Cryptography is the practice and study of secure communication techniques in the presence of adversarial behavior. More specifically, cryptography is concerned with creating and analyzing protocols that prevent third parties from reading private messages,[12] and addresses various detailed aspects of information security, such as data confidentiality, integrity, authentication, and non-repudiation.[13] Cryptographic techniques are essential to ensure that DeFi electronic commerce transactions are secure and generally irreversible. These cryptographic techniques include[3]: