With current research and data suggesting benefits to bilingualism, the soundness of the former studies conclusions are in brought into question.[2][3] According to "The Journal of Genetic Psychology," the many of these studies employed unstandardized and subjective definitions of bilingualism and of a bilingual individual (e.g., labeling someone as bilingual or monolingual through assumptions based on the national origin of that person's parents or even based on that person's family name), raising the concern that there is no way of determining whether their samples were truly representative of a bilingual population. Another element that contrasted with more modern researching techniques was the lack of a control for socioeconomic status (SES) and many of them administered verbal-intelligence tests to non-proficient speakers of a second language in that second language.