text: Environmental and Terrain Considerations for Fire Support
  in developing countries, may be inaccurate or altered. City zoning maps, tourist maps, and sketches from
  reconnaissance teams may be used with military maps. Street signs may be non-existent or may have been
  altered by the enemy. Higher units should acquire and disseminate high resolution imagery to subordinate
  units.
  D-43. Forces may use unit building numbering systems and sketches for clearing areas. The staff, FSCOORD
  and FSEs must understand all of these problems and work with survey teams and FA FDCs to translate target
  locations and friendly force locations accurately into grid locations on the common datum. Firing units will
  have the same problems pin-pointing their firing locations. The GPS may be greatly degraded due to satellite-
  to-receiver line of sight masking from buildings. Many more targets will be point targets, requiring increased
  target location accuracy. Thus, firing unit, observer, TA, and target area survey requirements will increase.
  Hasty survey techniques may frequently be necessary.
  D-44. Hasty survey is hampered by decreased line of sight. Magnetic interference from buildings and power
  lines may interfere with the establishment of directional control. Establishment of multiple survey control
  points should be anticipated. Placement of survey control points should be well thought out to ensure that
  rubbling or traffic does not destroy the points. Additional survey assets may be required, and additional time
  may need to be allotted for survey operations.
  WEATHER
  D-45. Weather conditions, especially winds, can vary considerably from outside the city to inside the city.
  Tall skyscrapers, suburban homes, athletic fields, rivers, and other settings all have different atmospheric
  conditions (especially light and low-level winds). Low-level winds may vary greatly from upper-level winds,
  and may fluctuate considerably and unpredictably. The FSCOORD and planning cell should engage with the
  staff weather officer to obtain weather effects assessments based on current and forecast conditions within
  the urban environment. The FSCOORD should coordinate the placement of any weather capability (such as
  weather sensors and weather observers including MET teams) with the staff weather officer to obtain
  representative weather conditions.
  COMMUNICATIONS
  D-46. Structures and urban infrastructure reduce radio ranges. Use of wire, messenger, and visual signals
  should be increased. Antennas should be set up on upper floors to increase their range. They are vulnerable
  if positioned on rooftops. Existing civilian telephone systems should be used for unsecured communication.
  Wire and local area network cables should be routed through sewers and buildings for protection. Generators
  should be placed near existing walls outside occupied buildings. Units will have an increased dependence on
  satellite-based communication platforms.
  COMMANDER'S INTENT
  D-47. The commander's intent imparts the vision as to how the operation should progress. Clear
  understanding of this intent by the FSCOORD and FSEs ensures effective and timely application of FS to
  the operation and immediate and the tailored fires needed to deal with situations as they arise. The FSCOORD
  and FSE use the commander's targeting guidance to develop ammunition requirements and restrictions.
  COUNTERFIRE
  D-48. Counterfire is difficult in urban environments. Masking can degrade the performance of radars. It will
  be more difficult for air and ground observers to locate enemy artillery by visual, sound, and flash methods.
  Radar sites must be carefully selected. If radars are sited too close behind tall buildings, they will be masked
  and lose some effectiveness. High terrain outside the urban area should be considered, when possible.
  Counterfire ammunition requirements may increase if the enemy effectively uses buildings and available
  materials to harden and camouflage those positions. However, counterfire may be limited by the ROE and
  fear of collateral damage.