text: Leadership During Operations
  be costly. Neither commanders nor subordinates are independent actors when exercising initiative.
  Subordinates consider at least two factors when deciding how to exercise initiative, assessing each in terms
  of the circumstances affecting it:
  (cid:122) Whether the benefits of the action outweigh the risk of desynchronizing the overall operation.
  (cid:122) Whether the action will further attainment of the desired end state.
  (See ADP 6-0 for more information on disciplined initiative.)
  ACCEPTING RISK TO CREATE AND EXPLOIT OPPORTUNITIES
  8-18. Risk, uncertainty, and chance are inherent to all military operations. The pace and tempo of large-scale
  combat operations demands a high level of expertise for commanders and staffs. Commanders delegate risk
  acceptance to subordinates through their commander’s intent and other guidance. Based on this guidance,
  refined as necessary by the commander and staff as the situation changes, leaders accept risk during
  operations by massing effects in one area while taking economy of force measures in other areas to create
  opportunities that can be exploited. Understanding how much or what kind of risk to accept requires the
  ability to accurately see friendly and enemy forces and an operational environment in the context of a
  particular situation. Leaders and staff officers who are competent in all aspects of their specialties assist the
  commander in weighing the risk of various decisions and courses of action, balancing short-term versus long-
  term risk to the mission and the force. This analysis, coupled with imagination and the courage to act boldly,
  provides opportunities that outweigh the risk incurred. Successful commanders are aware of the effects of
  cumulative risk over time, and therefore they continuously assess it throughout an operation.
  8-19. Opportunities to exploit a relative advantage are fleeting during large-scale combat operations against
  a capable enemy that adapts quickly. Delaying action while setting optimal conditions, waiting for perfect
  intelligence, or achieving greater synchronization may end up posing a greater danger than swift acceptance
  of significant risk now. Leaders’ judgment of risk must be thoroughly informed by their understanding of
  their operational environment, particularly how actions in other domains impact their forces and how their
  forces can generate effects outside the land domain. Leaders maintain a common operational picture with
  their counterparts in higher and lower echelons, since any risk accepted at one echelon may impose additional
  risk at other echelons. (See paragraphs 8-47 and 8-48 for further discussion on communicating with
  subordinates.)
  8-20. Contingency planning enables commanders to swiftly decide and act when the unexpected occurs. By
  considering multiple enemy courses of action, available friendly capabilities, and developing appropriate
  branch and sequel plans, the staff and the commander develop a deeper appreciation for how an operation
  could unfold and build flexibility into their plans. Contingency planning also guards against confirmation
  bias, where situational cues are interpreted in ways that match preconceived ideas. Effective planning
  expands understanding of a situation and operational environment, allowing the commander and staff to be
  better postured to rapidly decide, adjust, or simply be proactive.
  8-21. Commanders designate commander’s critical information requirements (CCIRs) linked to decision
  points during operations and the execution of branch and sequel plans developed during contingency
  planning. CCIRs help subordinate leaders prioritize allocation of information collection assets and other
  limited resources, including time. Detailed contingency planning and the development of CCIRs ensure that
  commanders and staffs are proactive rather than reactive in responding to enemy activity. CCIRs potentially
  become irrelevant as the situation changes; therefore, commanders, staffs, and other leaders must regularly
  review and update CCIRs to ensure relevance throughout the conduct of operations. This is a forcing function
  for questioning earlier assumptions made during planning that may no longer be valid. (See ADP 2-0 and
  ADP 6-0 for more detailed descriptions of what constitutes CCIR.)
  8-22. Commanders and staffs remain alert to exceptional information during operations. Exceptional
  information results from an unexpected event or opportunity, or a new threat, which directly affects the
  success of operations. It would have been a CCIR if it had been foreseen. Identifying exceptional information
  requires initiative from subordinates, shared understanding of the situation, a thorough understanding of the
  commander’s intent, and the exercise of judgement based on experience.