Between 1988 and 1993, five annual Spirit of Place Symposiums were produced by environmental psychologist James Swan and Roberta Swan, in the United States and Japan. The programs sought to explore the relationship between ancient wisdom about the importance of a sense or spirit of a place, and modern science and design. The programs—held in Davis, CA; Grace Cathedral, San Francisco' Mesa Verde National Park; Tenri, Japan; and San Rafael, CA—featured over 350 speakers, including scientists, designers, and representatives of natives cultures.