text:
Youssef Toutouh (født 6. oktober 1992 i København) er en dansk fodboldspiller, der spiller for danske Nykøbing . Han har tidligere spillet for Hvidovre IF, F.C. København og Esbjerg fB.

Karriere
Toutouh blev født på Nørrebro og har marokkanske forældre fra Alhoceima. Han spillede indtil sommeren 2008 ungdomsfodbold hos Østerbro-klubben B.93.

Hvidovre IF
Youssef Toutouh kom til Hvidovre IF i sommeren 2008. Her startede han med at spille på klubbens U/17 hold og blev senere rykket op på U/19-holdet. Toutouh slog igennem på klubbens førstehold i 1. division isæsonen 2010-11. Han spillede 14 kampe i sæsonen og scorede tre mål. Hvidovre rykkede ved sæsonafslutningen ned i 2. division.

FC København
Toutouh skiftede 13. juli 2011 til F.C. København på en treårig kontrakt, efter han i 14 dage havde været til prøvetræning i klubben. Han fik debut i Superligaen den 23. juli samme år, da han seks minutter før tid afløste Christian Bolaños i hjemmekampen mod OB. I Superligaen 2011-12 fik Youssef Toutouh i alt 33 spilleminutter fordelt på tre indskiftninger. I DBU Pokalen 2011-12 spillede han én kamp, da han var på banen i samtlige 90 minutter i udekampen mod FC Vestsjælland den 21. september 2011.

I den første del af Superligaen 2012-13 blev Youssef Toutouh ikke udtaget til førsteholdet, og han fik kun spilletid for holdet i Reserveholdsturneringen.

Esbjerg fB-lejeophold
På grund af den manglende spilletid i F.C. København blev Youssef Toutouh i starten af september 2012 udlejet til superligakonkurrenterne fra Esbjerg fB. Aftalen var gældende indtil 31. december 2012 og havde til formål at give spilleren noget fast spilletid. Kort inde i 2013 blev lejeaftalen med Esbjerg forlænget, således at Toutouh spillede resten af sæsonen 2012/13 færdig i den vestjyske klub. På mål af Youssef Toutouh sikrede Esbjerg sig pokalmesterskabet i maj 2013.

F.C. København igen
Efter er vellykket ophold i Esbjerg vendte Toutouh tilbage til F.C. København under den daværende træner Ariël Jacobs. Han nåede at få tre indhop under den belgiske træner, inden Ariël Jacobs blev fyret, og Ståle Solbakken blev genansat.

Efter Ståle Solbakken tog over blev det til seks indskiftninger, og sidenhen fuld tid i de sidste tre kampe i kalenderåret 2013.

I Champions League gruppespillet i sæsonen 2013/14 fik Toutouh seks kampe. To hvor han blev skiftet ind (FCK - Juventus d. 17. September og Galatasaray - FCK d. 23. oktober hvor han tilmed lavede en assist til 3-1 målet, scoret af Claudemir). De resterende fire kampe bød på en plads i startopstillingen, men dog også udskiftning i alle fire.

Efter vinterpausen startede Toutouh inde i de første seks kampe med to assist, og han fik fuld spilletid i alle på nær to af kampene. Toutouh pådrog sig et brud på foden i kampen mod AaB d. 30 marts, hvor han måtte forlade banen med 10 minutter igen. Denne skade satte Toutouh ude resten af 2013/14-sæsonen. I alt nåede han at spille 18 kampe for F.C. København (991 minutter) og lavede to mål og to assists.

Den 19. april 2015 pådrog Toutouh sig en meniskskade i en hjemmekamp mod AaB og var dermed færdig for resten af sæsonen. I 2014/15-sæsonen nåede han at spille 21 superligakampe (heraf 11 som indskifter), 8 europæiske kampe (4 som indskifter) og 4 pokalkampe.

Toutouh stoppede i F.C. København juni 2018.

AGF
Efter at have gået nogle måneder uden kontrakt skrev Toutouh 4. oktober 2018 en kontrakt med AGF til sommeren 2020. Skiftet blev ikke umiddelbart nogen succes, og efter et lille år med blot 9 superligakampe, som regel som indskifter blev Toutouh i august 2019 udlejet til Stabæk for resten af efterårssæsonen. I Stabæk blev Toutouh genforenet med Kasper Junker, som han tidligere i karrieren har udtrykt ønske om at spille sammen med.

Landsholdskarriere
Youssef Toutouh er noteret for en enkelt kamp på U/20-landsholdet og 13 kampe på U/21-landsholdet. Han fast inventar på det succesrige U/21-mandskab, der i efteråret 2014 kvalificerede sig til EM-slutrunden i Tjekkiet i juni 2015. Den knæskade, han pådrog sig i april 2015, betød imidlertid, at han ikke kom med til slutrunden. I januar 2016 annoncerede han, at han ville stille op for det marokkanske landshold.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger
 Youssef Toutouh på FCK.dk
 Youssef Toutouh på danskfodbold.com

 Youssef Toutouh på superstats.dk

Fodboldspillere fra Danmark
Fodboldspillere fra Hvidovre IF
Fodboldspillere fra FC København
Fodboldspillere fra Esbjerg fB
Fodboldspillere fra AGF
Fodboldspillere fra Stabæk Fotball
Personer fra Nørrebro

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


Camo baby blanket – Are you ready for the next round of olive green? Or maybe you want something familiar with the impression of camouflage; with a little more color? While you can already fill your child or baby wardrobe entirely, printing this fashionable; can you really say you've had your fill? Although there are many other impressions available for the baby and the blanket, camouflage tends to be one of the best selections of many parents. Not only does it lend itself well to almost every genre of fashion, but they tend to help capture the imagination of boys and girls alike. While your baby may not be able to really appreciate your camouflage blanket buying movement but, as with any bedding; this fashionable, future quilt will grow with your child. They will provide many hours of not only entertaining, but playing while their children reach their teen years; And maybe even directly to your teenagers if it's big enough.
However, it is unlikely that you will buy an adult size camo baby blanket for your little baby. For this reason, many online retailers offer a variety of colors, cuts and options for your toddler when it comes to blanket camouflage. You may wonder, isn't it better to have a simple blanket? Well, while some parents may prefer to get their color blanket cake standards; Velvet with a soft cloth. However, while lures tend to be more daring impression; Baby blankets can be just as soft as your standard bedding. It can also help you in the design of nursery and baby subjects; especially if you turn mainly around the color scheme. While it is standard practice to offer only a little color camouflage for adults, bedding camouflage printing can come in many different colors for you to choose from.
One thing to keep in mind however is that while some retailers are massive market can offer one or two camouflage blankets to choose from. You will likely find a good online Boutique, or in a local retail store for your baby. Using keywords like "Blue camouflage baby Blanket", you ll be able to reduce the length of the list of items you have available, which will make it much easier for you to find what you are looking at camouflage covers for Your baby. Camo baby blanket should make of soft material to protect delicate skin from babies, preferably cotton or other fabric, washable. Some people prefer to wear wearable blanket pajamas that will keep them warm without the risk of the baby getting tangled in their baby blanket. This may have closed or have a walk at the bottom. The reception blankets are the perfect size quilt that is made specifically for babies. They are made of very soft, usually cotton or other fabric that is washed. They can be just a thick light flannel. Rich cotton baby blanket in colors and patterns matching Nursery theme. For slightly older babies, you can select the blanket a little heavier, perhaps the cotton woven design.


Thanks to the technology of the Kelvinator SolarKnight evacuated tubes solar hot water system you can help reduce greenhouse gas emissions while reducing your energy bills. The sun is the most economical energy source for heating water.
Kelvinator SolarKnight evacuated tubes collect and retain heat easily, even when it's chilly outside. The system is designed to work in low temperatures, down to -15°C.
Call, email, Facebook msg or why not drop into our showroom at 301 Invermay Rd, Invermay Launceston to speak to one of our friendly solar hot water system experts about SolarKnight evacuated Tubes or any of our other solar or Smart Living products and services!
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Let's see…Sarah and I are working on the South Beach Diet. Read the link in my blog to see more… I went to the AAAA IT Committee meeting in New York on Friday. Got to hang out for a day in the city and have dinner and talk with Jordan. Last, Sarah and I are watching the Survivor All Stars show finale.


text:
How to Switch My Computer to English
By Eric Pederson
i computer image by fotografiche.eu from Fotolia.com
The world is awash in computers and electronic devices. Fortunately, computer manufacturers had the foresight to include options to alter the default language of their machines. This option opens the computer to people from all over the globe. For someone who spends a great deal of time on the computer, switching the default language is a useful tool to become fully immersed in a language.
Open the "Start" menu, select "Control Panel" and then click on "Date, Time, Language, and Regional Options."
Click "Add Other Languages." A new window titled "Regional and Language Options" will open.
Select the "languages" tab along the top. Click on the "Details" button. A new window titled "Text Services and Input Languages" will open.
Select on the "Settings" tab and click "Add."
Click on the "Input Language" drop-down menu. Select the language you would like to install. The keyboard layout also can be changed to a preferred language by selecting a language layout from the "Keyboard Layout" drop-down menu.
Click "OK" to return to the "Text Services and Input Languages" window. Select the desired language from the drop-down menu beneath the "Default input language" category. Click "OK" to return to the "Regional and Language Options" window.
Select the "Regional Options" tab. Choose the desired language from the drop-down menu beneath the "Standards and Formats" heading.
Select the country from the drop-down menu beneath the "Location" category. Click "OK" when finished to save the settings.
Open the "Start" menu and click on "Control Panel."
Select "Clock, Language, and Region" to open the "Regional and Language Options" window.
Click on the "Keyboards and Languages" tab. Choose the desired language from the drop-down menu beneath the "Display Language" heading.
Click "OK" to save the settings and close the window.
Microsoft: Set up Windows XP for multiple languages
Microsoft: Change the Display Language
Eric Pederson has been professionally writing stories, poetry and technology review articles since 2008. He won two national young authors awards and has been published in the online poetry magazine The Sketchbook. He received his Bachelor of Science in secondary English education from the University of Wisconsin-La Crosse.

