According to R.J. Rummel, forced labor, executions, and concentration camps were responsible for over one million deaths in North Korea from 1948 to 1987;[151] others have estimated 400,000 deaths in concentration camps alone.[152] Pierre Rigoulot estimates 100,000 executions, 1½ million deaths through concentration camps and forced labor, and 500,000 deaths from famine, reaching a total of 2.1 million victims (not counting 1.3 million soldiers and civilians killed on both sides during the Korean War).[153]