Space charater width?
RachelR's picture
Are there any rules, formulas or tricks to working out the correct width for the space character. Or is it a question of trail and errpr to see what fits best.
R ; )
Pieter van Rosmalen's picture
I always give the space the same width as the i (including sidebearings). I don't think there is a rule for it.
RachelR's picture
Should the space character be differnt across weights then, form looking at other fonts I thought the space character was the same for the whole family.
Bert Vanderveen's picture
My thumbrule: the innerspace of lowercase n. That means more wordspace for lighter cuts and less for bolder, as it should be ; ).
charles ellertson's picture
Having the space as a character is a relatively new phenomenon. To me, the space character should be established so that ragged composition (i.e., no justification) looks right. The space may well need to be different for roman and italic, depending on the letterforms themselves, and their sidebearings.
As a for-instance, I just made an OpenType version of Bembo from a Type 1 PostScript font. Among the many changes, I changed the space in the roman font from 258 units (1,000 unit em) to 220 units, and the italic from 250 to 200. The reason it wasn't done earlier was simply that our old composition system did not take the space from the font. A bold font would likely need more space, at least, when used at the same size as the text, in text setting.
Further, the wordspace (however derived) usually needs to be relatively smaller as you increase the size of the type. Obviously, you can't make this provision as a type designer, but must rely on the compositor who uses your type.
dezcom's picture
Word spacing varies with font, even within families. There are no absolute rules in the digital era. You may start with something around 250 units but the idea is to create a spce wich will make the word break clear enough without making the line fall apart. Word spacing tends to agree with letterspacing mostly. If the letterspacing is tight, the the word spacing is proportionally tight as well. Like much else about type design, the eye is the master tool.
RachelR's picture
I tried Berts' method of using the inner space from the lowercase "n", but I'm getting very ugly rivers running through blocks of text, could this be an indication that my character spacing is incorrect
joffre's picture
Historically. The space character is one third of the Em or one half of the En.
charles ellertson's picture
As long as your history covers about 1880 to about 1940.
When you hand-set type (1450+ to whenever), you start with the smallest space you are willing to use. To justify the line, you add space. Life is tough enough without starting with a larger space & having to take it out.
The machines came in right about the time when wide wordspacing was in fashion, which is where you get the "thick" (3-to-em). And by-the-way, Linotype linecasters weren't on an em system, you had a choice of "spacebands" you could use. The "thin spaceband" went from about 2 points unexpanded, to about 5-6 points fully expanded. A good Linotype compositor could tell how much a space would be added to a line, & would hyphenate a word so the spaceband wedge wasn't fully used.
As to your rivers: Maybe. If you are using words all the same length - 3- 4- 5- letters long, you're going to get more rivers. If you are using a text that could occur naturally, you'll get a better feel for how the space is working.
One more thing about "history." In the 19th century, many fonts tended to have a wider set than the current fashion, so perforce the space needed to be bigger. You will also get a different feel to the space depending on your leading and margins. One thing far too few book designers seem to realize is that there is a relationship between word space, leading, and margins (which of course, implies measure, given standard paper sheets).
Obviously, the type designer cannot provide a correct space for all settings. But if it is a text font, you could not ignore text, that is, 8- to 12-point settings.
Life gets much more difficult for a display font, because things that will affect the wordspace include size, but even the number of words in the line. For example, if you are setting subheads in small caps, the amount you letterspace will be a factor of how many words are in the head. Try it. Set "the next one" in small caps & get it right. Now try that letterspacing & wordspacing for "machinery gone amuck in the twentieth-century industrial plant" I guarantee you, those values will no longer look right.
joffre's picture
"As long as your history covers about 1880 to about 1940."
RachelR was looking for a rule. I can't vouch for all the traditional fonts published but Helvetica is based on that rule. Obviously with todays technology you can go in any direction you want.
Nick Shinn's picture
Yes, the space width should be the same for all weights, as should the tabular figure widths -- because they are required to work together occasionally in tabular settings.
charles ellertson's picture
Nick, I don't agree. I don't feel you set up a font to it's disadvantage only to cover one possibility. As for tabular setting, you can always use the italic or bold commands around the numbers only, without the spaces. That would preserve the spacing (usually roman) throughout the table. While I can't think of situations where this wouldn't work, you can always just use another tab stop in the table if push comes to shove.
The other side of the coin is that you often have italic text run in with the roman. Why have unfortunate spacing here? And you can't change, say, the spacing for just the italic in an application program such as InDesign, since that spacing (min-ideal-"max") works on the entire paragraph, right?
vincentg's picture
I thought that was what the figure space (U+2007) was for?
John Hudson's picture
I usually start with the width of the lowercase i, and then adjust it by eye (most often making it narrower).
Thomas Phinney's picture
An average, across a wide range of typefaces, is about 1/4 em. Very very few typefaces have a space as big as a third of an em. This is true even in hot metal typefaces (Lino/Mono).
Heavier weights typically have thinner spaces (not wider, and not the same).
Of course, some type designers today may have varying ideas, but this is what many great type designers have done over the last century or more.
joffre's picture
I stand corrected. I should have said that the space character should be based on one fifth to one quarter of the Em.
vinceconnare's picture
that's about what I found when researching spaces.
nothing was less than 1/5 the em and usually regular weight fonts were 1/4 em. Expanded fonts tended to be wider widths than others, as ~1/3.
many traditional space characters are no longer necessary since applications layout engines add and remove white space automajically. The thin space which use to be available in font before PostScript has disappeared but is in Unicode (because it was in some character sets historically)
Nick Shinn's picture
Charles, I guess I should preach what I practice! -- I looked at a variety of my faces, and the space width varies with the individual font in most of them.
bieler's picture
Frederic Goudy suggested the width of a lowercase i. That would be the visual width, not as, with metal type, the width of the body. Of course, if you've ever looked at Goudy's typesetting you can see how this is simply wrong. Nevertheless, I always recommend it as a starting point to my letterpress students. Keeps them on the right track. It's easy to see when the width is too narrow, not so if it is too wide.
