text:
Oldest Pathology in a Tetrapod Bone Illuminates the Origin of Terrestrial Vertebrates
Peter J. Bishop ,
* E-mail: peter.bishop@qm.qld.gov.au (PJB); m9.phillips@qut.edu.au (MJP)
Affiliations Ancient Environments Program, Queensland Museum, 122 Gerler Rd, Hendra, Queensland, 4011, Australia, School of Earth, Environmental and Biological Sciences, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Queensland, 4000, Australia, Centre for Musculoskeletal Research, Griffith University, Southport, Queensland, 4222, Australia
Christopher W. Walmsley,
Affiliation Department of Anatomy and Developmental Biology, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, 3800, Australia
Matthew J. Phillips ,
Affiliation School of Earth, Environmental and Biological Sciences, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Queensland, 4000, Australia
Michelle R. Quayle,
Catherine A. Boisvert ,
Contributed equally to this work with: Catherine A. Boisvert, Colin R. McHenry
Affiliation Australian Regenerative Medicine Institute, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, 3800, Australia
Colin R. McHenry
Peter J. Bishop,
Matthew J. Phillips,
Catherine A. Boisvert,
Peter J. Bishop Christopher W. Walmsley ... Colin R. McHenry
The origin of terrestrial tetrapods was a key event in vertebrate evolution, yet how and when it occurred remains obscure, due to scarce fossil evidence. Here, we show that the study of palaeopathologies, such as broken and healed bones, can help elucidate poorly understood behavioural transitions such as this. Using high-resolution finite element analysis, we demonstrate that the oldest known broken tetrapod bone, a radius of the primitive stem tetrapod Ossinodus pueri from the mid-Viséan (333 million years ago) of Australia, fractured under a high-force, impact-type loading scenario. The nature of the fracture suggests that it most plausibly occurred during a fall on land. Augmenting this are new osteological observations, including a preferred directionality to the trabecular architecture of cancellous bone. Together, these results suggest that Ossinodus, one of the first large (>2m length) tetrapods, spent a significant proportion of its life on land. Our findings have important implications for understanding the temporal, biogeographical and physiological contexts under which terrestriality in vertebrates evolved. They push the date for the origin of terrestrial tetrapods further back into the Carboniferous by at least two million years. Moreover, they raise the possibility that terrestriality in vertebrates first evolved in large tetrapods in Gondwana rather than in small European forms, warranting a re-evaluation of this important evolutionary event.
Citation: Bishop PJ, Walmsley CW, Phillips MJ, Quayle MR, Boisvert CA, McHenry CR (2015) Oldest Pathology in a Tetrapod Bone Illuminates the Origin of Terrestrial Vertebrates. PLoS ONE 10(5): e0125723. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0125723
Academic Editor: Laurent Viriot, Team 'Evo-Devo of Vertebrate Dentition', FRANCE
Received: November 27, 2014; Accepted: March 18, 2015; Published: May 4, 2015
Copyright: © 2015 Bishop et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited
Data Availability: Specimen QMF 37451 and a copy of the CT scan data are held in the Geosciences Collection of the Queensland Museum, Brisbane, Australia. These data will be made freely available to all qualified researchers upon a request being made to the Collections Manager.
Funding: MJP is supported by a QUT research grant, CRM by an ARC grant (DR0986471) and a Monash University research grant, and CAB by an ARC QEII Fellowship DP110101127, a Human Frontiers Research Program (LT000130/2009-L), and an ARC Discovery Project DP 1096002. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.
A pivotal phase in vertebrate history was the evolution of tetrapods from sarcopterygian fish, and their subsequent colonization of land [1]. In addition to radical anatomical changes [2–8], it encompassed a profound shift in functional morphology and behaviour, due to the increased effect of gravity out of the support of water. However, exactly how and when tetrapods adapted to the requirements of a terrestrial lifestyle remains elusive. Based on current understanding of Late Devonian tetrapods, the advent of vertebrate terrestrialization is inferred to have taken place during the Early Carboniferous [1], yet tetrapod fossils are extremely scarce from the first 30 million years of this period, approximately 359–329 million years ago (mya). The oldest known incontrovertibly terrestrial tetrapods are small animals from the Late Viséan of Scotland [9,10], approximately 327–331 mya, but a global scarcity of tetrapod fossils from earlier in the Carboniferous hinders an assessment of how and when the colonization of land began [1,11,12].
Deriving from the mid-Viséan (333 mya) of Queensland, Australia [13,14], the primitive stem tetrapod Ossinodus pueri (Fig 1a) is of critical importance to interpreting the evolution of terrestrial tetrapods. Along with the Late Devonian Tulerpeton [15], Ossinodus is remarkable among early stem tetrapods in the high degree of ossification in its appendicular elements, comparable to that of many early amniotes [14,16]. All Ossinodus bones have been recovered from a single site preserving multiple individuals of varying size [14], and all stem tetrapod bones from this site are regarded as belonging to O. pueri, based on a similar pattern of ornamentation on the recovered dermal cranial bones [14,16]. Among the numerous cranial and postcranial elements recovered for Ossinodus is a fractured right radius, which is the oldest known tetrapod palaeopathology [17] (Fig 1b–1e). The presence of a callus shows that healing had commenced, but given that the fracture can still be observed in X-radiographs of the fossil [17], this indicates that the radius had only partially healed when the individual died. Having fractured when the individual was alive, it can therefore provide insight into stem tetrapod lifestyle and behavior [18].
Fig 1. Morphology of Ossinodus and its fractured right radius, QMF 37451.
(a) Reconstructed life appearance of Ossinodus, based on numerous cranial and postcranial remains; the individual to which QMF 37451 belonged is estimated to have been about 1–1.5 m long. (b–e) External morphology of radius in lateral (b), anterior (c), medial (d) and posterior (e) views; proximal (elbow) articulation to top of page. The large callus on the proximolateral surface resulted from healing of the fracture. Abbreviations: dmr, dorsomesial ridge; pvr, proximoventral ridge; vmr, ventromesial ridge; vrc, ventral radial crest; nut. for., nutrient foramen.
The fossil's excellent preservation presents the unique opportunity to analyze the fracture's three-dimensional geometry via high-resolution computed tomographic (CT) scanning. The CT scanning also permits the assessment of the internal microstructure of the fossil, such as that of cancellous bone. Additionally, we employed high-resolution, three-dimensional finite element analysis (FEA), an approach that has been used to accurately simulate structural mechanics in both living and extinct taxa [19,20], to determine the conditions under which fracturing occurred. This provides direct evidence of lifestyle in a stem tetrapod, which has important implications for understanding the physiological, temporal and biogeographical context under which terrestriality in vertebrates evolved.
