Thursday, December 02, 2010
Website Monocultures and Polycultures
Way back in 2003 a group of highly respected security pros released a controversial yet landmark paper, "CyberInsecurity: The Cost of Monopoly." The text offered two lessons: software monocultures are dangerous and Microsoft, the largest of monocultures, is the most dangerous. At the time this conclusion sparked an industry firestorm. More recently Bruce Schneier and Marcus Ranum faced-off on the monoculture debate, which got me thinking if these ideas apply equally to website security. You see monoculture and polyculture theories are generally based upon commonly understood network and host layer security behaviors, behaviors very different from website security.
Before diving in let's first establish a baseline on the fundamental assumptions about software monocultures and polycultures. Monocultures, meaning all systems are identical, are at elevated risk to systemic widespread compromise because all nodes are vulnerable to the same attack. For example, one zero-day exploit (not necessarily required) has the capability of ripping through the entire ecosystem. The benefit of a monoculture however is the consistency of all the connected nodes allow for easier management by IT. Manageability makes keeping patches up-to-date less difficult and by extension raises the bar against targeted attacks and random opportunistic worms.
In polycultures exactly the opposite is true. In the event of a worm outbreak, again possibly leveraging a zero-day vulnerability, a polyculture would be more resilient (survivable) by virtue of the diversity in the ecosystem. All nodes are not vulnerable to the same issue. The downside of course is the increased difficulty and cost of IT managing a polyculture, including keeping security patches up-to-date. Therefore targeted attacks and random opportunistic worms are more likely to succeed in a polyculture environment, but to a limited extent.
Depending on tolerance for risk and the threat agent one is most concerned about, targeted or random opportunistic, it dictates if a monoculture or polyculture environment is preferable. We see where the authors of the aforementioned paper fell. And in 2003, the era of extremely large worm infections including SQL Slammer, Blaster, Nimda, Code Red, and so on it is not hard to see why. Today I hazard to guess that most people in the infosec industry would still agree with their conclusion -- monocultures as dangerous, polycultures are more survivable. So when thinking in terms of networks comprised of Windows, Linux, BSD, OS X, and so on all this sounds reasonable, but when the context is switched to websites things get trickier.
First of all, it doesn't matter what OS is underlying when SQL Injection, CSRF, XSS, AuthN, and AuthZ attacks are employed against a target site. Second, save for mass SQL Injection worms that take advantage of one-off Web application flaws, websites compromises are primarily targeted. That is the attacker is to some degree sentient. Lastly, and this is where the monoculture vs polyculture question comes in, in networks the attack surface consists of its many hosts while in a website its really the collection of discreet Web applications (or inputs to those applications). Applications written in one or more programmings languages.
I'm suggesting that a "website monoculture" is one where all the Web applications are written in a single programming language and development framework. Pick Python, Perl, PHP,.Net, Java, Ruby, etc. But one and only one. Conversely, a "website polyculture," is where there's some mix of languages and frameworks. Of course the manageability aspects of multi-language website mirrors a multi-OS network. Sites using a single consistent language are easier for an organization to code securely and keep secure. Here's where it gets interesting, I'm not sure how common a website monoculture really is on the Web.
Any website worth hacking is NOT a static network or host component, but a mass of Web applications that are updated with some frequency over years -- daily, week, monthly, etc. The functionality may be merged or migrated with other websites, built by different teams developers, and whose section of the code is created using whatever programming language is popular at the time. A website is not AN application, but many hyperlinked together. That's why you'll often see websites using some ASP classic and.NET, Java mixed in with Cold Fusion, perhaps Perl intermingled with PHP, and many other combos. Case in point, the WhiteHat Security 9th Website Security Statistics Report showed that websites exhibiting extensions from one language often had a substantial number of vulnerabilities with extensions in another.
Also important to point out that when one host is compromised on a network the attacker may attempt to exploit another flaw in another host and leapfrog across. A quite common scenario because the first compromised machine is usually not enough to achieve their end goal. Websites on the other hand are different. One exploited bug in a website tends to give the attacker exactly what they wanted, server-side data or end-user compromise. It is rather uncommon to find it necessary to exploit one Web application flaw to then exploit another to achieve the goal. Just one XSS allows someone to hack all users. One SQL Injection pilfers all of the data. So no real compartmentalization exists on a website and therefore there's nothing to be gained security wise that I can see in a polyculture website.
So if website attacks are generally targeted, again except for SQLi worms, and it's easier to secure code written all in the same language, then we should be advocating monoculture websites. Right? Which is exactly the opposite of how the community seems to want to treat networks. I just found that to be really interesting. What I'm working on now inside WhiteHat is trying to find statistical evidence in real terms how the security posture of the average monoculture and polyculture compare. I'm guessing monoculture websites are noticebley more secure, that is, less vulnerabilities. But what would your theory be?
Chris Eng said...
I think that may be a slight oversimplification. For example, the attacker might not immediately target the application housing the data they're after. Rather, they'll go after the old crusty web app running some ASP classic application, and then use that as a springboard to reach hosts running other web apps.
Of course, if arguing for a monoculture also means you get rid of all those old crusty web apps altogether, or rewrite them on a modern platform, then yeah, monoculture probably benefits you (but at non-trivial cost).
Jeremiah Grossman said...
_USER_: I don't disagree that the scenario you describe is certainly possible, have seen it happen perform. I'm just not sure how common this scenario is vs the one-shot-one-kill style. Would be nice to have more data.
I suppose my premise is that in network security, what we tend to have more of is monocultures, but we risk management advocates polycultures. In website security its exactly the opposite. What we have more of online is polycultures, but what we really want is monocultures. And as you say we can't have it because of the cost.
I'm also holding the theory that the relative security of a website has more to do with WHEN it was deployed than anything else.
Turk said...
Let's take this conversation up a step but tossing in critical key systems, and seeing if that changes anything. Websites aside what threat agent is more concerning: Targeted attacks or random/opportunistic worm attacks? Either threat agent can be devastating, but which would be worse and more likely? I am guessing targeted attacks. Plus with poly comes the defensive ability to recognize targeted attacks against mono "normal" traffic. Websites aside, I would propose poly implementations for key systems and mono for all else (medium to low).
Now with Websites, would that same argument hold? I guess I am not yet buying that critical websites should be mono-ly spread, but your data might convince me otherwise.
Thanks Jeremiah for the excellent conversation!
Dan Weber said...
What is more important to your website, confidentiality or availability?
If you have 100 different web server combinations all protecting the same confidential data, then the attacker has 100 ways of breaking in and gaining access to your confidential data.
I personally and explicitly mentioned this to one of the authors of the original monoculture paper and he blew me off.
Or, imagine that you have 3 connections to the Internet, all firewalled. Ask yourself if you want those three firewalls to be as similar as possible or as dissimilar as possible?
Turk said...
_USER_: I agree with you, good way to say it so simply.
Inversely, if you have 100 different web servers all protecting DIFFERENT confidential data, all under the same organization, then there is an argument for website polyoculture.
Daniel Miessler said...
I think there's another factor we're likely to find when looking at the respective security of mono vs. poly cultures.
In brief, low-skill/talent-rich shops might be prompted to stay all one way, e.g. "We only do Microsoft.", whereas if a shop is super-pro they're likely to use whatever technology is best (and therefore have a more diverse flora of technologies).
Calandale said...
There's an aspect of monoculture you're just taking as assumed. Three of the exploits are largely dependent on the existence of a monoculture: SQL Injection, CSRF, XSS (SQL, HTTP, and javascript respectively).
It's the underlying technologies which make these convenient to interoperate which also allow attackers to utilize the same techniques against many different sites. Programming language choice is almost cosmetic compared to these communications choices.
Jeremiah Grossman said...
_USER_:


How Samsung uses AI to improve photos taken on the Galaxy S21
How Samsung uses AI to improve photos taken on the Galaxy S21
In our reviews, we made clear that the Galaxy S21 Ultra and the S21+ are capable of capturing excellent photos. While the camera sensors do play a part in this, modern photography is now also a lot about AI and image processing and that is exactly what Samsung reveals in a blog post that details how the AI-algorithm works on the new Samsung flagships.
 - Samsung reveals specific details about the AI post-processing of its photos
 - It involves the camera detecting faces and separating them from their surroundings before editing them
 - Blurred backgrounds in portraits are also more accurate and feature a sharpening gradient
It's always exciting to see what technology smartphone manufacturers use to improve the images on their latest smartphones. Samsung, in its blog post, details the magic it uses to improve portraits captured on its phones in fair detail.
Behind the Snapshot S21 AI main1
The software uses masks to separate faces and enhance fine details / © Samsung
First of all, it's all about making faces look natural and a little bit out of the subject at the same time. To do this, the software detects the two faces of the subjects and separates them from the rest of the image for post-processing. Samsung then uses "natural enhancements" to tweak things like the eyes, hair, face shape, and white balance to create natural faces. Here, Samsung basically takes the same approach as it does with manual digital photo editing, which also uses masks to tweak only certain areas of the image.
Precise portrait mode with sharpness gradient
Masks are also about blurring backgrounds. It's been a trend in camera smartphones for a few years now to mimic the depth of field of portrait lenses with a small open aperture, and in fact it worked very well in my review of the Galaxy S21+. For portraits, Samsung takes advantage of the depth information gained from the Time-of-Flight sensor on the S21 Ultra and the additional and slightly differently positioned cameras on the S21+.
As with the faces in the first example, Samsung's camera software creates a mask and then optimizes the transition between subject and background. By using a tri-mask consisting of background, subject and the area of transition, Samsung can also identify hair with greater accuracy and omit it when blurring.
Hauswand Portraet Galaxy S21 Plus
Even though Samsung messes up the bars on the left side of the image, the sharpness gradient is killer! / © NextPit
At the same time, the software segments subjects if they are at different distances from the camera. This explains the quite natural-looking sharpness gradient you can see in my test photo of the Galaxy S21.
Source: Samsung
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My house's number can be written
as ABCD but it also equals to
A^B * C^D.
Find the number..-no computer programs!!!
(In reply to Poor BASIC people...
by Federico Kereki)
...who have to use extinct birds for such a little program! In Visual Basic you can use the following:
For A = 0 To 9
For B = 0 To 9
For C = 0 To 9
For D = 0 To 9
If A^B*C^D = A*1000+B*100+C*10+D Then
Text1.Text = Str(A)+Str(B)+Str(C)+Str(D)
That's a whole 2 lines less (as long as I don't declare my variables and include the return statement... ;) )
Posted by Erik O.
on 2004-06-21 16:09:34

