies, but (presumably reflecting changes in Ephorus' sources) is particularly hostile to Sparta and Agesilaus in the opening chapters of bookXV (1-22, covering 386/5-381/0) yet becomes favourable to Sparta and Agesilaus after that. Narrative dates, as always, are Diodorus' own; accounts of battles tend to be conventional, and Leuctra is badly garbled (cf. pp. 286–7); he is capable of striking errors, e.g. killing Chabrias in 375 (XV. 36. iv), when he still had a long career ahead of him; but he gives a far more balanced account of the period than Xenophon. As for the last years of the Peloponnesian War, when there is a direct disagreement between the two, we cannot assume automatically that one is the superior source and must therefore be right.
From Plutarch we have lives of the Spartans Lysander and Agesilaus, and of the Theban Pelopidas; he wrote an Epaminondas which has not survived (the formerly widespread view that Paus. IX. 13–15. vi is a resume of it is fragile). From the beginning of the period we have Andocides' speeches (I) On the Mysteries and (III) On the Peace, and speeches written by or attributed to Lysias. Isocrates, who lived from c.436 to 338, wrote lawcourt speeches for clients in the 390's, but is best known as a teacher of rhetoric and a writer of pamphlets in the form of speeches. He was a reflecter of current ideas rather than an original thinker; one theme to be found in several of his speeches is that the Greeks were at their best when they were united in fighting against Persia rather than quarrelling among themselves, so they ought to unite in fighting against Persia once more (an idea given added momentum by the return of the Asiatic Greeks to Persia under the Peace of Antalcidas in 386). From one decade to the next Isocrates looked to a different state or man to lead the Greeks in that war.
As in the fifth century, Athens was the state most given to inscribing public documents on stone: we have a particularly rich collection of texts, with which Diodorus' account harmonises well, on the foundation of the Second Athenian League (cf. pp. 263–6).
The Origins of the Common Peace
When the Peloponnesian War ended, Sparta was committed to the unqualified return of the Asiatic Greeks to Persia if the treaty of 411 was still in force, perhaps to their becoming tributary to Persia but otherwise autonomous if the sending of Cyrus had been preceded by a Treaty of Boeotius in 408/7 (cf. pp. 156, 196). In fact it took over the cities in Asia Minor along with the other cities of the Athenian empire; and when Cyrus revolted against Artaxerxes, in 402 (cf. pp. 256–7), he was supported by nearly all of the Asiatic Greeks and by Sparta. When Artaxerxes reinstated Tissaphernes as satrap of Sardis, he demanded the submission of the Asiatic Greeks, they appealed to Sparta, and Sparta agreed to support them: it is more likely that there was a treaty of 408/7 which Tissaphernes regarded as obsolete after the Greeks' support for Cyrus than that Sparta was wilfully breaking the treaty of 411. The first Spartan forces were sent to Asia Minor in autumn 400.
Sparta's intervention was originally on a small scale, with men other than kings as commanders, and the fighting was punctuated by truces. In 398 Spartan envoys went to the Persian court (Ctesias FGrH 688 F 30 §74 [63]). After some truces which the Spartan Dercylidas made with one enemy in order to concentrate on another (cf. p. 242), in 397 he accepted a truce offered by Tissaphernes to explore the possibility of a treaty by which the Asiatic Greeks would be autonomous and Sparta would withdraw its troops and commanders (Xen. Hell. III. ii. 12–20, Diod. Sic. XIV. 39. iv-vi). In 396 king Agesilaus went to Asia and took reinforcements: on arrival he accepted a truce to enable Tissaphernes to consult the King about the autonomy of the Asiatic Greeks, but Tissaphernes in fact asked for a large army (Xen. Hell. III. iv. 5–6, Ages. i. 10–11, Plut. Ages. 9. i, PolyaenusStrat. II. 1. viii). In 395, after a victory of Agesilaus near Sardis, Tissaphernes was executed and replaced by Tithraustes, who announced the King's terms: that Sparta should withdraw and the Asiatic Greeks should be autonomous but pay 'the ancient tribute'. Agesilaus said he could not agree without authority from Sparta, but let Tithraustes pay him to move into Pharnabazus' satrapy of Dascylium (Xen. Hell. III. iv. 25–6, Diod. Sic. XIV. 80. viii, Plut. Ages. 10. vi-viii). In 394 there was a meeting between Agesilaus and Pharnabazus but not another proposal for a settlement (Xen.Hell. IV i. 29–40: cf. p. 243).
In Greece Sparta had been alienating its former allies, and showing an interest north of the Isthmus of Corinth as well as in the Peloponnese.Timocrates of Rhodes was sent, probably by Pharnabazus in 397, with money to subsidise opponents of Sparta. In 395 a border dispute between Phocis, backed by Sparta, and Locris, backed by Boeotia, led to the outbreak of the Corinthian War against Sparta; Lysander was defeated and killed at Haliartus, and in 394 Agesilaus had to return from Asia to fight for Sparta in Greece. The Athenian Conon, who had escaped to Cyprus at the end of the Peloponnesian War, was by now commanding ships for Pharnabazus. In 394 they defeated Sparta's fleet at Cnidus, effectively ending Sparta's supremacy in the Aegean, and in 393 they sailed to Greece, taking money to Corinth and to Athens.
Sparta was not doing well either in Asia Minor or in Greece, and in 392 turned to diplomacy. Antalcidas was sent to Tiribazus, the current satrap in Sardis; Conon headed a delegation from Athens; deputations went also from Sparta's other main opponents in the Corinthian War, Boeotia, Corinth and Argos. Antalcidas proposed that Persia's claim to the Asiatic Greeks should be accepted, and all other islands and cities should be autonomous; but this worried Athens (which had recovered the north Aegean islands of Lemnos, Imbros and Scyros, and did not want to lose them again), Boeotia (since Sparta was threatening in the name of autonomy to require the breaking-up of the Boeotian federation), and Corinth and Argos (which were forming a political union and did not want that to be undone), so no agreement was reached. Tiribazus supported the Spartans and arrested Conon, but the failure of the peace proposals suggested that Sparta would continue fighting against Persia, so Tiribazus was replaced by the anti-Spartan Struthas (Xen. Hell. IV.viii. 12–17, cf. Diod. Sic. XIV 85. iv).