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


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Living in the Name of the Lord Jesus, At Home and At WorkLiving in the Name of the..
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Is God for You or Against You?Is God for You or Against You?


text:
BBC Rules Of The Game star Zoe Tapper's marriage to Grantchester star who she appeared on same show as
Zoe appeared alongside her husband in an episode of Grantchester
ITV The Secret Life of our Pets: Hugh Bonneville's life from 23-year marriage to teenage sweetheart wife and their son
Hugh Bonneville has been married to his life almost as long as he has been on the big screen
ITV Downton Abbey: Hugh Bonneville's forgotten EastEnders role years before fame
Before he was heading up the Crawley family, he appeared in another beloved British show
BBC A Very British Scandal: Claire Foy's love life from 4 year marriage with actor to rumoured relationship with Hollywood star
Claire and her husband of four years announced their separation in 2019
BBC Beauty and the Beast: Lily James' life from Doctor Who legend ex to relationship with Hollywood actor
She has a star-studded list of exes
The Queen loves pointing out everything wrong with her favourite TV show
The Queen was close friends with the people who lived in the famous castle
Royal Family: The traditions Princess Charlotte, Princess George and Princess Louis' have to follow on Christmas
Christmas day as a royal sounds like barrels of fun
ITV Heartbeat: Surprising amount of stars who have gone on to EastEnders and Coronation Street
Heartbeat has been the base for some glittering roles in TV dramas and soaps
Channel 4 Goodbye Christopher Robin: Margot Robbie's surprising friendship with Prince Harry and sharing a flat with an Addams Family star
The unlikely relationship between Robbie and Prince Harry started in 2016 when she went to a party at Suki Waterhouse's place
The Harry Potter star whose husband starred in Downton Abbey and daughter starred in Bridgerton
This family of three famous actors make for a formidable trio
BBC Would I Lie to You: Scarlett Moffatt's life before fame from working in Asda to tragic accident at 11
BBCScarlett made a name for herself through Gogglebox
BBC Guilt star who you didn't know was married to British acting icon of Pirates of the Caribbean, The Crown and Doctor Who
The couple have been married for over 26 years and both appeared in the hit ITV series Downton Abbey
BBC The Bidding Room: Nigel Havers' love life with two tragic deaths and a surprise God son
BBCDespite appearing in Coronation Street many viewers might be unaware of the actor's chaotic love life
The ridiculously pretty town which you'll recognise from Harry Potter and Downton Abbey
The castle features in the scene where My Family star Zoe Wanamaker teaches the Hogwarts students to fly broomsticks
ITV Angela Black: Joanne Froggatt looks unrecognisable in forgotten role in The Bill and why her life is in "flux" after divorce
She appeared on the ITV drama in 1996
ITV Angela Black: Joanne Froggatt's life after divorce and how she took inspiration from Mel B for new role
The actress is starring in a new ITV drama as a victim of domestic abuse
Only Fools and Horses fans reckon Tyson Fury 'inspired by Rodney' over fight-night costume
They couldn't be more different other than this tiny detail
ITV Grantchester star Oliver Dimsdale's marriage to a Midsomer Murders actress who also appeared in the show
They have two children together
BBC Countryfile: Adam Henson's famous actor uncle from Fawlty Towers who also played Only Fools and Horses legend David Jason's brother
The famous farmer has an uncle who has acted in some of the countries most famous TV shows
Royal Family: Buckingham Palace's next door neighbour which became the star of everything from The King's Speech to The Crown
The house likely plays Buckingham Palace in your royal favourite film
The Wiltshire village two hours from London where Downton Abbey was filmed which was named UK's prettiest
This beautiful village could be perfect for a summer weekend away
The London postcode where you are most likely to spot A-list celebs including Lily James, Richard Madden and Taylor Swift
Houses in this area sell for as much as £38million
Channel 5 Our Family Farm Rescue: Adam Henson's famous actor uncle who starred in EastEnders, The Bill and Downton Abbey
The TV presenter and farmer is nephew of the late actor Nicky Henson
Summer holidays: The beautiful village 2 hours from London that's been stuck in time for 200 years
Its oldest house is more than 800 years old and the village looks almost exactly the same as it did 200 years ago


text:
June 18, 2016 May 31, 2017 danmorley
Game Review – Warhammer Quest: Silver Tower
Come, adventurers, share my fire and I shall weave you a tale of heroism and peril, of tainted boons and inevitable damnation. Whether you wield righteous fury, lust for treasure, or seek to pledge allegiance to the gaunt summoner to earn his favour, the Silver Tower beckons.
There's a whole host of shinies in the box. Unlike some of the other recent offerings from Games Workshop, this is more of a self-contained game than an army starter box that happens to have a game with it. That said, you get plenty of Tzeentch's minions to pledge your allegiance to the Lord of Change in the Age of Sigmar.
The board tiles are sturdy and host excellent artwork that's weird enough to fit a labyrinth of Tzeentch. Along with detailed cards, rule books, an adventure guide, six heroes miniatures and 44 enemy miniatures, everything is the world-leading quality that you'd expect from Games Workshop and all brand new sculpts for the game.
Of course, you also get dice, cursed things that they are.
General Feel
It's a dungeon crawler. Set in the ever-changing Silver Tower of Tzeentch, the heroes must overcome traps, puzzles and the dark god's followers to retrieve shards of an amulet. Once the amulet has been made whole, the Gaunt Summoner, lord of the tower, can be challenged.
We live in a world of Dungeon Saga and will soon have the likes of Massive Darkness and Dark Souls competing in this space so Warhammer Quest: Silver Tower needs something to set it apart. As you'd expect, the miniatures are exceptional, although very spiky so be careful when assembling them. Narrative is a major element of Warhammer Quest. It has flavour text to set the scene before and after each quest (game) to progress the story, just like Dungeon Saga. Warhammer Quest, however, goes beyond that by providing further flavour text on the randomly generated board tiles and the adventure book which reads like a Fighting Fantasy choose-your-own-adventure book. So it's somewhere between a dungeon crawler board game and Dungeons and Dragons Lite.
There is a good balance between puzzles, narrative, and hack and slash.
The enemy works using an artificial intelligence through behaviour tables. These are straightforward enough to understand quickly and quite logical on the whole. It means that you don't need someone to play as the board so you can all be heroes. Huzzah! Player actions are based on dice and the more wounds a player takes, the fewer actions they have available. There is also an additional shared pool of dice so specific players may take more than their usual number of actions in the same turn. Useful when you really need to nuke down that boss (or hide behind the tank when your attack doesn't go to plan).
In my group's first game, we found it very easy. Any enemies that appeared were quickly dispatched, meaning the tank (Stormcast) and healer (Warrior Priest) classes didn't have much to do. The damage dealer classes (Tenebrael Shard and Darkoath Chieftain in this case) hit so hard that there wasn't often much left at the end of the turn for the enemy to hit back. That said, complacency and hubris set in later in the adventure. The Darkoath Chieftain split from the group, charged the enemy and was torn apart for his trouble. Sometimes it's easy, sometimes it punishes you.
Meet the Heroes
Stormcast
Warrior Priest
Mistweaver Saih
Should you buy it? It's a premium game with a premium price. You get a lot for your money and there's extensive scope for expansion. After my group's games, there was appetite for more, to follow through the quests and claim the final prize from the Gaunt Summoner.
Let's say you can only buy one game. In one hand you have Warhammer Quest: Silver Tower, and in the other you have Dungeon Saga. It's a tough call. Warhammer Quest offers higher quality miniatures, lets everyone play on the same side as heroes and has the backing of the Warhammer universe. Dungeon Saga is perhaps a more rounded game where each quest goes right down to the wire. In terms of narrative immersion, though both do a very good job, Warhammer Quest probably comes out ahead. This comes from the regular flavour text, not just before and after each quest, but during. For example, the timer mechanic in Dungeon Saga feels like a game mechanic rather than there being a narrative reason making the heroes rush through their quest.
Previous Granada in a Weekend
Next Painting Bronze Armour


Located at the lowest place in the world, the Ein Gedi guest house is in front of the Dead Sea and has the Yehuda Desert cliffs above it.
There are 51 rooms furnished with A/C, T.V., coffee set, shower and bathroom, and also mini bar in some.
Some rooms of the guest house present the view of the Dead Sea through private balcony.
There are 3 halls equipped with audiovisual devices.
Located close to the Dead Sea road (# 90) and at the way in to the Nahal David reservation.
From Jerusalem, egged bus lines 486 and 487, from Tel Aviv, 421 and 444 from Eilat and 384 from Be'er Sheva and Arad are available.
Sun. - Fri.: 08:00 - 20:00.


text:
The Cosgrove Marcus Messer Athletic Center is a sports facility located in New Haven, Connecticut.  It is the home of the Albertus Magnus College Athletic Department and the school's basketball and volleyball team, the Falcons. It is also home to the Connecticut Topballerz of the American Basketball Association (ABA). The facility has a basketball/volleyball court, 25-yard pool, racquetball courts, and more.  The team's center court, or "The Nest" as it is affectionately named by the students of the school features seating for 600 spectators.