source: openbmb/Ultra-FineWeb


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If you're looking for some small cacti with unusual shapes and forms, the bishop's caps are just the thing.
Also known as the star cactus, there are several species in this group. These are native to Southwestern U.S., and Mexico. Blooming in late summer, they are sometimes spiny.
Unlike the very tropical cacti, these can tolerate cooler temperatures during the winter.
The star cactus or bishop's caps need a coarse, well drained mix. They need to be kept pretty dry during the winter when they are resting.
If growing outdoors in warm climates, they benefit from a little partial shade during the hot afternoons. Otherwise, they need full sun.
There are several species of the bishop's cap cactus, including the following.
Bishop's cap (Astrophytum myriostigma)
This low growing cactus is noted for its unusual form. With an overall globular shape, the five ribs are arranged so they resemble the angles one would see on a bishop's miter. Scattered randomly over the surface are tiny white spots. When the sun is out during the day, the large vivid yellow blooms emerge in clusters from the crown of the plant.
As young plants, these tend to be very slow growing. When mature, they reach about eight inches across. One unusual feature of the bishop's cap is that this species is spineless.
Goat's horn (Astrophytum carpricorne)
This plant is named for the twisted spines. Goat's horn grows in the form of a globe with about eight ribs from which the spines emerge. It can reach almost ten inches in height. There are silvery tinges decorating the body.
The rather open, funnel-like blooms are yellow with red centers.
Monk's hood (Astrophytum ornatum)
Also known as star cactus, this species forms a chubby globe. The eight folds or ribs are arranged spirally. As the plant becomes older, it assumes a columnar shape. This eventually grows to be about seven feet or so in height. This has tufts of stiff, sharp, tan spines. Funnel-shaped, the monk's hood blooms are vivid yellow. Monk's hood has lovely silver spots.
Sand dollar (Astrophytum asterias)
Also known as sea urchin cactus, this low growing, and somewhat flattened cactus has a dome shaped body with prominent indentations that resemble ribs. This has particularly attractive white spots that dot the body. In addition, there are tufted areoles, which are scattered about as well on the surface. The yellow blooms arise from the crown. These have a prominent red center. This species has large tufts of slender, tan spines.

source: HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu


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Spanish Water Dog
- Weight: 30-50 lb
- Lifespan: 14 years
- Group: AKC Herding
- Best Suited For: Families with children, active singles, houses with yards, farms/rural areas
- Temperament: Hardworking, intelligent, loyal, friendly
- Comparable Breeds: Portuguese Water Dog, Puli
Spanish Water Dog Basics
If you were to imagine a medium-sized dog with thick, curly fur and a penchant for herding, you might be thinking of the Spanish Water Dog. These dogs are an old Spanish breed that has been used for herding for many centuries. The Spanish Water Dog is a highly intelligent breed that does best when given a job to do but, at the end of the day, they love nothing more than to spend time with family.
The Spanish Water Dog is a highly intelligent breed that does best when given a job to do.
There are a variety of theories that exist regarding the origins of the Spanish Water Dog, but most theories suggest that the breed has been present in the Iberian Peninsula for many centuries. In Southern Spain, the Spanish Water Dog is known as the "Andalusian Turk" and it is thought to have been brought over with Turkish shepherds. Several populations of the breed have been traced back to various regions in Spain including one in Northern Spain which became known as the Cantabrian Water Dog. The group from the southern Andalusia sierras was the largest group, known for its strength and herding skills. The Spanish Water Dog was revived during the 1970s in Spain and, in 1985, it was finally recognized by the Spanish Kennel Club.
The Spanish Water Dog is an ancient breed whose origins can be traced back to the Iberian Peninsula around 1,100 AD. This breed was historically used for herding and various populations of the breed were combined to create a well-balanced breed with all the desired traits for herding.
The Spanish Water Dog is a mediumto large-sized breed, so it should be offered a dog food that has been formulated to meet the energy requirements of large-breed dogs. Spanish Water Dogs are also a highly active breed so, especially if you intend to train your dog for herding or other dog sports, you may want to consider an active breed formula.
These dogs have strong natural herding and guarding instincts so they do best when given a job to perform.
The Spanish Water Dog is an intelligent breed so it typically responds well to training. These dogs have strong natural herding and guarding instincts so they do best when given a job to perform. This breed can become fairly territorial and protective of family, so early socialization and training is needed to prevent the Spanish Water Dog from becoming wary around strangers. If trained and socialized from an early age, these dogs can get along well with children and household pets.
Related: Portuguese Water Dog
At maturity, the average male Spanish Water Dog stands between 17 and 20 inches tall and weighs 40 to 50 lbs. The female Spanish Water Dog stands about 16 to 18 inches tall and weighs between 30 and 40 lbs. at maturity.
The Spanish Water Dog is a friendly and affectionate breed with family, but it can be somewhat aloof or suspicious around strangers if not properly trained. These dogs enjoy spending time with family and they require a good deal of daily exercise. This breed does not do well when left alone for long periods of time – they require a good bit of human interaction to thrive. These dogs are sometimes referred to as "Velcro dogs" because they tend to stick so close to family. Spanish Water Dogs are best suited to individuals or families who lead an active lifestyle and mental stimulation is incredibly important because they are so intelligent.
Common Health Problems
The Spanish Water Dog is generally a healthy and hardy breed but, like all breeds, it is prone to developing certain health problems. The health concerns most likely to affect the Spanish Water Dog breed include hip dysplasia, allergies, glaucoma, PRA and hypothyroidism. Responsible breeding practices and genetic testing can help to greatly reduce the risk for these and other inherited diseases in the Spanish Water Dog.
The average life expectancy of the Spanish Water Dog is about 14 years.
Because the Spanish Water Dog is a herding breed it has fairly high requirements for exercise. These dogs require at least 30 minutes of moderate exercise per day plus some active play time, if possible. Training these dogs for herding or other dog sports is a great way to meet both their physical and mental stimulation needs.
The Spanish Water Dog is a friendly and affectionate breed with family, but it can be somewhat aloof or suspicious around strangers if not properly trained.
In 2005 the American Kennel Club (AKC) admitted the Spanish Water Dog into the AKC Foundation Stock Service and, in 2008, it began to compete in the Herding group for dog agility trials. In 2012 the breed was moved to the Miscellaneous group and, as of January 1, 2015, the Spanish Water Dog is now officially recognized by the AKC in the Herding Group.
The Spanish Water Dog has a curly, hypoallergenic coat which, when allowed to grow, forms cords. It is not recommended that you brush or clip the coat of this breed – it is preferred natural. These dogs come in a variety of colors including solid black, grown, white, and beige or any combination of one of these colors with white. The breed standard prohibits tri-colored dogs.
Spanish Water Dog puppies are always born with curly hair and, as they mature, the curly hair starts to form thick cords. Early socialization and training is essential for Spanish Water Dogs because they have a tendency to become aloof around strangers if not properly socialized. This breed can do well around household pets and children if properly socialized while young.
Photo credit: otsphoto/Shutterstock; Life on White/Bigstock.com; Teemu Tretjakov Photography/Bigstock.com


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Background: Flavonoids such as naringenin and naringin are suggested to affect lipid metabolism by modulating the activity of ∆6 and ∆5 fatty acid desaturases and other key genes and enzymes. Consequently, the biosynthesis of n-3 LC-PUFA from ALA is likely to be modulated in the presence of flavonoids.
Aim: To investigate the effect of naringenin and naringin on n-3 LC-PUFA biosynthesis from ALA in hepatocytes.
Methods: FaO hepatocytes were seeded in 30 small flasks then incubated for 5 days with or without 100 µM ALA (3 flasks each) with no added flavonoids. Other flasks received 100 µM ALA in addition to either naringenin (6 flasks, 50 µg/mL of culture medium) or naringin (6 flasks, 20 µg/mL of culture medium). Also, 6 flasks received naringenin and 6 other flasks received naringin but without adding ALA. Two-way ANOVA tested the differences and interaction between groups.
Results: EPA content was marginally but significantly enhanced in hepatocytes incubated with naringenin and ALA (1.0±0.1µg/mg of cells) and naringin with ALA (0.9±0.1µg/mg of cells). Flavonoids without ALA did not change EPA content in the cells. Also, the flavonoids did not significantly improve DPA or DHA content in the cells regardless of ALA supplementation.
Conclusions: Naringin and naringenin, flavonoids from citrus peel, have a potential in improving n-3 LC-PUFA biosynthesis from ALA in hepatocytes in vitro. Further studies can confirm this effect in vivo and provide an insight into functional foods interaction with fatty acid metabolism.
Funding Source: None.