Syndicate content Syndicate content


Sunday, 9 January 2011
The Holy Family
The Feast of the Holy Family is celebrated on the Sunday within the Octave of the Epiphany. The feast is of greater double rank. The feast was assigned by Leo XIII in 1893 to the third Sunday after the Epiphany. In 1921 Benedict XV moved its celebration to the Sunday within the Octave of the Epiphany. If the Epiphany falls on a Sunday the Holy Family is anticipated on the following Saturday, the Octave Day of the Epiphany being celebrated on the Sunday.
The Office is proper. At Vespers yesterday afternoon the antiphons Jacob autem genuit Joseph etc are proper to the feast, the hymn O lux beata caelitum is sung. Commemorations of the Octave of the Epiphany and of the Sunday within the Octave are sung. There is a special Doxology at the end of all hymns (except the hymn at Mattins), Jesu tuis obediens, Qui factus es parentibus, Cum Patre summo ac Spiritu, Semper tibi sit gloria.
At Mattins the invitatory, hymn and antiphons are proper. In the first nocturn the lessons are from St. Paul's Epistle to the Colossians. The second nocturn lessons are from the brief of Leo XIII establishing the feast. In the third nocturn the homily is from the writings of St. Bernard. Unusually, the ninth lesson of the Sunday is not read. This is because the gospel fragment at Mattins, and the Gospel at Mass, are the same as that for the Sunday within the Octave. At Lauds the antiphons are again proper, Post triduum invenerunt Jesum etc., and refer to the Finding in the Temple and the LORD growing in wisdom at Nazareth. Commemorations are sung of the Sunday within the Octave and the Octave of the Epiphany.
The antiphons from Lauds are used as usual for the Little Hours. At Prime (Pss. 53, 118i & 118ii) in the short responsory the verse Qui Mariae et Joseph subditus fuisti is sung, the short lesson is Semetipsum exinanivit.
Mass is sung after Terce. The Gloria is sung, the second collect is of the Sunday within the Octave, the third collect is of the Octave. The Creed is sung, the preface and communicantes are of the Epiphany. The last Gospel is In principio.
In second Vespers the antiphons of Lauds are sung with the psalms from the Common of the BVM (unless the feast was reduced to a commemoration and first Vespers not sung in their entirety in which case the antiphons Jacob autem genuit Joseph etc and sung). A commemoration is made of the following day within the Octave and the Sunday within the Octave.
In the 'liturgical books of 1962' the feast is second class but gains a Vespers as it falls (always) on a Sunday. If Sunday is the 'Baptism of the Lord' (basically the Octave Day in the Old Rite) the feast of the Bapism is omitted. However, Mattins does have nine lessons. At Lauds no commemorations are sung. At the Little Hours the antiphons of Lauds are not sung but the antiphons and psalms of Sunday. At Prime psalm 117 is sung in place of psalm 53. The short lesson is that of 'Epiphanytide'. The hymns at the Little Hours do not have the Doxology of the feast. At Mass the Gloria is sung, there are no commemorations. The Credo is sung, the preface is of the Epiphany but the proper communicantes are not said. Vespers are without any commemorations. In the 'ordinary form' of the 1962 rite the feast is celebrated on the Sunday after the Nativity, unless that day is January 1st.
John Meyers said...
Two items.
1. Are there any other examples where the little chapter is from a Gospel rather than an epistle? Offhand, I can't think of any, but I didn't do any checking to be sure.
2. I still seem to be having some issues with precedence. At Vespers (both first and second) the octave day is commemorated before the Sunday. At Lauds, the Sunday is commemorated before the octave day. What am I missing here? Why does the order change? Did I just miss the specific rubric?
Rubricarius said...
1) Off the top of my head I suspect you are correct;
2) At Vespers the first commemoration is always the concurrent Office (unless it is a simple concurrng with first Vespers, then other commemorations are made in descending order of rank.


UNT College of Visual Arts + Design - Browse
[Empty Street]
[Italian Cemetery]
Photograph of a cemetery in Florence, Italy. Two trees are visible on each side of the photograph. In the foreground, men and women with flowers walk on the path in front of the cemetery wall. The wall is lined with stacked graves. A mausoleum is centered in the wall of graves.
[Lion Fountains]
Photograph of two lion fountains in the Piazza San Bernardo in Rome, Italy. In the foreground, a marble lion spurting water from its mouth into a small pool is visible. There is another identical lion visible behind the first. A woman is seen dipping a cloth into the second pool. In the background, a zoo sign is visible.
[Neptune Fountain]
Photograph of the Neptune Fountain in Rome, Italy. In the foreground, a stone cherub climbs atop a head while holding a crab on the edge of the fountain basin. Other figures within the fountain basin are visible behind the cherub. A row of buildings is visible in the background.
Photograph of the Pantheon and the Piazza della Rotonda in Rome, Italy. The piazza is visible in the foreground with people and cars scattered throughout. A fountain is visible in the center of the piazza in front of the Pantheon.
[Piazza della Rotonda]
Photograph of a fountain in the Piazza della Rotonda in Rome, Italy. In the foreground, a stone head spurting water out of its mouth is visible with two serpents on either side of the head. A building in the piazza is visible in the background.
[Piazza di Spagna]
Photograph of the Piazza di Spagna in Rome, Italy. In the foreground, two men drink from the Fontana della Barcaccia; people, buildings, and automobiles are visible in the background.
[San Gimignano, Italy]
Photograph of a arched passageway in San Gimignano, Italy. In the foreground, a small sign is visible under the archway. A stairway beside a building is visible in the background.
[Side View of Trevi Fountain]
Photograph of the Trevi Fountain as seen from the left side. The silhouette of a man is visible the foreground in front of the fountain. In the background, a building is visible with a glove shop.