The next stage is omitted both by Xenophon and by Diodorus; but, though not all have accepted it, we should probably use a fragment of Philochorus (FGrH 328 F 149 ~ Harding 23) and Andocides' speech (III) On the Peace to date to 392/1 a congress at Sparta in which the Spartans tried to gain acceptance for modified terms. Athens was to be allowed the three islands as an exception to the principle of autonomy for all (Andoc. III. Peace 12, 14); and the rest of the Boeotian federation could remain if Orchomenus, which had gone over to Lysander in 395, were allowed to secede (§13, cf. §20); but no concession was made to Corinth and Argos (cf. §§24-8, 31–2); and Andocides' speech says nothing about the Asiatic Greeks. Andocides and his fellow-envoys urged the Athenians to accept the peace, but the Athenians were not prepared to abandon the Asiatic Greeks, rejected the peace and exiled their envoys. We do not know whether the Boeotians were prepared to accept the peace as their envoys recommended, but Corinth and Argos rejected it, and no peace was made.
The wars continued, in Asia Minor and in Greece. Most strikingly, in 390 the Athenian Thrasybulus in a one-year campaign went some way towards reviving the Athenian empire, but the next year he was killed and his successors did not build on what he had begun. In a pair of inscriptions, in 387/6 Athens abstained from interfering with Clazomenae as long as it paid Thrasybulus' 5 per cent tax(IG ii2 28 = R&O 18 ~ Harding 26), and about the same time it made a decree for a politically divided Erythrae which gave a reply (unfortunately not preserved) 'about not giving up Erythrae to the barbarians' (SEG xxvi 1282 = R&O 17 ~ Harding 28). However, in 388/7 Antalcidas as Spartan navarch made an alliance with Tiribazus (who had been reinstated in Sardis), defeated the Athenians and recovered control of the Hellespont. From this position of strength he was able once more to try for a peace treaty, and this time the other Greeks did not feel able to resist.
So, when Tiribazus announced that those who wished to hearken to the peace which the King had sent down should attend, all attended quickly. When they had come together, Tiribazus displayed the King's seals and read out what was written. It was as follows:
'King Artaxerxes thinks it just that the cities in Asia should belong to him, together with Clazomenae and Cyprus of the islands, and that the other Greek cities both small and great should be left autonomous, except Lemnos, Imbros and Scyros: these as in the past should belong to the Athenians. Whichever party does not accept this peace, together with those who are willing I shall make war against them both with infantry and by sea with both ships and money.'
On hearing this the envoys from the cities each reported it to their own cities. All the others swore to abide by this, but the Thebans claimed to swear on behalf of all the Boeotians. Agesilaus said he would not accept their oaths unless they swore, as the King's writing stated, that cities both small and great should be autonomous. (Xenophon, Hellenica, V. i. 30–2)
In 387/6 Tiribazus proclaimed 'the peace which the King had sent down' (which is commonly referred to either as the King's Peace or as the Peace of Antalcidas): the cities in Asia and Clazomenae and Cyprus were to belong to the King [Cyprus was currently in revolt, and the Greeks had tangled with it; Clazomenae was barely separate from the mainland, and was in an area important for Persia's preparations against Cyprus: cf. pp. 257–8]; Lemnos, Imbros and Scyros were to belong to Athens; all other Greek cities, small and great, were to be autonomous. The Greeks returned home to report the terms; Agesilaus had to threaten invasion to make Thebes accept the disbanding of the Boeotian federation and Corinth and Argos dissolve their union, but the others accepted without demur (Xen. Hell. V. i. 29–36 [see box], Diod. Sic. XIV. 110. iii-iv, Plut. Artax. 21. iv-v).
Persia at last gained the Asiatic Greeks, whom it had long been demanding: this was a price which the Greeks had to pay, but it was widely regarded as a betrayal, and Sparta's finally coming off the fence on this side harmed its reputation. How Persia treated the Asiatic Greeks, and how they reacted, we are not told; but we shall see that by the 360's it had broken the treaty by taking possession of Samos. That and the other offshore islands will in any case have been weakened by the fact that their mainland dependencies passed into Persian hands. A settlement which maintained a balance of weakness among the Greeks would help to ensure that none was likely to cause trouble for Persia; and while the Greeks were at peace Greek mercenaries were available to fight for Persia (but also for rebels against Persia) in the western provinces of the empire.
This was to be a lasting 'common peace' for all the Greeks (Andoc. III. Peace 17, cf. 34; the term 'common peace' appears in IG iv 556 = R&O 42 ~ Harding 57. 2, probably of 362/1, and is used frequently by Diodorus but never by Xenophon), and in that respect it differed from earlier treaties which simply made peace for a specified period between states which had been at war. A settlement on the basis of autonomy for all seems at first sight straightforward and fair, but the reality was far more complicated. Who were 'all the Greeks' who accepted it, and to whom was it to apply? Primarily, still, those who had been involved in the Corinthian War; beyond them, the treaty was probably thought of as applying generally to Greece proper and the Aegean and its Thracian coast, but perhaps not to Crete or the north-west of Greece and more certainly not to the more distant Greek settlements; and probably the terms were heard in Sardis and subsequently ratified by some of those other Greeks, particularly those who wanted to make it clear that the provision for autonomy applied to them. How great a degree of independence was autonomy and what were the entities entitled to it? Sparta used the treaty to break up the Boeotian federation, but did not break up other federations (such as the Achaean, within the Peloponnese and certainly within the treaty's geographical scope, and the Aetolian), in which it was less interested, and it may well not have insisted on a change in status for the lesser cities in Boeotia which were not members represented in the federation but were subordinate to one of those members. It broke up the union of Corinth and Argos, and in 385 it was to split the century-old polls of Mantinea into its component villages. But there was no suggestion that Salamis, which had been a possession of Athens since the sixth century, was an island which was entitled to autonomy or else needed to be mentioned as an exception like Lemnos, Imbros and Scyros; or that the cities of Sparta's perioikoi were cities which were entitled to autonomy of a kind which they had not hitherto possessed.