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© European Geosciences Union 2008
The role of the observed tropical convection in the generation of frost events in the southern cone of South America
1Centro de Investigación Científica y de Transferencia Tecnológica a la Producción (CICYTTP/CONICET), Diamante, Argentina
2Departamento de Ciências Atmosféricas, Universidade de São Paulo, Brazil
3Departamento de Física, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria/CRSPE-INPE, Brazil
Abstract. Based on previous results obtained from observations and linear wave theory analysis, the hypothesis that large-scale patterns can generate extreme cold events in southeast South America through the propagation of remotely excited Rossby waves was already suggested. This work will confirm these findings and extend their analysis through a series of numerical experiments using a primitive equation model where waves are excited by a thermal forcing situated in positions chosen according to observed convection anomalies over the equatorial region. The basic state used for these experiments is a composite of austral winters with maximum and minimum frequency of occurrence of generalized frosts that can affect a large area known as the Wet Pampas located in the central and eastern part of Argentina.
The results suggest that stationary Rossby waves may be one important mechanism linking anomalous tropical convection with the extreme cold events in the Wet Pampas. The combination of tropical convection and a specific basic state can generate the right environment to guide the Rossby waves trigged by the tropical forcing towards South America. Depending on the phase of the waves entering the South American continent, they can favour the advection of anomalous wind at low levels from the south carrying cold and dry air over the whole southern extreme of the continent, producing a generalized frost in the Wet Pampa region. On the other hand, when a basic state based on the composites of minimum frosts is used, an anomalous anticyclone over the southern part of the continent generates a circulation with a south-southeast wind which brings maritime air and therefore humidity over the Wet Pampas region, creating negative temperature anomalies only over the northeastern part of the region. Under these conditions even if frosts occur they would not be generalized, as observed for the other basic state with maximum frequency of occurrence of generalized frosts.


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NO WORRIES! An Activity Book For Young People Who Feel Anxious or Stressed
No Worries! is an interactive self-care activity book for children aged 7+ to color and doodle their way to happiness, calm and confidence. The encouraging and simple, yet well designed, activities and exercises tackle anxiety, sadness and stress; children will enjoy using their creativity to combat negative feelings, work out why they feel worried and how to put stress back in its place through writing, coloring, doodling and drawing.


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WASHINGTON, D.C. - The U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC) staff today released its evaluation of various synthetic athletic fields. The evaluation concludes that young children are not at risk from exposure to lead in these fields.
CPSC staff evaluation showed that newer fields had no lead or generally had the lowest lead levels. Although small amounts of lead were detected on the surface of some older fields, none of these tested fields released amounts of lead that would be harmful to children.
Lead is present in the pigments of some synthetic turf products to give the turf its various colors. Staff recognizes that some conditions such as age, weathering, exposure to sunlight, and wear and tear might change the amount of lead that could be released from the turf. As turf is used during athletics or play and exposed over time to sunlight, heat and other weather conditions, the surface of the turf may start to become worn and small particles of the lead-containing synthetic grass fibers might be released. The staff considered in the evaluation that particles on a child's hand transferred to his/her mouth would be the most likely route of exposure and determined young children would not be at risk.
Although this evaluation found no harmful lead levels, CPSC staff is asking that voluntary standards be developed for synthetic turf to preclude the use of lead in future products. This action is being taken proactively to address any future production of synthetic turf and to set a standard for any new entrants to the market to follow.
As an overall guideline, CPSC staff recommends young children wash their hands after playing outside, especially before eating.


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From Environmental News Network comes a press release about the discovery of a Harpy Eagle nest with chicks located in Belize, 700 miles north of the raptor's known range.
TOLEDO DISTRICT, Belize – Scientists recently discovered an active Harpy Eagle nest in the Maya Mountains of Belize. Thought to be locally extinct in Belize since 2000 and extirpated from Mexico and most of Central America north of Panama, Harpy Eagles (Harpia harpyja) are designated as "Near Threatened" by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and are considered "Critically Endangered" in Belize.
This discovery by a team from the Belize Foundation for Research and Environmental Education is significant because the active nest represents the most-northerly known Harpy Eagle nest in the Americas. According to H. Lee Jones, author of The Birds of Belize, it is the first active Harpy Eagle nest recorded in Belize. Over 1100 km (~700 miles) separate these eagles from other populations.
Harpy Eagles are known as the most powerful eagle in the Americas, hunting prey as large as monkeys and sloths for food. With 7-foot wingspans and individual birds weighing up to 20 pounds, they are a formidable predator. Due to deforestation and hunting, Harpy Eagles are typically missing from most of Central America's rainforests where they once freely ranged.
Labels: endangered, raptors


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Tiny, cute and oh so vulnerable. As thousands of baby Western Toads attempt to navigate life in Chilliwack, British Columbia, they only hope they don't get squished by passing motorists.
All week, these miniature toads have traversed Ryder Lake Road, making an attempt to migrate from the wetlands around the lake where they were born into the surrounding forest, reports the Vancouver Sun.
But doing this requires a trip across one of two local roads for the 800,000 or so babies smaller than a dime, so the Fraser Valley Conservancy has stepped in to help control traffic.
(PHOTOS: Top 10 Miniature Animals)
The conservancy hopes to eventually build costly toad-crossing tunnels to place underneath the roadway, an attempt to increase the survival rate of the babies, which can be as little as 1%. Still, with a female having as many as 16,000 eggs, the Western Toad still has a place in B.C., as evidenced by the toad road crossings.
A conservancy representative tells the Vancouver Sun that during peak migration to expect toads covering 30% of the roads around the lake. And with each crossing taking roughly five minutes, it doesn't help that when the tiny creatures get scared they either freeze or roll over.
PHOTOS: Top 10 Evil Animals


Chapter 7: Research Design Explained
 1. You are now at the Chapter 7 section of the book's student Web site. Here you can
 1. Look over the concept map of the key terms and look at a glossary of the key terms.
 2. Test yourself on the chapter objectives
 3. Test yourself on the key terms.
 4. Take the Practice Quiz (a short, general quiz over the entire chapter).
 - Take six-item quizzes over the first part of the chapter.
 - Take seven-item quizzes over the second part of the chapter.
 - Take 12-item quizzes over the third part of the chapter.
 - Take 14-item quizzes over the four part of the chapter.
 5. Review by looking at the key issues and reading the chapter summary.
 2. Participate in a descriptive study: Get a better sense of what descriptive research is like by participating in research that uses a descriptive method.
 3. Learn more about descriptive research by going through this tutorial.
 4. Become more comfortable with correlations by
 1. Using this tool to interpret positive, negative, and zero correlations.
 2. Going through the correlator tutorial
 3. Computing correlation coefficients using our correlation calculator or using another statistical calculator.
 4. This interactive demo helps you visualize what different correlations mean.
 5. Games that will help you learn how to estimate a correlation coefficient from a graph.
 5. Review the coefficient of determination.
 6. To do some archival research on the web, explore the following links.
 7. Look at "Cracked" to see two important ways that data can fool us: illusory correlation and mistaking correlation for causation.
 8. Look at Dilbert to remind yourself that correlation does not mean causation.
 9. A helpful picture that will help you avoid confusing correlation with causation
 10. Get help with the end-of-chapter exercises.
Chapter 7 exercises
Back to Research design explained Home Page


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How to see/ understand the difference between male and female fruit trees?
How to see/understand the difference between male and female fruit trees? Is there a list of trees that need both to pollinate? How do I see the difference in real life? I am looking forward to hearing from you,
Certified GKH Gardening Expert
Not all fruit tree have male and female. Most have perfect flowers, which means the male and female parts are contained in one flower.
On the fruit plants that have male and female, typically you can find the immature fruit either inside the flower or right below the flower on the female. It will look like a tiny, green version of the mature fruit, typically.


Los Angeles Scientific Translation Services – Certified Thai and Vietnamese Translating
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Scientific Meetings and Conferences In Los Angeles
In Los Angeles one of the most commonly used styles of translating for meetings and events is simultaneous translating. Simultaneous translation is when the translator delivers the spoken words in the target-language immediately from the source language, and continually translates as the speaker speaks. The specific terminology required in science makes the scientific translator's job extremely difficult as they must translate words and concepts into a language where the exact words may not exist. The Large Asian population In Los Angeles as well as its importance in world affairs creates many needs for simultaneous translators who excel in Thai and Vietnamese simultaneous translators do not just substitute words in one language for words in another. It is a matter of understanding the thought expressed in one language and then explaining it using the resources of specified Asian language. A simultaneous translator must be extremely familiar with the subject matter of the text or speech they are translating. These specific skill sets require you to work with a language company that has the experienced simultaneous translation experts who have the appropriate back round for your need.
Asian Translators Specializing in Translation of Videos
In the city of Los Angeles, some of the largest requests for Asian language services come in the form of video translating. Videos are an easy and convenient way to illustrate information and instructions to teach, use and educate potential buyers of your product. The use of videos is increasing rapidly throughout the world and the need to translate the content of videos into many different languages is growing accordingly. The large Asian population In Los Angeles creates an ever increasing need for translating services in Vietnamese and Thai. Translation subtitles have been associated with the booming Los Angeles movie industry for many years however due to the internet explosion the amount of web content requiring translation particularly In Los Angeles and being shown globally is enormous. It is extremely important that when working with subtitling you are working with professionals in the technical aspects of the assignment. In Los Angeles, translators that fuse cultural awareness and technical perfection can be found leading to quality translation subtitling work.
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Reporting lots of large values in Excel is probably a good thing, but if you want them to be readable, try this easy technique.
The article, Use a custom format in Excel to display easier to read millions uses a custom format to make large values more readable. For instance, 1,200,000 displays as 1.2 M instead—the format also rounds in Excel. If a value is less than a million, Excel's custom format still displays the value with the M for million, but it drops in a decimal point. For example, 669227 displays as.67 M. Realistically,.67 M isn't that much more readable than 669227. In fact,.67 M could be easily misread. That's why in this article, I'll show you two Excel conditional formatting rules that short large values: one for millions and one for thousands.
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I'm using Microsoft 365 on a Windows 10 64-bit system, but you can use an earlier version of Excel. I recommend that you hold off on upgrading to Windows 11 until all the kinks are worked out. For your convenience, you can download the demonstration Excel.xlsx and.xls files. Excel for the web will display existing the conditional formatting correctly, but it doesn't yet support custom value formats.
Excel's custom millions format
First, let's examine the millions format used in the linked article above
Each formatting code has four sections, separated by semi-colons (;). The above custom format uses only the first section, which specifies the formatting for positive values. To be comprehensive, an explanation of the four sections follows, even though we'll use only the first section:
- The first section applies to positive values
- The second section applies to negative values
- The third section applies to 0
- The fourth section applies to text.
Now let's break down the custom format we'll use for values larger than or equal to one million. This format displays the dollar symbol, $ to the left. Next, the #.##,, handles the actual digits. First, the two commas represent the thousands separator, and,, omits values in the thousand and hundred places. For example, _PHONE_ displays as $1.78 M. The decimal is necessary for conversion; 1.78 M is not the same thing as 178 M.
To add this custom format to your Excel workbook, do the following:
- On the Home tab, click the dialog launcher for the Value group.
- Click the Value tab if necessary.
- In the Category list, select Custom.
- In the Type control to the right, enter the custom format $#.##,," M"; (Figure A).
- Click OK.
Figure B shows the custom format applied.
As you can see in the Formula bar, this format doesn't change the underlying value—only the way Excel displays it. You might not like the way this format displays values less than one million. They're not as readable as you might like; in fact, they might be misread. That's why you need a custom thousands format.
Excel's custom thousands format
At this point, you might want to take a stab at writing the custom thousands format yourself. If you came up with
you're correct! The important thing to notices is the ###, component. This represents the possible three digits in the thousands position and omits digits in the hundreds position. In addition, K is universally known to represent thousands, so we'll use that instead of T. Using the instructions above, add this custom format. With both custom formats added, it's time to create the conditional formatting rules to apply them.
How to create conditional formatting rules in Excel
Once the custom value formats exist, you can apply them using conditional formatting rules. Right now, the format is set to General. First, select the data set shown in Figure C.
To create an Excel conditional format rule that handles values that are greater than or equal to one million, do the following:
- Select the data set (B3:E8).
- On the Home tab, click Conditional Formatting in the Styles group.
- Choose New Rule from the dropdown list.
- In the resulting dialog, choose Format Only Cells That Contain in the top pane.
- In the lower pane, choose Greater Than or Equal to from the second dropdown. The first dropdown is Cells, and that's what we need.
- In the third control, enter _PHONE_.
- Click Format.
- Click the Number tab.
- From the Category list, choose Custom.
- To the right, select the custom format, $#.##,," M"; (Figure D) and click OK.
- Figure C shows both the rule and the format. Click OK to apply it. As you can see in Figure E, only the values greater than or equal to one million are formatted.
Now, repeat the instructions to add a rule for the custom format
using Figure F as a guide for steps 6 and 10.
Figure G shows the results. Both custom formats take care of all the values. If your data set contains values into the trillions or less than a thousand, create new custom formats for those positions and apply them using conditional formatting. Excel can handle them all.


, or G-stem. Following the tradition of mediaeval Arabic grammarians, it is more often called the Pə'al (also written Pe'al), using the form of the triliteral root P-'-L, meaning "to do". This stem carries the basic lexical meaning of the verb.
By doubling of the second radical, or root letter, the D-stem or Pa''el is formed. This is often an intensive development of the basic lexical meaning. For example, qəṭal means "he killed", whereas qaṭṭel means "he slew". The precise relationship in meaning between the two stems differs for every verb.
A preformative, which can be ha-, a- or ša-, creates the C-stem or variously the Hap̄'el, Ap̄'el or Šap̄'el (also spelt Haph'el, Aph'el and Shaph'el). This is often an extensive or causative development of the basic lexical meaning. For example, ṭə'â means "he went astray", whereas aṭ'î means "he deceived". The Šap̄'el is the least common variant of the C-stem. Because this variant is standard in Akkadian, it is possible that its use in Aramaic represents loanwords from that language. The difference between the variants Hap̄'el and Ap̄'el appears to be the gradual dropping of the initial h sound in later Old Aramaic. This is noted by the respelling of the older he preformative with aleph.
These three conjugations are supplemented with three derived conjugations, produced by the preformative hiṯor eṯ-. The loss of the initial h sound occurs similarly to that in the form above. These three derived stems are the Gt-stem, Hiṯpə'el or Eṯpə'el (also written Hithpe'el or Ethpe'el), the Dt-stem, Hiṯpa''al or Eṯpa''al (also written Hithpa''al or Ethpa''al), and the Ct-stem, Hiṯhap̄'al, Ettap̄'al, Hištap̄'al or Eštap̄'al (also written Hithhaph'al, Ettaph'al, Hishtaph'al or Eshtaph'al). Their meaning is usually reflexive, but later became passive. However, as with other conjugations, actual meaning differs from verb to verb.
Not all verbs utilise all of these conjugations, and, in some, the G-stem is not used. In the chart below (on the root K-T-B, meaning "to write"), the first form given is the usual form in Imperial Aramaic, while the second is Classical Syriac.
Stem Perfect active Imperfect active Perfect passive Imperfect passive
Pə'al (G-stem) kəṯaḇ ↔ kəṯaḇ yiḵtuḇ ↔ neḵtoḇ kəṯîḇ
Hiṯpə'ēl/Eṯpə'el (Gt-stem) hiṯkəṯēḇ ↔ eṯkəṯeḇ yiṯkəṯēḇ ↔ neṯkəṯeḇ
Pa''ēl/Pa''el (D-stem) kattēḇ ↔ katteḇ yəḵattēḇ ↔ nəkatteḇ kuttaḇ
Hiṯpa''al/Eṯpa''al (Dt-stem) hiṯkattaḇ ↔ eṯkattaḇ yiṯkattaḇ ↔ neṯkattaḇ
Hap̄'ēl/Ap̄'el (C-stem) haḵtēḇ ↔ aḵteḇ yəhaḵtēḇ ↔ naḵteḇ huḵtaḇ
Hiṯhap̄'al/Ettap̄'al (Ct-stem) hiṯhaḵtaḇ ↔ ettaḵtaḇ yiṯhaḵtaḇ ↔ nettaḵtaḇ
Aramaic also has two proper tenses: the perfect and the imperfect. In Imperial Aramaic, the participle began to be used for a historical present. Perhaps under influence from other languages, Middle Aramaic developed a system of composite tenses (combinations of forms of the verb with pronouns or an auxiliary verb), allowing for narrative that is more vivid. The syntax of Aramaic (the way sentences are put together) usually follows the order verb–subject–object (VSO). Imperial (Persian) Aramaic, however, tended to follow a S-O-V pattern (similar to Akkadian), which was the result of Persian syntactic influence.
Aramaic word processors[edit]
The World's first Aramaic language word processing software was developed in 1986–1987 in Kuwait by a young information technology professional named Sunil Sivanand, who is now Managing Director and Chief Technology Architect at Acette. Sunil Sivanand did most of the character generation and programming work on a first generation, twin disk drive IBM Personal Computer. The project was sponsored by Daniel Benjamin, who was a patron of a group of individuals working worldwide to preserve and revive the Aramaic language.
See also[edit]
 1. ^ Nordhoff, Sebastian; Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2013). "Aramaic". Glottolog 2.2. Leipzig: Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology.
 2. ^ Aramaic appears somewhere between 11th and 9th centuries BC. Beyer (1986: 11) suggests that written Aramaic probably dates from the 11th century BC, as it is established by the 10th century, to which he dates the oldest inscriptions of northern Syria. Heinrichs (1990: x) uses the less controversial date of 9th century, for which there is clear and widespread attestation.
 3. ^ Allen C. Myers, ed. (1987). "Aramaic". The Eerdmans Bible Dictionary. Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans. p. 72. ISBN 0-8028-2402-1. It is generally agreed that Aramaic was the common language of Israel in the first century AD. Jesus and his disciples spoke the Galilean dialect, which was distinguished from that of Jerusalem (Matt. 26:73).
 4. ^ Aramaic language - Encyclopedia Britannica
 5. ^ "What Language Did Jesus Speak?". Retrieved 2014-03-20.
 6. ^ Beyer 1986: 38–43; Casey 1998: 83–6, 88, 89–93; Eerdmans 1975: 72.
 7. ^ "Tradition and Modernity in Arabic Language And Literature". J R Smart, J. R. Smart. 2013.
 8. ^ Heinrichs 1990: xi–xv; Beyer 1986: 53.
 9. ^ Naby, Eden. "From Lingua Franca to Endangered Language". Assyrian International News Agency.
 10. ^ a b Richard, 2003, p. 69.
 11. ^ Ancient and Modern Assyrians: A Scientific Analysis, page 88
 12. ^
 13. ^ "Panammuwa II and Bar-Rakib: Two Structural Analyses, K. Lawson Younger, Jr., University of Sheffield" (PDF). Retrieved 2014-03-20.
 14. ^ Klaus Beyer, The Aramaic Language, Its Distribution and Subdivisions, (Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht Gottingen, 1986), 14.
 15. ^ Shaked, Saul (1987). "Aramaic". Encyclopædia Iranica 2. New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul. pp. 250–261. p. 251
 16. ^ Frye, Richard N.; Driver, G. R. (1955). "Review of G. R. Driver's "Aramaic Documents of the Fifth Century B. C."". Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 18 (3/4): 456–461. doi:10.2307/_PHONE_. JSTOR _PHONE_. p. 457.
 17. ^ Geiger, Wilhelm; Kuhn, Ernst (2002). "Grundriss der iranischen Philologie: Band I. Abteilung 1". Boston: Adamant. pp. 249ff.
 18. ^ Stolper


