text: Chapter 2
  confidence of an enemy to lead it to believe that the enemy is entitled to, or obliged to accord, protection
  under the law of war, with intent to betray that confidence. Moreover, the law of war prohibits misusing
  certain protected signs such as the Red Cross or Red Crescent, fighting in the enemy’s uniform, and feigning
  non-hostile relations in order to seek a military advantage. These actions are prohibited because they
  undermine the protections afforded by the law of war to civilians, persons who are hors de combat, or other
  protected classes of persons and objects; impair non-hostile relations between opposing belligerents; and may
  damage the basis for the restoration of peace. A deception plan must follow the commander’s limitations and
  agreements, and planners must consider legal implications. Staffs should always consult with the judge
  advocate when developing a deception plan.
  2-92. Deception operations are constrained, but not forbidden, by international agreements. Ruses of war
  and the employment of measures necessary for obtaining information about the enemy and the country are
  considered permissible. Ruses of war are legitimate so long as they do not involve treachery or perfidy on
  the part of the belligerent resorting to them. They are, however, forbidden if they contravene any generally
  accepted rule. The line of demarcation between legitimate and illegitimate ruses sometimes blurs, but the
  following examples indicate the correct principles. Improper practice to secure an advantage over the enemy
  includes deliberate lying or misleading conduct that involves a breach of faith or a moral obligation to speak
  the truth. For example, it is improper to feign surrender so as to secure an advantage over the opposing
  belligerent.
  2-93. The Department of Defense Law of War Manual states deception operations will not intentionally
  target or mislead the U.S. public, the U.S. Congress, U.S. news media, or any open-source (unclassified or
  generally available to the public) publications. Traditionally, all Department of Defense (DOD) missions and
  activities have either been determined by federal statue or, in the absence of statutory authority, through the
  broad constitutional powers of the President. The President, under constitutional and statutory authority, may
  issue documents that provide direction to the executive branch that apply to this field. Specific regulatory
  guidance pertaining to the conduct of deception operations is promulgated by DOD and the Services.
  Misinforming the media about military capabilities and intentions in ways that influence U.S. decision
  makers and public opinion is contrary to DOD policy. Deceptions will comply with U.S. law, applicable
  international treaties and agreements to which the U.S. is a party, DOD and Service regulations and policies,
  and established rules of engagement for U.S. forces. See the Department of Defense Law of War Manual and
  DODD 2311.01E.
  2-94. It is expressly forbidden to make improper use of a flag of truce, of the national flag, or of the military
  insignia and uniform of the enemy, as well as the distinctive badges of the Geneva Convention. Flags of truce
  must not be used surreptitiously to obtain military information or merely to obtain time to affect a retreat or
  secure reinforcements, or to feign a surrender in order to surprise an enemy. In practice, it has been authorized
  to make use of national flags, insignia, and uniforms as a ruse. Hague Regulation (Article 23) does not
  prohibit such employment but does prohibit their improper use. It is certainly forbidden to employ them
  during combat, but their use at other times is not forbidden.
  2-95. Legitimate ruses can include the following examples:
  * Surprises, ambushes, feigning attacks, retreats, or flights.
  * Simulated quiet and inactivity.
  * The use of small forces to simulate a large unit.
  * The transmission of false or misleading radio or telephone messages:
   False orders purporting to have been issued by the enemy commander.
   The use of the enemy’s signals and passwords.
   Fake communication with troops or reinforcement that do not exist.
  * Deceptive supply movements.
  * Deliberate planting of false information.
  * The use of spies and secret agents.
  * The movement of landmarks.
  * Assembled dummy guns and vehicles or laid dummy mines.
  * Erected dummy installations and airfields.