In the Kottayam district, the literacy rate was 97%.[75][76][77] The life expectancy in Kerala is 74 years, among the highest in India as of 2011[update].[78] Kerala's rural poverty rate fell from 59% (1973–1974) to 12% (1999–2010); the overall (urban and rural) rate fell 47% between the 1970s and 2000s against the 29% fall in overall poverty rate in India.[79] By 1999–2000, the rural and urban poverty rates dropped to 10.0% and 9.6%, respectively.[80] The 2013 Tendulkar Committee Report on poverty estimated that the percentages of the population living below the poverty line in rural and urban Kerala are 9.1% and 5.0%, respectively.[81] These changes stem largely from efforts begun in the late 19th century by the kingdoms of Cochin and Travancore to boost social welfare.[82][83] This focus was maintained by Kerala's post-independence government.[84][85]: 48