[Via di Ponte Rotto]
Photograph of a house on the Via di Ponte Rotto in Rome, Italy. The house sits on the Piazza Bocca della Verita. In the foreground, a metal barrier and some cars are visible in front of a gray house. Another building is visible to the left of the house.
[Villa Farnese]
Photograph of the Villa Farnese in Caprarola, Italy. In the foreground, a silhouetted figure and the side of a building are visible. The entrance to the villa is visible in the middle ground between the figure and building. Trees are visible in the background.


Fishing Lure Color Selection – A Detailed Guide
No matter what kind of lure you are fishing with, it will come in a huge range of colors. There's every color out there from black to luminous pink, but why? What is it about the colors that make fish more interested in one color on one day and a different color on the next. There are quite a few factors to consider and here is a lure color selection and guide to make things a little easier for you.
Lure Color Selection And Guide
The Factors
There are quite a few factors to consider when choosing a lure color. Here are the details of what you should think about when picking a lure.
Can Fish See Color?
Scientific evidence shows that fish eyes have both rod and cone cells. Rod cells are used to detect light and contrast. The work in low light and allow fish (and us) to see shapes, shadows, and silhouettes in dimly lit environments. They do nothing to detect color, however. Cone cells are the ones that perceive color but they do need a lot of light to work. If the light dims for any reason, colors begin to fade in vision. Fish have been found to have a lot more rod cells than cone cells, meaning fish pay more attention to contrast, silhouette and shape than they do to color.
Due to the dimly lit environment fish live in, their pupils don't dilate like humans. Their cone cells have evolved to give better details on contrast depending on light conditions. It's thought that the environments they live in have helped their eyes to adapt. Game fish are said to be very good at distinguishing between shades of blue, helping them see blue bait in blue light. Fish that have lived in murky water are better at seeing shades of red, yellow and green.
In my opinion, getting the contrast and shape right is what you want to achieve when picking a lure, but how is it best to do that?
Colors Disappear In Water
Water filters light naturally and by doing so removes certain wavelengths, and the deeper you go the more wavelengths are filtered out. If you're in clean water, the first color to disappear as you get deeper is red, then orange, followed by yellow and green and finally blues and purples. But, this all changes with water clarity and becomes a little more complicated. In water full of algae, green is the most visible color. In silty water, yellow and brown are easiest to see. And in tannin-stained water, red is the most visible.
If a fish could see in full color, it wouldn't matter that much as slowly the colors disappear with depth. What this information does tell you is how to create the best contrast depending on the conditions and depth you are fishing at.
Here is a link so a color chart that shows you scientifically what colors are easiest to see underwater at differing depths and conditions.
Match The Bait & Geography
Most of the time, you are trying to imitate exactly what the fish you are trying to catch are choosing to eat that day. This depends on a lot of factors, firstly what fish you are targeting, where are you fishing and what time of year. Every ecosystem has it's moments when a certain baitfish is prevalent in the area and the predators go crazy for them. Knowing about these patterns will put you in good stead to choose the right lure. If you are fishing in Texas in spring for example, then red is an excellent color to use as the crawfish there are red and the bass go nuts for them. If you're fishing for tarpon in Florida during the mullet run, you're going to use a bait that imitates a mullet and its color, a shrimp pattern is going to be ignored.
Wherever you are fishing, speak to the locals and look online for advice. It also pays to be aware whilst on the water. The more you notice about the situation the better. You may see baitfish swim past and try and match them, or remember colors that worked at a similar time the year before. If you do catch some fish, quite often some of their food will be regurgitated and you can see what they have been feeding on. If you are bass fishing and can catch one, feel it's stomach. If it's soft, then they are eating baitfish, if hard then they're eating crawfish or other crustaceans.
Water Clarity
When you approach the water you are fishing the first thing to think about is what it looks like and what your bait is going to look like inside it. If the water is crystal clear, your bait will be seen easily by fish. If the water is dark and murky, fish are going to struggle to see your bait.
As a rule, darker colors are easier to see underwater and if the water is murky then using a dark-colored lure is the way to go. Blue, black and Junebug are great colors for this situation. You can also opt for the brightest colors in your box, as these are made to be seen in murky waters. Try luminous pink, orange, and chartreuse.
When the water is clear, the idea is to match fish's chosen bait as close as possible. This means choosing natural colors that imitate the baitfish in the water. If you are bass fishing using green pumpkin or watermelon colored baits will imitate the crawfish, perch and sunfish species in the system. If you're fishing in the sea you might go for a crankbait with a blue body and a white bottom.
It doesn't always quite work out as I've mentioned above but it's a good general rule to follow. Never stop changing if what you're using is not working.
Sunlight has a similar effect on the water as water clarity. If you have been snorkeling, you'll know that when the sun comes out, your visibility underwater gets a lot better. It's exactly the same for fish, bait is easy to see on a sunny day and harder to see on a darker day. In terms of lure color, the same rules we mentioned in water clarity apply here too. Dark or luminous colors on dark days and natural colors on bright days. Although, it's probably better to weigh them up together. If you're fishing clear water on a dark day, then use something that is still natural but is either a little dark or has some flash to it. If the water is dark and the sky is darker, then go for the darkest or most outlandish color you have.
Something else that affects how sunlight penetrates water is the surface conditions. If you are a diver you'll know that visibility is much worse when the water is rough than when it is calm. If it's windy on a lake, making a big ripple and lot of surface movement, the water reflects and refracts a lot of the light that hits it and stops it from penetrating. This means that if you are fishing in clear water on a sunny day but it's very windy, you're going to want to think about using a darker or luminous lure.
Summing Up
It is quite a confusing realm of choice thinking about lure color and why it makes a difference sometimes and other times not. Color definitely plays a role, some days having the right color means fish are all over your bait. If you're an offshore fisherman, you'll have seen that on certain days one color in your 8 color spread will be hit all day and the others ignored.
The topics above definitely point to getting the right contrast so they fish can see your bait, this is certainly important. But don't get too caught up in color, yes find a good one but also fish it well. People who keep changing instead of focussing on fishing over catch less than if they had stuck with one color and fished it hard.
Leave a Comment


Tunable Diode Laser Absorption Spectroscopy
Get Tunable Diode Laser Absorption Spectroscopy essential facts below. View Videos or join the Tunable Diode Laser Absorption Spectroscopy discussion. Add Tunable Diode Laser Absorption Spectroscopy to your PopFlock.com topic list for future reference or share this resource on social media.
Tunable Diode Laser Absorption Spectroscopy
Tunable diode laser absorption spectroscopy (TDLAS, sometimes referred to as TDLS, TLS or TLAS[1]) is a technique for measuring the concentration of certain species such as methane, water vapor and many more, in a gaseous mixture using tunable diode lasers and laser absorption spectrometry.[] The advantage of TDLAS over other techniques for concentration measurement is its ability to achieve very low detection limits (of the order of ppb). Apart from concentration, it is also possible to determine the temperature, pressure, velocity and mass flux of the gas under observation.[2][3] TDLAS is by far the most common laser based absorption technique for quantitative assessments of species in gas phase.
A basic TDLAS setup consists of a tunable diode laser light source, transmitting (i.e. beam shaping) optics, optically accessible absorbing medium, receiving optics and detector/s. The emission wavelength of the tunable diode laser, viz. VCSEL, DFB, etc., is tuned over the characteristic absorption lines of a species in the gas in the path of the laser beam. This causes a reduction of the measured signal intensity due to absorption, which can be detected by a photodiode, and then used to determine the gas concentration and other properties as described later.[4]
Different diode lasers are used based on the application and the range over which tuning is to be performed. Typical examples are InGaAsP/InP (tunable over 900 nm to 1.6 ?m), InGaAsP/InAsP (tunable over 1.6 ?m to 2.2 ?m), etc. These lasers can be tuned by either adjusting their temperature or by changing injection current density into the gain medium. While temperature changes allow tuning over 100 cm-1, it is limited by slow tuning rates (a few hertz), due to the thermal inertia of the system. On the other hand, adjusting the injection current can provide tuning at rates as high as ~10 GHz, but it is restricted to a smaller range (about 1 to 2 cm-1) over which the tuning can be performed. The typical laser linewidth is of the order of 10-3 cm-1 or smaller. Additional tuning, and linewidth narrowing, methods include the use of extracavity dispersive optics.[5]
Basic principles
Concentration measurement
The basic principle behind the TDLAS technique is simple. The focus here is on a single absorption line in the absorption spectrum of a particular species of interest. To start, the wavelength of a diode laser is tuned over a particular absorption line of interest and the intensity of the transmitted radiation is measured. The transmitted intensity can be related to the concentration of the species present by the Beer-Lambert law, which states that when a radiation of wavenumber passes through an absorbing medium, the intensity variation along the path of the beam is given by,[6]
is the transmitted intensity of the radiation after it has traversed a distance through the medium,
is the initial intensity of the radiation,
is the absorbance of the medium,
is the absorption cross-section of the absorbing species,
is the number density of the absorbing species,
is the line strength (i.e. the total absorption per molecule) of the absorbing species at temperature,
is the lineshape function for the particular absorption line. Sometimes also represented by,
is the center frequency of the spectrum.
Temperature measurement
The above relation requires that the temperature of the absorbing species is known. However, it is possible to overcome this difficulty and measure the temperature simultaneously. There are number of ways to measure the temperature. A widely applied method, which can measure the temperature simultaneously, uses the fact that the line strength is a function of temperature alone. Here two different absorption lines for the same species are probed while sweeping the laser across the absorption spectrum, the ratio of the integrated absorbance, is then a function of temperature alone.
is some reference temperature at which the line strengths are known,
is the difference in the lower energy levels involved in the transitions for the lines being probed.
Another way to measure the temperature is by relating the FWHM of the probed absorption line to the Doppler line width of the species at that temperature. This is given by,
is the weight of one molecule of the species, and
is the molecular weight of the species.
Note: In the last expression, is in kelvins and is in g/mol. However, this method can be used, only when the gas pressure is low (of the order of few mbar). At higher pressures (tens of millibars or more), pressure or collisional broadening becomes important and the lineshape is no longer a function of temperature alone.
Velocity measurement
The effect of a mean flow of the gas in the path of the laser beam can be seen as a shift in the absorption spectrum, also known as Doppler shift. The shift in the frequency spectrum is related to the mean flow velocity by,
is the angle between the flow direction and the laser beam direction.
Note : is not same as the one mentioned before where it refers to the width of the spectrum. The shift is usually very small (3×10-5 cm-1 ms-1 for near-IR diode laser) and the shift-to-width ratio is of the order of 10-4.
Limitations and means of improvement
The main disadvantage of absorption spectrometry (AS) as well as laser absorption spectrometry (LAS) in general is that it relies on a measurement of a small change of a signal on top of a large background. Any noise introduced by the light source or the optical system will deteriorate the detectability of the technique. The sensitivity of direct absorption techniques is therefore often limited to an absorbance of ~10-3, far away from the shot noise level, which for single pass direct AS (DAS) is in the 10-7 - 10-8 range. Since this is insufficient for many types of applications, AS is seldom used in its simplest mode of operation.
There are basically two ways to improve on the situation; one is to reduce the noise in the signal, the other is to increase the absorption. The former can be achieved by the use of a modulation technique, whereas the latter can be obtained by placing the gas inside a cavity in which the light passes through the sample several times, thus increasing the interaction length. If the technique is applied to trace species detection, it is also possible to enhance the signal by performing detection at wavelengths where the transitions have larger line strengths, e.g. using fundamental vibrational bands or electronic transitions.