References

External links

Basketball venues in Connecticut
1989 establishments in Connecticut
Sports venues completed in 1989
College basketball venues in the United States


Given Morning Joe's obvious disdain for Cohen's credibility, why does it take seriously his allegation that Trump had advance knowledge of meeting with Russian offering to dish dirt on Hillary?
The good news: it ain't 2018. Yet.


text:
#include "../../SDL_internal.h"

#if SDL_TIMER_OS2

#include "SDL_timer.h"
#include "../../core/os2/SDL_os2.h"

#define INCL_DOSERRORS
#define INCL_DOSMISC
#define INCL_DOSPROFILE
#define INCL_DOSSEMAPHORES
#define INCL_DOSDATETIME
#define INCL_DOSPROCESS
#define INCL_DOSEXCEPTIONS
#include <os2.h>

/* No need to switch priorities in SDL_Delay() for OS/2 versions > Warp3 fp 42, */
/*#define _SWITCH_PRIORITY*/

typedef unsigned long long  ULLONG;

static SDL_bool ticks_started = SDL_FALSE;
static ULONG    ulTmrFreq = 0;
static ULLONG   ullTmrStart = 0;

void
SDL_TicksInit(void)
{
    ULONG ulTmrStart;  /* for 32-bit fallback. */
    ULONG ulRC;

    if (ticks_started) {
        return;
    }
    ticks_started = SDL_TRUE;

    ulRC = DosTmrQueryFreq(&ulTmrFreq);
    if (ulRC != NO_ERROR) {
        debug_os2("DosTmrQueryFreq() failed, rc = %u", ulRC);
    } else {
        ulRC = DosTmrQueryTime((PQWORD)&ullTmrStart);
        if (ulRC == NO_ERROR) {
            return;
        }
        debug_os2("DosTmrQueryTime() failed, rc = %u", ulRC);
    }

    ulTmrFreq = 0; /* Error - use DosQuerySysInfo() for timer. */
    DosQuerySysInfo(QSV_MS_COUNT, QSV_MS_COUNT, &ulTmrStart, sizeof (ULONG));
    ullTmrStart = (ULLONG) ulTmrStart;
}

void
SDL_TicksQuit(void)
{
    ticks_started = SDL_FALSE;
}

Uint64
SDL_GetTicks64(void)
{
    Uint64 ui64Result;
    ULLONG ullTmrNow;

    if (!ticks_started) {
        SDL_TicksInit();
    }

    if (ulTmrFreq != 0) {
        DosTmrQueryTime((PQWORD)&ullTmrNow);
        ui64Result = (ullTmrNow - ullTmrStart) * 1000 / ulTmrFreq;
    } else {
        /* note that this counter rolls over to 0 every ~49 days. Fix your system so DosTmrQueryTime works if you need to avoid this. */
        ULONG ulTmrNow;
        DosQuerySysInfo(QSV_MS_COUNT, QSV_MS_COUNT, &ulTmrNow, sizeof (ULONG));
        ui64Result = (((Uint64) ulTmrNow) - ullTmrStart);
    }

    return ui64Result;
}

Uint64
SDL_GetPerformanceCounter(void)
{
    QWORD   qwTmrNow;

    if (ulTmrFreq == 0 || (DosTmrQueryTime(&qwTmrNow) != NO_ERROR)) {
        return SDL_GetTicks64();
    }
    return *((Uint64 *)&qwTmrNow);
}

Uint64
SDL_GetPerformanceFrequency(void)
{
    return (ulTmrFreq == 0)? 1000 : (Uint64)ulTmrFreq;
}

void
SDL_Delay(Uint32 ms)
{
    HTIMER  hTimer = NULLHANDLE;
    ULONG   ulRC;
#ifdef _SWITCH_PRIORITY
    PPIB    pib;
    PTIB    tib;
    BOOL    fSetPriority = ms < 50;
    ULONG   ulSavePriority;
    ULONG   ulNesting;
#endif
    HEV     hevTimer;

    if (ms == 0) {
      DosSleep(0);
      return;
    }

    ulRC = DosCreateEventSem(NULL, &hevTimer, DC_SEM_SHARED, FALSE);
    if (ulRC != NO_ERROR) {
        debug_os2("DosAsyncTimer() failed, rc = %u", ulRC);
        DosSleep(ms);
        return;
    }

#ifdef _SWITCH_PRIORITY
    if (fSetPriority) {
        if (DosGetInfoBlocks(&tib, &pib) != NO_ERROR)
            fSetPriority = FALSE;
        else {
            ulSavePriority = tib->tib_ptib2->tib2_ulpri;
            if (((ulSavePriority & 0xFF00) == 0x0300) || /* already have high pr. */
                  (DosEnterMustComplete( &ulNesting) != NO_ERROR))
                fSetPriority = FALSE;
            else {
                DosSetPriority(PRTYS_THREAD, PRTYC_TIMECRITICAL, 0, 0);
            }
        }
    }
#endif

    DosResetEventSem(hevTimer, &ulRC);
    ulRC = DosAsyncTimer(ms, (HSEM)hevTimer, &hTimer);

#ifdef _SWITCH_PRIORITY
    if (fSetPriority) {
        if (DosSetPriority(PRTYS_THREAD, (ulSavePriority >> 8) & 0xFF, 0, 0) == NO_ERROR)
            DosSetPriority(PRTYS_THREAD, 0, ulSavePriority & 0xFF, 0);
        DosExitMustComplete(&ulNesting);
    }
#endif

    if (ulRC != NO_ERROR) {
        debug_os2("DosAsyncTimer() failed, rc = %u", ulRC);
    } else {
        DosWaitEventSem(hevTimer, SEM_INDEFINITE_WAIT);
    }

    if (ulRC != NO_ERROR)
        DosSleep(ms);

