|Bertrand Russell, Problems of Philosophy| APPEARANCE AND
REALITY IS there any knowledge in the world which is so certain
that no reasonable man could doubt it? This question, which at
first sight might not seem difficult, is really one of the most
difficult that can be asked. When we have realized the obstacles
in the way of a straightforward and confident answer, we shall
be well launched on the study of philosophy -- for philosophy is
merely the attempt to answer such ultimate questions, not
carelessly and dogmatically, as we do in ordinary life and even
in the sciences, but critically after exploring all that makes
such questions puzzling, and after realizing all the vagueness
and confusion that underlie our ordinary ideas. In daily life,
we assume as certain many things which, on a closer scrutiny,
are found to be so full of apparent contradictions that only a
great amount of thought enables us to know what it is that we
really may believe. In the search for certainty, it is natural
to begin with our pre