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Selecting, sizing transformers for commercial buildings
While commercial building designs change, their electrical loads remain fundamentally unchanged. Properly sizing and selecting transformers ensures that these loads are accommodated.
By Ralph Baeza, PE, LEED AP, TLC Engineering for Architecture, Miami
Transformers, along with other power distribution apparatus, remain a fundamental component in electrical systems distribution for commercial buildings. This article presents several useful design concepts for selecting and sizing transformers in the design of electrical systems for commercial buildings.
Transformers change voltage levels to supply electrical loads with the voltages they require. They supply the required incoming electrical service to the buildings. Transformer primary and secondary voltages can be 2,400; 4,160; 7,200; 12,470; and 13,200 for 15-kV Class, and 120, 208, 240, 277, and 480 for 600-V Class.
Transformers are located either outdoors or inside buildings in an electrical room or other areas as permitted by code. The electrical phase characteristics associated with the transformer's primary side is 3-phase, 3-wire or Delta connected. The secondary is 3-phase, 4-wire or Wye connected.
There are different construction types for transformers used in commercial buildings. Our understanding of their general characteristics will allow the designer and end user to make the proper selection for the electrical system application. Following are some of the transformer types available in the industry along with a few of their characteristics:
Ventilated dry-type transformers are ventilated by air, use larger space for clearance, and use different insulating materials to augment the dielectric strength of the air. They contain an enclosure surrounding the windings for their mechanical protection and the safety of personnel. This type is the most common to be used in the building indoor electrical system distribution. See Table 1 for typical dry-type transformer ratings, dimensions, and weights.
Sealed dry-type transformers are similar to dry type in most of their characteristics. The difference is they contain an enclosed tank with nitrogen or other dielectric gas to protect the windings. They can be installed outdoors or indoors. They are useful in areas with a corrosive or dirty atmosphere.
Cast-coil transformers are constructed with the primary and secondary windings encapsulated in reinforced resin. They can be installed where moisture or airborne contaminants exist.
Nonventilated dry-type transformers are similar to the ventilated type but are totally enclosed. This type can be installed in areas with corrosive or dirty atmospheric conditions where it would be impossible to use a ventilated-type transformer.
Oil-filled transformers are constructed with the windings encased in an oil-tight tank filled with insulating mineral oil. It is good practice to regularly test this type of transformer in order to determine dielectric breakdown, which affects its useful life.
There are different ways in which transformers are installed and used as part of a commercial building electrical system. These application types include:
Indoor distribution transformers are used with panelboards and are separately mounted to supply the specific electrical load requirements in a system-specific application within the system distribution. Several transformer types rated higher than 600 V for oil insulated type, higher than 35,000 V for dry type, and other transformers rated higher than 600 V are required to be located in vault rooms, which must be built with fire-rated enclosures depending on the transformer type and applicable local authority requirements, when indoors. Transformers that are not over 600 V and are part of the indoor building electrical system distribution have both primary and secondary voltages below 600 V with the most common voltage level change from 480 V to 208 Y/120 V.
Pad-mounted transformers are installed outside and are considered the first option for supplying service entrance voltage to the building electrical system based on the project size and requirements. They typically have primary voltages higher than 600 V and secondary voltages lower than 600 V with compartments for the associated protective devices assembled in an integral tamper-resistant and weatherproof unit.
In addition, the size of the commercial facility will determine the appropriate approach for designing the electrical distribution system for the specific application. In this electrical system design, the transformer can be used as part of a substation, primary unit substation, secondary unit substation, or network configuration.
The electrical size of the transformer load is rated in kVA. This rating provides the associated power output delivered for a specific period by the loads connected to the transformer on the secondary side of the equipment. The loads, which are calculated as part of the building electrical system design phase, are shown in the construction documents' respective equipment schedules in VA or kVA.
A general approach to determining transformer capacity and selecting the proper rating for the design application is to obtain the calculated design load from the respective electrical schedule and add 20% spare capacity for future load growth to be shown in the equipment schedule, unless otherwise directed by the facility based on design parameters. For example, the code-based demand load of a 208 Y/120 V, 3-phase, 4-wire panelboard is 42 kVA, which does do not include spare capacity for future growth. Therefore, the transformer size required for converting the system voltage from 480 V, 3-phase, 3-wire to 208 Y/120 V, 3-phase, 4-wire is:
Transformer size in kVA = 42 kVA x 1.25 = 52.5 kVA
Therefore, a 75 kVA transformer would be selected for this application out of the available standard ratings for a 480 V primary to 208 Y/120 V secondary. The most common building industry standard ratings are 3, 6, 9, 15, 30, 37.5, 45, 75, 112.5, 150, 225, 300, 500, 750, and 1,000 kVA.
The above simple calculation meets the intent to achieve the normal life expectancy of a transformer, which is based on the following basic conditions:
- The transformer is equal to or less than its rated kVA and rated voltage.
- The average temperature of the cooling air during a 24-hour period is 86 F.
- The temperature of the cooling air at no time exceeds 104 F.
Transformer selection starts with the kVA rating required to supply the loads connected in the electrical system. Another consideration for indoor distribution transformers is the type of load: linear or nonlinear. Linear loads include resistive heating and induction motors; nonlinear loads are produced by electronic equipment that contributes to the distortion of the electrical power signals by generating harmonics. The harmonics resulting from nonsinusoidal currents generate additional losses and heating of the transformer coils, which reduce the transformer life expectancy.
Indoor transformers for nonlinear loads can be selected with a K rating, which allows the transformer to withstand nonlinear conditions in the electrical system. K-rated transformers do not mitigate or eliminate harmonics. However, they do protect the transformer itself from damage caused by harmonics. For harmonic mitigation, K-rated transformers can be combined with harmonic filters or chokes. For linear load applications, transformers should be selected with lower core losses. Other factors that should be considered in selecting transformers are voltage ratings for both primary and secondary, voltage taps, efficiency, impedance value, type of cooling and temperature rise, voltage insulation class, basic impulse level, and sound level.
In the past two years, two large projects in Miami Dade County have been built: the Florida International University football stadium and Miami International Airport South Terminal. Both projects included dry-type 480 V, 3-phase to 208 Y/120V V step-down transformers (in NEMA 2 enclosures), ranging from 15 kVA to 112.5 kVA in the electrical system distribution design.
The 18,688-seat FIU football stadium was designed with about 12 transformers as part of the electrical system distribution in order to supply general-use receptacles, small motors, and other loads in the stadium building structure and the attached field house building. The MIA South Terminal expansion was designed with about 50 transformers with similar intent as the stadium's but a more diverse group of loads for the 208 Y/120 V 3-phase, 4-wire system, which also included lighting loads, signage, telecommunication, security systems, and other loads part of this building project (Figure 1).
The installation of power transformers and transformer vaults must comply with the requirements of National Electrical Code (NFPA 70) article 450 and specific local authority having jurisdiction requirements. Some principles to consider for transformer installation include locating them in isolated rooms with proper ventilation, clearances, and accessibility. Otherwise, they can be installed on open walls or steel columns or above suspended ceilings.
In addition, there are other specific requirements based on the transformer type, such as weatherproof enclosures for dry-type transformers installed outdoors or a transformer vault room for oil-insulated transformers installed indoors. In addition, a good design and installation require the proper transformer feeder and overcurrent protection device size based on NEC articles 240, 250, 450, and applicable sections of Article 310 (Figure 2).
Transformers remain a fundamental component of electrical distribution systems. Equipment operation characteristics will continue to change. However, their operating principles will remain with the same. The industry trend is to continue building transformers with less core losses, and that comply with Energy Star efficiency requirements.
Baeza is a principal and senior electrical engineer at TLC Engineering for Architecture in Miami. He is a registered professional engineer with more than 29 years of experience in electrical engineering, project management, building design, and construction.
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Many support organizations have started to align their support model with Knowledge Centered Support (KCS) as their methodology for working effectively with knowledge. In this article we reply to the most commonly asked questions related to the adoption of KCS.
New challenges for the service desk
The service desk is responsible for more tasks than ever before. Service desk analysts are expected to understand much more than in the past, deliver better service more quickly, and at a lower cost. It is very challenging to keep up with the demand for new knowledge, and there is a great need to structure and reuse an organization's existing knowledge.
Most support organizations are familiar with KCS and how it meets many of the above mentioned challenges. During the Fusion Conference we received many important questions about adopting KCS as a methodology, and below are our suggestions:
1. How do we get the most use out of our existing knowledge base?
Search the knowledge base every time the service desk receives a request. Create relevant articles immediately by improving the content, adding meta data, and linking solutions to the related articles. This process will help the database become relevant and updated.
2. How do we find the time to create knowledge articles initially when working with a self-service solution?
Use a pre-populated knowledge base solution that contains knowledge articles for standard office applications and popular software programs. We strongly believe that an intuitive and easy-to-use knowledge tool will encourage the creation and improvement of knowledge articles by the IT support organization.
3. How do we get the agents to support the idea of creating content as part of the problem solving process?
Encourage the most enthusiastic support agents to work according to KCS principles and they will quickly discover the advantages of creating articles based on demand and usage. With the adoption of KCS principles the service desk agents will no longer waste their time creating articles that no one uses.
4. How does incident management and Knowledge Management integrate?
Some knowledge management solutions integrate seamlessly with incident management systems and ITSM tools. With a strong integration, knowledge articles are made available to the users via the incident management system. Ideally when an end user begins to type their issue into the description field suggested knowledge articles will appear. The end user now has the ability to resolve their issue before they need to create a service request.
If you have any questions on the adoption of KCS, don't hesitate to contact our Knowledge Specialist.
Heléne Källgården, Marketing & Events, ComAround