Modulation techniques
Modulation techniques make use of the fact that technical noise usually decreases with increasing frequency (which is why it is often referred to as 1/f noise) and improve the signal to noise ratio by encoding and detecting the absorption signal at a high frequency, where the noise level is low. The most common modulation techniques are wavelength modulation spectroscopy (WMS) and frequency modulation spectroscopy (FMS).
In WMS the wavelength of the light is continuously scanned across the absorption profile, and the signal is detected at a harmonic of the modulation frequency.
In FMS, the light is modulated at a much higher frequency but with a lower modulation index. As a result, a pair of sidebands separated from the carrier by the modulation frequency appears, giving rise to a so-called FM-triplet. The signal at the modulation frequency is a sum of the beat signals of the carrier with each of the two sidebands. Since these two sidebands are fully out of phase with each other, the two beat signals cancel in the absence of absorbers. However, an alteration of any of the sidebands, either by absorption or dispersion, or a phase shift of the carrier, will give rise to an unbalance between the two beat signals, and therefore a net-signal.
Although in theory baseline-free, both modulation techniques are usually limited by residual amplitude modulation (RAM), either from the laser or from multiple reflections in the optical system (etalon effects). If these noise contributions are held low, the sensitivity can be brought into the 10-5 - 10-6 range or even better.
In general the absorption imprints are generated by a straight line light propagation through a volume with the specific gas. To further enhance the signal, the pathway of the light travel can be increased with multi-pass cells. There is however a variety of the WMS-technique that utilizes the narrow line absorption from gases for sensing even when the gases are situated in closed compartments (e.g. pores) inside solid materia. The technique is referred to as gas in scattering media absorption spectroscopy (GASMAS).
Cavity-enhanced absorption spectrometry (CEAS)
External cavities can either be of multi-pass type, i.e. Herriott or White cells, of nonresonant type (off-axis alignment), or of resonant type, most often working as a Fabry-Pérot (FP) etalon. Multi-pass cells, which typically can provide an enhanced interaction length of up to ~2 orders of magnitude, are nowaday common together with TDLAS.
Resonant cavities can provide a much larger path length enhancement, in the order of the finesse of the cavity, F,


text:
About Propell® Teacher Workshops for the TOEIC® Tests
Through the TOEIC® Propell® Teacher Workshops, you will explore different approaches to language teaching and learning that produce effective results in both testing and real-world environments.
Communicative Language Teaching
Research in the field of language teaching and learning emphasizes the importance of providing learners with chances to engage in meaningful communication with others. An effective way to do this is to involve learners in real-life situations and tasks in the target language.
Communicative language teaching focuses on learners' needs and what they want to communicate in the target language to help them:
- understand and use English in everyday activities
- carry out routine social interactions
- develop career-related communication skills
The Role of the Language Teacher
The role of the language teacher in communicative language learning is to engage students with scenarios that require them to draw on their knowledge of all aspects of the target language — its forms and its functions — in order to complete meaningful tasks like those they might encounter in the real world.
To maximize the learning experience, teachers must match learners' needs — their reasons for wanting to communicate in the target language — with applicable classroom activities, such as:
- reading a job advertisement
- filling out a job application
- calling to request repair service for an appliance
- asking for directions
These simulated real-world tasks chosen by the teacher will better prepare them for the TOEIC tests and workplace-related communication.

source: HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu


Cattle/Dairy Solutions
Treat Dairy and Beef calving facilities right.
Ventilation Systems
Good air quality reduces disease and stress factors for your animals. A Mackay ventilation system is designed to give optimum air direction under all conditions. Correct placement of fresh air inlets in proportion to animals and outlets will give very precise control of the environment at floor level.
During cold weather operation when low air volumes are required, our DA 1540 fresh air inlet opening directs the air along the ceiling. The system allows the 'coanda' effect to adhere the air jet to the ceiling, while allowing gradual mixing with the warm air.
In warm weather operation the flap pivots fully open, allowing air to move across the animals creating a cooling effect. Qualified advice on your ventilation system design is all a part of Mackay Ventilation Systems service.


Question: Why National Museum Is Important?
What is the main function of the National Museum of the Philippines?
The law designated the museum as the lead agency in the protection and preservation of the nation's cultural properties through the conduct of census, study, and declaration of such properties and the monitoring and regulation of archaeological exploration, excavation, or diggings in historical or archaeological sites..
What is the purpose of National Museum?
The National Museum manages and develops the national reference collections in the areas of cultural heritage (fine arts, anthropology and archaeology) and natural history (botany, zoology, geology, and paleontology), and carries out permanent research programs in biodiversity, geological history, human origins, pre- …
What is inside the National Museum?
The National Museum complex in Manila includes the National Art Gallery (Old Legislative Building), the Museum of the Filipino People (Old Finance Building) and the future National Museum of Natural History (Old Tourism Building).
What are the objectives of museum?
Who is the founder of National Museum?
Pandit Jawaharlal NehruOn August 15, 1949, the National Museum, New Delhi, was inaugurated in the Rashtrapati Bhawan by Shri R.C. Rajagopalachari, the Governor-General of India. The foundation of the present building was laid by Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, the Prime Minister of India, on May 12, 1955.
How do museums help students?
Museum visits develop language and critical thinking skills This helps to develop higher critical and creative thinking skills, which are integral to future success. Museums also help children learn and identify new words and concepts that lead to conversations and discussions.
Why National Museum is famous?
The museum has various artefacts from the Harappan Civilization also known as Indus Valley Civilization. It has the world's most representative collection of antiquities of the Harappan Civilization – over 3500 objects that are on permanent loan from the Archaeological Survey of India to the Museum.
What can we learn from museums?
HOW LEARNING HAPPENS IN MUSEUMSMastery: wanting to learn more about specific topics.Performance: wanting to learn more than others.Hedonic: seeking fun or passive enjoyment.Social: wanting to communicate and share their experience with others.
