Smyrnaios argued in 2016 that GAMA combines six vertical levels of power, data centers, internet connectivity, computer hardware including smartphones, operating systems, Web browsers and other user-level software, and online services. He also discussed horizontal concentration of power, in which diverse services such as email, instant messaging, online searching, downloading and streaming are combined internally within any of the GAMA members.[48] For example, Google and Microsoft pay to have their web search engines appear as first and second in Apple's iPhone.[84]