There was no impartial machinery for deciding hard cases or for enforcing the treaty: Sparta decided on the interpretation, and with the threat of Persian backing enforced the treaty, not because the treaty gave Sparta a privileged position but because, although it had not been strong enough to achieve military victory, it was currently in a superior position and had surrendered the Asiatic Greeks in return for Persian support in Greece. Agesilaus was an enemy of Antalcidas, but he saw how the treaty could be exploited to Sparta's advantage, and in a remark quoted by Plutarch on three occasions he replied to a complaint that the Spartans were medising that it was the Persians who were laconising (Plut. Ages. 23. iv, Artax. 22. iv, Spartan Sayings 213 B). We shall see that later treaties did try to incorporate a mechanism for enforcement, but each treaty was made at the instance of one state which hoped to use it in its own interests.
Breaches and Renewals of the Peace
Sparta showed that the peace was to be interpreted by it to suit its own interests. In 385 it attacked Mantinea, and ended by splitting it into the separate villages which had coalesced to form a single polls perhaps c.470 (cf. p. 26); Mantinea appealed to Athens, but Athens 'did not choose to break the common agreement' (Diod. Sic. XV. 5. v); presumably Sparta claimed that the principle of autonomy should be applied to the villages rather than to the single polls. In 382 Sparta responded to an appeal to intervene against the Chalcidian federation being built up by Olynthus in the north-east. The appeal came from the threatened cities of Acanthus and Apollonia according to Xenophon, from Amyntas of Macedon according to Diodorus (Xen. Hell. V. ii. 11–20, Diod. Sic. XV. 19. ii-iii): both may be true, but Xenophon's version suggests that Sparta was again claiming to enforce the autonomy principle (we do not know whether Olynthus or any of its neighbours had sworn to the peace). Olynthus appealed to Athens and Thebes: Athens is not known to have responded but Thebes did. On their way north in 382 Sparta's forces accepted an invitation to enter Thebes, where they installed a garrison and a pro-Spartan regime: this direct occupation of one of the major cities of Greece was greatly shocking, and is easier to understand if Sparta gave as its excuse the refusal of Thebes to join in enforcing the peace against Olynthus (cf. Xen. Hell. V. ii. 34). The war in the north continued to 379, when the federation was dismantled and Olynthus was made a subordinate ally of Sparta; meanwhile in the Peloponnese Sparta insisted on the restoration of exiles in Phlius c.384-383, and in 379 after a long siege imposed a garrison and a new constitution. Sparta had apparently reached a new height of power.
It must have been hard for other states to know what kinds of relations Sparta would allow. In 386/5 Athens praised the Thracian king Hebryzelmis, but did not grant him an alliance (IG ii2 31 =Tod 117- Harding 29); in 385 it refused to help Mantinea against Sparta; but in 384 a way forward was found: with Chios (which had been hostile to Athens in the last years of the Peloponnesian War but defected from Sparta after the battle of Cnidus) Athens made a purely defensive alliance, which was stated very emphatically to be on the basis of freedom and autonomy and within the framework of the King's Peace (IG ii2 34–5 = R&O 20 ~ Harding 31).
Theban opponents of Sparta fled to Athens, and a series of setbacks for Sparta began when in winter 379/8 these exiles returned and assassinated the pro-Spartan leaders. A raid on Athenian territory by the Spartan garrison commander in Thespiae, Sphodrias, prompted Athens to action, and in 378/7 the Second Athenian League was founded. We possess an inscribed prospectus setting out the terms on which states were invited to join (IG ii2 43 = R&O 22 ~ Harding 35): the League's aim was that Sparta should allow the Greeks to live in freedom and autonomy, and to support the King's Peace [that clause was deleted in the 360's when Athens had reason to dislike the Persians]; Greeks and barbarians outside the King's domain were invited to join, on the basis of freedom and autonomy, 'on the same terms as Chios, Thebes and the other allies', and subject to various promises, which may be seen both as undertakings that Athens would not treat the new League as it had treated the Delian League and as an attempt to spell out what was to be understood by autonomy. This defensive alliance, which bound its members to support one another against Sparta or any other breaker of the peace, also provided its members with a mechanism for enforcing the peace.
While successfully recruiting members for the new League, the Athenians won their first major naval victories since the Peloponnesian War, defeating the Spartans off Naxos in 376 and off Alyzia in Acarnania in 375; and on the mainland the Thebans drove the Spartans out of Boeotia, began organising a new federation, more dominated by Thebes than the old, and in 375 defeated a Spartan army at Tegyra, near Orchomenus. In 375 the King's Peace was renewed. Xenophon, not mentioning Sparta's plight, says that Athens was exhausted, and worried by the resurgence of Thebes, and so made peace with Sparta (Xen. Hell. VI. ii. 1). According to Diodorus, however, the Persians wanted Greek mercenaries for a campaign in Egypt and so urged the Greeks to make a common peace, which they gladly did (Diod. Sic. XV. 38). Diodorus badly confuses this treaty and the next, in summer 371, ascribing both to Persia's initiative and on each occasion having the Thebans excluded because of their claim to swear for the whole of Boeotia. The exclusion of Thebes belongs to the later occasion (and on this occasion Thebes must have made some show of dismantling the new federation), but a fragment of Philochorus (FGrH 328 F 151 ~ Harding 44) confirms for this occasion the involvement of Persia, and mentions Athens' celebration with a cult and statue of Eirene (Peace); Diodorus' clause that the cities were to be 'autonomous and ungar-risoned' is probably authentic.
