Water is a critical nutrient for livestock and poultry. Safe
drinking water is essential to the health and efficient
production of animals, aiding in the digestion process,
transport of nutrients, regulation of body temperature and
elimination of waste. The quality of drinking water is defined
by microbiological, chemical and physical factors. Water can
serve as a reservoir for many different microorganisms such as
coliforms, Salmonella spp., and protozoa, contributing to the
microbial burden and eventually causing diseases. High level of
microbial counts in water can be a sign of contamination. For
instance, the presence of faecal coliforms in water is a sign of
contamination with manure. As a guideline, drinking water for
animals should contain fewer than 100 total bacteria, fewer than
50 coliforms and zero Salmonella counts per millilitre of water.
Moreover, pathogen growth might be stimulated by hard water
which predisposes an accumulation of scale in the water delivery
system and encourages the growth of