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Russians to Test Space Mirror As Giant Night Light for Earth
By WARREN E. LEARY
Published: January 12, 1993
RUSSIAN scientists are planning soon to unfurl a glistening sheet of plastic in space as a first step toward testing an intriguing notion about turning night into day -- or at least twilight.
Tucked aboard a Progress cargo spacecraft attached to the Mir space station is an experiment called Znamya, or Banner, that will test the idea of using a mirror in space to reflect sunlight down to Earth.
If all goes as planned, the Banner payload will be deployed next month to unfurl into a 65-foot-diameter disk of aluminum-coated plastic film. The experiment will test the feasibility of illuminating points on Earth with light equivalent to that of several full moons.
Russian engineers say it should also teach them a lot about handling thin sheets of plastic in space, a step toward developing large sails to propel ships in space using the faint force of sunlight.
"This should be a marvelous technical demonstration," said James E. Oberg of Houston, an expert on Russian space programs who wrote the book "Red Star in Orbit."
"It's an idea they've talked about for a long time, and now they will have a chance to see if it works."
The Sun is always shining somewhere on Earth, of course, if not always where people need or want it. But what if someone put a big reflector high in space to peer over the curvature of Earth, capture some of the Sun's rays and shine them down on the dark side?
In much the way a schoolchild playing with a hand mirror learns to reflect a spot of light from a bright window into the crannies of his room, some scientists believe they can put large, orbiting mirrors above Earth that could illuminate darkened areas below with spots of reflected sunlight that measure tens of miles across.
If it can be done, proponents say, providing sunshine at night could save billions of dollars each year in electrical lighting costs, extend twilight hours during planting and harvesting seasons to aid farmers, allow more working hours on large construction projects and help in rescue and recovery operations after natural disasters like earthquakes and hurricanes.
A consortium of state-owned companies and agencies in Russia, headed by the NPO Energia space company, is sponsoring the mirror-solar sail demonstration. The project is using some donated equipment, and engineers and technicians are volunteering their time. Proponents of the project hope a successful test will attract financial support from Western companies and the Russian Government.
The idea of using mirrors in space like giant spotlights was proposed in 1929 by Hermann Oberth, a German scientist and space visionary. The idea was further developed by scientists in the United States and in the former Soviet Union, where it remains particularly popular because of its potential usefulness for lighting northern Siberia and other areas near the Arctic Circle during the long polar nights.
Although both the Pentagon and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration considered solar reflectors from time to time in the last two decades, they never developed them. Ambitious Goals
But Russian theorists have eagerly proposed solar reflector systems that could constantly illuminate areas the size of several cities every night. The most ambitious proposal foresees a constellation of 100 reflectors, each 1,300 feet in diameter with a surface area of 30 acres.
Initial operational systems, using reflectors 650 feet in diameter, would have 24 to 36 mirrors in northern inclination orbits either 620 miles or 3,700 miles above Earth, proponents say. A reflector could light a spot by itself or several could be focused on the same area for continuous illumination or greater brightness, scientists say, producing the light of up to 50 full moons. These mirrors, which would pivot as they passed overhead to keep their light on the same spot, could illuminate surface areas 35 miles to 55 miles across.
While the idea of space mirrors fascinates some, others have wondered about possible environmental effects of interrupting the normal day-night cycle of animals and plants, particularly if the practice became widespread.
Even extended daylight would affect the development and behavior of flora and fauna, and might influence local weather. After Soviet scientists first proposed launching a demonstration reflector satellite in 1984, the Soviet Academy of Sciences set up a committee to investigate possible ecological effects.
Proponents of space mirrors say there is no evidence to date that reflected sunlight would cause harm, but agree on the need for environmental studies. Light from space would be both clean and renewable, they note, and would replace generated electricity and its associated pollution.
"Illumination of this type will not have an impact on local environmental conditions, such as warming of the atmosphere," said Nikolay N. Sevastianov, director general of the experimental reflector program, which has been named Noviy Svet, or New Light.
"Other possible impacts to the environment are being studied and are part of the on-going project," he said in a written response to questions sent to him in Moscow. Resistance to Change


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As our government transitions to a new administration, the following question has become increasingly common:
Would amendments to or repeal of the Affordable Care Act (ACA) affect medical assistants' scope of practice?
The answer? Almost certainly not. The scope of practice of medical assistants is determined primarily by state law. An exception is the meaningful use order entry requirements of the Medicaid Electronic Health Record Incentive Program. The Medicaid Incentive Program was not created by the ACA and would not be impacted by any amendments to or repeal of the Affordable Care Act. Consequently, it is highly unlikely that the scope of practice for medical assistants will be impacted by congressional action on the ACA.


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Gardening Articles: Edibles :: Fruit & Nut Trees
Wild New Citrus (page 2 of 5)
by Lance Walheim
Blood oranges are old varieties of oranges that until recently were virtually unknown in the U.S., despite our huge citrus industries. The red color of the flesh and juice is the most obvious difference, but there's something more to the flavor as well. Americans traveling in France, Italy or Spain would relish a glass of blood orange juice, sometimes believing it a mixture of regular orange juice with raspberry and other fruit juices.
'Moro' blood orange. The most predictable and colorful of all the blood oranges, 'Moro' is the most popular commercial and home garden variety. Once mature, the exterior shows a bright red blush, and the internal color is deep red. The juice is equally dark.
The fruits are medium-size, easy-to-peel and usually seedless. The tree is vigorous but has a tendency to bear heavy crops in alternate years. Fruits ripen December to March in inland California, Texas and the Gulf Coast; February to May in coastal southern California; November to February in the low-elevation desert; and February to May in northern coastal California.
'Sanguinelli' blood orange. This is a late-ripening blood orange from Spain. The flesh is usually a shade lighter than 'Moro', but skin color is often a stunning cherry red.
Fruits are smallto medium-size and almost egg-shaped. The rind is very smooth but is harder to peel than other blood oranges. Fruits usually contain a few seeds. They ripen March to May in inland California; February to April in Texas, low-elevation deserts, the Gulf Coast and Florida; and April to June in coastal California (both north and south).
'Tarocco' blood orange. These fruits are the largest of all the blood oranges. They ripen after 'Moro' but before 'Sanguinelli'. 'Tarocco' is also generally considered the best-flavored of the three.
Fruits are large and the orange-blushed-with-red rind is smooth, thin and easy to peel. Internal color varies: Sometimes it is plain orange; at other times it is very deep red. Most fruits produce a few seeds. 'Tarocco' is well adapted only to California climates; it is not grown in Texas, the Gulf Coast or Florida. It ripens March to May in coastal California (north and south) and January to March in inland California.


