In 1994, China’s economic-reform process reached a turning point with the introduction of a tax-distribution system that reduced the proportion of tax revenue held by local governments from 78% in 1993 to 52% in 2011, while raising the proportion of expenditure from 72% to 85% over the same period. Faced with intense competition to contribute to GDP growth, local governments were compelled to seek other ways to augment fiscal revenue.