summaries: This paper studies the ability of Markovian reward functions to represent tasks defined as a set of acceptable policies, partial ordering over policies, partial ordering over trajectories. It first provides a negative result showing that some tasks cannot be specified through a Markovian reward in some environments. Then, it designs a set of linear programs to simultaneously check if a specific task can be encoded into a Markovian reward and to compute such reward. The paper includes an empirical evaluation in a simple domain.

summaries: The authors consider the problem of expressing a __task__ via a reward function and discount rate. They show that for various formalizations of what a 'task' is, there exist reward functions which cannot express that task. The authors present an efficient algorithm for deciding the expressibility of a task, and for designing such a reward function. They study certain properties of how many tasks are expressible in a given environment, and demonstrate how their approach can accelerate learning.

summaries: In the reinforcement learning context, the paper proposes three possible definitions for the notion of task, as a set of acceptable policies (SOAP), a partial ordering over policies (PO), or a partial ordering over trajectories (TO). For each definition, the authors show that there exists a task and a controlled Markov process for which there is no reward function that can express that task. Furthermore, the authors notably provide a polynomial algorithm based on linear programming to find such reward function if it exists. Some experiments on random problem instances are also performed to validate the theory.

summaries: - An exploration and a concrete answer to the question of what is a task, and a critical examination of the reward hypothesis. The approach that this paper proposes is to define a set of all possible tasks in a Controlled Markov Process (CMP), and then ask the question, does there exist a Markov reward that realizes the given task.  - The paper provides answers the above question in the negative through a counter-example. In summary, the authors provide three modes of expressing the task intent: set of accetable policies (SOAP), partial ordering over policies (PO), partial ordering over trajectories (TO). The key result is that there are tasks defined as per all three methods that are not realizable as a Markov reward optimization problem  - The authors finally propose a linear-programming based polynomial time reward design algorithm that generates a Markov reward for the SOAP task specification and returns Null if such a reward does not exist.

abstractText: Reward is the driving force for reinforcement-learning agents. This paper is dedicated to understanding the expressivity of reward as a way to capture tasks that we would want an agent to perform. We frame this study around three new abstract notions of “task” that might be desirable: (1) a set of acceptable behaviors, (2) a partial ordering over behaviors, or (3) a partial ordering over trajectories. Our main results prove that while reward can express many of these tasks, there exist instances of each task type that no Markov reward function can capture. We then provide a set of polynomial-time algorithms that construct a Markov reward function that allows an agent to optimize tasks of each of these three types, and correctly determine when no such reward function exists. We conclude with an empirical study that corroborates and illustrates our theoretical findings.

authors:
Pieter Abbeel
Andrew Y. Ng

title: Apprenticeship learning via inverse reinforcement learning

venue: In Proceedings of the International Conference on Machine learning,

authors:
David Ackley
Michael L. Littman

title: Interactions between learning and evolution

venue: Artificial Life II,

authors:
Sundararaman Akshay
Nathalie Bertrand
Serge Haddad
Loic Helouet

title: The steady-state control problem for Markov decision processes

venue: In Proceedings of the International Conference on Quantitative Evaluation of Systems,

authors:
Kareem Amin
Nan Jiang
Satinder Singh

title: Repeated inverse reinforcement learning

venue: In Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems,

authors:
Marc G. Bellemare
Will Dabney
Rémi Munos

title: A distributional perspective on reinforcement learning

venue: In Proceedings of the International Conference on Machine Learning,

title: The Alignment Problem: Machine Learning and Human Values, pages 130–131

venue: Atlantic Books,

authors:
Paul F. Christiano
Jan Leike
Tom B. Brown
Miljan Martic
Shane Legg
Dario Amodei

title: Deep reinforcement learning from human preferences

title: Representation of a preference ordering by a numerical function

venue: Decision Processes,

title: Reinforcement learning and the reward engineering principle

venue: In Proceedings of the AAAI Spring Symposium Series,

authors:
Tom Everitt
Victoria Krakovna
Laurent Orseau
Marcus Hutter
Shane Legg

title: Reinforcement learning with a corrupted reward channel

venue: In Proceedings of the International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence,

authors:
William Fedus
Carles Gelada
Yoshua Bengio
Marc G. Bellemare
Hugo Larochelle

title: Hyperbolic discounting and learning over multiple horizons

title: The free-energy principle: a unified brain theory

venue: Nature reviews neuroscience,

authors:
Karl J. Friston
Jean Daunizeau
Stefan J. Kiebel

title: Reinforcement learning or active inference

venue: PloS One,

authors:
Dylan Hadfield-Menell
Anca Dragan
Pieter Abbeel
Stuart Russell

title: Cooperative inverse reinforcement learning

title: The off-switch game

authors:
Dylan Hadfield-Menell
Smitha Milli
Pieter Abbeel
Stuart Russell
Anca Dragan

title: Inverse reward design

authors:
Danijar Hafner
Pedro A. Ortega
Jimmy Ba
Thomas Parr
Karl J. Friston
Nicolas Heess

title: Action and perception as divergence minimization

venue: arXiv preprint arXiv:2009.01791,

authors:
Lewis Hammond
Alessandro Abate
Julian Gutierrez
Michael Wooldridge

title: Multi-agent reinforcement learning with temporal logic specifications

venue: In Proceedings of the International Conference on Autonomous Agents and Multiagent Systems,

authors:
Rodrigo Toro Icarte
Toryn Klassen
Richard Valenzano
Sheila McIlraith

title: Using reward machines for high-level task specification and decomposition in reinforcement learning

authors:
Hong Jun Jeon
Smitha Milli
Anca Dragan

title: Reward-rational (implicit) choice: A unifying formalism for reward learning

authors:
Kishor Jothimurugan
Rajeev Alur
Osbert Bastani

title: A composable specification language for reinforcement learning tasks

title: A new polynomial-time algorithm for linear programming

venue: In Proceedings of the Annual ACM Symposium on Theory of Computing,

authors:
W. Bradley Knox
Peter Stone

title: Interactively shaping agents via human reinforcement: The TAMER framework

venue: In Proceedings of the International Conference on Knowledge Capture,

title: Stationary ordinal utility and impatience

venue: Econometrica: Journal of the Econometric Society,

title: Notes on the Theory of Choice

authors:
Sai Krishna Gottipati
Yashaswi Pathak
Rohan Nuttall
Raviteja Chunduru
Ahmed Touati
Sriram Ganapathi Subramanian
Matthew E. Taylor
Sarath Chandar

title: Maximum reward formulation in reinforcement learning

venue: In NeurIPS Workshop on Deep Reinforcement Learning,

authors:
Ramana Kumar
Jonathan Uesato
Richard Ngo
Tom Everitt
Victoria Krakovna
Shane Legg

title: REALab: An embedded perspective on tampering

venue: arXiv preprint arXiv:2011.08820,

authors:
Xiao Li
Cristian-Ioan Vasile
Calin Belta

title: Reinforcement learning with temporal logic rewards

venue: In Proceedings of the International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems,

title: The reward hypothesis, 2017

authors:
Michael L. Littman
Ufuk Topcu
Jie Fu
Charles Isbell
Min Wen
James MacGlashan

title: Environment-independent task specifications via GLTL

venue: arXiv preprint arXiv:1704.04341,

authors:
James MacGlashan
Monica Babes-Vroman
Marie desJardins
Michael L. Littman
Smaranda Muresan
Shawn Squire
Stefanie Tellex
Dilip Arumugam
Lei Yang

title: Grounding English commands to reward functions

venue: In Proceedings of Robotics: Science and Systems,

authors:
James MacGlashan
Michael L. Littman
David L. Roberts
Robert Loftin
Bei Peng
Matthew E. Taylor

title: Convergent actor critic by humans

authors:
James MacGlashan
Mark K. Ho
Robert Loftin
Bei Peng
Guan Wang
David L. Roberts
Matthew E. Taylor
Michael L. Littman

title: Interactive learning from policy-dependent human feedback

venue: In Proceedings of the International Conference on Machine Learning. PMLR,

title: Reward functions for accelerated learning

title: Preference order dynamic programming

venue: Management Science,

authors:
Andrew Y. Ng
Daishi Harada
Stuart Russell

title: Policy invariance under reward transformations: Theory and application to reward shaping

authors:
Andrew Y. Ng
Stuart J. Russell

title: Algorithms for inverse reinforcement learning

authors:
Ellen Novoseller
Yibing Wei
Yanan Sui
Yisong Yue
Joel Burdick

title: Dueling posterior sampling for preference-based reinforcement learning

venue: In Proceedings of the Conference on Uncertainty in Artificial Intelligence,

authors:
Pedro A. Ortega
Vishal Maini
the DeepMind Safety Team

title: Building safe artificial intelligence: specification, robustness, and assurance, 2018

title: Rethinking the discount factor in reinforcement learning: A decision theoretic approach

venue: In Proceedings of the AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence,

title: Markov Decision Processes: Discrete Stochastic Dynamic Programming

authors:
Stuart J. Russell
Peter Norvig

title: Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach

authors:
Rohin Shah
Pedro Freire
Neel Alex
Rachel Freedman
Dmitrii Krasheninnikov
Lawrence Chan
Michael D. Dennis
Pieter Abbeel
Anca Dragan
Stuart Russell

title: Benefits of assistance over reward learning, 2021

authors:
David Silver
Satinder Singh
Doina Precup
Richard S. Sutton

title: Reward is enough

venue: Artificial Intelligence,

authors:
Satinder Singh
Andrew G. Barto
Nuttapong Chentanez

title: Intrinsically motivated reinforcement learning

venue: Technical report, University of Massachusetts at Amherst Department of Computer Science,

authors:
Satinder Singh
Richard L Lewis
Andrew G Barto

title: Where do rewards come from

venue: In Proceedings of the Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society,

authors:
Satinder Singh
Richard L. Lewis
Jonathan Sorg
Andrew G. Barto
Akram Helou

title: On separating agent designer goals from agent goals: Breaking the preferences–parameters confound

title: Ordinal dynamic programming

venue: Management science,

title: Discounting axioms imply risk neutrality

venue: Annals of Operations Research,

title: The Optimal Reward Problem: Designing Effective Reward for Bounded Agents

venue: PhD thesis, University of Michigan,

authors:
Jonathan Sorg
Richard L. Lewis
Satinder Singh

title: Reward design via online gradient ascent

authors:
Peter Sunehag
Marcus Hutter

title: Axioms for rational reinforcement learning

venue: In Proceedings of the International Conference on Algorithmic Learning Theory,

title: The reward hypothesis, 2004. URL http://incompleteideas.net/ rlai.cs.ualberta.ca/RLAI/rewardhypothesis.html

authors:
Richard S. Sutton
Andrew G. Barto

title: Reinforcement Learning: An Introduction

authors:
Umar Syed
Michael Bowling
Robert E. Schapire

title: Apprenticeship learning using linear programming

title: Constrained MDPs and the reward hypothesis, 2020

venue: URL http:// readingsml.blogspot.com/2020/03/constrained-mdps-and-reward-hypothesis. html

authors:
Geraud Nangue Tasse
Steven James
Benjamin Rosman

title: A Boolean task algebra for reinforcement learning

authors:
Rodrigo Toro Icarte
Toryn Q. Klassen
Richard Valenzano
Sheila A. McIlraith

title: Teaching multiple tasks to an RL agent using LTL

authors:
John von Neumann
Oskar Morgenstern

title: Theory of Games and Economic Behavior

title: Markov decision processes with ordinal rewards: Reference point-based preferences

venue: In Proceedings of the International Conference on Automated Planning and Scheduling,

title: Unifying task specification in reinforcement learning

authors:
Edward C. Williams
Nakul Gopalan
Mine Rhee
Stefanie Tellex

title: Learning to parse natural language to grounded reward functions with weak supervision

venue: In Proceedings of the International Conference on Robotics and Automation,

authors:
Aaron Wilson
Alan Fern
Prasad Tadepalli

title: A Bayesian approach for policy learning from trajectory preference queries

authors:
Christian Wirth
Riad Akrour
Gerhard Neumann
Johannes Fürnkranz

title: A survey of preference-based reinforcement learning methods

venue: The Journal of Machine Learning Research,

authors:
Yichong Xu
Ruosong Wang
Lin Yang
Aarti Singh
Artur Dubrawski

title: Preference-based reinforcement learning with finite-time guarantees

authors:
Zeyu Zheng
Junhyuk Oh
Matteo Hessel
Zhongwen Xu
Manuel Kroiss
Hado van Hasselt
David Silver
Satinder Singh

title: What can learned intrinsic rewards capture

heading: 1 Introduction

text:
How are we to use algorithms for reinforcement learning (RL) to solve problems of relevance in the world? Reward plays a significant role as a general purpose signal: For any desired behavior, task, or other characteristic of agency, there must exist a reward signal that can incentivize an agent to learn to realize these desires. Indeed, the expressivity of reward is taken as a backdrop assumption that frames RL, sometimes called the reward hypothesis: “...all of what we mean by goals and purposes can be well thought of as maximization of the expected value of the cumulative sum of a received scalar signal (reward)” [53, 29, 6]. In this paper, we establish first steps toward a systematic study of the reward hypothesis by examining the expressivity of reward as a signal. We proceed in three steps.
1. An Account of “Task”. As rewards encode tasks, goals, or desires, we first ask, “what is a task?”. We frame our study around a thought experiment (Figure 1) involving the interactions between a designer, Alice, and a learning agent, Bob, drawing inspiration from Ackley and Littman [2], Sorg [50], and Singh et al. [46]. In this thought experiment, we draw a distinction between how Alice thinks of a task (TASKQ) and the means by which Alice incentivizes Bob to pursue this task (EXPRESSIONQ). This distinction allows us to analyze the expressivity of reward as an answer to the latter question, conditioned on how we answer the former. Concretely, we study three answers to the TASKQ in the context of finite Markov Decision Processes (MDPs): A task is either (1) a set of
35th Conference on Neural Information Processing Systems (NeurIPS 2021).
acceptable behaviors (policies), (2) a partial ordering over behaviors, or (3) a partial ordering over trajectories. Further detail and motivation for these task types is provided in Section 3, but broadly they can be viewed as generalizations of typical notions of task such as a choice of goal or optimal behavior. Given these three answers to the TASKQ, we then examine the expressivity of reward.
2. Expressivity of Markov Reward. The core of our study asks whether there are tasks Alice would like to convey—as captured by the answers to the TASKQ—that admit no characterization in terms of a Markov reward function. Our emphasis on Markov reward functions, as opposed to arbitrary history-based reward functions, is motivated by several factors. First, disciplines such as computer science, psychology, biology, and economics typically rely on a notion of reward as a numerical proxy for the immediate worth of states of affairs (such as the financial cost of buying a solar panel or the fitness benefits of a phenotype). Given an appropriate way to describe states of affairs, Markov reward functions can represent immediate worth in an intuitive manner that also allows for reasoning about combinations, sequences, or re-occurrences of such states of affairs. Second, it is not clear that general history-based rewards are a reasonable target for learning as they suffer from the curse of dimensionality in the length of the history. Lastly, Markov reward functions are the standard in RL. A rigorous analysis of which tasks they can and cannot convey may provide guidance into when it is necessary to draw on alternative formulations of a problem. Given our focus on Markov rewards, we treat a reward function as accurately expressing a task just when the value function it induces in an environment adheres to the constraints of a given task.
3. Main Results. We find that, for all three task types, there are environment–task pairs for which there is no Markov reward function that realizes the task (Theorem 4.1). In light of this finding, we design polynomial-time algorithms that can determine, for any given task and environment, whether a reward function exists in the environment that captures the task (Theorem 4.3). When such a reward function does exist, the algorithms also return it. Finally, we conduct simple experiments with these procedures to provide empirical insight into the expressivity of reward (Section 5).
Collectively, our results demonstrate that there are tasks that cannot be expressed by Markov reward in a rigorous sense, but we can efficiently construct such reward functions when they do exist (and determine when they do not). We take these findings to shed light on the nature of reward maximization as a principle, and highlight many pathways for further investigation.

heading: 2 Background

text: RL defines the problem facing an agent that learns to improve its behavior over time by interacting with its environment. We make the typical assumption that the RL problem is well modeled by an agent interacting with a finite Markov Decision Process (MDP), defined by the tuple (S,A, R, T, γ, s0). An MDP gives rise to deterministic behavioral policies, π : S → A, and the value, V π : S → R, and action–value, Qπ : S ×A → R, functions that measure their quality. We will refer to a Controlled Markov Process (CMP) as an MDP without a reward function, which we denote E for environment. We assume that all reward functions are deterministic, and may be a function of either state, stateaction pairs, or state-action-state triples, but not history. Henceforth, we simply use “reward function” to refer to a deterministic Markov reward function for brevity, but note that more sophisticated settings beyond MDPs and deterministic Markov reward functions are important directions for future work. For more on MDPs or RL, see the books by Puterman [41] and Sutton and Barto [54] respectively.

heading: 2.1 Other Perspectives on Reward

text:
We here briefly summarize relevant literature that provides distinct perspectives on reward.
Two Roles of Reward. As Sorg [50] identifies (Chapter 2), reward can both define the task the agent learns to solve, and define the “bread crumbs” that allow agents to efficiently learn to solve the task. This distinction has been raised elsewhere [2, 46, 47], and is similar to the extrinsic-intrinsic reward divide [45, 66]. Tools such as reward design [34, 51] or reward shaping [36] focus on offering more efficient learning in a variety of environments, so as to avoid issues of sparsity and long-term credit assignment. We concentrate primarily on reward’s capacity to express a task, and defer learning dynamics to an (important) stage of future work.
Discounts, Expectations, and Rationality. Another important facet of reward is how it is used in producing behavior. The classical view offered by the Bellman equation (and the reward hypothesis) is that the quantity of interest to maximize is expected, discounted, cumulative reward. Yet it is possible to disentangle reward from the expectation [5], to attend only to ordinal [60] or maximal rewards [26], or to adopt different forms of discounting [61, 11]. In this work, we take the standard view that agents will seek to maximize value for a particular discount factor γ, but recognize that there are interesting directions beyond these commitments, such as inspecting the limits of reward in constrained MDPs as studied by Szepesvári [56]. We also note the particular importance of work by Pitis [40], who examines the relationship between classical decision theory [59] and MDPs by incorporating additional axioms that account for stochastic processes with discounting [24, 35, 48, 49]. Drawing inspiration from Pitis [40] and Sunehag and Hutter [52], we foresee valuable pathways for future work that further makes contact between RL and various axioms of rationality.
Preferences. In place of numerical rewards, preferences of different kinds may be used to evaluate an agent’s behaviors, drawing from the literature on preference-learning [25] and ordinal dynamic programming [8, 35, 48]. This premise gives rise to preference-based reinforcement learning (PbRL) in which an agent interacts with a CMP and receives evaluative signals in the form of preferences over states, actions, or trajectories. This kind of feedback inspires and closely parallels the task types we propose in this work. A comprehensive survey of PbRL by Wirth et al. [64] identifies critical differences in this setup from traditional RL, categorizes recent algorithmic approaches, and highlights important open questions. Recent work focuses on analysing the sample efficiency of such methods [65, 38] with close connections to learning from human feedback in real time [23, 32, 7].
Teaching and Inverse RL. The inverse RL (IRL) and apprenticeship learning literature examine the problem of learning directly from behavior [37, 1]. The classical problem of IRL is to identify which reward function (often up to an equivalence class) a given demonstrator is optimizing. We emphasize the relevance of two approaches: First, work by Syed et al. [55], who first illustrate the applicability of linear programming [22] to apprenticeship learning; and second, work by Amin et al. [4], who examine the repeated form of IRL. The methods of IRL have recently been expanded to include variations of cooperative IRL [14], and assistive learning [43], which offer different perspectives on how to frame interactive learning problems.
Reward Misspecification. Reward is also notoriously hard to specify. As pointed out by Littman et al. [30], “putting a meaningful dollar figure on scuffing a wall or dropping a clean fork is challenging.” Along these lines, Hadfield-Menell et al. [16] identify cases in which well-intentioned designers create reward functions that produce unintended behavior [39]. MacGlashan et al. [33] find that human-provided rewards tend to depend on a learning agent’s entire policy, rather than just the current state. Further, work by Hadfield-Menell et al. [15] and Kumar et al. [27] suggest that there are problems with reward as a learning mechanism due to misspecification and reward tampering [10]. These problems have given rise to approaches to reward learning, in which a reward function is inferred from some evidence such as behavior or comparisons thereof [20].
Other Notions of Task. As a final note, we highlight alternative approaches to task specification. Building on the Free Energy Principle [13, 12], Hafner et al. [17] consider a variety of task types in terms of minimization of distance to a desired target distribution [3]. Alternatively, Littman et al. [30] and Li et al. [28] propose variations of linear temporal logic (LTL) as a mechanism for specifying a task to RL agents, with related literature extending LTL to the multi-task [58] and multi-agent
[18] settings, or using reward machines for capturing task structure [19]. Jothimurugan et al. [21] take a similar approach and propose a task specification language for RL based on logical formulas that evaluate whether trajectories satisfy the task, similar in spirit to the logical task compositions framework developed by Tasse et al. [57]. Many of these notions of task are more general than those we consider. A natural direction for future work broadens our analysis to include these kinds of task.

heading: 3 An Account of Reward’s Expressivity: The TASKQ and EXPRESSIONQ

text:
Consider an onlooker, Alice, and an earnest learning agent, Bob, engaged in the interaction pictured in Figure 1. Suppose that Alice has a particular task in mind that she would like Bob to learn to solve, and that Alice constructs a reward function to incentivize Bob to pursue this task. Here, Alice is playing the role of “all of what we mean by goals and purposes” for Bob to pursue, with Bob playing the role of the standard reward-maximizing RL agent.
Two Questions About Task. To give us leverage to study the expressivity of reward, it is useful to draw a distinction between two stages of this process: 1) Alice thinks of a task that she would like Bob to learn to solve, and 2) Alice creates a reward function (and perhaps chooses γ) that conveys the chosen task to Bob. We inspect these two separately, framed by the following two questions. The first we call the task-definition question (TASKQ) which asks: What is a task? The second we call the task-expression question (EXPRESSIONQ) which asks: Which learning signal can be used as a mechanism for expressing any task to Bob?
Reward Answers The EXPRESSIONQ. We suggest that it may be useful to treat reward as an answer to the EXPRESSIONQ rather than the TASKQ. On this view, reward is treated as an expressive language for incentivizing reward-maximizing agents: Alice may attempt to translate any task into a reward function that incentivizes Bob to pursue the task, no matter which environment Bob inhabits, which task Alice has chosen, or how she has represented the task to herself. Indeed, it might be the case that Alice’s knowledge of the task far exceeds Bob’s representational or perceptual capacity. Alice may know every detail of the environment and define the task based on this holistic vantage, while Bob must learn to solve the task through interaction alone, relying only on a restricted class of functions for modeling and decision making.
Under this view, we can assess the expressivity of reward as an answer to the EXPRESSIONQ conditioned on how we answer the TASKQ. For example, if the TASKQ is answered in terms of natural language descriptions of desired states of affairs, then reward may fail to convey the chosen task due to the apparent mismatch in abstraction between natural language and reward (though some work has studied such a proposal [31, 62]).

heading: 3.1 Answers to the TASKQ: What is a Task?

text:
In RL, tasks are often associated with a choice of goal, reward function (R), reward-discount pair (R, γ), or perhaps a choice of optimal policy (alongside those task types surveyed previously, such as LTL). However, it is unclear whether these constructs capture the entirety of what we mean by “task”.
For example, consider the Russell and Norvig [42] grid world: A 4×3 grid with one wall, one terminal fire state, and one terminal goal state (pictured with a particular reward function in Figure 4a). In such an environment, how might we think about tasks? A standard view is that the task is to reach the goal as quickly as possible. This account, however, fails to distinguish between the non-optimal behaviors, such as the costly behavior of the agent moving directly into the fire and the neutral behavior of the agent spending its existence in the start state. Indeed, characterizing a task in terms of choice of π∗ or goal fails to capture these distinctions. Our view is that a suitably rich account of task should allow for the characterization of this sort of preference, offering the flexibility to scale from specifying only the desirable behavior (or outcomes) to an arbitrary ordering over behaviors (or outcomes).
In light of these considerations, we propose three answers to the TASKQ that can convey general preferences over behavior or outcome: 1) A set of acceptable policies, 2) A partial ordering over policies, or 3) A partial ordering over trajectories. We adopt these three as they can capture many kinds of task while also allowing a great deal of flexibility in the level of detail of the specification.