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Backseat Scavenger Hunt
summaryIf you prepare a backseat scavenger hunt for a long car ride, your children may be too busy looking out the window to notice how long you've been on the road.
- The RIF Guide to Encouraging Young Readers
- Alphabet Learning, Games, Vocabulary Building
MATERIALS: Paper and pencil
Before you head out, make up a long list of various things your children are likely to see from the car (or bus or train) window. For example: a license plate beginning with the letter C, an old tire, a tow truck, an overpass, a city that is named after a woman, a McDonalds restaurant, a silo, and so on. Give the children the long list to work on together or divide up the list so that each child is looking for different items. Or let them make up lists for each other. For children who can't yet read, make a picture list by cutting out magazine pictures of signs and other common roadside attractions, like cows and pay telephones. Glue the cutouts on a piece of paper. The children cross items of their lists or circle the pictured objects as they find them. If they wish, they can call out when they see something so the other players can corroborate. Let the winner of the backseat scavenger hunt be the first one out of the car when you stop to stretch your legs, or the one who gets to ride in the front seat for a while.


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Some of the Mission District's oldest residents may also be the most overlooked. Originating from Eastern Siberia, Australia, Southeastern Europe and the Southern region of the United States, some are more than 100 years old and have been in the neighborhood for years. Yet you probably know very little about their history because these locals aren't people, they're trees.
Trees give the Mission its look and feel. Imagine 24th Street without its ficus trees, which provide shade, drop crunchy fruits on the ground and break up sidewalks (for a previous Mission Local article on these trees go here). Likewise, picture Dolores park without its slackline-wrapped palm trees, the South end of Folsom Street without its tall elms, or the neighborhood in the Spring without its brightly colored bottlebrush trees and cherry blossoms.
These non-native trees that provide shade, color, and oxygen to the neighborhood are now a big part of the urban forest, and have their own histories of residency and migration within the Mission.
So, how did they get here, and why did they come?
There are at least 6,859 trees planted in public spaces in the Mission, according to Urban Forest Map, a collaboration of groups that's mapping trees in San Francisco. In a place that was once bare of trees, that's now about one tree for every seven people.
"Most trees now are planted by Friends of the Urban Forest in collaboration with the City," said Kelaine Vargas, project lead for the Urban Forest Map.
"Their choices are restricted by what will grow well in such an urban setting, what's available, what people are interested in seeing on the streets, and years of experience about what works well and what doesn't," she said.
The Department of Public Works (DPW) has jurisdiction over all public trees, and is charged with planning, planting, maintenance and removal. In 2011, however, maintenance responsibilities of 23,700 street trees in San Francisco were transferred to property owners due to budget cuts, according to a DPW report. It will take time to see what the results of this are, said Doug Wildman, Program Director of Friends of the Urban Forest (FUF).
"The Department of Public Works, Friends of the Urban Forest, neighborhood groups, individuals, community gardeners and arborists all work to maintain street trees. There are a lot of partnerships between individuals and cities, and also with parks and rec within the parks," said Amber Hasselbring of the Mission Greenbelt Project.
To help decide what trees should be planted in selected areas of the neighborhood, the department lists guidelines which encourages climate-appropriate trees. Straight columnar trees are better for narrow streets and trees with overarching canopies are a better fit for wider, mixed-use boulevards. These rules can dictate what the landscape looks like.
"Whatever species are planted has also depended on their performance over time. They work well, and they're tried and true," said Wildman.
"Throughout the whole city, trees are selected if they're good for the sidewalk, clean, longer lived, if the leaves keep in the winter, or for their environmental services like absorbing pollutants," he added.
Some trees once considered ideal are now causing problems
Let's look at the ficus trees on 24th Street again, for example. Although they were favored in the 1980s, they have generally not been planted since then because the surface roots cause sidewalk damage, and the city is losing many of them to an apparent fungal disease, perhaps moving in from root pruning activities. Nowadays, if a developer wants to plant a ficus tree, the city tends to shut down the request.
"But they're great canopy trees, and they're evergreens, so their leaves act as sponges, absorbing water and delaying a ton of storm water from running off into drains and causing floods," said Wildman.
For these reasons, planners must have seen them as being beneficial for the city and planted a large number of them at one time. "They were the 'ideal' tree of the day," Wildman said.
Many species are refused for some characteristic or another, allowing for only a select number of tree species to be planted. One city ordinance, for example, advises against planting fruit-bearing trees on streets, because the city doesn't want trees to drop fruits on people, sidewalks or cars.
"This means that most of the trees planted are male, and therefore there's a lot of pollen in the air here," said Hasselbring.
Diversity is key
There can be problems if there's a lack of diversity among trees, though.
"We can't have too many of one species in an area or they could be wiped out by a disease," said Wildman, "so it's important to reduce large plantings of the same type."
Nevertheless, a number of the ones that now live in the Mission seem to come in packs, as the map above displays. Toggle the legend to see that most palms were planted along Mission and Dolores Streets, most ficus trees were planted along 24th Street and Potrero Avenue, and most elms were planted towards the Southern end of Folsom Street.
Generally city planners love to have blocks of the same tree, Wildman commented, to define a given section of the city or a district. Friends of the Urban Forest tries to counter that, though, by continuing to request at least two tree species on a given block to prevent wiping out a single population of trees.
A guide to the trees around you
There are no native trees planted in the streets because most natives – like oaks, willows, and toyons – don't have an upright, columnar form. They grow well if they have significant growing space, which city streets don't tend to allow for.
Highlighted below are some of the most common street trees — along with a couple others that tend to stand out for their eye-catching flowers, fruits or bark — that define the Mission's current urban forest landscape, starting with the most abundant species. The species mapped above and listed below by no means account for all the tree species of the Mission.
For a more thorough list, visit the Urban Forest Map website.
Brisbane Box, Vinegar Tree (Lophostemon Confertus)
Tree Count (in the Mission): 480
First Planted in the Mission: It's been planted in the last 15 years or so, because it's one of the few "well behaved" tall evergreen trees; there are no pests and diseases yet.
Native to: Australia.
Cherry Plum (Prunus Cerasifera)
Tree Count: 398
First Planted in the Mission: It's been planted in the last 30+ years, but they're short lived to 25 years or so.
Native to: Southeastern Europe or southwestern Asia.
Mexican Fan Palm and Canary Island Date Palm (Washingtonia Robusta and Phoenix Canariensis)
Tree Count: 306
First Planted in the Mission: Just after the 1906 earthquake.
Native to: The desert mountain valleys and canyons of Sonora and Baja Mexico.
Southern Magnolia (Magnolia Grandiflora)
Tree Count: 304
First Planted in the Mission: These have been in the Mission for a very long time because they're good performers throughout the warmer parts of SF. There are very old, large specimens around Dolores Park.
Native to: Southeastern United States
Siberian Elm, Chinese Elm (Ulmus Pumila, Ulmus Parviflora)
Tree Count: 203
First Planted in the Mission: Unknown. One reason they were originally planted was because they were fast growing, but with that comes more frequent tree pruning.
Native to: China, Japan, North Korea, Eastern Siberia
Bottlebrush, New Zealand Christmas Tree (Melaleuca Spp., Callistemon)
Tree Count: 146
First Planted in the Mission: Unknown. They were originally planted because they're good performers and relatively "clean" trees.
Native to: Australia
Ginkgo, Maidenhair Tree (Ginkgo Biloba)
Tree Count: 133
First Planted in the Mission: Unknown. These are long lived trees with no pests and diseases. Ginkgo Biloba is also one of the oldest tree species on earth.
Native to: Eastern China
Strawberry Tree (Arbutus Marina, Arbutus Unedo)
Tree Count: 113
First Planted in the Mission: Unknown
Native to: Not precisely known. Some say the Mediterranean, Western Europe, and the Pacific Northwest.
New trees being planted in the Mission:


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fort is unquestionably the first cheese of Europe: that of Brie, one of Sassenage the Marolles, not inferior in any way to the best cheeses from foreign countries; the mountains of Lorraine, Franche-Comte and neighboring regions, mimics that of Gruyere; Auvergne cheese is as good as the best cheese of Holland."
The AOC classification probably came about as an effort to protect the region's ownership of the Roquefort. It was, in a way, a copyright stamp on a product made through a unique process that also served as a guarantee to those who lusted after the cheese.
Helpfully, it was also a vain proclamation of its own virtues; an advertisement that this was an exquisite food favored by the noble and influential. Indeed, Roquefort had a fan in Charlemagne, as did Saint Nectaire in Napoleon I and Brie in Talleyrand.
At production levels of close to 2,000 tones a year, France is one of the top-three cheese producers of the world. Figures also show that they are in the lead in terms of cheese consumption as a nation. Cheese is also a major export for the country. The famous French ardour for cheese comes not for what it has done for the nation economically but culturally. Like wine, cheese is an expression of the land and the country's heritage. Throughout the ages, the people of France have come to see their finest cheese as a product of cultural pride.
More than a business strategy, the AOC classification is France's attempt at preserving a part of its gastronomical heritage. They want people who step into a fromagerie to speak of localities and farms—never mind that of the producer. He is unimportant, for he is simply a vessel delivering what the land meant the people to produce.
THE INSTITUT NATIONAL DE L'ORIGINE ET DE LA QUALITÉ
Among France's more than 1,000 cheeses, only 46 have been awarded AOC status by the Institut national de l'Origine et de la Qualité. Of the 46, 11 were honored with the classification in this decade.
- Morbier: A mild and aromatic cow's milk cheese from Franche-Comté
- Pélardon des Cevennes: A fruity, well-balanced goat's cheese from Languedoc-Roussillon
- Tome des Bauges: Delicate and mild cheese made from skimmed cow's milk, in Savoie
- Chevrotin: Hard goat's milk cheese that is floral in aroma, also made in Savoie
- Banon: Made from unpasteurized whole goat's milk, and matured in brown chestnut's leaves, this is an easily recognizable cheese with a distinct flavor. From Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur
- Époisses de Bourgogne: Subtle cow's milk cheese from Bourgogne
- Macônnais: Soft goat's milk cheese from Bourgogne
- Mont d'or (Vacherin du Haut-Doubs): Runny cow's milk cheese from Franche-Comté, easily recognized by a belt of pine bark
- Gruyère: The Swiss cheese named after the Swiss municipality was awarded the transnational AOC in March of 2007
- Rigotte de Condrieu: A fi ne textured goat's milk cheese with ivory, white or even blue surface flora 2010
- Charolais: A firm and smooth goat's milk cheese of complex flavor profile