The new peace was broken almost immediately. Conflict between Athens and Sparta continued in the west, culminating in victory for Athens and the democrats in Corcyra in 372. On the mainland Thebes resumed the development of a Boeotian federation under its control; in 373/2 it angered Athens by destroying Plataea (which had been destroyed in 427, cf. p. 115, but refounded after the Peace of Antalcidas) and interfering in Thespiae; then it began to threaten Phocis, and Sparta sent an army to help in the defence. In summer 371 the Athenians, increasingly uncomfortable with their Theban allies, sent envoys to Sparta to discuss peace and invited the Thebans to send envoys too. Xenophon gives us speeches by three of the Athenian envoys: Callias, full of his own importance; Autocles, criticising Sparta's conduct; and the leading politician Callistratus, arguing that Athens and Sparta ought to be on the same side. Peace was agreed on condition that governors should be withdrawn and forces demobilised, and the cities should be autonomous. The Thebans were originally included, as Thebans; afterwards they returned and asked to be recorded as Boeotians. Sources other than Xenophon report a heated altercation between Agesilaus and the Theban Epaminondas, in which Epaminondas argued that if the Boeotian cities were to be autonomous the cities of Sparta's perioikoi should be too; Xenophon agrees that it was Agesilaus who finally excluded Thebes from the treaty. Diodorus both ascribes the initiative to Persia and has the Thebans excluded, as in 375: this time he is right about the exclusion of the Thebans but it does not seem likely that the Persians were involved (Xen. Hell. VI. iii, Diod. Sic. XV. 50. iv-v [cf. 38. iii: Callistratus and Epaminondas, 375], Plut. Ages. 27. v-28. iv, Nep. XV Epam. 6. iv, cf. Paus. IX. 13. ii).This time the treaty included what may be called an optional sanctions clause: if any state broke the peace, the others might if they wished support those who were wronged, but were not obliged to do so (Xen. Hell. VI. iii. 18).
The Spartan king Cleombrotus, commander of the army sent to Phocis, asked what he should do, and was told to attack Thebes if it would not leave the Boeotian cities autonomous. The result was the battle of Leuctra, in which Sparta was overwhelmingly defeated. After that, Athens took the initiative in convening a conference of 'the cities which wished to participate in the peace which the King had sent down' (which means that this was a renewal of the King's Peace, not that the King was involved on this occasion). The participants swore to 'the treaty which the King sent down and the decrees of the Athenians and their allies': it is not credible that all the participants, including Sparta, were now enrolled in the Second Athenian League, and the best explanation is that autonomy was to be defined for the peace as it was in the League. This time there was a compulsory sanctions clause: if any state broke the peace, the others were obliged to support those who were wronged. Thebes was certainly not a participant; Elis refused to swear, because its claim to recover dependent territories lost c.400 was not allowed (Xen. Hell. VI. v. 1–3).
The Athenians were later to claim that the Greeks, and Amyntas III of Macedon (who died in 370/69), and the Persian King had all recognised their right to Amphipolis and the Chersonese (Dem. XIX. Embassy 253, Aeschin. II. Embassy 32, [Dem.] VII.Halonnesus 29, Dem. IX. Phil. Hi. 16). Since they began fighting for Amphipolis and the Chersonese in 368, and this is the one conference convened by Athens, this is probably the occasion to which they are alluding; but it is likely that the claim is doubly disingenuous. Peace treaties could be made on the basis of the status quo, as in the Peace of Philocrates between Athens and Philip in 346, or on the basis of a return to an earlier situation, as in the Thirty Years' Peace in 446/5 or the Peace of Nicias in 421, or, in a gambit which was often to be employed in the fourth century, on the basis of echein ta heauton, that states should possess what belonged to them (a formula which usually covered a claim to some territory which they did not at the time possess). Probably the peace of autumn 371 was made on the basis of echein ta heauton, and the participants agreed to that, but the Athenians' claim that Amphipolis and the Chersonese belonged to them was not spelled out in the peace: 'possessing what belongs to them' was included in the promises made in the prospectus of the Second Athenian League, which underlay this peace {IG ii2 43 = R&O 22 ~ Harding 35. 11–12), and Isoc.VIII. Peace 16 indicates that at least one common peace was made on that basis. That the Persian King accepted the Athenians' claim was probably a further instance of 'spin': he was not in fact involved on this occasion, but, since the participants swore once more to 'the treaty which the King sent down', his agreement could be postulated.
Leuctra revealed suddenly that Sparta was not as strong as everybody had assumed, and the next few years were to see a number of revolutions in Peloponnesian cities, where Sparta was no longer able to underwrite pro-Spartan oligarchies. Most important was the re-creation by Mantinea in 370 of the single polis dismantled in 385, and after that Mantinea's joining with the other Arcadians in a new federal state, which built a new major city at Megalopolis, in the south-west near Laconia and Messenia. Arcadia joined with Argos and Elis an in anti-Spartan alliance, and failed to gain the support of Athens but did gain that of Thebes. In the winter of 370/69 the allies invaded Laconia and liberated Messenia - which Sparta was never prepared to accept. In this new world, despite the declared objectives of the Second Athenian League, it was now in Athens' interests to support Sparta rather than Thebes, and Athens made an alliance with Sparta in 369 (Xen. Hell. VII. i. 1–14, Diod. Sic. XV 67. i).
In the next few years there was a good deal of fighting in the Peloponnese (and Thebes built up a league of its own in central Greece, and intervened in Thessaly, but this did not involve Sparta or interest Xenophon), while the Athenians started campaigning, without much success, for the territories which they claimed in the north. Ariobarzanes, the satrap of Dascylium, was still a believer in Persian support for a Spartan-backed common peace. In winter 369/8 he sent Philiscus of Abydus, who convened a peace conference at Delphi: agreement could not be reached, more probably because of Sparta's claim to Messenia (Xenophon), which was currently the live issue, than because of Thebes' claim to Boeotia (Diodorus), so Philiscus' money was spent on mercenaries to fight for Sparta (Xen. Hell. VII. i. 27, Diod. Sic. XV. 70. ii), and Ariobarzanes, he and others were made Athenian citizens (Dem. XXIII. Aristocrates 141–2, 202).
In 367 the Thebans tried to obtain a common peace to their advantage. According to Xenophon Sparta was the first to send an envoy to the King; envoys then went also from Thebes and its Peloponnesian allies, and from Athens. The Theban representative was Pelopidas, and he dominated the conference and obtained a draft which included rulings on a number of current issues: Messenia was to be independent, the region to the south of Olympia now known as Triphylia was to belong to Elis and not to Arcadia, the Athenian navy was to be beached (perhaps that was the only anti-Athenian clause and there was not a clause stating that Amphipolis and the Chersonese were to be independent); there was to be a compulsory sanctions clause. One of Athens' envoys was persuaded to acquiesce, for which he was prosecuted by his colleague (and it was probably on this occasion that the Athenians deleted the clause in favour of the King's Peace from the prospectus of their league: cf. p. 231); the Spartan Antalcidas committed suicide. Back in Greece, in 367/6, the Thebans convened a conference at which they hoped to gain acceptance of the terms, but too many states had grounds for dissatisfaction: the Arcadians walked out of the conference, and when the Thebans sent envoys calling on the cities to swear to the peace they all refused (Xen. Hell. VII. i. 33–40, cf. Diod. Sic. XV 81. iii, 90. ii, Plut. Pel. 30). One result of Thebes' gaining the support of Persia was that, in the Satraps' Revolt in the western provinces of the Persian empire, Athens and Sparta both supported the rebels: in 366–365 the Athenians besieged Samos and captured it from the Persians, but then did not liberate it but turned it into an Athenian cleruchy.