What do museums teach us?
Museums teach us about the past. Everything there has a story to tell. We can easily learn how things were done, how life looked like and even what people wore and did every day. It is living history from times gone by that help us understand ourselves.
What do I want to learn about the National Museum of the Philippines?
The National Museum is the old legislative building in Manila. The National Museum's Art Gallery was once the congress building. … The building was completed in 1921 with features that drew inspiration from Grecian architecture with stylized Corinthian columns and highly detailed Renaissance-inspired ornamentations.
What are the roles of museums in society?
Museums enable people to explore collections for inspiration, learning and enjoyment. They are institutions that collect, safeguard and make accessible artifacts and specimens, which they hold in trust for society.
Why is museum important?
For centuries, museums have played an integral role in preserving the history of our society. Exhibits tell us stories about how our nation, our communities and our cultures came to be and without them, those stories could be forgotten. Museums serve our communities in a multitude of ways, as we have seen firsthand.
What do I know about the National Museum of the Philippines?
The National Museum, a Trust of the Government, is an educational, scientific and cultural institution that acquires, documents, preserves, exhibits, and fosters scholarly study and public appreciation of works of art, specimens, and cultural and historical artifacts representative of our unique to the cultural …
What makes a good museum?
It should have a clear identity; it should have an environmental conscience and a commitment to sustainability; it should be innovative and involved with its local community.
How are national museums funded?
Some national museums are authorized by Congress and operated by the federal government. However, most national museums are private museums, funded and operated without government involvement. At times, Congress has acted to designate certain private museums as national museums.


text:
The name Fluor is derived from 'fluo', stream. It was discovered in 1771. It is the most reactive of all the non-metallic elements and it affects every substance it comes in contact with, even metals like Platinum.
There are only a few noble gases that are not affected by its aggressive action.
Fluor is the main active component in enamel, the protective coating on our teeth. This enamel is hard, smooth and shiny. This same smooth hardness is the reason why it is so useful for anti-stick coatings on saucepans. We can separate Uranium isotopes out of uranium fluoride, UF6.
Fluor is rather special in that it isn't easy to potentise. If we were to dissolve it in water it would immediately react with the water to form Fluoric acid. Other solvents would give similar problems, so it won't be easy to find a suitable medium to potentise Fluor in its pure elemental form.

source: openbmb/Ultra-FineWeb


Tamarin Graveyard
Next-generation JavaScript 2 virtual machine (more info)
Select a component to see open bugs in that component:
Track discussions/bugs/patches for potential api changes, additions, etc.
Baseline JIT (CodegenLIR)
Bugs and features relating to the native code compiler and optimization stages.
Build Config
Bugs and feature requests in the Tamarin build and configuration setup.
The debugger API supports client/host debugging of the ActionScript language.
File documentation related bugs here.
Garbage Collection (mmGC)
Issues related to garbage collector.
The ABC interpreter implements the dynamic semantics of ABC programs.
The implementations of the built-in AS3 libraries, written in C++ and AS3.
Optimizing JIT
The "Optimizing JIT" is a high-level, optimizing JIT.
The sampling profiler provides performance data on where execution time is spent.
Project to support Tamarin as a script language in Internet Explorer.
Self-hosting compiler (ESC)
Bugs and features in the self-hosting compiler.
For bugs on tools and utilities within Tamarin rather than the VM itself.
Tracing Virtual Machine
Bugs and features related to the tracing virtual machine.
The verifier accepts or rejects ABC depending on whether it conforms to the syntax and static semantics of ABC.
Virtual Machine
Bugs and features related to run-time execution and performance.
Bugs and features related to Worker Threads


? Moreover, does it always produce the correct output? A program
 may appear to do what it is meant to do most of the time, but if it produces
 the wrong output, even occasionally, then the macro is hardly likely to be
 acceptable. Hence, test data and a test plan is required that is enough to give
 confidence in the macro, but not so scrupulous that excessive time is spent
 on testing.
The black box testing methodology
 The black box testing methodology treats the testing process as a black
 box, i.e. the only concern is to know that given certain input(s), then
 particular output(s) values will be expected (see Figure 8.3). What happens
 inside the program is ignored: this is why it is called black box testing.
 Black box
 Figure 8.3 Black box diagram
Testing rationale
 Clearly, any testing must be such that it is known in advance what the
 program should do. This means that if certain input data is supplied to the
 macro, then it should be possible to predict how the macro will perform in
 terms of output. If it isnt possible to predict how the program will behave
 with certain input data, then it is clearly not possible to test it! Therefore, any
 test methodology will require some test data and predictions as to what
 should happen to it.
The test plan
 A range of input data, both valid and invalid, needs to be carefully selected
 to give confidence in the working of the program. This usually involves
 creating a table of data to carry out a series of tests to develop enough
 confidence in the program: the test plan. The first column in the table should
 refer to the test number. Following columns would list combinations of input
 data so that all possible paths in the program are going to be tested. The final
 right-hand column should show the expected result. When you carry out the
 tests you will need to keep a log of the results: the test log.
The test log
 The purpose of the test log is to provide a record of the tests that have been
 carried out. The test log too should be in tabular format with the same tests
 used as in the test plan. It should contain columns for the predicted and actual
 results, as well as the a column displaying the date that the test was
 conducted. If the results of your test are different from your predictions, then
 an error has occurred in the program that would have to be fixed. When an
 error is fixed, all tests that were completed successfully before the erroneous
 test would have to be repeated, in case fixing the bug causes something to go
 wrong in another part of the program.
Test evidence
 The test log should also include a column linking the actual tests to evidence
 in the form perhaps, of screen shots or other hard copy evidence proving the
 tests have been successful. The hard copies of evidence should therefore
 contain references to test numbers.
