Large groups of pre-war Polish citizens, notably Jews and, to a lesser extent, the Ukrainian peasants, perceived the Soviet entry into Poland as an opportunity to take part in Communist activities outside of their traditional ethnic or cultural environment. Their enthusiasm faded with time, as it became clear that the Soviet repressions were aimed at all groups equally, regardless of their ideological stance.[12] It is estimated that at least 150,000 Polish citizens died during the Soviet occupation.[3] It is a conservative estimate confirmed by analysis, while the unconfirmed number proposed by Prof. Czesław Łuczak reaches 500,000.[5]