heading: 3.2 SOAPs, POs, and TOs

text:
(SOAP) Set Of Acceptable Policies. A classical view of the equivalence of two reward functions is based on the optimal policies they induce. For instance, Ng et al. [36] develop potential-based reward shaping by inspecting which shaped reward signals will ensure that the optimal policy is unchanged. Extrapolating, it is natural to say that for any environment E, two reward functions are equivalent if the optimal policies they induce in E are the same. In this way, a task is viewed as a choice of optimal policy. As discussed in the grid world example above, this notion of task fails to allow for the specification of the quality of other behaviors. For this reason, we generalize task-as-optimal-policy to a set of acceptable policies, defined as follows.
Definition 3.1. A set of acceptable policies (SOAP) is a non-empty subset of the deterministic policies, ΠG ⊆ Π, with Π the set of all deterministic mappings from S to A for a given E.
With one task type defined, it is important to address what it means for a reward function to properly realize, express, or capture a task in a given environment. We offer the following account.
Definition 3.2. A reward function is said to realize a task T in an environment E just when the start-state value (or return) induced by the reward function exactly adheres to the constraints of T .
Precise conditions for the realization of each task type are provided alongside each task definition, with a summary presented in column four of Table 1.
For SOAPs, we take the start-state value V π(s0) to be the mechanism by which a reward function realizes a SOAP. That is, for a given E and ΠG, a reward function R is said to realize the ΠG in E when the start-state value function is optimal for all good policies, and strictly higher than the start-state value of all other policies. It is clear that SOAP strictly generalizes a task in terms of a choice of optimal policy, as captured by the SOAP ΠG = {π∗}. We note that there are two natural ways for a reward function to realize a SOAP: First, each πg ∈ ΠG has optimal start-state value and all other policies are sub-optimal. We call this type equal-SOAP, or just SOAP for brevity. Alternatively, we might only require that the acceptable policies are each near-optimal, but are allowed to differ in start-state value so long as they are all better than every bad policy πb ∈ ΠB . That is, in this second kind, there exists an ≥ 0 such that every πg ∈ ΠG is -optimal in start-state value, V ∗(s0)− V πg (s0) ≤ , while all other policies are worse. We call this second realization condition range-SOAP. We note that the range realization generalizes the equal one: Every equal-SOAP is a range-SOAP (by letting = 0). However, there exist range-SOAPs that are expressible by Markov rewards that are not realizable as an equal-SOAP. We illustrate this fact with the following proposition. All proofs are presented in Appendix B.
Proposition 3.1. There exists a CMP, E, and choice of ΠG such that ΠG can be realized under the range-SOAP criterion, but cannot be realized under the equal-SOAP criterion.
One such CMP is pictured Figure 2b. Consider the SOAP ΠG = {π11, π12, π21}: Under the equalSOAP criterion, if each of these three policies are made optimal, any reward function will also make π22 (the only bad policy) optimal as well. In contrast, for the range criterion, we can choose a reward function that assigns lower rewards to a2 than a1 in both states. In general, we take the equal-SOAP realization as canonical, as it is naturally subsumed by our next task type.
(PO) Partial Ordering on Policies. Next, we suppose that Alice chooses a partial ordering on the deterministic policy space. That is, Alice might identify a some great policies, some good, and some bad policies to strictly avoid, and remain indifferent to the rest. POs strictly generalize equal SOAPs, as any such SOAP is a special choice of PO with only two equivalence classes. We offer the following definition of a PO. Definition 3.3. A policy order (PO) of the deterministic policies Π is a partial order, denoted LΠ.
As with SOAPs, we take the start-state value V π(s0) induced by a reward function R as the mechanism by which policies are ordered. That is, given E and LΠ, we say that a reward function R realizes LΠ in E if and only if the resulting MDP, M = (E,R), produces a start-state value function that orders Π according to LΠ.
(TO) Partial Ordering on Trajectories. A natural generalization of goal specification enriches a notion of task to include the details of how a goal is satisfied—that is, for Alice to relay some preference over trajectory space [63], as is done in preference based RL [64]. Concretely, we suppose Alice specifies a partial ordering on length N trajectories of (s, a) pairs, defined as follows. Definition 3.4. A trajectory ordering (TO) of length N ∈ N is a partial ordering Lτ,N , with each trajectory τ consisting of N state–action pairs, {(s0, a0), . . . , (aN−1, sN−1)}, with s0 the start state.
As with PO, we say that a reward function realizes a trajectory ordering Lτ,N if the ordering determined by each trajectory’s cumulative discounted N -step return from s0, denoted G(τ ; s0), matches that of the given Lτ,N . We note that trajectory orderings can generalize goal-based tasks at the expense of a larger specification. For instance, a TO can convey the task, “Safely reach the goal in less than thirty steps, or just get to the subgoal in less than twenty steps.”
Recap. We propose to assess the expressivity of reward by first answering the TASKQ in terms of SOAPs, POs, or TOs, as summarized by Table 1. We say that a task T is realized in an environment E under reward function R if the start-state value function (or return) produced by R imposes the constraints specified by T , and are interested in whether reward can always realize a given task in any choice of E. We make a number of assumptions along the way, including: (1) Reward functions are Markov and deterministic, (2) Policies of interest are deterministic, (3) The environment is a finite CMP, (4) γ is part of the environment, (5) We ignore reward’s role in shaping the learning process, (6) Start-state value or return is the appropriate mechanism to determine if a reward function realizes a given task. Relaxation of these assumptions is a critical direction for future work.

heading: 4 Analysis: The Expressivity of Markov Reward

text: With our definitions and objectives in place, we now present our main results.

heading: 4.1 Express SOAPs, POs, and TOs

text:
We first ask whether reward can always realize a given SOAP, PO, or TO, for an arbitrary E. Our first result states that the answer is “no”—there are tasks that cannot be realized by any reward function. Theorem 4.1. For each of SOAP, PO, and TO, there exist (E,T ) pairs for which no Markow reward function realizes T in E.
Thus, reward is incapable of capturing certain tasks. What tasks are they, precisely? Intuitively, inexpressible tasks involve policies or trajectories that must be correlated in value in an MDP. That is, if two policies are nearly identical in behavior, it is unlikely that reward can capture the PO that places them at opposite ends of the ordering. A simple example is the “always move the same direction” task in a grid world, with state defined as an (x, y) pair. The SOAP ΠG = {π←, π↑, π→, π↓} conveys this task, but no Markov reward function can make these policies strictly higher in value than all others.
Example: Inexpressible SOAPs. Observe the two CMPs pictured in Figure 2, depicting two kinds of inexpressible SOAPs. On the left, we consider the SOAP ΠG = {π21}, containing only the policy that executes a2 in the left state (s0), and a1 in the right (s1). This SOAP is inexpressible through reward, but only because reward cannot distinguish the start-state value of π21 and π22 since the policies differ only in an unreachable state. This is reminiscent of Axiom 5 from Pitis [40], which
<latexit sha1_base64="tp9exuN8fEVL+KtciUfwfrdBW7I=">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</latexit> ⇧⌧ = { 21}
<latexit sha1_base64="tp9exuN8fEVL+KtciUfwfrdBW7I=">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</latexit> ⇧⌧ = { 21}
explicitly excludes preferences of this sort. On the right, we find a more interesting case: The chosen SOAP is similar to the XOR function, ΠG = {π12, π21}. Here, the task requires that the agent choose each action in exactly one state. However, there cannot exist a reward function that makes only these policies optimal, as by consequence, both policies π11 and π22 must be optimal as well.
Next, we show that Theorem 4.1 is not limited to a particular choice of transition function or γ. Proposition 4.2. There exist choices of E¬T = (S,A, γ, s0) or E¬γ = (S,A, T, s0), together with a task T , such that there is no (T,R) pair that realizes T in E¬T or (R, γ) in E¬γ .
This result suggests that the scope of Theorem 4.1 is actually quite broad—even if the transition function or γ are taken as part of the reward specification, there are tasks that cannot be expressed. We suspect there are ways to give a precise characterization of all inexpressible tasks from an axiomatic perspective, which we hope to study in future work.

heading: 4.2 Constructive Algorithms: Task to Reward

text:
We now analyze how to determine whether an appropriate reward function can be constructed for any (E,T ) pair. We pose a general form of the reward-design problem [34, 51, 9] as follows. Definition 4.1. The REWARDDESIGN problem is: Given E = (S,A, T, γ, s0), and a T , output a reward function Ralice that ensures T is realized in M = (E,Ralice).
Indeed, for all three task types, there is an efficient algorithm for solving the reward-design problem. Theorem 4.3. The REWARDDESIGN problem can be solved in polynomial time, for any finite E, and any T , so long as reward functions with infinitely many outputs are considered.
Therefore, for any choice of finite CMP, E, and a SOAP, PO, or TO, we can find a reward function that perfectly realizes the task in the given environment, if such a reward function exists. Each of the three algorithms are based on forming a linear program that matches the constraints of the given task type, which is why reward functions with infinitely many outputs are required. Pseudo-code for SOAP-based reward design is presented in Algorithm 1. Intuitively, the algorithms compute the discounted expected-state visitation distribution for a collection of policies; in the case of SOAP, for instance, these policies include ΠG and what we call the “fringe”, the set of policies that differ from a πg ∈ ΠG by exactly one action. Then, we use these distributions to describe linear inequality constraints ensuring that the start-state value of the good policies are better than those of the fringe.
As highlighted by Theorem 4.1 there are SOAPs, POs, and TOs that are not realizable. Thus, it is important to determine how the algorithms mentioned in Theorem 4.3 will handle such cases. Our next corollary illustrates that the desirable outcome is achieved: For any E and T , the algorithms will output a reward function that realizes T in E, or output ‘⊥’ when no such function exists. Corollary 4.4. For any task T and environment E, deciding whether T is expressible in E is solvable in polynomial time.
Together, Theorem 4.1 and Theorem 4.3 constitute our main results: There are environment–task pairs in which Markov reward cannot express the chosen task for each of SOAPs, POs, and TOs. However, there are efficient algorithms for deciding whether a task is expressible, and for constructing the realizing reward function when it exists. We will study the use of one of these algorithms in Section 5, but first attend to other aspects of reward’s expressivity.
Algorithm 1 SOAP Reward Design INPUT: E = (S,A, T, γ, s0), ΠG. OUTPUT: R, or ⊥.
1: Πfringe = compute_fringe(ΠG) 2: for πg,i ∈ ΠG do . Compute state-visitation distributions. 3: ρg,i = compute_exp_visit(πg,i, E)
4: for πf,i ∈ Πfringe do 5: ρf,i = compute_exp_visit(πf,i, E)
6: Ceq = {} . Make Equality Constraints. 7: for πg,i ∈ ΠG do 8: Ceq.add(ρg,0(s0) ·X = ρg,i(s0) ·X)
9: Cineq = {} . Make Inequality Constraints. 10: for πf,j ∈ Πfringe do 11: Cineq.add(ρf,j(s0) ·X + ≤ ρg,0(s0) ·X)
12: Rout, out = linear_programming(obj. = max , constraints = Cineq, Ceq) . Solve LP.
13: if out > 0 then . Check if successful. return Rout 14: else return ⊥

heading: 4.3 Other Aspects of Reward’s Expressivity

text:
We next briefly summarize other considerations about the expressivity of reward. As noted, Theorem 4.3 requires the use of a reward function that can produce infinitely many outputs. Our next result proves this requirement is strict for efficient reward design. Theorem 4.5. A variant of the REWARDDESIGN problem with finite reward outputs is NP-hard.
We provide further details about the precise problem studied in Appendix B. Beyond reward functions with finitely-many outputs, we are also interested in extensions of our results to multiple environments. We next present a positive result indicating our algorithms can extend to the case where Alice would like to design a reward function for a single task across multiple environments. Proposition 4.6. For any SOAP, PO, or TO, given a finite set of CMPs, E = {E1, . . . , En}, with shared state–action space, there exists a polynomial time algorithm that outputs one reward function that realizes the task (when possible) in all CMPs in E .
A natural follow up question to the above result asks whether task realization is closed under a set of CMPs. Our next result answers this question in the negative. Theorem 4.7. Task realization is not closed under sets of CMPs with shared state-action space. That is, there exist choices of T and E = {E1, . . . , En} such that T is realizable in each Ei ∈ E independently, but there is not a single reward function that realizes T in all Ei ∈ E simultaneously.
Intuitively, this shows that Alice must know precisely which environment Bob will inhabit if she is to design an appropriate reward function. Otherwise, her uncertainty over E may prevent her from designing a realizing reward function. We foresee iterative extensions of our algorithms in which Alice and Bob can react to one another, drawing inspiration from repeated IRL by Amin et al. [4].

heading: 5 Experiments

text:
We next conduct experiments to shed further light on the findings of our analysis. Our focus is on SOAPs, though we anticipate the insights extend to POs and TOs as well with little complication. In the first experiment, we study the fraction of SOAPs that are expressible in small CMPs as we vary aspects of the environment or task (Figure 3). In the second, we use one algorithm from Theorem 4.3
to design a reward function, and contrast learning curves under a SOAP-designed reward function compared to standard rewards. Full details about the experiments are found in Appendix C.
SOAP Expressivity. First, we estimate the fraction of SOAPs that are expressible in small environments. For each data point, we sample 200 random SOAPs and run Algorithm 1 described by Theorem 4.3 to determine whether each SOAP is realizable in the given CMP. We ask this question for both the equal (color) variant of SOAP realization and the range (grey) variant. We inspect SOAP expressivity as we vary six different characteristics of E or ΠG: The number of actions, the number of states, the discount γ, the number of good policies in each SOAP, the Shannon entropy of T at each (s, a) pair, and the “spread” of each SOAP. The spread approximates average edit distance among policies in ΠG determined by randomly permuting actions of a reference policy by a coin weighted according to the value on the x-axis. We use the same set of CMPs for each environment up to any deviations explicitly made by the varied parameter (such as γ or entropy). Unless otherwise stated, each CMP has four states and three actions, with a fixed but randomly chosen transition function.
Results are presented in Figure 3. We find that our theory is borne out in a number of ways. First, as Theorem 4.1 suggests, we find SOAP expressivity is strictly less than one in nearly all cases. This is evidence that inexpressible tasks are not only found in manufactured corner cases, but rather that expressivity is a spectrum. We further observe—as predicted by Proposition 3.1—clear separation between the expressivity of range-SOAP (grey) vs. equal-SOAP (color); there are many cases where we can find a reward function that makes the good policies near optimal and better than the bad, but cannot make those good policies all exactly optimal. Additionally, several trends emerge as we vary the parameter of environment or task, though we note that such trends are likely specific to the choice of CMP and may not hold in general. Perhaps the most striking trend is in Figure 3f, which shows a decrease in expressivity as the SOAPs become more spread out. This is quite sensible: A more spread out SOAP is likely to lead to more entailments of the kind discussed in Figure 2b.
Learning with SOAP-designed Rewards. Next, we contrast the learning performance of Qlearning under a SOAP-designed reward function (visualized in Figure 4a) with that of the regular goal-based reward in the Russell and Norvig [42] grid world. In this domain, there is 0.35 slip probability such that, on a ‘slip’ event, the agent randomly applies one of the two orthogonal action effects. The regular goal-based reward function provides +1 when the agent enters the terminal flag cell, and −1 when the agent enters the terminal fire cell. The bottom left state is the start-state, and the black cell is an impassable wall.
Results are presented in Figure 4. On the right, we present a particular kind of learning curve contrasting the performance of Q-learning with the SOAP reward (blue) and regular reward (green). The y-axis measures, at the end of each episode, the average (inverse) minimum edit distance between Q-learning’s greedy policy and any policy in the SOAP. Thus, when the series reaches 1.0, Q-learning’s greedy policy is identical to one of the two SOAP policies. We first find that Q-learning is able to quickly learn a πg ∈ ΠG under the designed reward function. We further observe that the typical reward does not induce a perfect match in policy—at convergence, the green curve hovers slightly below the blue, indicating that the default reward function is incentivizing different policies to be optimal. This is entirely sensible, as the two SOAP policies are extremely cautious around the fire; they choose the orthogonal (and thus, safe) action in fire-adjacent states, relying on slip probability to progress. Lastly, as expected given the amount of knowledge contained in the SOAP, the SOAP reward function allows Q-learning to rapidly identify a good policy compared to the typical reward.

heading: 6 Conclusion

text:
We have here investigated the expressivity of Markov reward, framed around three new accounts of task. Our main results show that there exist choices of task and environment in which Markov reward cannot express the chosen task, but there are efficient algorithms that decide whether a task is expressible and construct a reward function that captures the task when such a function exists. We conclude with an empirical examination of our analysis, corroborating the findings of our theory. We take these to be first steps toward understanding the full scope of the reward hypothesis.
There are many routes forward. A key direction moves beyond the task types we study here, and relaxes our core assumptions—the environment might not be a finite CMP, Alice may not know the environment precisely, reward may be a function of history, or Alice may not know how Bob represents state. Along similar lines, a critical direction incorporates how reward impacts Bob’s learning dynamics rather than start-state value. Further, we note the potential relevance to the recent reward-is-enough hypothesis proposed by Silver et al. [44]; we foresee pathways to extend our analysis to examine this newer hypothesis, too. For instance, in future work, it is important to assess whether reward is capable of inducing the right kinds of attributes of cognition, not just behavior.
Acknowledgments and Disclosure of Funding
The authors would like to thank André Barreto, Diana Borsa, Michael Bowling, Wilka Carvalho, Brian Christian, Jess Hamrick, Steven Hansen, Zac Kenton, Ramana Kumar, Katrina McKinney, Rémi Munos, Matt Overlan, Hado van Hasselt, and Ben Van Roy for helpful discussions. We would also like to thank the anonymous reviewers for their thoughtful feedback, and Brendan O’Donoghue for catching a typo in the appendix. Michael Littman was supported in part by funding from DARPA L2M, ONR MURI, NSF FMitF, and NSF RI.

title: On the Expressivity of Markov Reward