The fractured right radius of Ossinodus, Queensland Museum Fossil specimen (QMF) 37451, was scanned using a Bioscan NanoPET/CT scanner. The settings used are as follows: helical scan method, 1100 ms exposure time, 65 kV peak voltage, nominal isotropic voxel resolution of 65 μm. In order to achieve adequate spatial resolution (i.e., a resolution of 65 μm), the fossil was scanned in three parts along its long axis, and the resulting scan series rejoined in Avizo 7.0 (Visualization Sciences Group, USA).
Analysis of cancellous bone architecture
The trabecular architecture of cancellous bone was most clearly resolved in the CT scans of the proximal end of the radius. This region was quantitatively analyzed for architectural anisotropy using the mean intercept length method as implemented in the software Quant3D [21]. The region of bone analyzed was centrally located in the proximal end and occupied a volume of dimensions 5.92 × 6.50 × 4.23 mm. The entire volume was analyzed using the following settings in Quant3D: adaptive iterative thresholding, 2000 points and 2049 uniform orientations with random rotation and dense vectors. The resulting mean intercept length tensor was used to produce a fabric ellipsoid with principal axes in Rhinoceros 4.0 (McNeel, USA).
The CT scans were visualized, segmented, three-dimensionally modelled and analyzed in Mimics 14.0 (Materialize NV, Belgium), Rhinoceros and the open source software ImageJ 1.47 (http://rsb.info.nih.gov/ij/). The pathological fracture was identified in the scans as a sharp discontinuity with a long, linear geometry, manifest as an area much darker (i.e., lower greyscale values) than the surrounding bone (Fig 2); its orientation and extent was subsequently mapped out manually. It was distinguished from post-mortem, preservational fractures on the basis that preservational fractures extended to one or more areas at the bone surface, and that they were typically wider (several pixels across) than the pathologic fracture (generally two pixels across). Identifying the orientation of the fracture, and the sense of fracture displacement, allows for the loading conditions under which fracturing occurred to be reconstructed.
Fig 2. Digital removal of the callus, reconstruction of the original bone morphology, and CT image segmentation.
This process is shown with three (a–c) different sections through the fossil. (d) Location and orientation of sections (a)–(c) relative to the bone. 1, The original scan images. 2, Interpretation of the scan images. Red line is preserved cortical margin, dotted red line is reconstructed cortical margin, and purple line is the fracture. The axially concentric pattern of density change (brighter pixels indicating higher density) within the bone allowed estimation of the position of the original cortical margin, based on the amount of the concentric pattern missing. Note the finer, grainer microstructure of the callus. 3, Scan image segmented into cortical bone (red) and four different densities of cancellous bone (orange, yellow, green, and blue, in decreasing order of density).
In order for a finite element model of the radius of Ossinodus to be produced, the bone's morphology prior to fracturing had to be reconstructed. This required that the following features of the fossil be digitally 'corrected' in the CT scans, using Mimics 14.0 (Figs 2 and 3):
The healing callus was removed, identified on the basis of its internal microstructure. The microstructure of the callus was much finer and grainier than that of the normal, nonpathologic bone; it also showed little trace of trabeculae. Removing the callus, however, also removes what was once original bone. Therefore, once it was removed, the original external outline of the bone had to be restored in that area; this was primarily achieved by using the concentric pattern of density change within the bone as a guide.
The proximal and distal ends of QMF 37451 are abraded to different degrees (Fig 3). These were restored to achieve a complete bone, partly via comparison to the morphologies of the radii of other, phylogenetically close, Early Carboniferous tetrapods [22,23]. The nature of cancellous bone within the missing parts could not be reconstructed, because there are no other known fossil radii of Ossinodus to obtain the information for those missing parts.
Preservational (taphonomic) fractures were removed by 'filling in' via extrapolation from adjacent regions of bone, using the appropriate density of bone (see below).
Fig 3. Removal of the callus and reconstruction of the pre-fractured morphology of the radius of Ossinodus.
(a)–(d) Three-dimensional geometry of the fossil, with abraded parts highlighted proximally and distally. (e)–(h) Reconstructed three-dimensional geometry of the original bone, as it is would have appeared prior to fracturing. Views correspond to those in Fig 1b–1e.
To enable the development of a heterogenous finite element model, the reconstructed morphology of the pre-fractured radius was segmented into both cortical and cancellous bone components (Fig 2). Cortical bone was segmented using a combination of thresholding tools and manual segmentation. The remaining volume of the bone (cancellous bone) was segmented into four different components with different bulk densities, via thresholding of voxel greyscale values. The range of greyscale values used for separating out each component were chosen on the qualitative appearance of the CT data; the separation used was deemed to best represent the structural patterns present, ensuring that the model subsequently generated was as realistic as possible.
Finite element model construction
In order to determine how and with what magnitude force the radius of Ossinodus would have fractured, the CT scan data was used to develop a high-resolution, three-dimensional, finite element model of the bone's pre-fractured morphology in Strand7 2.4.4 (Strand7 Pty Ltd, Australia). The fossil's preservation allowed for cortical bone and different components of the cancellous bone to be modelled separately based on density differences, thus enabling patterns of variation in material properties in the original, living bone to be accounted for. However, since a small part of the fossil was missing, knowledge of structural and material heterogeneity within the cancellous bone is incomplete. Thus, in the final model used, all cancellous bone elements were assigned a single set of material properties, distinct from those assigned to the cortical bone elements; each component (cortical and cancellous) was modelled as a homogenous material. This model is referred to herein as the 'complete homogenous model' (Fig 4a, Table 1).
Fig 4. Three-dimensional finite element models of the radius of Ossinodus.
(a) Complete homogenous model in oblique posterolateral view; extent of proximal articulation surface shown in grey. This was the model used to assess fracture mechanics in the radius. (b) Incomplete homogenous model in anteromedial view; red shows exposed (homogenous) cancellous bone. (c) Incomplete heterogenous model in posteromedial view. (d) Incomplete heterogenous model in posteromedial view, sectioned in the mediolateral plane to illustrate variation in material properties within the volume of cancellous bone.
Table 1. Material properties assigned to the elements in the three finite element models.
