text: Appendix D
  CHARACTERISTICS OF URBAN TARGETS
  D-4. The enemy has many covered and concealed positions and movement lanes and may be on rooftops,
  in buildings, and in sewer and subway systems. Aerial observers are extremely valuable for targeting because
  they can see farther to detect movements, positions on rooftops, and fortifications. Engagements on rooftops
  are planned for to clear away enemy FOs, snipers, communications, and radar equipment. Engagement areas
  are planned on major roads, at road intersections, and on known or likely enemy positions. Also, restrictive
  FSCMs, such as RFAs and NFAs, are needed to protect civilians and identified restricted areas.
  D-5. Identifying and anticipating kill zones or EAs is critical to ensuring that indirect fire assets are in
  position to provide supporting fires. Practically, the ability and the utility of massed fires is affected in an
  urban environment. The natural restrictions in place due to the obstructive nature of urban terrain and the
  small-unit operations prevalent in urban combat require an innovative and limited approach to the delivery
  of fires. However, major road networks that offer high-speed avenues of approach into and through an area
  are suitable for targeting to restrict the flow of enemy forces and supplies into the combat area.
  D-6. IPOE leads to the identification of time-sensitive HPTs and is an important consideration for the
  FSCOORD and the FSE. The commander or higher HQ normally provides specific targeting guidance and
  prioritization for time-sensitive targets within the AO.
  FRATRICIDE PREVENTION MEASURES
  D-7. Fratricide prevention is a matter of concern in all operations. The risk of fratricide is much greater
  when visual identification and precise navigation are inhibited, by either distance or reduced visibility. In
  urban operations, the very nature of the physical terrain creates a situation of reduced visibility, resulting in
  unique and significant challenges to combat identification and fratricide prevention. The challenge is the
  need to minimize fratricide without unreasonably restricting the ability to accomplish its mission.
  D-8. There are two basic causes of urban fratricide-procedural and technical. Procedural causes are typically
  failures of FS coordination. Technical failures may include failures of controlling equipment or mechanical
  malfunctions.
  WEAPONS EFFECTS
  D-9. Because the conduct and coordination of indirect fires in urban areas is difficult, fires in support of the
  maneuvering elements are closely coordinated and planned in detail. Planning and coordination include
  considerations of force protection, weapons effects, psychological effects on the populace, and the potential
  for collateral damage. For air-delivered munitions, terminal control and positive guidance are required to
  ensure the delivering platform has acquired the correct target. Effective ACMs can ensure other missions (for
  example, SCAR) can transit or operate in the airspace above and around the urban area.
  D-10. The effects of lethal munitions can be significantly different in urban environments. The characteristics
  of the urban terrain and the small unit house-to-house nature of urban combat affect both the results and
  employment of weapons. Specific weapons effects considerations for urban operations include the risk
  estimate distance and quantity of the munitions, the construction of the buildings, and the ability to engage
  the target.
  D-11. Calculated risk estimate distances are often not valid in urban operations. Buildings provide cover that
  can reduce blast and shell fragment effects risk distances to a few m. Inaccurate or stray fires may occur due
  to projectiles deflecting off buildings, wires, or other objects. Bomblets, scatterable mines, illumination, and
  other ordnance payloads may also be diverted by objects or may have irregular patterns due to swirling upper-
  or lower-level winds around large or tall structures.
  TARGET ACQUISITION AND OBSERVATION CONSIDERATIONS
  D-12. Urban military operations are involved with physical terrain, noncombatants, and infrastructure. Urban
  combat almost always will affect all three in greater or lesser degree, and the lethal and collateral effects of
  fires have the potential for great destruction and loss of life. In order to maximize desired effects of fires on