Theban policies in the Peloponnese were proving unsuccessful: in 366 an attempted annexation of Achaea by Thebes and Argos misfired, and the Achaeans became allies of Sparta; and the Arcadians, alienated by Thebes' proposal to award Triphylia to Elis, did not end their alliance with Thebes but made a new alliance with Athens. The next peace treaty is problematic. Diodorus under the year 366/5 (for which he has no major episode but a few short entries) reports that the King persuaded the Greeks to end their wars and make a common peace (Diod. Sic. XV 76. iii). Xenophon in a context of 366–365 reports that in Corinth, which was in an unstable condition (about this time a man called Timophanes tried to make himself tyrant but was assassinated), Athens attempted to intervene but was frustrated. The Corinthians then tried to make peace with Thebes for themselves and their allies; Sparta gave permission, but would not itself join the peace and thereby give up the attempt to recover Messenia. Corinth insisted on peace only with Thebes, not alliance; and (perhaps in spring 365) a peace was made, on the basis of echein ta heauton, which included several cities in the north-eastern Peloponnese (Xen. Hell. VII. iv. 4–11). Isocrates' (VI) Archidamus was written for this context, and some have used it to support Diodorus; the best solution is that the participants claimed to be renewing the King's Peace once more but the participants were a limited range of states. This treaty involving Peloponnesian allies of Sparta but not Sparta itself marked the end of the Peloponnesian League.
In Thessaly Thebes had been supporting a federation of cities against a dynasty of tyrants in the city of Pherae, and Thebes' intervention ended successfully (but with the death of Pelopidas) in 364, when the tyrants had their power limited to that one city and were made allies of Thebes. Athens had been supporting Pherae, and Theban hostility to Athens continued: in 366 Thebes managed to gain possession of the disputed territory of Oropus; Diodorus reports a plan, instigated by Epaminondas, to build a hundred triremes and win over Athens' Aegean allies, and a Theban naval campaign in 364 stirred up trouble in Ceos. In 362 and 361 Alexander of Pherae, now constrained on land, turned to attack Athens by sea.
In the Peloponnese friction over Triphylia led to the outbreak in 365 of a war between Elis and Arcadia, with other Peloponnesians and Athens supporting Arcadia but Sparta supporting Elis. In 364 with Arcadian support the people living near Olympia, the Pisatans, celebrated the Olympic festival, and in fighting in the sanctuary the Eleans won a battle but could not dislodge the Pisatans. However, in 363 a rift opened up in Arcadia, with a Mantinean faction unhappy to spend sacred funds from Olympia on mercenaries, and sympathetic to Sparta, while a Tegean faction was happy to spend the money and remained friendly with Thebes. In winter 363/2 the Mantinean faction was powerful enough to make peace between Arcadia and Elis, but the disagreement developed into open war, with Mantinea allied to Sparta, Elis, Achaea and Athens, and Tegea and Megalopolis to the other Peloponnesians and Thebes. In 362 Epaminondas took an army to the Peloponnese, and after he and the Spartans under Agesilaus had marched and counter-marched between Arcadia and Laconia there was a battle at Mantinea, in which Epaminondas was killed when his army was getting the upper hand. Xenophon ends his Hellenica by remarking that the battle which might have resolved the power struggle in Greece resulted in fact in even more indecisiveness and confusion than before (Xen. Hell. VII. v. 26–7).
The Greeks then made 'a common peace and alliance', i.e. a peace with a compulsory sanctions clause; because it was stipulated that Messenia was to be autonomous, Sparta stood out; but presumably the Theban-dominated Boeotia was allowed to participate as 'Boeotia' (Diod. Sic. XV 89. i-ii, Polyb. rV 33. viii-ix, Plut. Ages. 35. iii-iv).This is probably the context to which we should assign an inscription in which the Greeks who have made a common peace reply to 'the man who has come from the satraps' that if the King does not make trouble for them they will not make trouble for him (IG iv 556 = R&O 42 ~ Harding 57): i.e. they refuse to help the rebels in the Satraps' Revolt (though the Athenian Chabrias went to Egypt as a freelance mercenary commander), but Sparta, not participating in the peace, sent Agesilaus to Egypt (he died on the return journey, after about thirty years as one of Sparta's most active kings).
Philip II of Macedon
The Greek world was transformed by the reign of Philip (359-336). Previously Macedon had been an unstable kingdom on the edge of the Greek world; in the 360's Athens had tangled with it through its attempt to recover Amphipolis, and Thebes through its intervention in Thessaly. When Philip came to the throne he quickly strengthened the kingdom, and began to seize opportunities to expand it eastwards towards the Hellespont and southwards towards Greece. At an early stage he annoyed Athens, by seizing Amphipolis in 357, in circumstances which led the Athenians to allege that he had cheated them: Athens declared war, but was prevented from acting against him by the Social War of 356–355 against members of a League which had lost its purpose since Leuctra and was unstable after Thebes' activity in the late 360's.
In Greece Thebes, though it had lost Pelopidas and Epaminondas, was still the strongest and most ambitious single power; and it attempted to use the Amphictyony of mostly central Greek states which controlled Delphi as an instrument of its power. In 363 Thebes was granted precedence in the consultation of the oracle, and some leading men of the polls of Delphi were expelled by the Amphictyony and welcomed in Athens. Thebes also used the Amphictyony to impose fines on states hostile to it: Sparta for sacrilege committed during the occupation of Thebes in 382, and Phocis for cultivating the sacred plain of Cirrha, by the Gulf of Corinth below Delphi. In 356 the Phocians seized Delphi, thus provoking the Third Sacred War, in which Phocis was supported by Sparta and Athens and opposed by the Amphictyony and Thebes. Philip took advantage of this to become involved on the side of the Amphictyony, while his expansion towards the Hellespont led to further conflict with Athens.
