AḴLĀQ “ethics” (plural form of ḵoloq “inborn character, moral
character, moral virtue”). Although no ethical document has come
down from pre-Islamic Iran, it is certain that practical ethics
or practical wisdom formed an aspect of both Zoroastrian
religious literature (see Andarz) and the literature that
entered into the Islamic tradition in the form of adab. Because
the Zoroastrian ruler was linked with religion, he was expected
to be an embodiment of moral virtues, particularly justice; and
some (like Ḵosrow I) were accepted as such. In pre-Islamic
Arabia the ethical ideal was summed up in the concept of morūwa
(manliness) and a practical moral-legal code called sonna.
Although various moral virtues received different relative
emphasis in pre-Islamic Arabia and Iran (e.g., personal honor
[ʿerż] or valor was much emphasized in the former, justice in
the latter), certain virtues, such as self control or
forbearance, were almost equally stressed in both. With the rise
of Islam, the pre-Islamic Arab ethic was d