    DosCloseEventSem(hevTimer);
}

#endif /* SDL_TIMER_OS2 */

/* vi: set ts=4 sw=4 expandtab: */

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaGithub


text:
Важно не то, что мы делаем, а то, сколько любви мы вкладываем в свои дела. © Мать Тереза 118 - | 89 - или читать все...
Эффекторные нервные окончания
Morphological structure of English words
⇐ ПредыдущаяСтр 2 из 3Следующая ⇒
1. Morphemes. Combining forms. Allomorphs.
2. Morphological classification of words.
3. Analysis into immediate constituents.
1. Антрушина Г.Б. Лексикология английского языка. С. 78 – 104.
2. Гвишиани Н.Б. Современный английский язык. С. 80 – 82.
3. Э.М. Дубенец. Современный английский язык. С. 5 – 20.
4. Arnold I.V. The English word. P. 77 – 81, 83 – 87, 104 – 106.
1. The word morpheme is derived from Greek morphe -form. A morpheme is an association of a given meaning with a given sound pattern. Unlike a word, which is also an association of a given meaning with a given sound pattern a morpheme is not autonomous. Morphemes occur only as a constituent parts of words, not independently, though a word may consist of one morpheme. Morphemes are not divisible into smaller meaningful units. That is why the morpheme may be defined as the minimum meaningful language unit.
Morphemes are divided into two large groups: lexical morphemes and grammatical morphemes. Both lexical and grammatical morphemes can be free and bound. A morpheme is said to be free if it may stand alone without changing its meaning, for example: cat, sport, always. A morpheme is called bound because it is bound to something else. For example, in the word sportive sport- is a free morpheme, it can be used independently, there is the word sport. The morpheme -ive is a bound morpheme, it can not be used alone, there is no word like ive.
Free lexical morphemes are roots of words.
Free grammatical morphemes are function words such as articles, conjuctions and prepositions.
Bound lexical morphemes are affixes. Affixes are subdivided into prefixes, suffixes, infixes, combining forms or completives. Bound grammatical morphemes are endings (inflexions). For example: -s for the plural of nouns, -ed for the Past Indefinite of regular verbs and so on.
A prefix is a morpheme standing before a root and modifying its meaning, for example: hearten – dishearten. In some cases prefixes not only modify the meaning of a word but can form words of a different part of speech. For example: earth is a noun, to unearth is a verb. Prefixes can also express the difference between transitive and intransitive verbs, for example: to stay – to outstay.
A suffix is a morpheme following the root or a stem and forming a new word of a different part of speech or a different word class of the same part of speech. For example, the suffixes -en, -y, -less form such words of different parts of speech as hearten, hearty, heartless. The suffixes -ify, -er are verb-forming suffixes, but the suffix -ify forms causative verbs, for example: horrify, purify, while the suffux -er forms frequentative verbs, for example: flicker, shimmer, twitter.
An infix is an affix placed within the word, like -n- in stand, like -s- in statesman. Infixes are rare in the English language.
A combining form or completive is a bound form which can be distringuished from an affix historically. Combining forms are always borrowed from Latin or Greek. In Latin or Greek combining forms existed as free forms, as separate words. In English combining forms occur in compound and derivative words as their parts. These compound and derivative words did not exist in Latin or Greek, they were formed only in modern times in English. For example: megapolis (from mega- Greek and polis - Greek), AIDSophobia (from phobia – Latin), autocue (from auto - Greek), chimponaut (from naut - Greek). Combining forms are mostly international.
Some morphemes may have variants. For example, -ion, -sion, -tion, -ation are variants of the same suffix. They do not differ in meaning or function but show a slight difference in sound form which depends on the final sound of the preceding stem. Such variants are called allomorphs. An allomorph is from Greek allos – другой.
Analysing all the grammatical forms of a word, that is its paradigm, we may see the part which remains unchanged through the whole paradigm. This unchanged part is a stem of a word. Stems may be free or bound, simple or derived. For example, the paradigm of the adjective clean is clean – cleaner – cleanest. The stem of the word clean is clean-. This stem is free, not bound, because there is an independent word clean. At the same time, this stem is simple, because it coincides with the root of the word clean. In the words cordially and cordiality the stem is cordia-l. This stem is free as there exist the word cordial. But it is not a simple stem, it is a derived stem consisting of the root cord- and a suffix -ial. Bound stems are characteristic of loan words. Take for example French borrowings arrogance, charity, courage, coward, distort, involve, notion, legible. After the affixes of these words are taken away the remaining stems are arrog-, char-, cour-, cow-,-tort, -volve, not-, leg-. They are bound stems, they do not exist independently. Of course, the words cow, not, leg do exist, but the meaning of the stems -cow, not-, leg- and the meaning of the separate words cow, not, leg is different.
Stems have not only the lexical meaning, but also grammatical, part-of-speech meaning. They can be noun stems, as gir-l in the adjective girlish. They can be adjective stems, as girlish- in the noun girlishness. Stems can also be verb stems as in the noun expellee. Stems differ from words by the absence of inflexions in their structure, they can be used only in the structure of words.
2. According to the nature and the number of morphemes constituing a word there are different structural types of words in English: simple, affixed, compound, compound-affixed.
Simple words consist of one root morpheme and an inflexion. In many cases the inflexion is zero, for example: seldom, chair, asked, speaking.
Affixed words consist of one root morpheme, one or several affixes and an inflexion, for example: unemployed, underground, overestimation.
Compound words consist of two or more root morphemes and an inflexion, for example: wait-and-see, forget-me-not, baby-moons.
Compound-affixed words consist of two or more root morphemes, one or more affixes and an inflexion, for example: job-hopper, autotimer, hydroskimmer.
3. To define a structural type of a word, that is, to accomplish a morphological analysis, it is necessary to use the analysis into immediate constituents. It was first suggested by an American scientist L. Bloomfield. Immediate constituents are any of the two meaningful parts forming a larger linguistic unity. The main constituents are un affix and a stem.
L. Bloomfield analyzed the word ungentlemanly.
In the first stage of the analysis one breaks the word ungentlemanly into two immediate constituents: un + gentlemanly. The morpheme u- is a negative prefix, one has come across words built on the pattern un + stem: uncertainly, uncomfortably etc. And the adjective gentlemanly exists in the English language.
In the second stage one separates the stem gentleman and the morpheme ly. In English there are many words with the pattern stem + ly: womanly, masterly etc. There is also the noun gentleman. The immediate constituents of this pattern have the same semantic relationship: having the quality of the person denoted by the stem. Besides, there is the noun gentleman.
In the first two stages of the analysis one separated a free and a bound forms: un + gentlemanly and gentleman + ly.
In the third stage the cut gentle + man has its pecularities. The morpheme gentle is a stem. The element man may be classified as a semi-bound affix or as a variant of the free form man. A similar pattern can be found in the word nobleman.
To sum up: as one breaks the word, one obtains at any level only two immediate cobstituents, one of which is a stem. All the time the analysis is based on the patterns characteristic of the English vocabulary. As a result, we get the following formula: un + (gentle + man) + ly.
The above procedure is an elementary case of the analysis. There are complicated, open or unresolved cases.
An American scientist Eugine Nida discusses the morphological structure of the word untruly. This word might, it seems, be divided either un + truly or un + true + ly. E. Nida notices that the prefix un- is very rarely combined with adverb stems and is freely combined with the adjective stems. So the immediate constituents of the word untruly is untrue + ly. Other examples of the same patterns are uncommonly, unlikely.
Some linguists think that words like pocket cannot be subjected to morphological analysis. They say that in the words pocket, hogget, locket it is possible to single out a diminutive suffix -et. In the words hogget, locket the remaining parts, that is, hog- and lock- are stems because there are independent words hog and lock. At the same time the remaining part of the word pocket, that is, pock- cannots be regarded as a stem. The element pock- does not exist independently.
Russian scientist Aлександр Иванович Смирницкий does not share the opinion of E. Nida. He believes that the stem is morphologically divisible if at least one of its elements belongs to a regular correlation. It means that if we agree that et- in the words pocket, hogget, locket is a suffix, we must agree that the elements pock-, hog, lock are stems. The words like pocket can be subjected to morphological analysis.
There are also cases, especially among borrowed words, that defy analysis altogether: calendar, perestroika.
Wordbuilding
1. Main ways of wordbuilding in English:
a) affixation,
b) composition.
1. Дубенец Э.М. Современный английский язык. С. 26 – 74.
3. I.V. Arnold. The English word. P. 90 – 165.
1. Wordbuilding is one of the main ways of enriching vocabulary. There are four main ways of wordbuilding in Modern English: affixation, composition, conversion, abbreviation.
There are also secondary ways of wordbuilding: sound interchange, stress interchange, sound imitation, blends, back formation.
Affixation
Affixation has been one of the most productive ways of wordbuilding throughout the history of English. It consists in adding an affix to the stem of a definite part of speech. Affixation is divided into suffixation and prefixation.
Suffixation
The first function of suffixes is to form one part of speech from another. The second function is to change the lexical meaning of the same part of speech.
There exist different classifications of suffixes: part of speech classification, semantic classification, lexico-grammatucal character of the stem, origion of affixes, productivity, structure.
According to the part of speech classification, suffixes are divided into:
- noun-forming suffixes: -er (criticizer), -dom (officialdom), -ism (ageism),
- adjective-forming suffixes: -able (breathable), -less (symptomless), -ous (prestigious),
- verb-forming suffixes -ize (computerize), -ify (micrify), - en (shorten),
- adverb-forming suffixes: -ly (singly), -ward (tableward), -wise (jetwise),
- numeral-forming suffixes: -teen (sixteen), -ty (seventy), -fold (twofold).
Semantic classification arranges suffixes in accordance with the lexical meaning of the stem. For example, noun-forming suffixes can denote:
-the agent of the action: -er (experimenter), -ist (taxist), -ent (student),
-nationality: -ian (Russian), -ese (Japanese), - ish (English),
-collectivity: - ry (peasantry), -ship (readership), - ati (literati),
-diminutiveness: -ie (horsie), -ling (gooseling), -y (hanky) etc.
Classification of suffixes according to lexico-grammatical character of the stem supposes that suffixes can be added to certain groups of stems:
-suffixes added to verbal stems: -er (commuter), -able (flyable), -ing (suffering),
-suffixes added to noun stems: -ess (smogless), -ful (roomful), -nik (filmnik),
-suffixes added to adjective stems: -ly (pinkly), -ish (longish), -ness (clannishness).
Classification of suffixes according to their origin allows to distinguish:
-native (Germanic) suffixes: -er (teacher), -ed (talented), -teen (sixteen),
-Romanic suffixes: -age (carriage), -ment (development), -ate (dictate),
-Greek suffixes: -ize (organize), - ism (capitalism), -ist (racist) etc.
The term borrowed affixes is not very exact as affixes are never borrowed as suffixes, but only as parts of borrowed words. To enter the morphological system of the English language a borrowed affix, both a suffix and a prefix, must satisfy certain conditions. The borrowing of an affix is possible only:
-if the the number of words containing this affix is considerable,
-if its meaning and function are definite and clear,
-if its structural pattern corresponds to the structural patterns already existing in the language.
Productivity classification of affixes points out the following groups:
-productive: -ly (wetly), -ize (specialize), -er (dancer),
-semi-productive: -eer (profiteer), -ward (skyward), -ette (kitchenette),
-non-productive: -ard (drunkard), -th (length) etc.
According to the structure suffixes are divided into:
-simple: -er (speaker), -ist (dramatist),
compound: -ical (ironical), -ation (formation), -manship (sportsmanship), -ably / ibly (terribly, reasonably) etc.
Some suffixes can be polysemantic. For example, -er can form nouns with the following meanings: an agent or a doer of the action expressed by the stem (porter), a profession or an occupation (baker), a device or a tool (transmitter).
There are also disputable cases whether we have a suffix or a root in the structure of a word. In such cases these disputable morphemes are called semi-affixes. Words with semi-affixes can be classified either as affixed words or as compound words. For example: -gate (Irangate), -burger (cheeseburger), -aholic (workaholic), -man (postman) etc.
Prefixation is the formation of words by means of adding a prefix to the stem. In English it is characteristic for forming verbs.