Athens turned to less ambitious policies after losing several of its League members in the Social War, but was prepared to oppose Philip when he directly threatened Athenian interests, and in the early 340's tried to build up a southern Greek alliance to resist his expansion southwards. Philip encouraged uncertainty as to whether he would continue to support the Amphictyony; at the beginning of 346 the Athenians' plans were frustrated when the Phocians, hoping Philip would change sides, refused to cooperate with them, and so they tried to make peace with Philip. They wanted a common peace treaty, which would embrace all their allies including the Phocians; Philip insisted on peace between himself and his allies and 'Athens and its allies' (meaning the League), and, when it was too late for anybody to help the Phocians, made it clear that he was still on the side of the Amphictyony. The Phocians surrendered, Philip was given their place in the Amphictyony, and Athens again felt cheated (Diod. Sic. XVI. 59–60, Just. Epit. VIII. 4. i-5. v, cf. speeches of Demosthenes and Aeschines: pp. 347–51).
In Athens Aeschines wanted to accept the peace and make the best of it; Demosthenes, claiming that Philip had designs on Athens and all of Greece, wanted to renew the conflict. Philip offered to renegotiate the peace, and to enlarge it into a common peace, which he now thought he could turn to his advantage, but Athens wrecked the negotiations by making demands which Philip could not have been expected to accept. Athens declared war on Philip in 340; a Fourth Sacred War began later that year, and Philip entered it in 339; by then Athens and Thebes were united against him, and he defeated them at Chaeronea in 338. After that he combined several strands in fourth-century institutions: a common peace treaty, based on territorial adjustments which would help to maintain a balance of weakness; a league of allies, the so-called League of Corinth, with Philip as itshegemon, 'leader', and with a representative council (thus providing mechanisms not only for enforcing the treaty when it was broken but also for deciding what should count as breaches of it); and in the council not equality of representation as in the Peloponnesian and Athenian Leagues but proportional representation as in the Boeotian federation dissolved in 386 and in the Arcadian federation of the 360's. Sparta, on account of Messenia, refused once more to take part; Athens joined (and so what remained of the Second Athenian League was disbanded); Thebes (more severely treated, as a former ally which had turned against Philip) had a pro-Macedonian government and a garrison installed (Diod. Sic. XVI. 89, Just. Epit. IX. 5. i-iv, cf. IG ii2 236 = R&O 76 ~ Harding 99. A). Mainland Greece, except Sparta, was now subject to Philip. He did install some garrisons (in Thebes, Ambracia and Corinth, the so-called 'fetters of Greece'), but in general his supremacy did not take the form of outright conquest and direct intervention: like the leading Greek cities before him he clothed his supremacy in garb which left the cities theoretically autonomous members of an alliance, but the mechanisms he created made it clear that his allies would be expected to decide as he wanted.
Since before the Peace of Antalcidas there had been talk of the desirability of uniting the Greeks once more in a war against Persia, and the abandonment of the Asiatic Greeks under that treaty was a further wrong to be avenged. From 346 (in his V. Philip)Isocrates had looked to Philip to lead the Greeks in that war: I argue in this book that gaining supremacy in Greece was an objective in its own right for Philip, not just a necessary preliminary to that war, but towards the end of his reign he was contemplating war against Persia, and the Greeks' desire for revenge provided a convenient excuse. The League of Corinth formally decided to fight that war and appointed Philip as commander; he sent out advance forces in 336; when he was assassinated that summer, his son Alexander succeeded to his position in Macedon and in the League, and successfully undertook the war.
NOTE ON FURTHER READING
On the common peace treaties in general see Ryder, Koine Eirene. Problems in the interpretation of the terms are explored by Rhodes, 'Making and Breaking Treaties in the Greek World', in de Souza and France (eds.), War and Peace in Ancient and Medieval History, ch. 2.
On the question whether Andoc. III. Peace and Philoch. FGrH 328 F 149 = Harding 23 refer to 392/1 or to 387/6 see E. Badian, 'The King's Peace', in Georgica… G. Cawkwell, 25–48 at 26–34 (387/6); A. G. Keen, 'A "Confused" Passage of Philochoros (F 149A) and the Peace of 392/1 BC',Hist, xliv 1995, 1–10, 'Philochoros F 149A&B: A Further Note', Hist, xlvii 1998, 375–8 (392/1). More drastically, it is argued that Andoc. Ill is not an authentic speech but a later rhetorical exercise by E. M. Harris, 'The Authenticity of Andokides' De Pace: A Subversive Essay', in Polis and Politics… M. H Hansen, 479–505.
On the peace of 387/6 and its aftermath see R. Seager, 'The King's Peace and the Balance of Power in Greece, 386–382 BC', Ath.2 Hi 1974, 36–63; Badian, 'The King's Peace' (cf. above).
The interpretation which I give of 'the decrees of the Athenians and their allies' in the peace of autumn 371 is due to M. Sordi and is accepted by Ryder, Koine Eirene, 132–3: against it see Lewis, Selected Papers in Greek and Near Eastern History, ch. 5.
The view that the peace of 365 was in theory a renewal of the King's Peace but the participants were a limited range of states is due to M. Zahrnt, 'Xenophon, Isokrates und die RM2 cxliii 2000, 295–325 at 314–21.
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Suggest reading
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Zofran is a drug that has been approved by the FDA to treat nausea associated with chemotherapy, radiation therapy, and post-surgery. However, it has widely been prescribed "off-label" to help pregnant women who are experiencing nausea during morning sickness. In short, it was never tested or approved for use in pregnant women, and has been linked to a number of serious birth defects.
Birth Defects Linked to Zofran
GSK, the manufacturer of Zofran was ordered by the United States Department of Justice to pay a $3 billion fine in 2012 for illegally promoting its medicine, fraud, and failing to report safety data. At the time, this was the largest healthcare fraud settlement in the history of the country. If you have taken this drug during pregnancy, and you or your child suffered complications, you may be entitled to recover compensation for damages.