To assess the possible effects of modelling the cancellous bone as a single homogenous volume, two further finite element models of the preserved part of the fossil were produced for comparative analysis (Fig 4), both without any of the reconstructed parts of the proximal and distal ends of the bone. The purpose of these two models was to assess whether the representation of a spatially and compositionally heterogenous material as a single, homogenous volume (as in the complete homogenous model) would introduce significant error into the analysis of fracture mechanics. Thus, in one model, the preserved cancellous bone was represented by a single, homogenous material (with material properties distinct from those assigned to the cortical bone elements); this is herein referred to as the 'incomplete homogenous model' (Fig 4b, Table 1). In the other, the preserved cancellous bone was represented by four separate densities and material properties (corresponding to the four components produced in the initial segmentation); this is herein referred to as the 'incomplete heterogenous model' (Fig 4c and 4d, Table 1). Comparative FEA of these two models would elucidate any error introduced by the simplified representation of cancellous bone, since the only difference between the two was how the cancellous bone was represented.
To produce the complete homogenous finite element model, a rendered surface mesh of the reconstructed (pre-fracture) radius was produced in Mimics 14.0. This was then exported to Avizo 7.0, where a solid mesh of 1,189,119 low-order tetrahedral brick elements was generated. The solid mesh was re-imported into Mimics 14.0, where the segments of cortical and (homogenous) cancellous bone were used to assign different material properties to the constituent brick elements of the mesh, via the 'mask intersection' method built into Mimics 14.0. Finally, this was then imported into Strand7 2.4.4. A similar procedure was employed in generating the incomplete heterogenous and incomplete homogenous finite element models; both consisted of 1,080,638 low-order tetrahedral brick elements.
In lieu of a more complete understanding of the variation in bone material property anisotropy in extant tetrapods, all elements were modelled as isotropic materials, that is, they respond the same way to loading regardless of the direction the load comes from.
Cortical bone elements in all three models were assigned the same set of material properties (Table 1). Values for physical density (ρ), Young's modulus (E) and Poisson's ratio (ν) were drawn from many studies of the main limb bones of a wide variety of animals, mostly mammals and birds [24–27]. The values used here are approximately the modal values reported for each property, and they represent a conservative first estimate.
To accurately model the cancellous bone, a more involved approach was required. First, the patterns of variation in physical density in the original, living bone had to be determined. In living bone, the greyscale (Hounsfield) values in CT scans can be used to directly determine approximate physical density; however, in this case, the calculated physical densities will be that of the fossil, not the original, living bone. Nevertheless, the patterns of variation in density can be reasonably assumed to be representative of the patterns of density variation in the original bone, due to the fossil's excellent preservation. To ensure a realistic designation, the resulting total mass of the bone in the incomplete heterogenous model was calculated following density assignment. The densities used in the final model (Table 1) yielded a total mass of approximately 4.3 g, which is a reasonable estimate of the mass of the fossil specimen if it were living bone, assuming a bulk long-bone density of 1.4 g/cm3 [24]. For both complete and incomplete homogenous finite element models, the physical density of the cancellous bone was the volume-weighted mean of the four densities used in the heterogenous model. Once physical densities had been determined, Young's modulus was assigned to each element in the three models, via a regression equation derived from the data presented by [28], E = 0.001ρ1.3266, where E is in GPa and ρ is in kg/m3. Lastly, elements were assigned values of Poisson's ratio. Experimentally determined values for ν in living cancellous bone are quite variable, and it is unclear as to how this variation correlates to variation in density [29]. Thus, a conservative approach was taken here, whereby all cancellous bone elements in each model were assigned a value of ν = 0.3 [30], pending further data.
To represent the effects of articular cartilages at the proximal and distal ends of the radius, the inferred articular surfaces (reconstructed for the distal end) were modelled as a tessellated network of stiff beam elements. This helps to reduce the incidence of point artifacts in the results of a FEA [28,30].
Comparative FEA of incomplete heterogenous and homogenous models
To investigate the potential error introduced by modelling a compositionally and spatially heterogenous volume of cancellous bone as a single, homogenous volume, we tested a number of different loading regimes applied to the incomplete heterogenous and incomplete homogenous finite element models:
Uniaxial compression directed parallel to the bone's long axis, with loads applied to the proximal end.
Uniaxial tension directed parallel to the bone's long axis, with loads applied to the proximal end.
Uniaxial torsion about the long axis of the bone, with a positive moment applied at the proximal end.
Anteroposterior bending, with an anteriorly directed force applied at the posterior surface of the bone at its midshaft.
Mediolateral bending, with a medially directed force applied to the lateral surface of the bone at its midshaft.
The first three models were restrained in translation at a small number of nodes in the centre of the distal end; the last two were restrained in translation at a small number of nodes in the centre of both ends. Each model was analyzed as a linear static system; hence, the magnitude of applied forces in a given loading regime is unimportant, only that they are consistent between models.
FEA of complete homogenous radius model
Based on the identified orientation and nature of displacement of the fracture (see Results and Discussion), the complete homogenous finite element model was used to identify the loading regime that caused the radius to fracture. To prevent free-body movement of the model under loading, the distal end was restrained in translation at a small number of nodes in the centre. Given that the fracture and bone presents features associated with impact-type situations (trauma), rather than those associated with bone fatigue (stress fractures), tendon avulsion, or prior pathology [17,18], all force vectors used in a given loading regime (simulating the external, fracture-causing load) were of the same magnitude and orientation. The applied loads did not incorporate any 'background loading' as might occur during normal use, such as that produced by muscular action. This is because strain in the area of interest (the proximal end of the bone) is typically very low during normal use [31]. Hence, strain results in the proximal end of the model will almost completely reflect the applied external loads.
To determine which loading regime was responsible for the fracture, each model was analyzed as a linear static system, and the results were assessed according to two criteria:
Strain field pattern: the correct loading regime would result in regions of high von Mises strain (a measure of distortion) which are aligned with the orientation of the fracture and are spatially restricted to the extent of the fracture. It has been suggested that von Mises stress is a good predictor of failure in bone [30], although in a linearly elastic model it will show the same pattern as its strain equivalent.
Stress field pattern: the desired loading regime will produce a stress field in which the orientation of maximum (σ11), minimum (σ33), and intermediate (σ22) principal stresses in the region of the fracture are consistent with shear fracturing along the orientation of the fracture plane and in the correct direction of displacement [32]. In particular, σ11 is at a high angle to the fracture plane, σ33 is at a low angle to the fracture plane, and σ22 is parallel to the fracture plane and perpendicular to the direction of slip.
The identification of the loading regime that satisfied these criteria proceeded in an iterative 'trial and error' fashion. Recognizing that the mode of fracture (see Results and Discussion) required a force applied somewhere on the proximolateral end of the bone and with a component directed distally [32–34], this was used as an initial starting point for force vector orientation and area of application in the FEA. The results from this loading regime were used to guide the set-up of the next loading regime (i.e., alter the orientation of the force vectors, or its area of application, or both), and so on until a solution was achieved.
Fracture and callus
The CT scans reveal a single fracture plane in the proximal end of the radius (Fig 5a–5h). The fracture lies just beneath the endosteal surface, and is parabolic in mediolateral view and almost concentric with the margins of the bone in transverse section. The healing process has produced a callus, which is perforated by six sizeable lesions (pits) that occasionally form subsurface canals (Fig 5i–5l), indicating post-traumatic infection of the bone, with pus formation (suppurative osteomyelitis) [35]. The callus is demarcated distally by a pronounced groove, where the fracture nears the bone surface (Fig 5b and 5d).
Fig 5. Internal microstructural features in the radius of Ossinodus, QMF 37451.
(a), (b) CT images showing fracture geometry in mediolateral (a) and anteroposterior (b) views; the arrows delimit the shape and extent of the fracture, and are on the callus side of the fracture. (c)–(h) Three dimensional geometry of the fracture (red) superimposed on the original (c–e) and reconstructed (f–h) morphology of the radius; (c), (f) are in lateral view; (d), (g) are in posterior view; (e), (h) are in oblique posterolateral view. (i)–(l) Lesions and subsurface canals in the callus as they appear in CT scans, shown in both mediolateral (i, j) and anteroposterior (k, l) views; arrows delimit extent of the canals. (m), (n) Cancellous bone architecture in the proximal end of the bone, shown as smoothed renderings of volumes automatically segmented from CT scans; (m) Bone in a volume measuring 7.4 × 6.5 × 0.18 mm, with proximal to top of page, anterior to right; (n), bone in a volume measuring 7.4 × 6.5 × 0.23 mm, with proximal to top of page, anterior to left; these regions correspond to that which was quantitatively analyzed for architectural alignment. (o) Fabric ellipsoid (and principal axes) for cancellous bone in the proximal end of the radius; note the almost perfect alignment of the primary fabric axis (red vector) with the proximodistal axis of the bone (thin black line). (p), (q) Morphology of a single nutrient foramen piercing the distal medial end of the bone; (p) shows CT image in anteroposterior view, through the middle of the foramen; (q) shows the same image, with the extent of the foramen (diameter 0.7 mm) outlined in yellow; note the low angle of entry into the bone surface.
Osteological microstructure
The architecture of cancellous bone in the proximal end of the radius has a preferred trabecular orientation (Fig 5m and 5n), with a degree of anisotropy (the relative magnitudes of primary and tertiary material eigenvectors [21]) of 1.27. Moreover, the primary axis of the fabric ellipsoid is almost perfectly aligned with the bone's long axis (Fig 5o): the axis of primary trabecular alignment is essentially parallel to the long axis of the bone. This suggests that the radius underwent remodelling throughout life as a response to frequent, axially directed loads [25,36–39]. This would occur if the animal spent considerable time on land with the limbs in a sprawling position, and the forearm held approximately vertically to support the animal's weight. This interpretation receives further support from the morphology of a single nutrient foramen which pierces the distal medial surface of the radius (Fig 5p and 5q). The low-angle of entry (~20°) into the bone would theoretically reduce potentially dangerous stress concentrations produced under axial loading [25], thus serving as an additional adaptation to weight support.
Heterogenous versus homogenous finite element models
The comparative FEA between the incomplete heterogenous and incomplete homogenous finite element models revealed no significant difference in their biomechanical performance under each loading regime tested (Fig 6), consistent with the results of previous work [40]. Both models predicted very similar stress and strain field patterns; furthermore, comparison of mean von Mises brick strain [28] between the two models for each loading regime showed very small differences in model results (Table 2), with a maximum difference of ~1.5%. Importantly, this means that a complete model with a homogenous volume of cancellous bone captures the biomechanical behaviour of the bone with sufficient accuracy to address the question of fracture mechanics in the radius of Ossinodus.
Fig 6. Comparative FEA of incomplete heterogenous and incomplete homogenous finite element models.
Five different loading regimes were applied to both models (left) with resulting von Mises strain patterns compared via cross sectional plots (right). 1 = uniaxial compression, 2 = uniaxial tension, 3 = uniaxial torsion, 4 = anteroposterior midshaft bending, 5 = mediolateral midshaft bending. All plots are mediolateral cross sections through the middle of the bone, except for loading regime 4, which is shown as an anteroposterior cross section through the middle of the bone; values reported as microstrain (με = 1 ×10-6); light pink indicates regions of strain higher than 100 με. Note the great similarity between the heterogenous and homogenous model results under each loading regime.
Table 2. Results of comparative FEA between heterogenous and homogenous models.
Evaluation of fracture scenario
The orientation of the fracture and the nature of the surrounding bone allows for the sense of displacement along the fracture to be determined. Given that the fracture nears the bone surface at a distinct groove in the fossil (Fig 5b and 5d), this indicates distal displacement of an external fragment (or fragments) of bone, which subsequently healed out of position (Fig 7a).
Fig 7. Fracture mechanics and comparison of FEA results with fracture geometry.
(a) Fracture via distal displacement of an external fragment (or fragments). (b)–(d) Relative orientation and approximate area of application of the fracturing force, shown in lateral (b), anterior (c) and oblique posterolateral (d) views. (e)–(h) Cross sections of the radius on four different planes through 90° with von Mises strain patterns resulting from the loading of (b)–(d); fracture geometry shown as dashed line, distal restraint used in the FEA shown as a cross; inset shows orientation of each cross sectional plane. Strain values reported as microstrain; light pink indicates strains higher than 250 με. High strains in the distal end are artifacts resulting from the necessity to properly restrain the model; placing restraints as far away as possible from the region of interest (the proximal end) ensured that minimal effect was made to the proximal radius, including the fracture zone. (i)–(k) Cross sections of the radius with maximum (i), intermediate (j) and minimum (k) principal stress field patterns resulting from the loading of (b)–(d); fracture geometry shown as red line; plane of cross-section corresponds approximately to that in (f).
In the FEA of the complete homogenous model, a total of nineteen different loading regimes were tested before the predicted stress and strain results were deemed to satisfy the two criteria of strain and stress field patterns. The loading regime which would have resulted in fracture was found to be a force applied to almost the entire width of the proximal-most lateral surface of the bone; this force was essentially axially directed, towards the distal end (Fig 7b–7d). This loading regime produced the expected patterns of localized high von Mises strain and a principal stress field consistent with the hypothesized mode of displacement (Fig 7e–7k).