Prefixes are more independent than suffixes. Prefixes can be classified according to the nature of words in which they are used. Prefixes used in notional words are proper prefixes, they are bound morphemes: unhappy, rewrite, antiwar etc. Prefixes used in functional words are semi-bound morphemes because they are met in the language as words: overhead – over the table.
The main function of prefixes in English is to change the lexical meaning of the same part of speech. But some prefixes can form one part of speech from another. They are en / em-, a-, pre-, non-, anti- etc. For example the prefix be- forms verbs with adjective stems, and noun stems: to belittle, to befriend, to bemadam.
Prefixes can be classified according to different principles:
1. Semantic classification:
-prefixes of negative meaning: in- (invaluable), non- (non-person, non-book, nonformal), un- (unfree),
-prefixes denoting repetition or reversative actions: de- (decolonize), dis-(disconnect), un- (unpack),
-prefixes denoting time, space, degree: inter- (interplanetary), hyper- (hypertension), pre- (preelection), ex- (ex-student) etc.
2. Origin of prefixes:
-native (Germanic): under- (undernourish), over- (overfeed),
-Romanic: in- (inactive), de- (demobilize), re- (redo),
-Greek: sym- (sympathy), hyper- (hypertension) etc.
When we analyze such words as adverb, accompany where we can find the root of the word verb, company, we may treat ad-, ac- as prefixes though they were never used as prefixes to form new words in English and were borrowed from Romanic languages together with words. In such cases we can treat them as affixed words. But some scientists treat them as simple words.
Another group of words with a disputable structure are such as contain, retain, detain or conceive, receive, deceive where we can see that con- and de- act as prefixes and tain-, ceive- can be understood as roots. But in English these combinations of sounds have no lexical meaning and are called pseudo-morphemes. Some scientists treat such words as simple words, others as affixed words.
There are some prefixes which can be treated as root morphemes by some scientists. For example after- in the word afternoon. American lexicographers treat such words as compound words, British lexicographers treat them as affixed ones.
2. Сomposition is the way of wordbuilding when a word is formed by joining two or more stems to form one word. The structural unity of a compound word depends on the following factors:
- the unity of stress,
- spelling,
- semantic unity,
- unity of morphological and syntactical functioning.
These are characteristics of compounds in all languages. For English some of these factors are not reliable. As a rule, English compounds have one uniting stress on the first component: hat-cover, best-seller. We can also have a double stress in English compouns, with the main stress on the first component and with a secondary stress on the second component: blood-vessel. The main stress can also be on the second component: snow-white, sky-blue. Besides, the stress may be phonological and help to differentiate the meaning of compounds: overwork – overwork, bookcase – bookcase.
Spelling in English compounds is not reliable as well. English compounds can have different spelling even in the same text: war-ship can be spelt through a hyphen, with a break or solidly.
The semantic unity of English compounds may be different. There are compounds in which the meaning of the whole is not a sum of meanings of its components: ghostwrite, skinhead, braindrain. There are componds the meaning of which is deduced from the meaning of the components: to blood-transfuse, airbus, astrodynamics.
English compounds have the unity of morphological and syntactical functioning. They are used in a a sentence as one part of it and only one component changes grammatically: These girls are chatter-boxes. The compound chatter-boxes is a predicative here and only the second component changes grammatically.
There are two characteristic features of English compounds:
- both components in an English compound are free stems. They can be used as words with a distinctive meaning of theit own. The sound pattern will be the same except for the stresses: green-house – теплица and green house – дом, выкрашенный в зеленый цвет;
- English compouns have mostly a two-stem pattern: railroad, homework.
Compounds in English can be formed not only by means of composition but also by means of:
-reduplication: too-too – sentimental, toy-boy – gigolo, shock-frock – bare-bosomed cocktail dress;
-conversion from word-groups: to micky-mouse, can-do, make-up;
-back formation from compound nouns or word-groups: to baby-sit from baby-sitter, to fingerprint from finger-printing;
-analogy: lie-in on the analogy with sit-in, brawn-drain on the analogy with brain-drain;
contrast: brain-gain in contrast to brain-drain.
There are different classifications of English compounds:
1. According to the parts of speech compounds are subdivided into:
- nouns: baby-moon, globe-trotter;
- adjectives: free-for-all, power-happy;
- verbs: to henpeck, to honeymoon;
- adverbs: downdeep, headfirst;
- prepositions: into, within;
- numerals: fifty-five.
2. According to the way components are joined together compounds are subdivided into:
- neutral, which are formed by joining together two stems without any joining morphemes: ball-point, to window-shop;
- morphological where components are joined by a linking element: astrospace, handicraft, sportsman;
- syntactical where the components are joined by means of stems: here-and-now, free-for-all, do-or-die.
3.According to their structure compounds are subdivided into:
-compound words which consist of two stems: job-hunt, train-sick, tip-top;
- compound-affixed words, where besides the stems we have affixes: ear-minded, autotimer;
-compound words consisting of three or more stems: singer-songwriter, eggshell-thin;
-compound-shortened words: V-day, intervision.
4.According to the relations between the components compound words are subdivided into:
- subordinative compounds where one of the components is the semantic centre and the structural centre and the second component is subordinate. These subordinative relations can be different. For example, they can be comparative : honey-sweet, goldfish; time relations: summer-house, spring-fresh; sex-relations: she-dog, he-goat, Tom-cat etc.
-coordinative compounds where both components are semantically independent: no-no, Anglo-Saxon, secretary-stenographer etc.
5. According to the order of the components compounds are divided into compounds with direct order: killjoy and compounds with indirect order: nuclear-free, rope-ripe etc.
6. According to the meaning of the whole compound we can point out idiomatic and non-idiomatic compounds. Compounds may be very different in meaning from the corresponding free phrase. Such compounds are calles idiomatic: a blackboard – a black board, a tall boy – a tallboy, a blue bell – a bluebell. Compounds which are not different in their meaning from corresponding free phrases are called non-idiomatic: swimming-pool, speedometer, airmail etc.
Lecture # 5
a) conversion,
b) abbreviation.
2. Secondary ways of wordbuilding.
Conversion is a characteristic feature of the English wordbuilding system. It is also called affixless derivation or zero-suffixation but it is not quite correct because there are other types of wordbuilding in which new words are also formed without affixes: compounds, contracted words, sound-imitation words etc. The term conversion first appeared in the book by Henry Sweet New English Grammar in 1891. Conversion is very productive way of worldbuilding. Its productivity is encouraged by the analytical structure of Modern Englisg which facilitates processes of making words of one category of part of speech from words of another. A great number of one-syllable words is also a factor in favour of conversion. Such words are more mobile and flexible than polysyllabic words.
Conversion is treated differently by different scientists. A.И. Смирницкий treats conversion as a morphological way of forming words when one part of speech is formed from another part of speech by changing its paradigm. For example, to form the verb to dial from the noun dial we change the paradigm of the noun a dial – dials for the paradigm of a regular verb I dial, he dials, dialed, dialing. A. Marchand treats conversion as a morphological-syntactical wordbuilding because we have not only the change of the paradigm, but also the change of the syntactical function. For example, in the sentence I need some good paper for my room the noun paper is an object in the sentence. In the sentence I paper my room every year the verb paper is the predicate in the sentence.
A word made by conversion has a different meaning from the meaning of the word from which it was made. Though both meaning can be associated. There are some regularities in these associations:
-the noun is the name of a tool or instrument, the verb denotes an action performed by the tool: to pencil, to nail, to pin;
-the noun is the name of an animal, the verb denotes an action or aspect of behaviour typical of this animal: to ape, to wolf, to fox;
-the name of a part of the human body – an action performed by it: to nose, to shoulder, to elbow;
-the name of a profession or occupation – an activity typical of it: to nurse, to maid, to groom;
-the name of a place – the process of occupying the place or of putting smth / smb in it: to room, to cage, to table;
-the name of a container – the act of putting smth within the container: to pocket, to bottle, to can;
-the name of a meal – the process of taking it: to lunch, to supper, to dinner.
In cases of conversion we have a question: which word is primary and which is converted from it? There are three approaches to this problem.
1.If the lexical meaning of the root morpheme and the lexico-grammatical meaning of the stem coincide the word is primary. For example, in cases pen – to pen, father – to father the nouns are names of an object and a living being. In the nouns pen and father the lexical meaning of the root and the lexico-grammatical meanings of the stems coincide. The verbs to pen and to father denote an action, a process. The lexico-grammatical meanings of the stems do not coincide with the lexical meanings of the roots. The verbs have a complex semantic structure and they were converted from nouns.
2. If we compare a converted pair with a synonymic word pair which was formed by means of suffixation we can find out which of the pair is primary. This criterion can be applied only to nouns converted from verbs. For example, chat as a noun and chat as a verb can be compared with conversation – converse.
3. We must take a word-cluster of relative words to which the converted pair belongs. If the root stem of the word-cluster has suffixes added to a noun stem, the noun is primary in the converted pair. For example, in the word-cluster hand n., hand v., handy, handful the affixed words have suffixes added to a noun stem, that is why the noun is primary and the verb is converted from it. In the word-cluster dance n., dance v., dancer, dancing we see that the primary word is a verb and the noun is converted from it.
What is relationship between conversion and substantivation? Some scientists refer substantivation of adjectives to conversion. But most scientists do not, because in cases of substantivation of adjectives we have quite different changes in the language. Substantivation is the result of syntactical shortening when a word combination with a semantically strong attribute loses its semantically weak noun: a grown-up person is shortened to a grown up. In cases of substantivation the attribute takes the paradigm of a countable noun: a criminal, criminals, a criminal's, crimiunals'. There are also two types of partly substantivized adjectives:
c) those which have only the plural form and have the meaning of collective nouns: sweets, news, empties, finals, greens;
b) those which have only the singular form and are used with the definite article. They also have the meaning of collective nouns and denote a class, a nationality, a group of people etc.: the rich, the English, the dead.
These words are called partly substantivized because they do not get a new paradigm. Besides, they keep some properties of adjectives, they can be modified by adverbs: the enormously rich, the very unfortunate, the extravagantly jealous.
There is one more problem connected with convertion in English. In English there are a lot of word combinations of the type stone wall. For example: time table, homework, price rise, language teacher etc. If he first component of such units is an adjective converted from a noun, combinations of this type are free word-groups of the structure adjective + nouns. This point of view is proved by O. Yespersen by the following facts:
1. The word stone denotes some quality of the object named by the word wall.
2. The word stone stands before the word it modifies as adjectives do.
3. The word stone is used in the singular though its meaning may be plural, and adjectives in English have no plural form.
4. There are some cases when the first component is used in the comparative or the superlative degree, and adjectives can have degrees of comparison: the bottomest end of the scale.
5. The first component can have an adverb which characterizes it, and adjectives are characterized by adverbs: a purely family gathering.
6. The first component can be used in the same syntactical function with a proper adjective to characterize the same noun: lonely bare stone houses.
7. After the first component the pronoun one can be used instead of a noun: I shall not put on a silk dress, I shall put on a cotton one.
But other scientists say that these criteria are not characteristic of the majority of such units. They consider the first conponent of such units to be a noun in the function of an attribute because in Midern English almost all parts of speech and even word-groups and sentences can be used in the function of an attribute. For example: the then president (an adverb in the function of an attribute), out-of-the-way villages (a word-group in the function of an attribute), a devil-may-care speed (a sentence in the function of an attribute).
There are different semantic relations between the components of such combinations:
-time relation: evening paper,
-space relation: top floor,
-qualitative relations: winter apples,
-cause relations: war orphan etc.
In the process of communication words and word-groups can be shortened. The causes of shortening can be linguistic and extra-linguistic. By extra-linguistic causes changes in the life of people are meant. In Modern English many new abbreviations are formed because the tempo of life is increasing and it becomes necessary to give more and more information in the shortest possible time. There are also linguistic causes of abbreviating words and word-groups. Among them are: demand of rhythm, which is satisfied by monosyllabic words and shortening of borrowings from other languages.
There are two main types of shortenings: graphical and lexical.
Graphical abbreviations are the result of shortening of words and word-groups only in written speech while orally the corresponding full forms are used. They are used for the economy of space and effort in writing.
The oldest group of graphical abbreviations in English is of Latin origin. In these abbreviations in the spelling Latin words are shortened while orally the corresponding English equivalents are pronounced in the full form. For example: a.m. – in the morning (ante meridiem), No – number (numero), i.e. – that is (id est), p.a. – a year (per annum), lb – pound (libra) etc.
In some cases initial letters are pronounced: a.m., p.m.
Some graphical abbreviations of Latin origin have different English equivalents in different contexts: p. m. can be pronounced in the afternoon (post meridiem) and after death (post mortem).
Graphical abbreviations of native origin represent several semantic groups:
- days of the week: Mon – Monday, Tue – Tuesday,
- names of months: Apr – April, Aug – August,
- names of address: Mr, Mrs, Ms, Dr,
- military ranks: capt – captain, col – colonel, sgt – sergeant,
- scientific degrees: BA – Bachelor of Arts, DM – Doctor of Medicine,
- units of time, length, weight: f / ft – foot / feet, in. – inch, mg. – milligram etc.
The reading of some graphical abbreviations depends on the context. For example: m can be read as male, married, masculine, metre, mile, million, minute.
Lexical abbreviations
Lexical abbreviaion consists in clipping a part of a word. As a result we get a new lexical unit where either the lexical meaning or the style is different from the full form of the word. For example: in such cases as fantasy and fancy, fence and defence we have different lexical meanings. In such cases as laboratory and lab, we have different styles.
Lexical abbreviaion does not change the part-of-speech meaning, it produces words belonging to the same part of speech as the primary words. For example: professor is a noun, prof is also a noun.
Abbreviated are usually nouns, verbs and adjectives. Pronouns, numerals, interjections, conjunctions are, as a rule, not abbreviated.
Lexical abbreviations are classified according to the part of the word which is clipped. Mostly the end of the word is clipped, because the beginning of the word in most cases is the root and expresses the lexical meaning of the word. This type of abbreviation is called apocope: disco, expo, intro etc.
If the beginning of the word is clipped we have apheresis: chute – parachute, versity – university, copter – helicopter etc.
Sometimes the middle of the word is clipped, such abbreviations are called syncope: mart – market, fanzine – fan magazine etc.
We may also have a combination of apocope with apheresis, when the beginning and the end of the word are clipped: tec – detective, van – avanguard etc.
2. There are also secondary ways of wordbuilding in English: sound interchange, stress interchange, sound imitation, blending, back formation. These ways of wordbuilding are not productive in Modern English.
Sound interchange is the way of wordbuilding when some sounds are changed to form a new word. For example: strike – stroke, sing – song, blood – to bleed, hot – to heat etc. It was productive in Old English and can be met in other Indo-European languages.
Stress interchange can be mostly met in verbs and nouns of Romanic origin. Nouns have the stress on the first syllable and verbs – on the last syllable. For example: to conflict – conflict, to export – export, to accent – accent etc. However, this is not regular. There are borrowed nouns and verbs with the stress on the first syllable. For example: focus, exile, preface, program, triumph etc. There are also a large group of loan words that retain the stress on the second syllable both in verbs and nouns. For example: advance, escape, attack, defeat, concern, amount, research etc.
Sound imitation is the way of wordbuilding when a word is formed by imitating different sounds. There are some semantic groups of words formed by means of sound imitation:
-sounds produced by human beings: to whisper, to giggle, to sneeze etc,
-sounds produced by animals: to hiss, to bark, to moo, to buzz etc,
-sounds produced by nature: to tinkle, to ding-dong, to buble, to splash etc.
Blends are words formed from a word-group or two synonyms. In blends two ways of wordbuilding are combined: abbreviation and composition. To form a blend we clip the end of the first component and the beginning of the second component. For example: smog is formed from smoke + fog, slanguage is formed from slang + language, gasohol is formed from gasoline + alcohol.
Mostly blends are formed from a word-group. For example: cinemaddict (cinema addict), dramedy (drama comedy), magalog (magazine catalogue), slimnastics (slimming gymnastics) etc.
Back formation is the way of word-building when a word is formed by dropping the final morpheme to form a new word. It is opposite to suffixation, that is why it is called back formation. At first it appeared in the language as a result of misunderstanding the structure of a borrowed word. It is typical of English to form nouns denoting the agent of the action by adding the suffix –er to a verb stem: speak – speaker, teach – teacher. So when the French word beggar was borrowed into English the final syllable ar was pronounced in the same way as the English -er. Soon Englishmen formed the verb beg by dropping the end of the noun. Other examples are: to accreditate (accreditation), to bach (bachelor), to collocate (collocation), to compute (computer), to televise (television) etc.
1. Meaning of a word.
2. Semantic structure of the word.
3. Polysemy.
4. Main types of lexical meanings of the word.
1. The linguistic science at present is not able to put forward a definition of meaning which is conclusive. But the fact is that the very function of the word as a unit of communication is made possible by its possessing a meaning. So, among the various characteristics of the word the meaning is the most important.
Generally speaking meaning can be more or less described as a component of the word through which a concept is communicated. Concepts are mental phenomena.
By referent we understand objects, qualities, actions, abstract notions denoted by the word. By symbol is meant the word. Thought or reference is concept. The dotted line suggests that there is no immediate relation between word and referent. It is established only through the concept.
The mechanism by which concepts, that is mental phenomena, are converted into words, that is linguistic phenomena, and the reverse process by which a heard or a printed word is converted into a mental picture are not yet understood.
The branch of linguistics which specialises in the study of meaning is called semantics. This term is ambiguous. It can stand for the expressive aspect of language in general and for the meaning of particular words. That is why very often the study of meaning of words is called semasiology.
2. The modern approach to semantics or semasiology is based on the assumption that the meaning of the word presents a structure which is called the semantic structure of the word. When analysing the semantic structure of a word, it is necessary to distinguish between two levels of analysis.
On the first level the semantic structure of a word is treated as a system of meanings.
As we see, meaning 1 dominates over meanings 2, 3, 4, 5. Meaning 1 is called the main meaning, meanings 2, 3, 4, 5 are called secondary meanings. All the meanings, main and secondary ones, may be associated with each other very differently. They may be associated through the main meaning or through one of the secondary meanings or else through all meanings. But some semantic structures are arranged on a different principle. For example, in the semantic structure of the word dull it is not possible to find the main meaning which organizes secondary meanings. The centre holding together the semantic structure of this word is not one of the meanings but a certain component that can be easily singled out within each separate meaning. And this brings us to the second level of analysis of the semantic structure of a word.
At the second level of analysis each separate meaning may be represented as sets of semantic components. These components are not part of the vocabulary but rather theoretical elements. The study of semantic components of each separate meaning is the aim of componential analysis. Componential analysis is one of the modern methods of semantic research.
Thus, the semantic structure of the word is not just a system of meanings, for each separate meaning is subject to further subdivision and possesses an inner structure of its own. The semantic structure of a word should be investigated at both levels: the level of different meanings and at the level of semantic components within each separated meaning. For the words with one meaning the first level is excluded.
Semantic components may be of different types. The leading semantic component in the semantic structure of a word is called denotative or referential component. The denotative component expresses the conceptual content of a word. For example, the denotative component of the English verbs to glare, to glance, to look is to look. But in such a way the meanings of these verbs will be described only partially and incompletely. To have a full picture of the meaning of each verb, it is necessary to add some other semantic components. They are called connotative components or just connotations.
Then the verb to glare may be described as the denotative component to look + a connotative component steadily, lastingly + a connotative component in anger, rage, etc. The connotative component steadily, lastingly introduces connotation of duration. The connotative component in anger, rage, etc. introduces emotive connotation.
The verb to glance consists of the denotative component to look and a connotative component briefly, passingly. The connotative component introduces connotation of duration.
The verb to look has only the denotative component look.
So, the word may have no connotation, one connotation or several connotations. Connotations may be of different types: emotive, evoluative, stylistic, of duration, of cause, of manner. We shall discuss them while speaking about synonymy.
3. It is generally known that most words have several meanings. A word possessing several meanings is called polysemantic. The ability of words to have more than one meaning is described by the term polysemy. Polysemy is not an anomaly. Most English words are polysemantic. The expressive resources of a language depend on the degree to which polysemy has developed in the language. One may think that if there is a need to apply to one word several meanings, it means that the language lacks in words. But it is exactly the opposite. If each word is capable to convey more than one concept, for example, two concepts, then the expressive potential of the whole vocabulary of any language increases twofold. A well-developed polysemy is not a drawback but an advantage in a language.
On the other hand, the number of sound combinations that human speech organs can produce is limited. At a certain stage of language development the production of new words by morphological means becomes limited. Polysemy becomes important in providing the means for enriching the vocabulary.
The system of meanings of a polysemantic word develops gradually, mostly over the centuries. The complicated process of polysemy development involve both the appearance of new meanings and the loss of old ones. The general tendency with English vocabulary at the modern stage of its history is to increase the total number of its meanings.
5. Linguistic literature abounds in classifications of types of lexical meaning. The following classification reflects relationships existing between different meanings of a word at the same period of time. For example, the word screen is in its direct meaning when it names a piece of furniture used to hide something or protect somebody. The meaning is figurative when the word is applied to anything which protects by hiding, as in smoke screen. We define this meaning as figurative comparing it to the first that we call direct. The meaning a piece of furniture of the word screen is at the same time the main meaning of this word. The main meaning is that which possesses the highest frequency at the present stage of vocabulary development. All the other meanings of the word screen are secondary meanings. The meaning a piece of furniture is concrete in comparison with the abstract meaning the word screen has in the following combinations: screen actor, screen star, screen version etc.
The meanings can be classified not only by comparing them inside the semantic structure of the word but according to the style and sphere of language in which they may occur. All the meanings are classified into stylistically neutral and stylistically coloured. Stylistically coloured meanings may be subdivided into bookish and colloquial. Bookish ones may be general, poetical, scientific. Colloquial ones may be literary colloquial, familiar colloquial, slang.
From a historical point of view the meaning may be:
-etymological, that is the earliest known meaning,
-archaic, that is the meaning superseded at present by a newer one but still remaining in certain collocations;
