Behavioral biologists have identified three defining hallmarks of deception by non-human animals: it must mislead the receiver, the deceiver must benefit, and it can’t simply be an accident.
Ahli perilaku hewan mengidentifikasi tiga ciri perilaku tipuan pada hewan selain manusia: menyesatkan hewan sasaran, menguntungkan hewan penipu, dan membuat tipuan dengan sengaja.