Testing a validation program
 This example will take the validation program (Listing 4.2) and apply the
 black box method of testing. Recall that the purpose of this program was to
 validate the week sales range of data for each sales representative on the
 weeklysales worksheet of the SALESMAN workbook. In this example, data
 input into each cell had to be numeric, and in the range 0 to 100.
 To use the black box method of testing, we first need to decide on ranges for
 selecting appropriate data. As a starting point, we could consider the input
 of non-numeric data, such as an alphabetic character. If such a value is input
 into a cell in the range week_sales then we would expect an error message.
 We could choose an arbitrary character value to test, e.g. r.
 If numeric data is input, then there are a number of ranges to consider.
 Consider first the valid range 0100, we can choose an arbitrary value in this
 range, e.g. 44. We also need to choose the boundary points which are 0 and
 100, because both these points are valid data points. Then, we need to
 consider invalid numeric data, e.g. values <0 or >100. Again, if we take
 arbitrary values like -7 and 3454. This will give 6 tests in total.
Table 8.1 The test plan for the validate program
 Test Number Value of Cell chosen Predicted Result
 1 "r" Error message and cell colour change
 2 44 No change
 3 0 No change
 4 100 No change
 5 -7 Error message and cell colour change
 6 3454 Error message and cell colour change
 The next step is to produce the test log (Table 8.2). If we analyse it, we can
 see that there is a problem with Test Number 4  all other tests are OK at this
 stage. In the next section we will discuss how to set about fixing errors.
Table 8.2 The test log for the validate program
 Test No Date Predicted Result Actual Result
 1 18 Nov 02 Error message & cell colour change Error message & cell colour change
 2 18 Nov 02 No change No change
 3 19 Nov 02 No change No change
 4 21 Nov 02 No change Error message & cell colour change
 5 22 Nov 02 Error message & cell colour change Error message & cell colour change
 6 22 Nov 02 Error message & cell colour change Error message & cell colour change
The Debug tools
 The VBE contains some powerful tools for debugging your program. One
 of the most important of these is the provision of a Watch window combined
 with the setting of Breakpoints. Figure 8.4 shows the facilities available on
 the Debug toolbar.
 Toggle breakpoint
 Pause Watch window icon
 Run Step into icon Step out icon
 Stop Step over icon
 Figure 8.4 The Debug toolbar
The Watch window (the glasses icon)
 The Watch window lets you monitor one or more of the variables or cells or
 whatever as the program runs. Clicking this icon or choosing Add Watch
 from the Debug menu will prompt the user with a dialog box as shown in
 Figure 8.5. In the case of the validateWeekSales program we are interested
 in watching the range variable cell, since this is going to contain the values
 of the input used in the tests. As you can see in Figure 8.5, this has been
 entered in the Expression box (all other list boxes and radio buttons have
 been left with the default values unchanged).
 Click OK and you will see a split horizontal window VBE display (Figure
 8.6). Notice that the bottom window (title Watches) is the Watch window,
 and displays four columns:
 M The first column displays the name of the expression (i.e. cell).
 M The second column displays the value. Before running the macro it is shown
 to be < Out of Context > since it does not know what its value is until the
 program is running.
 M The third column displays the type. Again, the current value is Empty since
 a value will not be assigned until the program is running.
 M Finally, the fourth column displays the context. The display tells us that the
 context is othersalesmanmacros.validateWeekSales. In other words, this
Enter expression here
 The procedure for which
 the expression is valid
 The procedure for which
 the expression is applied
 Figure 8.5 The Add Watch window
 Context applied to which
 macros in which module(s)
Expression Type of variable
 The Watch window
 Figure 8.6 The Watches window before running the program
 macro is stored in the othersalesmanmacros module and is called
 validateWeekSales. Having set the watch we now need to set a breakpoint so
 that we can pause during each loop execution to see what is happening to the
Toggle Breakpoint: (the hand icon)
 There is little point in opening a Watch window, unless you can slow the
 program operation down enough to get a chance to see what is happening
 during program execution. A breakpoint does exactly that: it sets a program
 execution break at a line of code as a point at which the program will pause.
 It is a forced execution break in the program, and you can set breakpoints
 wherever you want. Select Toggle Breakpoint on the Debug menu and
 choose breakpoints carefully, because if, for example, you are Watching a
 cell in a loop, then clearly a breakpoint would have to be positioned
 somewhere inside the loop, otherwise it would not achieve its objective.
 To remove the breakpoint, select it and use Debug > Toggle Breakpoint.
 Figure 8.7 The Breakpoint line (With cell.Interior) and the


text:
This article describes a generalized approach to measuring subjective notions of quality. It shows how using a particular mathematical framework can yield several beneficial properties. These properties allow for measurements of complex, subjective notions of value or quality that are intuitive and easily tailored to a particular individual and data set. This example shows how the selection of different metrics can facilitate the incorporation of desirable features of the final scoring methodology.
What's in a number?
In my continuing saga on metrics, I quoted one IEEE article about the goal — "the main objective is to develop measures that are consistent with the subjective evaluation." I gave an example using litigation witness files to describe what this might look like. I was focusing on showing how a "QE" (Quality-Efficiency) score encourages competition of desirable characteristics of a given legal service. In this post, I'm examining some basics of how to select numerical formulas that correlate with our subjective notion of quality.
This post is somewhat technical (mathematical) and geared toward legal technologists. My goal, however, is that difficult parts can be glossed over and the overall points will still be understandable. As a disclaimer, I have no idea how much of this might have been done elsewhere (some of it dates back to my dissertation). Also, although I use a legal perspective on the scoring, nothing in the approach is specific to law.
Example: selecting an attorney
Selecting an attorney is in many ways similar to selecting an online date. We care about several factors and have to combine them to get a ranked list of candidates. Matching algorithms are similar to how we measure, say, general search results. In search, we may want to factor in topic, author, date, or even geographic region (just because we'd like to incorporate certain factors doesn't mean that the system is able to accommodate them). Similarly, as we consider measuring something like QE, we have to combine several factors to come up with a selection criteria — which provider should we use?
