The M-20 was an intermediate-range, submarine-based, solid-
propellant ballistic missile. It was the third member of
France’s MSBS (Mer-Sol-Balistique-Stratégique) sea-launched
nuclear deterrent force, replacing the earlier M-2 and the
original M-1 design. The M-20s were originally deployed in sets
of 16 missiles on nuclear submarines. 1 Under Charles de Gaulle,
France pursued an alternate nuclear program to NATO, the goal of
which was to function autonomously and provide France with the
ability to escalate conflicts quickly. The M-20 was designed as
the core of the sea-based French nuclear force. With a large 1.2
MT warhead, the M-20 was a strategic weapon meant for use
against civilian population centers. Its low accuracy prevented
it from being used against hardened missile targets. Thus, the
M-20 was viewed as a second-strike weapon designed for
retaliatory attacks. The main advantage of the M-20 was that its
submarine had the ability to penetrate territorial waters and
strike targets deep within the hosti