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Damages You May Be Eligible to Recover
Do you think you may have a Zofran personal injury case? Now is the time to act. If you or your child has suffered injury or birth defects due to the use of Zofran during pregnancy, it is possible to recover losses for these injuries, mental and emotional distress, and other damages against the manufacturer. They have already been shown to be at fault for the way the drug was improperly promoted, and our Shreveport personal injury attorney at the Harrelson Law Firm has the experience and knowledge of the law to fight for the maximum amount that you are legally entitled to.
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We know that Dallas is home to some pretty big players in the charity world. But we have to give love to the smaller guys, too! A small budget doesn't mean small intentions, and it definitely doesn't mean small results.
Don't believe us? Then, believe the Dallas Social Venture Partners, organizers of bigBang TX!, a one-day, fast-paced conference for nonprofits and donors held Friday at Union Station downtown. Attendees from nonprofits, charitable foundations and the general public filled the space, browsing the Socially Conscious Marketplace, and embracing their inner Eberts at Networked Film Festival (The Art Conspiracy Film deserves two thumbs up!) But the stars of the day were on the Fast Pitch Stage, where lesser-known nonprofits were able to shine.
Goalposts and Gardens: Paul Quinn College One of the craziest things anyone has ever done on a football field happens here in Dallas at Paul Quinn College. They traded touchdowns for tillers and grew themselves a garden. Not only is the Food For Good Garden at Paul Quinn College building community, it is literally feeding its community, to the tune of 2,500 pounds of food in one year. "And that's before we knew what we were doing!" said Michael Sorrell, president of the college. Located in one of Dallas's "food deserts," it is the closest thing to good, quality produce in its area. And it's not stopping at the stadium walls. Long-term goals for the 138-year old college and its garden include opening and stocking bodega style storefronts for its neighbors to patronize.
Quality Education is What You Know And Who You Know: The Teaching Trust The Teaching Trust's Chris Bhatti started his speech by asking the audience to reflect on their school days. "Did you think of an assignment, or a person?" he asked. I thought of a person, and I'm guessing that most other audience members did, too. And that, in a nutshell, is the gist of the Teaching Trust. It trains teachers and other school leaders to motivate and educate high-achieving students, especially those in underserved geographic areas.
Action-Minded Alternatives: Accion Texas-Louisiana The micro-lending model is literally a lifesaver for people worldwide. But, did you know that the United States' largest micro-lender is in Texas? Accion Texas-Louisiana's success can be traced to its forward-thinking business model. To paraphrase their own words, instead of giving away a fish or teaching someone to fish, they are helping people buy ponds to acquire assets. Their sustainability model has meant great success for many small business owners, including Carrollton-based promotional products company "A Turtle Loves Me," which is now an Accion investor itself.
If you missed bigBang! you can still give to these great charities and others through the Donor Bridge, whose link is active on bigBangTx.org for the next 60 days.


@Christophe_Co succès du à quoi? Nico Cage est une star en France plus qu'ailleurs?
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@markjaquith did you setup a catch-all email, or do you create individual specific accounts?


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text:
MARTINCHRISTIAN
What is the "Last Clear Chance Rule" in Personal Injury Law?
The "last chance" rule, also known as "last clear opportunity" doctrine, is a legal concept that has been used in some personal injury cases. It applies to cases in which both plaintiff and defendant share some responsibility for the accident leading to the case. We'll show you how the "last chance" rule works and what it might mean for certain types of personal injuries cases.
Personal Injury Cases: Contributory Negligence
Definition of "Last Clear Chance."
The plaintiff must usually prove the following in order to be able to use the "last clear opportunity" rule:
What is Comparative Negligence instead of "Last Clear Chance?"
"Common law" is the source of the "last chance" rule. Common law is a legal rule made by judges in court decisions that have been handed down over time, and not a rule codified in a statute or law.
"Last clear opportunity" was created as an exception to "contributory negligence", which is one of the most common defenses in personal injuries cases. It may be a good idea to begin with an explanation about contributory negligence.
The very plaintiff-unfriendly contributory neglect rule applies to personal injury cases. It states that if the plaintiff is found to be negligent in any way and that negligence caused the accident, the plaintiff can not seek damages from the at-fault parties. Learn more about personal injury damages. Most states have replaced contributory negligence with comparative negligence. More details will follow. (Note: Alabama and Maryland, North Carolina, Virginia and Washington D.C. still adhere to contributory negligence rules.
Judges created the last chance rule to alleviate the severe effects of contributory negligence. In states that have contributory negligence, judges believed that negligent plaintiffs should be able to receive some compensation in certain circumstances rather than being left with nothing.
Although the exact language of this last clear chance rule varies from one state to the next, it states that even if the plaintiff is negligent in an accident, they can still recover damages if defendant could have prevented the accident entirely by exercising ordinary care and reasonable prudential. Find out more about negligence, "reasonable care", fault for an accident.
The plaintiff was in danger of death and could not be saved.
The defendant was aware of the danger and
The defendant had a reasonable chance to avoid the injury or accident.
The last clear chance rule sounds exactly like it is in some ways. A negligent plaintiff must show that the defendant had the last chance to alter course and not injure the plaintiff.
Let's take a look at an example to show how the last clear opportunity rule could be applied in practice. Let's suppose that the plaintiff was crossing a railroad bridge. The bridge did not have "No Pedestrians" signage or a walkway so that the plaintiff could not move when a train arrived. Even though the plaintiff was clearly negligent in his actions, he/she could still claim damages if the train driver exercised ordinary care and could have seen the plaintiff. The train would have been able stop safely before it hit the plaintiff. The train driver had the best chance of avoiding the accident in this instance.
As stated above, the majority of states have abandoned contributory neglect and adopted comparative negligent schemes. This effectively moves on from the last clear opportunity rule, although it is still referenced in some personal injuries cases.
The plaintiff can still seek damages for an accident if the plaintiff's negligence was less than 50% of the accident's cause. Let's take, for example, a case involving a car accident. The jury determines that the plaintiff was 30% responsible for the crash and awards $100,000 in damages. The plaintiff would see his or her damages reduced by 30% (equal to the plaintiff's share of the fault) and would only receive $70,000. The state may also follow "pure" comparate negligence. This means that the plaintiff can still receive damages even though his or her negligence was more 50% of the accident's cause.
