Allegedly, the commander of the separatist forces, partly responsible for the massacre was the deputy defence minister and "hero" of Abkhazia Shamil Basaev.[15][16] According to witness testimonies, the militants spoke North Caucasian languages and Russian.[3] However, some refugees who survived the massacre have claimed that they recognized their Abkhaz and Armenian neighbours collaborating with the militants during the massacres in various neighbourhoods.[17] Many people recall the commands given by Russian officers: "Do not take prisoners alive!" [18]