-obsolete, that is gone out of use;
-present-day meaning, that is the most frequent in the present-day language;
-original meaning serving as basis for the derived ones.
Certain meanings can be realized only in a given phraseological unit, they are called phraseologically bound meanings and they are opposed to free meanings.
Prototypical meaning is believed to be readily translatable into other languages. Peripheral meanings are least translatable.
It is very important to underline that one and the same meaning can at once belong, in accordance with different points, to different groups of meanings.
1. Causes of semantic changes.
2. Main ways of semantic changes: specialization, generalization, metaphor, metonymy.
3. Secondary ways of semantic changes: elevation, degradation, hyperbole, litotes.
9. Антрушина Г.Б., Афанасьева О.В., Морозова Н.Н. Лексикология английского языка: Учеб. пособие для студентов. – М.: Дрофа, 1999. – 288 с.
10. Арнольд И.В. Лексикология современного английского языка: Учеб. для ин-тов и фак. иностр. яз. – М.: ВШ, 1986. – 295 с.
11. Гвишиани Н.Б. Современный английский язык: Лексикология (новый курс для филологических факультетов университетов). – М.: МГУ, 2000. – 221 с.
12. Дубенец Э.М. Современный английский язык. Лексикология: Пособие для студентов гуманитарных вузов. – М. / СПб.: ГЛОССА / КАРО, 2004. – 192 с.
Causes of semantic changes
The meaning of a word can change in the course of time. Changes of lexical meanings can be proved by comparing contextx of different times. Transfer of the meaning is called lexico-semantic wordbuilding. In such cases the outer aspect of a word does not change.
The causes of semantic changes can be extra-linguistic and linguistic. For example: the change of the lexical meaning of the noun pen was due to extra-linguistic causes. Primarily pen comes back to the Latin word penna (a feather of the bird). As people wrote with goose pens the name was transferred to steel pens which were later on used for writing. Still later any instrument for writing was called a pen.
Causes of semantic changes can be linguistic. For example: the noun tide in Old English denoted time, season, hour. When the French words time, season, hour (temps, saison, heur) were borrowed into English they ousted the word tide in these meanings. It was specialized and now means regular rise and fall of the sea caused by attraction of the moon.
The meaning of a word can also change due to the ellipsis. For example: the word-group a train of carriages had the meaning of a row of carriages. Later on the component of carriages was dropped and the noun train changed its meaning. It is used now in the function and with the meaning of the whole word-group.
Semantic changes have been classified by different scientists. The most complete classification was suggested by a German scientist Herman Paul in his book 'Принципы истории языка'. This classification is based on the logical principle. He distinguishes:
a) two main ways where the semantic change is gradual (specialization and generalization),
b) two main ways where the semantic change is momentary (metaphor and metonymy),
c) two secondary ways where the semantic change is gradual (elevation and degradation),
d) two secondary ways where the semantic change is momentary (hyperbole and litotes).
It is a gradual process when a word passes from a general sphere to some special sphere of communicaton. For example: the word case has a general meaning circumstances in which a person or a thing is. It is specialized in its meaning when used in law (a lawsuit), in grammar (a form in the paradigm of a noun), in medecine (a patient, an illness). The difference between these meanings is revealed in the context.
The meaning of a word can specialize when it remains in the general usage. It happens in the case of the conflict between two synonyms when one of them must specialize in its meaning to remain in the language. For example: the word meat had the meaning food and this meaning is preserved in the compound sweetmeats. The meaning edible flesh was formed when the word food, the synonym of the word meat won in the conflict of absolute synonyms.
Another example: the English verb to starve was specialized in its meaning after the Scandinavian word to die was borrowed into English. The word to die became the general verb with this meaning because in English there were the noun death and the adjective dead beginning with the same consonant d. The verb to starve got the meaning to die of hunger.
One more way of specialization is the formation of proper names from common nouns. For example: Oxford – a university town in England which was built near the place where oxen could ford the river. The Tower originally meant a fortress and palace, later – a prison, now – a museum.
It is a process contrary to specialization when the meaning of a word becomes more general in the course of time. For example: the word ready meant prepared for a ride. Now its meaning is prepared for anything. The word journey was borrowed from French with the meaning one day trip as jour means a day in French. Now it means a trip of any duration.
It is transfer of the meaning on the basis of comparison. Metaphor can be based on different types of similarity:
· similarity of shape: head (of a cabbage), bottleneck, teeth (of a saw, a comb);
· similarity of position: foot (of a page, of a mountain), head (of a procession);
· similarity of function, behaviour: a whip (an official in the British Parliament whose duty is to see that members were present at the voting), a bookworm (a person who is fond of books);
· similarity of colour: orange, hazel, chestnut.
In some cases we have a complex similarity. For example: the leg of a table has a similarity to a human leg in its shape, position and function.
Many metaphors are based on parts of a human body: an eye of a needle, arms and mouth of a river, head of an army.
A special type of metaphor is when proper names become common nouns: vandals – destructive people, a Don Juan – a lover of many women etc.
It is a transfer of the meaning on the basis of contiguity. There are different types of metonymy:
· the material of which an object is made may become the name of an object: a glass, an iron etc;
· the name of the place may become the name of the people or of an object placed there: the House (members of Parliament), the White House (the Administration of the USA) etc;
· names of musical instruments may become names of musicians when they are united in an orchestra: the violin, the piano etc;
· the name of some person may become a common noun: boycott was originally the name of an Irish family who were so much disliked by their neighbours that they did not mix with them;
· names of inventors very often become terms to denote things they invented: watt, om, kalashnikov etc;
· geographical names can become common nouns: china (porcelain), astrakhan (a sheep fur), holland (linen fabrics) etc.
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Grosvenor announced as development partner for North Uttlesford Garden Community
Grosvenor Britain & Ireland ('Grosvenor') has been appointed as the development partner for North Uttlesford Garden Community, a proposed new neighbourhood in Great Chesterford, on the north eastern edge of Essex, with potential for up to 5,000 new homes, alongside carefully planned new infrastructure and amenities
Grosvenor Britain & Ireland ('Grosvenor') has been appointed as the development partner for North Uttlesford Garden Community, a proposed new neighbourhood in Great Chesterford, on the north eastern edge of Essex, with potential for up to 5,000 new homes, alongside carefully planned new infrastructure and amenities.
Grosvenor has been appointed by local landowners as development partner for the Garden Community following the District Council's inclusion of the site in its draft Local Plan earlier this summer. Grosvenor will now work closely with the District Council, Great Chesterford Parish Council, local stakeholders and the community to develop initial ideas and what it calls 'first principles for success' – helping to faciliate the delivery of a thriving new sustainable community.
Grosvenor is backed by a 300 year history and track record of creating and managing some of London and the UK's most successful places.
In Oxford, Grosvenor has a joint venture with the local authority to deliver 900 new homes with infrastructure and amenities in the new neighbourhood of Barton Park, where 40 per cent of homes will be social rented. In Cambridge, as master developer, Grosvenor has helped deliver a neighbourhood development of 1,200 new homes with a new primary school and village centre, which borders a country park.
Alex Robinson, Director at Grosvenor Britain & Ireland, said: "We are delighted that Grosvenor has been selected to work with the council and landowners on this opportunity to deliver a new neighbourhood with vital new homes and infrastructure.
"The country's housing shortage is threatening our ability to provide homes for the next generation. We must respond not just with more housing units, but great places that are home to people of mixed incomes, backgrounds and life stages. Closer, creative collaboration is required and I look forward to working with the Parish Council, the District Council and the local community to develop these proposals."
Bidwells is providing Planning and Building Consultancy services on the project.
Joe Cawley/Geoff Robjent
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Joe Dale - EA Community Reporter at GamesCom 2011 brings us his take on Mass Effect 3.
Probably the best thing about being out at Gamescom with EA UK is that I am able to track down, rather easily, fast-track passes. Imagine a scene from a zombie movie: the handsome protagonist cuts his arm whilst trying to run from a couple of the undead and, all of a sudden, a whole horde descend, clamouring for a taste of the red stuff... that is what would happen if I was caught in possession of a fast-track pass by the public attending the show who have been queuing patiently for three hours.
I walked across the show floor over to the Mass Effect 3 booth, stopping to watch a few people have their photo taken with a real life Shepherd who had been patrolling, ready to take down any Cerberus operatives who decided to storm the show floor. I was then ushered into a standing cinema room where I viewed a mixture of already released trailers, including the fantastic real life trailer. Then the time came to go hands on with one of the levels that has been shown off here at Gamescom.
Shepherd, Garrus and Leoni are on the Salarian home world with their old friend Mordin who has the last female Krogan capable of breeding after the introduction of the genophage. While the female Krogan is being transported out of her holding cell, a squad of Cerberus operatives storm the area, trying to capture the Krogan for themselves.
When taking control of Shepherd for the first time, I was encouraged to head into the squad menu to try out the updated squad improvement mechanic. One of the big changes from ME to ME2 was the upgrade system, which was stripped back. In ME3 each power has a few more options; with hand grenades, for example, your basic three options allow you to improve damage, the amount you can carry and blast radius. After you have purchased these three improvements you can then choose three more options out of a possible six. Choosing one will lock one of the others, so you have to think long and hard about exactly how you want to level your characters up.
The combat in ME3 is virtually the same as the previous game, with everything feeling very familiar. The newest addition to the combat is the inclusion of the Omni Blade that Shepherd can now use to skewer his enemies. Now, I'm not 100% sold on this biotic sword. By keeping hold of the B button, the camera pulls in tight and the animation takes control; you cannot change direction of the sword while the animation is taking place and it just seems that you can't swing the Omni Blade in whatever direction you want and handle enemies that may be behind you. Maybe this is something they will change for the release, but it certainly doesn't look like it.
As was pointed out to me when I saw the Mass Effect 3 presentation earlier in the day, you can play through the combat sections in ME3 however you feel comfortable, be that running and gunning your way through, playing it more tactically and carefully ordering your unit around to help take down the enemies, or you can play it as a cover based shooter. I personally prefer to play the game as more of a cover based shooter, moving from pillar to post, deflecting incoming fire as I go, while popping out, taking down my foes with a couple of well aimed shots before moving on to the next bit of cover. It certainly feels satisfying when you feel the vibrations of your gun go through your hands as you watch an enemy soldier fall to the floor, while your team sweep alongside you and clear up any loose ends.
As I made my way through the level, clearing the rooms and reaching checkpoints, a new type of foe appeared, just when I thought I'd saved the female Krogan: the Cerberus Atlas Mech. This giant exoskeleton is home to a Cerberus soldier who is equipped with rockets and a machine gun and is capable of dealing massive damage. This is where Shepherd's new combat roles come into full effect. Shepherd can now roll in any direction, giving you more control when trying to evade enemies in combat; gone are the days where you had to turn and run away and it is a very welcome addition to Shepherd's arsenal.
When the Atlas Mech was defeated that was it, demo over. Reluctantly, I left the booth with an ME3 poster and inflatable Omni blade (that I later gave away to some of the EA Community on the show floor, aren't I nice!?), but not only did I leave with some free swag, I left with a heavy heart. Mass Effect 3 is my most anticipated game of the next twelve months. I had just been playing it and all I wanted to do was get stuck into the story; after seeing a little glimpse of this it was snatched away from me. March 2011 seems a long way away right now... anybody got a time machine?


