text: Planning
  2-36. Decision-making style refers to the deliberative process that a selected decision maker uses to reach a
  conclusion. The selection and use of a common framework allows intelligence analysts and planners to focus
  their analysis and discussions to best support achievement of objectives. Many formal and informal decision-
  making styles exist. Once an enemy selects a framework, intelligence analysts and planners work to identify
  what conditions might cause adjustments to that base style.
  Analyze the Human Factors Affecting a Military Deception
  2-37. Enemy goals and operational objectives provide the “why” behind enemy decision making and
  subsequent actions or inaction. Understanding and predicting enemy behavior is the first step planners take.
  Human factors are the physical, cultural, psychological, and behavioral attributes of an individual or group
  that influence perceptions, understanding, and interactions (JP 2-0). Human factors affect decision making,
  the flow of information, and the interpretation of information by individuals or groups at any level in any
  state or organization. MDOs analyze the human factors that influence decision making that also include
  feelings and emotions that influence cognitive functions. MDOs also use a cognitive approach to understand
  the thought processes and functions of the enemy, such as attention, perception, memory, reasoning, problem
  solving, and decision making. Cognitive functions combine to help individuals make sense of their
  environments.
  2-38. Planners analyze factors that affect enemy decision making by conducting emulative analysis. This
  analytical process reproduces what or how the enemy thinks, to include the socio-cultural lenses through
  which the enemy’s thinking occurs. Emulative analysis provides the basis for the friendly assessment of what
  the target must see or not see. It anticipates the enemy’s response to changes in the environment created by
  friendly forces. It also studies the enemy’s predispositions, biases, patterns of receiving information, and
  priorities, among other factors. Emulative analysis is crucial to deciding what must be shown; where, when,
  and by whom it must be shown; how it must be packaged; and how it must be transmitted to create the desired
  reaction within the target’s control system. Systematically applying emulative analysis comes before
  evaluating the target’s range of possible reactions to observables and the alternative conclusions the target
  could draw from them.
  2-39. Cognitive biases and preconceptions might subjectively influence enemy decision making. This is
  important to any attempt to predict future behaviors. The study of psychology and decision making
  recognizes numerous potential types of bias. For purposes of illustration, a commonly recognized summary
  of bias types includes—
  * Cultural biases caused by the interpretation of information through one’s own cultural
  knowledge, beliefs, morals, customs, habits, and cognitive styles acquired as a member of a
  specific social environment or group.
  * Organizational biases stemming from a potential outcome of the goals, norms, policies, and
  traditions that characterize the specific organizations in which individuals affiliate.
  * Personal biases that come from personality traits, education, and firsthand experiences that affect
  a person’s worldview over the course of a lifetime.
  2-40. Preconceptions are conceptions or assumptions formed beforehand. In addition to being highly
  influenced by bias, people form preconceptions by sustained observation and perceived recognition of
  patterns. This is particularly relevant to deception planning because known biases and preconceptions can be
  exploited.
  2-41. MDOs have other considerations when analyzing a target. They consider answers to the following
  questions:
  * Is all information equally important to the target?
  * Does the target rely more on certain sources?
  * Does the target receive influential analysis or advice from someone within or supported by the
  same information conduit?
  * Does the presence of an intermediate-level decision maker in the conduit affect the deception story
  or the observable?
  * What enemy vulnerabilities can be exploited?