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I live in South Korea, but the South Koreans don't call it South Korea. The country has its own language, of course, and that language has its own name for the country, daehan minguk (대한 민국), or more commonly hanguk (한국) — not that it stops the global branding-friendly letter K, which has made its way from "K-pop" to "K-beauty" to even (albeit much less successfully) things like "K-food." As far as our much-reported-on northern neighbor, South Koreans call it bukhan (북한), but its inhabitants call their land joseon minjujueui inmin gonghwaguk (조선민주주의인민공화국). And as with Korea South and North, so with every country in the world: each one has an endonym.
"An endonym is the name for a place, site or location in the language of the people who live there. These names may be officially designated by the local government or they may simply be widely used." So says the front page of the Endonym Map, which labels every country (or disputed territory) in the world with its endonym, written in the language's own script.
When you first learned the names of foreign countries, you actually learned their exonyms, their names in a foreign language: yours. "South Korea" and "North Korea" are exonyms, as are names like "Japan," "Finland," "Turkey," and "France." Nihon-koku (日本国), Suomen tasavalta, Türkiye Cumhuriyeti, and la République française all appear on the Endonym Map, as do many other well-known countries you might at first glance assume you've never heard of.
The map's creator notes that "the most common official or national language in the world is English, with 86 countries or territories," which represents "one-third the number of total countries and approximately 30% of the planet's land area." Because of that, people all over the world do tend to know the English exonym for their own country, but that's hardly an excuse not to learn its real name should you decide to pay them a visit. And that counts as the first step toward actually learning its language, a journey that the Foreign Service Institute's language-learning map we featured last year can help you plan. Hwaiting, as we say here in the Koreanized English — or Englishized Korean? — of hanguk.
You can view the Endonym Map in a larger, zoomable format here.
No it doesn't. Or maybe if you separate the country from the people… I don't think the people usually call their country "the republic of" or something like that. I would have preferred a map that shows what the people call their countries (in their majority language at least). I'm finnish and it wouldn't occur to me that my country is called "Suomen Tasavalta" ("the finnish republic") as it would obviously be just Suomi to all finnish speakers.
It's strange that the name of Belgium (België) only is writhen in Dutch (or Flemish or Nederlands), while Belgium has 3 (three) official languages: Dutch, French and German..
Dutch is also spoken in The Netherlands and a (very small part) of France.
French is not only spoken in France but also in Belgium, Luxemburg and Switzerland. And a small part of Italy.
and German is spoken…..is Germany, Switzerland, Austria and even a small part of …Italy.
The European borders are not the borders of languages, not the borders of different people but the borders of conflicts & wars, politics & marriages, forgotten kingdoms and fallen republics.
It's disappointing that Éire is labelled only as "Ireland". The country has two official languages, and streets and towns are sign-posted in both.
Tá sé díomách nach bhfuil Éire lipéadaithe ach mar "Ireland". Tá dhá theanga oifigiúil ag an tír, agus tá sráidbhailte agus bailte araon ainmnithe sa dá theanga.
They lumped all the countries of the UK together…what happened to Scotland, England, and WALES?? The people of Cymru will not be happy….


text:
Frances Mary Colquhoun (28 February 1836 – 29 July 1920) was a Scottish writer.

Early life
Known as Mary, she was born in Edinburgh in 1836, the eldest daughter and second child of John Colquhoun and Frances Sarah Fuller Maitland. Her father was a sportsman,
author of The Moor and the Loch and former army officer. Her mother was the authoress of Rhymes and Chimes.

She grew up in Duddingston and then Royal Terrace, Edinburgh in a "sternly Presbyterian" and well-connected family. She and her siblings also spent time in stately homes in England and Scotland.

She had four sisters and four brothers. Her sister Lucy Bethia Walford became a popular Victorian novelist and wrote about the family in Recollections of a Scottish Novelist. Her aunt was the Scottish novelist Catherine Sinclair.

Clan and the Highlands
Mary was the granddaughter of  Sir James Colquhoun, Baronet of Luss and Clan Chief of the Colquhouns of Luss.  She was 'intensely Highland in her sympathies, and to her there is no place so romantic or beautiful as the country of her clan, stretching along "The Bonnie Banks o' Loch Lomon'." Luss is on the west bank of Loch Lomond.

Later life and litigation
Mary never married. She was president of St. Kessog's Home, Edinburgh which was devoted to the treatment of women's diseases.

By his will, her father gave her the use and possession of the family home, 1 Royal Terrace, Edinburgh, so long as she remained unmarried. In 1916 she unsuccessfully bought a claim against the trustees appointed under her father's will to recover costs on repairs, insurances and fues she had spent in respect of the house.

Works
Writing under the name F. Mary Colquhoun, Mary wrote articles for The Scots Magazine, poetry, which was quoted in the 1891 book, One Hundred Modern Scottish Poets and books. She wrote several Highland sketches and collected Christian poems and songs. She also collected lost verses of The Bonnie Banks of Loch Lomond.

Her works include:
 Songs of Christian Warfare (1886)
 A Communion Afternoon
 John Colquhoun: The Christian Sportsman (1891)
 The Wine of Life: A book of the Songsmiths (1894)
 Ridley Herschel: a Jewish witness to the Gospel
 St. Kessog and his home (1908)
 A Bit of the Tartan or Two Fragments of Romance - (1895) includes The Master of Rosca and Glenroysdale
 Clan Colquhoun Society ... Constitution, office-bearers, list of members, and reports; also traditions of the Clan Colquhoun country, illustrated ... portraits and biographical sketches of prominent members of the clan (1897)

Reviews
Songs of Christian Warfare. "... a neat little volume of carefully selected poems which has just been issued by Miss F. Mary Colquhoun, who is already favourably known as the author of "The Master of Rosca," "Glenroysdale' and the "Communion Afternoon." The pieces have been chosen "not so much because they are favourites of the compiler as because she has found them suited to impart comfort and encouragement to others in our common pilgrimage and warfare of faith" and the book, which is beautifully printed and well bound, deserves a most kindly reception."

References

1836 births
1920 deaths
19th-century British writers
19th-century British women writers
19th-century Scottish writers
19th-century Scottish women writers
Writers from Edinburgh