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Home > Support us
You can support the Foundation in many different ways. You can attend one of our many and varied fundraising events, including dinners, special evenings with guest appearances from the rugby world, celebrity rugby and cricket matches and many more.
Check out our calendar of events, there is bound to be something for you. If you are feeling more active we secure places in some of the biggest sporting fundraisers, including the London Marathon and 'Run to the Beat'. Places go quickly, so if you are interested in raising money for the Foundation through one of these events, please do get in touch. If you have your own event in mind and you would like the proceeds to come to the Foundation do let us know. We have some incredible support from people doing amazing things. See our 'Be Inspired' section for examples of some things people have been doing.
People are drawn to supporting the Foundation for many reasons. They may be avid rugby supporters and know the risks of playing such a physical game. They may have been touched by Matt's story and found it an inspiration to 'Get busy living' or they may support raising awareness of disability. Whatever the motivation to get involved, every supporter is regarded as part of the Foundation and therefore become a member of 'Team Hambo'.
No event is too small, all help is gratefully appreciated. If you are looking for sponsorship we have a Justgiving page to make it easier for your supporters and enables us to also claim Gift aid, which makes a massive difference.
Goals and Projects 2014-15
To continue to help and support everyone who contacts us. We pride ourselves on the fact that we can always offer some help to everyone that contacts us. The Foundation treats each individual request for help and support in a very personal way; Matt or one of our senior members of staff will always meet the individual or have some form of direct contact with them. The biggest help is often the knowledge that there are people to talk to who have been through a similar experience. To have these individuals as role models is really important and of huge inspiration in the initial stages after a catastrophic injury.
Our support can take many forms:
Paying a person's mortgage whilst they are in hospital so they can focus on their rehabilitation rather than worrying about money.
Providing specialised equipment allowing someone to get back into sport or to further their rehabilitation potential.
Paying university or vocational course fees to help an individual move on with their lives.
Paying travel expenses so families can afford to regularly visit their loved ones in hospital.
Every individual's needs are different but having lived the journey Matt and our other beneficiaries are the perfect people to know what help and advice is required.
2. Get Busy Living Centre
The Foundation's big goal is to build the 'Get Busy Living Centre' a place where our beneficiaries can come to receive rehabilitation through physiotherapy, hydrotherapy or to meet others in a similar position who can pass on advice and inspire each other to move on with their lives. It has become more apparent that the biggest support we can provide is by bringing individuals and their families together to share knowledge and experiences and by having a headquarters this sort of interaction can happen on a more regular basis. We will be able to invite young injured sportsmen and women to the centre on a daily basis and have an open door policy for all beneficiaries who can book in to use the rehabilitation facilities or to just come and spend time with other people in a similar position. Matt felt the support he received from others who had been through a similar experience was vital in encouraging him to focus his mind on 'getting busy living', and now he inspires others to do the same. We are currently in discussion with a company willing to contribute by way of building the centre once we have found a suitable site, which will significantly reduce the level of funds that need to be raised. However, once built this will need to be furnished and filled with state of the art rehabilitation equipment.
Approx costs - £500,000+
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Rugby Captains Dinner


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L'Etat du Monde (The State of the World/People) was the working title of the Twelfth album of the Chronicles of the Obscure Cities. It will focus mainly on Galatograd and Sodrovno-Voldachia. Became eventually Frontière Invisible (La).