Since the model was analyzed as a linear static system, the absolute magnitude of applied forces in the simulation was unimportant; nevertheless, the simulation does facilitate estimation of the magnitude required for fracture. In the simulation, the applied force which satisfied the above criteria had a magnitude of 56.1 Newtons (N), and peak von Mises strain in the fracture zone in this solution was approximately 300 με (Fig 7e–7h). The yield strain of bone may be assumed to be 6,000 με [25]. In a linear system, strain is directly proportional to stress, and hence force; therefore, the actual force required for fracture is Dividing by gravitational acceleration (F = mag, where ag = 9.8 m/s2), this is equivalent to a loading mass of m = 114 kg.
To express this loading mass in terms of the Ossinodus individual concerned requires that its body mass is known. Given that Ossinodus likely had body proportions similar to that of many other early tetrapods from the Late Devonian to Early Carboniferous, especially Pederpes (Fig 1a; see also [16,22,41]), the individual the radius belonged to is estimated as having a total (snout—tail) length of 1–1.5 m. (The range in the estimate given here is due in large part to uncertainty in the relative length of the tail; see [41].) The mass of this individual may be estimated via comparison to the Chinese giant salamander, Andrias davidianus, which reaches total lengths of 2 m and masses of 50 kg [42], and has body proportions similar to that of many early tetrapods. For an Ossinodus of length lOssinodus = 1–1.5 m, its mass mOssinodus would hence be
To be conservative (in terms of calculating the relative magnitude of the impact force) the mass of the Ossinodus individual is estimated to be 10–25 kg. Expressed in terms of the animal's body weight, the fracturing force is therefore
Crucially, forces of this large relative magnitude are very difficult to achieve in water, because of drag and the cushioning effect water has on impacting bodies [27,43]. In contrast, these large forces could easily be experienced on land, such as falling off a log or rock, or being caught in the collapse of unstable ground.
The plausibility of a fall scenario is demonstrated here using basic Newtonian mechanics. Consider a situation in which an Ossinodus of mass m = 25 kg falls some distance sh, experiencing an impact force of F = 1,120 N. Important to the force experienced is the distance sd over which the body decelerates from free-fall to a standing stop on the ground (with deceleration a), which may be assumed to be approximately equal to the dorsoventral depth of the animal's body, say 0.15 m [16]. Slowing down to a final velocity of vf = 0 m/s from free-fall, the maximum free-fall velocity reached prior to deceleration, vmax, is:
The height of free-fall can now be calculated, assuming a standing start (vi = 0 m/s):
That is, a 25 kg Ossinodus would only have to fall 85 cm to sustain the impact force of 1,120 N sufficient to fracture its radius: the large forces required for fracture could be easily achieved in a fall on land. This is the minimum distance required to fall, based on the uppermost limit of estimated body mass (25 kg). If a lighter animal was involved, the corresponding fall distance would increase; for example, if a 15 kg animal were involved (and the sd is scaled appropriately to reflect the smaller depth of the animal's body), it would have to fall about 110 cm. As all of the estimations and assumptions underpinning the above calculations have been made on the conservative side (e.g., the purposeful overestimation of body mass), we are confident that the force required for the radius to fracture in the manner it did was very large, and that a fall on land is entirely possible from a mechanical perspective. Consistent with a fall hypothesis, the mode of displacement along the fracture (Fig 7a) is very similar to that of proximal radius fractures in humans which result from a fall onto an outstretched arm, where the humerus impacts upon the radial head [33,34]. Since the force required for fracture in the FEA was a distributed load, this excludes the possibility that it resulted from a bite (predatory or otherwise), where an impacting tooth would produce a spatially concentrated load. We therefore conclude that the most plausible explanation for the fracture in the radius of Ossinodus was that the animal was living on land and sustained a fall.
This study demonstrates the potential utility of a combined palaeopathological-biomechanical approach for elucidating the lifestyle of extinct organisms. In addition to the results of FEA, we have observed two anatomical features in the radius of Ossinodus—cancellous bone architecture with preferential trabecular alignment parallel to the long-axis of the bone, and nutrient foramina that pierce the bone at low angles of entry—that likely would have served as important adaptations to terrestrial weight support. A consilience of the three lines of evidence reported here strongly suggest that Ossinodus spent a significant part of its life on land, which is augmented by its exceptional degree of ossification, presaging the condition observed in later amniotes. Concluding that Ossinodus was at least partly adapted to a terrestrial lifestyle then, the skeletal morphology shown by Ossinodus may be used as a basis for interpreting the lifestyle of other stem tetrapods. For instance, comparison of the gross osteology of known elements for Ossinodus and Tulerpeton [15], as well as Pederpes [22], suggests that these stem tetrapods may too have been at least partly terrestrially adapted, although this remains to be further tested.
Ossinodus is the oldest biomechanically demonstrable, terrestrially adapted tetrapod, being at least two million years older than Casineria kiddi [10], and at least five million years older than the East Kirkton tetrapod assemblage [9]. These small (generally less than 40 cm long), Scottish tetrapods have previously been widely regarded as the oldest known terrestriality adapted vertebrates [1,9,10]. Moreover, the large size of certain recovered fossil bones of Ossinodus, such as the skull table, cleithrum and interclavicle [14], when scaled according to its likely body proportions [41] suggests that some Ossinodus individuals may have reached over 2 m in length. (That is, the radius which formed the basis for the current study quite probably belonged to an individual which was not fully grown.) The finding that large, terrestrially adapted tetrapods were already present in Gondwana by the mid-Viséan raises the possibility that the first terrestrial vertebrates were not small European forms, but large animals from Gondwana. This in turn necessitates a revision of our current understanding of the physiological and biogeographical context in which terrestriality in vertebrates evolved.
We thank K.K.W. Siu and Monash Biomedical Imaging for assistance with performing the CT scanning, and A.A. Warren, A.G. Cook, R. Ptasznik, and Y. Gouda for discussion. We greatly appreciate the constructive comments of two anonymous reviewers, and the editor, which helped improve the clarity and content of the manuscript. The staff of the Queensland Museum is thanked for assistance with access to the collection and literature. Specimen QMF 37451 and a copy of the CT scan data are held in the Geosciences Collection of the Queensland Museum, Brisbane, Australia.
Conceived and designed the experiments: PJB MJP CAB CRM. Performed the experiments: PJB CWW MJP MRQ CAB CRM. Analyzed the data: PJB CWW MJP MRQ CAB CRM. Contributed reagents/materials/analysis tools: PJB MJP CRM. Wrote the paper: PJB CWW MJP MRQ CAB CRM.
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6. Ahlberg PE, Clack JA, Lukševičs E, Blom H, Zupiņš I. Ventastega curonica and the origin of tetrapod morphology. Nature 2008; 453: 1199–1204. pmid:18580942
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8. Ahlberg PE. Humeral homology and the origin of the tetrapod elbow: a reinterpretation of the enigmatic specimens ANSP 21350 and GSM 104536. Spec Pap Palaeontol 2011; 86: 17–29.
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10. Paton RL, Smithson TR, Clack JA. An amniote-like skeleton from the Early Carboniferous of Scotland. Nature 1999; 398: 508–513.
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12. Smithson TR, Wood SP, Marshall JEA, Clack JA. Earliest Carboniferous tetrapod and arthropod faunas from Scotland populate Romer's Gap. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2012; 109: 4532–4537. pmid:22393016
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16. Bishop PJ. The humerus of Ossinodus pueri, a stem tetrapod from the Carboniferous of Gondwana, and the early evolution of the tetrapod forelimb. Alcheringa 2014; 38: 209–238.
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19. Rayfield EJ. Finite element analysis and understanding the biomechanics and evolution of living and fossil organisms. Ann Rev Earth Planet Sci 2007; 35: 541–576.
20. Tsafnat N, Wroe S. An experimentally validated micromechanical model of a rat vertebra under compressive loading. J Anat 2011; 218: 40–46. pmid:20819113
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34. Amis AA, Miller JH. The mechanisms of elbow fractures: an investigation using impact tests in vitro. Injury 1995; 26: 163–168. pmid:7744470
35. Hanna RR. Multiple injury and infection in a sub-adult theropod dinosaur Allosaurus fragilis with comparisons to allosaur pathology in the Cleveland-Lloyd Dinosaur Quarry collection. J Vertebr Paleontol 2002; 22: 76–90.
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Bone fracture
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Bone imaging
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Growing up in the city, the Jersey Shore was almost an exotic place for me. I didn't make my first visit here until I was 14 years old. Of course today, we crisscross the state pretty much every day, and I've visited most of these Jersey Shore towns. But rarely as a tourist, until now.
Long Beach Island, or LBI, is made up of six towns: Barnegat Light, Harvey Cedars, Surf City, Ship Bottom, Long Beach Township and Beach Haven.
Our first stop is Beach Haven. At four locations on the island Jeff Santoloci and his team teach surfing to kids of all ages.
"So a typical day is we have anywhere from 10 to 60 kids that we set up with camps or lessons, and we progress them on to their next stage of their surfing," said Santoloci, owner of LBI Surfing.
After which you can hit the links at Bill Burr's classic Flamingo Golf on 5th and Long Beach Boulevard. For 58 years, it's been the place to hit the mini links. Kirk Van Keuren started here as a part timer in 1977 and bought the place in 2000.
"It's fun to see them come back, and the fact that they do enjoy it. A lot will recognize me and say, 'You were here when I was growing up,' and I'm like, 'Yes, I was. I remember you,'" Van Keuren said.
Here's a fun fact: the lighthouse here was modeled after Old Barney in Barnegat Light, and Van Keuren, who teaches high school math during the off season, designed and built the windmill himself back in the 90s.
It's lunchtime, and that means going to Neptune Market. Albert Holl and his wife Teri have owned it since 2006.
"We use to have a sign that said, 'Enter as strangers, leave as friends' and we live by that credo," Albert said.
Friendly staff and delicious food, including couscous and filet mignon, and atmosphere for days. If you're staying in Harvey Cedars, why would you eat anywhere else?
If you're on the boardwalk you're near one of Morey's Piers. There are three of them and they've been defining fun in the area since 1969. They've been family-owned for three generations now.
"Wildwood is very family oriented. You see generations of family come year after year. You see people coming down having family vacations here, having second homes here, so it's really a wonderful thing," said Morey's Piers spokesperson Maggie Warner.
If I'm just trying to get a slice, that means Sam's on the boardwalk. Anthony Zuccarello is Sam's son-in-law.
The best way to enjoy Sam's and Morey's, and just about everything down the shore experts say, is book early, stay away from the hotel chains, and come down on weekdays when rates are cheaper and the lines are way shorter.
So we'll end here in Asbury Park, where my shore story began. Things in this town are changing a lot, but one thing about the shore is you're never too far from running into someone you know.


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Excerpt & Giveaway: A Gentleman Never Keeps Score by Cat Sebastian
Posted July 13th 2018 by The Faerie Queen in Blog Tours, Excerpts, Giveaways / 0 Comments
Queen of LGBTQ+ historical fiction Cat Sebastian is back with A Gentleman Never Keeps Score, and we have an excerpt!
First, here's a bit more about the book, and don't forget to enter the giveaway at the end!
A Gentleman Never Keeps Score
This book may be unsuitable for people under 17 years of age due to its use of sexual content, drug and alcohol use, and/or violence.
Author: Cat Sebastian
Series: Seducing the Sedgwicks #2
Publisher: Avon Impulse
Release date: July 10th 2018
Genres: Adult, LGBTQ, Historical
Once beloved by London's fashionable elite, Hartley Sedgwick has become a recluse after a spate of salacious gossip exposed his most-private secrets. Rarely venturing from the house whose inheritance is a daily reminder of his downfall, he's captivated by the exceedingly handsome man who seeks to rob him.
Since retiring from the boxing ring, Sam Fox has made his pub, The Bell, into a haven for those in his Free Black community. But when his best friend Kate implores him to find and destroy a scandalously revealing painting of her, he agrees. Sam would do anything to protect those he loves, even if it means stealing from a wealthy gentleman. But when he encounters Hartley, he soon finds himself wanting to steal more than just a painting from the lovely, lonely man—he wants to steal his heart.
Content Warning from Author: This book includes a main character who was sexually abused in the past; abuse happens off page but is alluded to.
About Cat Sebastian
Cat Sebastian lives in a swampy part of the South with her husband, three kids, and two dogs. Before her kids were born, she practiced law and taught high school and college writing. When she isn't reading or writing, she's doing crossword puzzles, bird watching, and wondering where she put her coffee cup.
Now that he had this stranger in his library, Hartley was having misgivings about the soundness of his plan.