What type of piping is needed for my compressed air system?
While many reciprocating air compressor users simply connect their air hose directly to the discharge valve on their compressor, some users prefer to install a downstream air system to route the compressed air to their tools and equipment.
In this case, we recommend using Ingersoll Rand SimplAir piping for all industries. The SimplAir system is lightweight, provides superior corrosion resistance, and offers easy installation and modification.
 Ingersoll Rand Simplair Piping
There are some piping options that should not be used as they are not intended for this use, such as:
Unfortunately, although this type of piping is considered the most common because it is readily available, it could also be considered dangerous. PVC will eventually become brittle over time when used in a compressed air system leading to cracks, breaks or even shattering. These failures, combined with air under pressure, are potentially fatal due to the airborne, razor-sharp shrapnel. The use of PVC is an OSHA violation, which means you could incur a hefty fine.
Rubber hoses work as a temporary solution, but they are not energy or cost-efficient. When you use rubber hoses, you tend to have pressure drop due to the hose not being rigid. In addition, over time your hoses will start to create an odor because of the rubber breaking down, which will eventually find its way into your products.
PVC Piping
Rubber Hoses Piping


Wyoming Game and Fish Header Image
Most Frequently Violated
Boating Laws
1. No person shall operate or be in actual physical control of a numbered
motorcraft in this state unless the person is at least 16 years of age or
is accompanied by an adult. This includes personal watercraft, i.e., jet skis,
wave runners.
2. Watercraft 16 feet and over in length shall have one approved throwable
device (ring buoy or buoyant cushion) in addition to an approved wearable
personal flotation device of a suitable size for each person.
3. All persons being towed on water skis, barefoot or other devices by a
watercraft shall wear a Coast Guard approved personal flotation device while
engaged in such activity.
4. Operators of motorboats shall ensure that a fluorescent orange flag be
displayed above the vessel anytime towed persons are down in the water,
so as to warn other boaters of the situation.
5. All watercraft operators should be aware that there are two flags used to
indicate the presence of a person engaged in diving in the immediate area.
The official flag, Alpha, which is blue and white, is internationally recognized
for all diving operations. The second flag, is the red flag with a white diagonal
stripe. No person shall operate or permit the operation of any motor powered
watercraft on the waters of the state of Wyoming within 50 feet of the display
of the above described "diver down" flag. All motor powered watercraft
approaching such flags shall do so at a no wake speed.
6. Alcohol-related boating accidents are increasing every year. Alcohol is the
number one contributor to boating-related deaths. If you are going to drink
alcohol, designate someone to operate your watercraft who is not drinking.
Wyoming Game & Fish Department officers are increasing efforts to ensure
complianceof the statute for boating while under the influence of alcohol.
Wyoming Game & Fish Department Headquarters
5400 Bishop Blvd. Cheyenne, WY 82006
ph: _PHONE_
Email address for comments/questions regarding our website:
Copyright ©2013


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How should fuel economy results be determined when driving a review vehicle? That question was asked by several readers following an On The Road column on the Hyundai Sonata Hybrid (EPA Ratings Are Only As Good As Your Driving Style, May 1). In that column, I noted that the wide variations my co-driver and I experienced in fuel economy came down to driving style, vehicle condition (he had to overcome a cold start; for my turn behind the wheel, the car was warm) and terrain.
Unfortunately, understanding why many drivers do not equal the EPA's results is more complicated and requires an understanding of the EPA testing procedure.
First, recognize that there are now five EPA test cycles, but only two, which date to 1975, are actually required. The other three, instituted in 2008, can either be performed or the results can be interpolated mathematically from the two original tests.
Of these older tests, the city component is run at an average speed of 21 miles per hour with a top speed of 57 miles per hour. It takes 41 minutes and has a 10 minute break. The highway test cycle has an average speed of 48 miles per hour with a maximum speed of 60 miles per hour.
Both tests are run on a dynamometer inside a climate-controlled laboratory. The dynamometer is set to reflect the vehicle's weight, rolling and mechanical resistance and aerodynamic drag. Maximum acceleration is painfully slow; 3.3 miles-per-hour per second. At this rate, it takes over 18-seconds to reach 60 miles per hour. Most drivers, timed on entrance ramps here in Connecticut, accelerate to 60 miles per hour in less than 10 seconds.
In addition, the fuel used contains no ethanol, which has a less energy than gasoline. In Connecticut, all gasoline is E10, meaning 10 percent of what you buy is ethanol with less energy than the gasoline is displaces. Finally, vehicle accessories, such as the air conditioning, are left off. All these variations help explain why you cannot easily equal the EPA numbers on your daily drives.
The three new tests that arrived in 2008 were supposed to address these issues. One test added higher speeds to the mix, another was conducted at 95 degrees with the air conditioner on and the final dealt with a 20-degree start. These tests produced some significant cuts in fuel economy results that were posted on new vehicle window stickers. But these cuts might not be enough to reflect reality.
Manufacturers can, and undoubtedly do, design their cars to do well in these tests. For example, automatic transmission calibrations can have a major effect on fuel economy. Some vehicles go for higher gears rapidly, and then resist downshifting to a lower gear when more power is needed. This helps in EPA testing, but when drivers demand more power immediately, and tap acceleration rates and throttle openings beyond those called for in the EPA testing, fuel economy is guaranteed to suffer.
All of which brings us back to the original question. When seeking to determine fuel economy, should auto reviewers drive our test cars the way most people drive? Or should we drive them to maximize fuel economy? That means taking it easy, but no hyper-miler techniques, thank you. I follow the latter approach.
Unlike the EPA testing, which for all its weaknesses is repeatable, my test results are not. They vary based on weather, the season and traffic conditions. In short, they can give you an idea of what you might be able to do in a mix of city and highway driving here in the Northeast if you take it easy. However, your results will vary.


The impact of Covid-19 pandemic over Nigeria economy crisis
We all know what the World as a whole is facing during this pandemic, including the 10 years old child is experiencing the worst part of Coronavirus in Nigeria.
But before we look into Nigeria economy downfall, let's see how this pandemic started and where it is originated from, according to research the coronavirus began in Wuhan, Hubei province, China. Resident who lived in Wuhan had some link to seafood and live animal market.
The virus was contacted through animal and since then it has been spreading from one continent to another, and there have been over millions cases in the world.
The coronavirus entered Nigeria through an infected Italy man who came in contact with a Nigeria citizen then the virus began to spread from there.
Let's look at some impart of coronavirus over Nigeria economy
The Covid-19 pandemic affected the Nigeria economy in so many ways. One, the spread of the virus give room for socio-distancing which led to shutdown in Nigeria. It affect the Financial Market, Corporate Offices, Business and Events.
Two, the rate at which the virus was spreading, and the heightened uncertainty about how bad the situation could get, led to flight to safety in consumption and investment among consumers and investors.
The Covid-19 pandemic affected borrowers' capacity to service loans, which gave rise to NPLs that depressed banks' earnings and eventually impaired bank soundness and stability. Subsequently, banks were reluctant to lend as more and more borrowers struggled to repay theloans granted to them before the Covid-19 outbreak.
There were oil demand shocks which was reflected in the sharp decline in oil price. The most visible and immediate spillover was the drop in the price of crude oil.
During the pandemic, people were no longer travelling and this led to a sustained fall in the demand for aviation fuel and automobile fuel which affected Nigeria's net oil revenue, and eventually affected Nigeria's foreign reserve.
There were supply shocks in the global supply chain as many importers shut down their factories and closed their borders particularly China. Nigeria was severely affected because Nigeria is an import-dependent country and as a result Nigeria witnessed shortage of crucial supplies.
Meanwhile, Nigeria is facing some economy issues before the pandemic outbreak.
 1. A weak and underdeveloped digital economy
 2. Lack of social welfare in the country
 3. The poor public health infrastructure
 4. Unemployment in the country
 5. Lack of proper educational sector
This analysis is recent economic crisis in Nigeria. it showed the spillover of Covid-19 pandemic into Nigeria with declining oil price, which were external shocks caused the economic downfall. The scope and severity of the economic crisis is a clear signal that growth and development reforms are needed in Nigeria.
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