McDowall's study for the American Journal of Public Health contrasted with a 1995 study by Kleck and Gertz, who found that 2.45 million crimes were thwarted each year in the U.S. using guns, and in most cases, the potential victim never fired a shot.[46] The results of the Kleck studies have been cited many times in scholarly and popular media.[47][48][49][50][51][52][53] The methodology of the Kleck and Gertz study has been criticized by some researchers.[54]