First, this man was significantly larger than anyone needed to be. The Hepplewhite chair hardly contained him. Hartley had good reasons for not feeling particularly at ease around large men, but this man didn't seem threatening. He sat in that chair as if it were a church pew, his hat politely on his lap. Hartley started to lower himself into the matching chair beside his guest, but then thought better of it and perched on the edge of a table, enjoying a false but comforting sense of height.
Second, it was unwise to trust strangers with his secrets. But Hartley had no secrets anymore; he had nothing to lose. It occurred to him for the first time that he could perhaps take advantage of his situation. He might as well behave fearlessly, if it meant getting a bit of his own back.
He was aware that Will would say he ought to put his grievances to rest, that making peace with the wrongs that had been done him was the only way forward. And he had to concede that Will knew something about that topic. But Will was also kind and decent, and Hartley was neither; he was petty and vindictive, because those qualities were all the sword or shield he had.
He poured some brandy into two glasses and handed one to his guest. "The long and short of it is that I would like nothing more than to do a grand disservice to Martin Easterbrook. If you'd like to join forces with me, then I'm interested. If not, so be it. We can pretend tonight never happened."
"And if I don't want anything to do with you? If it turns out this Martin fellow is my best mate and I tell him you're set against him? What if I tell a gossip rag that you tried to approach me?" The man spoke with a rough London accent that was laced through with something else that Hartley couldn't identify.
"You're welcome to," Hartley said lightly. "My name is Hartley Sedgwick. Hartley with an E. Be sure to have the paper spell it correctly." He reached into his coat pocket and pulled out his card case with a flourish that was marred by the hinge being stiff from want of use. "For reference," he said, holding out a card between two fingers.
Something went wrong because the man palmed the card but then politely shook Hartley's hand. Hartley froze. The man wasn't wearing gloves and Hartley had removed his own—gentlemen didn't eat or drink with gloves on, and Hartley couldn't bring himself to abandon the rules he had worked so blasted hard to master. Hartley didn't much care for being touched, least of all being touched skin to skin. He felt like he was being flayed alive. Were other people's hands always so warm, or was this stranger about to succumb to the ague?
"Samuel Fox," the man said as he finally let go of Hartley's hand.
"A pleasure, Mr. Fox." Hartley tried to sound like someone who wasn't in danger of becoming unglued.
Mr. Fox took a sip of the brandy, and Hartley realized belatedly he ought to have offered ale or cider. Fox wore trousers that were worn at the knees and a coat that strained badly across his broad shoulders; his hands were rough with work. He was plainly not of the brandy drinking classes, and to have presented him with the drink now seemed farcically affected.
"Who is Easterbrook to you?" Fox asked. "I thought this was his house."
"It was. It's mine now. Sir Humphrey Easterbrook was my godfather." Hartley's voice only caught a little on that designation. "He died a few years ago and left this house to me. Your turn," he said briskly. "What was Easterbrook to you?"
"He has—had—something that belongs to a friend of mine."
Hartley raised his eyebrows. "I'm not going to ask whether you intended to walk in and help yourself to—to what, may I ask?"
He took a sip of brandy as he watched Mr. Fox decide whether he could be trusted. Hartley wondered what it must be like to be able to judge trustworthiness on sight. No, he wondered what it must be like to even want to. It was much easier to simply not trust people at all. Hartley trusted Will. He also trusted his older brother, Ben, but that wasn't any great accomplishment because Ben was utterly incapable of malice. He supposed he also trusted his youngest two brothers, but they were far away so he didn't have to put it to the test.
"It's a painting," Fox said.
Hartley's glass dropped to the parquet, shattering into bloodred shards. He squeezed his eyes shut. He didn't want to see Fox, didn't want to see the mess he had made, didn't want to see the empty spaces on the walls. A second passed, and he willed his composure to freeze him over into something cold and solid and impenetrable. When he opened his eyes, he knew he had mastered himself, at least as far as it was possible for him to do so.
Open to US shipping addresses only. Three winners will each receive a paperback copy of It Takes Two To Tumble by Cat Sebastian. This giveaway is administered by Pure Textuality PR on behalf of Avon Romance. Giveaway ends 7/23/2018 @ 11:59pm EST. Avon Romance will send the winning copies out to the winner directly. Limit one entry per reader and mailing address. Duplicates will be deleted.
Avon Impulse
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Excerpt and Sale: Falling for Her Brother's Best Friend by Noelle Adams
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Excerpt & Giveaway: Of Ashes and Sin by Ariana Hawkes & K. N. Knight »

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


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Your Quilt Guild - making a contribution
Judie Bellingham
The craft of quilting has been around a very long time. Exactly where its roots are is not under discussion in this article, but for generations quilting has been the essential link between communities and those people who make up those communities.
Max-Neef (see link below) classifies the fundamental human needs as: subsistence, protection, affection, understanding, participation, leisure, creation, identity and freedom.
Each one of these fundamental human needs is catered for in the craft of quilting, in both simple and complicated ways. Where there is a requirement for comfort, quilters are making quilts for the needy. Where there is a longing for affection, the message of love is contained in magnificent quilts that have taken many years to complete. Where there is a desire to create, quilting genres too many to mention are available to give that creation a voice. Where there is a desire to belong, quilting guilds and groups flourish around the world with arms outstretched welcoming all comers.
I joined my quilt guild back in 1994. I had put off joining for some years as I thought it was only for the "experts" and not those self taught quilters. How wrong I was! Quilt Guilds are made up of quilters from all walks of life, with different motivations and enthusiasms. Quilters in quilt guilds share diverse levels of skills from novice newbies to highly respected authorities on all things quilting.
I have been a committee member of my state guild, for the past four years and have taken the role of vice president for the past two. It has been a wonderful experience, working with like minded women who wish to contribute a little more than attending a monthly meeting as a member. You will be aware that there are many roles to be performed to keep a guild up and running and some of these can be high-demand of your time and expertise and others very low demand, but each is equally essential for the smooth running of the organization. A President is equally as vital to the quilt guild as the lady who organises the morning teas at meetings.
I recently had the utter honor and pleasure to write the history of our guild, that is celebrating its 25th Anniversary this year. Some of the work had been done previously by another guild member, so I picked up the reins at about the one third completed stage. Whilst a lot of statistical information had been formulated, there was the need for the "human" side of the guild to be conveyed.
The biggest impression I came away with after writing that history was that these groups simply couldn't survive without the generosity of their members. Even the smallest effort makes a big difference to the overall workload of all. We have one particular member (Margaret Leigh) who has been membership secretary for some eight years. Not a difficult job, but a very necessary one and one that requires a dedicated amount of time each week to keep the organization membership up to date. Without the commitment of this lady to performing this role to the best of her ability, so many other functions of the guild would come to a grinding halt. So what can you do to contribute to your guild?
I would like to finish this article off with an appeal to all quilting guild members who may read this article. Please consider what you can do to enhance the operation of your guild. It doesn't have to be a huge commitment, every little bit helps. Believe me when I say the rewards of taking an active part in your quilt guild will come back to you in bucket loads.
See the link below for the Americal Quilters Society list of Quilt Guilds in America, and a link to a list of the State Quilt Guilds of Australia. If you'd like to find a guild in your area, contact your State of National Guild.
Max-Neef - who is he>?
Links to Quilt Guilds of America
Links to Quilt Guilds of Australia
Content copyright © 2019 by Judie Bellingham. All rights reserved.
This content was written by Judie Bellingham. If you wish to use this content in any manner, you need written permission. Contact Judie Bellingham for details.
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Historically, African Americans have been the target of severe oppression in the United States. From slavery to segregation to forced… Read more Is Black History Month Enough?
Pacifica, a small city of 39,000 people, has elections like that of San Francisco, a major city of 870,000 people.… Read more Who is Mary Bier?


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Ryan Castellani Stats & Scouting Report - Baseball America
Ryan Castellani
#60 | RHP
Name: Ryan Michael Castellani
Born: Apr 1, 1996 in Phoenix, Ariz. USA
High School: Brophy Prep, Phoenix
Bats: R / Throws: R
Career 0 0.00 0 0 0
Drafted in the 2nd round (48th overall) by the Colorado Rockies in 2014 (signed for $1,100,000)
Castellani has been a known entity in scouting circles for some time, showcasing draftable stuff for the last three years and showing well at the Tournament of Stars as an underclassman. While his stuff has not progressed quite as much as scouts who saw him two years ago had hoped, he has present stuff, pitchability and an ideal pitcher's body. After touching the mid-90s early in the spring, Castellani has settled in at 88-92 mph, similar velocity to what he showed as an underclassman. His fastball plays up with downhill plane, heavy sink and arm-side run at its best. He is a strike-thrower who can locate to both sides of the plate with the potential for at least average control. He has a four-pitch mix, with both his slider and changeup flashing above-average at their best, while his curveball shows average potential. His secondary stuff has some inconsistencies and will need to be sharpened. At 6-foot-3, 198 pounds with broad shoulders and long extremities, the Arizona State commit offers a projectable physique with some present strength.


No doubt barcode card is one of the most frequently seen plastic cards that everybody may use it before. The bar code is by one and empty different in width, parallel and adjoin of one group. Symbol made up according to certain code rule. Can represent such information as the letter, figure ,etc. Bar code technology is to study how to use the identification information of the bar code. And change the information of the identification of the bar code into the language that a computer can discern. Make use of bar code technology to realize and discern automatically. We provide both custom plastic barcode card printing and custom paper barcode card printing services using different printing methods to give you a different barcode look. It is low cost and top quality is guaranteed.


Very luxurious villa with sea view with lots of privacy on the edge of Carvoeiro.
Just before the cozy former fishing village of Carvoeiro is just below a hilltop completely private this completely renovated villa with a contemporary modern style and within walking distance of the beach and the center of Carvoeiro. A wonderful combination of Portuguese character with modern luxury, comfort and appearance. For example, the entire villa has underfloor heating.
The views are panoramic to the surrounding rolling hills, with lots of greenery to walk, the blue ocean in the south and to the north the Monchique mountains. The single storey villa has 3 bedrooms and 3 bathrooms. A lower level is also a separate guest apartment. The inspiration for the renovated architecture of the villa are the white limestone terraces with the clear blue waters of Pamukkale in Turkey. The white villa is also called Casa dos Terraços.
The villa is situated on 6000m2 of private land. A remote-controlled automatic gate provides access to the ground at the bottom. There are lawns and fruit trees on both sides of the paved driveway. At the first bend you will find the high white wall at the bottom, which is decorated with plant terraces at various levels. You then pass the separate guest apartment under the house, which is connected to the further ground floor villa by means of an outside staircase. The driveway leads around the house, where you can park several cars next to a spacious terrace at the side of the kitchen.
The front door opens into a cozy hall with guest toilet, a beautiful glass door to the kitchen, a storage cupboard and a door to the living room. The kitchen, which also has a side entrance, has a special L-shape and large, up-swinging "buffet windows" to the patio in the middle of the villa. The patio shaded with a shade is literally the center of the villa. The patio has a beautiful inlaid Portuguese tile floor and fixed BBQ. The countertops in the kitchen are finished with microcement, the kitchen cabinets are finished with robust wood. The gas stove is included as a cooking island in the cozy long bar. Opening doors in the kitchen open onto a cozy terrace on the west-facing entrance side of the villa. On this side is also one of the bedrooms with private bathroom.
The bright living room with a cozy closed fireplace on the south facing front a lovely spacious terrace with panoramic views over the beautiful green surroundings and the village to the ocean. From this terrace a staircase leads to the roof terrace with distant and magisterial views. A glass door at the end of the living room leads to the pool terrace. From the living room there is an open hallway to the bedroom area. In the middle of the hall is the master bedroom. Through a dressing room with cupboards on either side you enter the part with washbasins with on one side the master bedroom and on the other side the bathroom with a walk-in shower and a freestanding bath. At the end of the corridor there is another bedroom with an en suite bathroom with walk-in shower. The living room and 2 bedrooms are directly connected to the large private outdoor terrace with the ovoid swimming pool of approximately 5m x 10m. You can imagine yourself here on a luxury cruise ship with hardwood deck and a beautiful wire steel railing made of stainless steel. A water feature gives extra spectacle if desired in the evening in a multitude of colors. There is a pool house with a shower and a toilet.
Downstairs is the separate guest apartment with a nice terrace with calçadas in front of the door. The calçadas are laid in mosaic in the apartment and luxuriously polished. There are spacious cupboards, a rotating television set-up, milk glass partitions to the luxurious bathroom and ample space for sleeping and sitting. This fantastic villa has grandeur and intimacy. A lovely house, a luxurious holiday villa. The location is very attractive: within walking distance of Carvoeiro with its multitude of cozy restaurants and cafes, with the nice beach in the village center, in the immediate vicinity of a large supermarket and within 10 minutes drive a variety of golf courses and beautiful shopping centers. You can drive to Faro Airport in 45 minutes. The beaches in this area are among the most beautiful of the Algarve.