text: Chapter 3
  3-39. Manned fixed-wing combat aircraft are highly flexible and can perform a variety of missions in
  offensive and defensive operations: air interdiction, strategic attack, suppression of enemy air defense, and
  close air support. Fixed-wing aircraft can employ a variety of munitions, including bombs, guns, rockets,
  cruise missiles, and tactical air-to-surface missiles. Integrated navigation/bombing computers and related
  mission equipment provide new combat aircraft with a precision-strike capability, day or night and in bad
  weather.
  3-40. New aircraft incorporate such features as radar warning receivers, on-board jammers, chaff, flares, and
  a lower radar cross section to improve survivability and mission success rate. In addition, the proliferation of
  fixed-wing aircraft throughout the world increases the probability that opposing forces may employ the same
  type of aircraft in a conflict; this exacerbates the already challenging problem of identification.
  ROCKETS, ARTILLERY, AND MORTARS
  3-41. RAM are traditional indirect fire threats to ground forces. These systems vary in size and effect.
  Rockets and artillery are usually fired from towed or self-propelled platforms while mortars are frequently
  transported by dismounted crews.
  3-42. Rockets are unguided projectiles with a short boost phase and unpowered flight, and fly ballistic
  trajectories. The most common type of warhead is high explosive with a point detonating fuse. Rockets are
  commonly fired from self-propelled platforms known as multiple rocket launchers. Multiple rocket launchers
  may fire large volleys of rockets (20 to 40) with multiple launchers being used in a volley. Rockets come in
  many calibers such as 57-millimeter, 68-millimeter, 80-millimeter, 81-millimeter, 107-millimeter, 120-
  millimeter, 122-millimeter, and 127-millimeter. Their high rate of fire and volume of fire make them a
  stressing threat. Hybrid and irregular forces have used rockets as harassing fire, with improvised firing
  methods and delays to limit counterfire effects. Large caliber rockets, 200-millimeter and greater, were
  addressed earlier.
  3-43. Artillery and mortar rounds are also unpowered and traditionally fly ballistic trajectories. All armies
  throughout the world have some form of artillery. The most common artillery calibers are 122-millimeter,
  152-millimeter, and 155-millimeter. Unless using rocket assisted projectiles, artillery systems are generally
  limited to 20 to 30 kilometers. The most common mortar calibers range are 60 to 120-millimeter, but include
  many variants, such as 81-millimeter, 82-millimeter, 100-millimeter, and 160-millimeter.
  ELECTRONIC WARFARE AND CYBER
  3-44. Electronic warfare and cyber threats are continuously present throughout the tactical, operational, and
  strategic realms. Electronic warfare involves the use of electromagnetic and directed energy to control the
  electromagnetic spectrum or to attack the enemy. Electronic warfare includes electronic attack, electronic
  protection, and electronic warfare support. A threat will attempt to deny, degrade, disrupt, or destroy friendly
  emitters (radar and communications) and other electromagnetic spectrum dependent devices. Sensors to
  locate emitters or to listen for information and/or intelligence can be mounted on ground or air platforms.
  Cyberspace attacks will target technical networks, systems, and data. For more information see FM 3-12.
  3-45. The most common form of tactical electronic attack is electromagnetic jamming. Jamming consists of
  an emitter radiating electromagnetic energy to prevent a radar receiver from discerning the expected return
  from the background noise or a radio from receiving voice or data. Advanced jamming techniques allow the
  threat to project false location, speed, and altitude, creating confusion for radar operators.
  3-46. The use of an electromagnetic pulse, normally envisioned as produced by a high altitude nuclear
  explosion, is a threat to friendly electronic systems. Our increasing dependence on advanced electronics
  systems results in the potential for an increased electromagnetic pulse vulnerability of our forces, and if
  unaddressed makes electromagnetic pulse employment by an adversary an attractive asymmetric option
  (Electromagnetic Pulse Commission Report). In addition, several countries are experimenting with
  generating an electromagnetic pulse from non-nuclear explosives.
  3-47. ADA organizations, from the tactical to the strategic level, face multiple types of sophisticated cyber
  threats, whether in garrison or operating in the field. Regional powers, peer states, and transnational terrorist
  organizations have personnel with capabilities to conduct cyber-attacks on installations and sites. Cyber-