How we incorporate factors is an individualized choice. A good result for one person isn't necessarily a good result for someone else. Moreover, what matters to us is impacted by what's available. If we don't find what we're looking for (search results, vendors, online dates, whatever), we have to adjust our criteria. We're looking for the best from a pool of potential candidates, and that pool may vary from region to region or from day to day.
The example of selecting an attorney highlights how we combine characteristics in general.
Step one: combining normalized scores
Suppose I want to select an attorney to help me with a pressing legal issue. The most simple case would be one in which I care only about a single factor — say cost. Suppose I have a set of attorneys who's only distinguishable difference is how much they charge for handling my issue. I can just rank them based on who is the least expensive. Of course, I'm likely to care about other factors too. Suppose I also care about distance. If I cared only about distance, I could do the same with distance as I did with cost and just rank the attorneys by how close they are. But I need to combine cost and distance to get a single ranked list (i.e. reducing two dimensions down to one) — the order in which I'll look through the results in more detail to make a final selection.
Suppose, for Case 1, that one attorney would charge $1000 and is 20 miles away, and that another attorney would charge $2000 and is 10 miles away. I might prefer driving the extra 10 miles to save $1000. I could try adding the numbers — 1020 vs. 2010 — and take the smaller. But what if, Case 2, the less expensive attorney is 100 miles away and I don't want to drive that far? The numbers don't work: 1100 ($1000, 100 miles away) is worse than 2010 ($2000, 10 miles away).
Another approach might be to multiply cost and distance. For Case 1, I'd get a score of 20,000 for both attorneys (1000 * 20, and 2000 * 10), even though I prefer the less expensive one. This puts each mile of distance equal to $100 in fees, which doesn't fit what I want. Case 2 seems better. Even though the attorney that is too far away would get a score of 100,000 (1000 * 100), an attorney who is 21 miles away, an acceptable distance for the reduced cost, would get a higher score than the more expensive one, which also doesn't fit what I want.
To reconcile this, we can take each factor and derive a "normalized" score — a range from 0 to 1 — such that 0 means completely unacceptable and 1 means perfect. We then multiply the normalized values to arrive at a new score whose range is also 0 to 1, where 0 means completely unacceptable and 1 means perfect.
To get the values for each factor, we could define ranges (there are many ways to accomplish this). Suppose that for distance, we define three levels of distance: very close, close enough, and too far. Very close, anything within, say, 10 miles, will get a 1. An attorney who is farther than, say, 50 miles, is just too far away, so we'll give that a 0. Any attorney between 10 and 50 miles will get a 0.5. Similarly, we can stratify cost: 1 for $0 to $999, 0.75 for $1000 to $1999, 0.5 for $2000 to $2999, 0.25 for $3000 to $3999, and 0 for $4000 and above (just too expensive).
Case 1 gives a score of 0.375 (0.75 * 0.5) for the less expensive attorney, and 0.25 (0.5 * 0.5) for the more expensive one. For this type of scoring, the larger number is better, so we would select the less expensive attorney (who happens to be within our acceptable driving distance). Case 2, however, gives a score for the less expensive but very far attorney of 0 (0.75 * 0), and we would select the more expensive attorney — the only one within our distance limits. These values are closer to what we wanted.
At this point, we have a ranked list based on a "cost-distance" score with some intuitive characteristics. First and foremost, we get an ordered ranking that correlates to our intuitive notion of how we want to balance the trade-offs between various criteria (e.g. cost and distance). (This is a "non-strict total order", since if one lawyer is farther but less expensive, and another lawyer is closer but more expensive, the two might get the same overall score.) That's because we're effectively assigning an equivalency ratio between the various characteristics (e.g. a certain change in distance is equivalent to a certain change in cost, though not necessarily linearly).
Second, the scoring approach needs to be heterogeneous — it has to be able to accommodate and combine any type of data. So far, I described distance and cost, which are already linear data types. The scoring mechanics should be language independent as well. Below, I'll show an example of extending this to other types of (nonlinear) data.
Third, we have a filter that excludes all unacceptable candidates. In this case, we exclude any attorney that is either too far or too expensive. We get this property by multiplying values between 0 and 1, where 0 is unacceptable. If a candidate is unacceptable in one of its characteristics, the value of that characteristic is assigned 0. Since we multiply the values, and anything times 0 is 0, unacceptability in any characteristic sets the final score to 0 and thus excludes it from the candidate set.
This is an important property. If we have any hard limits for any characteristic (too far, too expensive, etc.), then it simply doesn't matter if a candidate fits all the other characteristics perfectly. The flip side of this, however, is to use filtering judiciously. If we set a hard limit at, say, 50 miles, but an otherwise perfect lawyer is 51 miles away, did we really want to exclude her? Furthermore, since we need to adjust our scoring based on the candidate set, we may well need to set our hard stop differently on a case-by-case basis. If we're looking for a lawyer in an urban area, we might be able to justify a closer hard stop on distance than if we're in a rural area — and perhaps the inverse on cost for the same reason (density of lawyers).
Fourth, I'm incorporating normalized scoring (such as relevance in Information Retrieval literature) — all characteristics are assigned a range of values from 0 to 1. This is an extension of boolean scoring, which is either 0 (exclude) or 1 (include). Boolean scoring also has the filtering property. However, boolean scoring doesn't have the ranking property — all acceptable candidates get the same score: 1. Normalized scoring is a strict generalization of boolean scoring, since any characteristic can be treated as a boolean and the multiplicative combination of scores will still function properly.
Fifth, by using normalized scoring, I'm able to apply a hierarchy property. Hierarchical scoring allows us to derive sub-scores and treat them as atomic scores, or take an atomic score and decompose it into smaller elements without impacting the way that characteristic is used. As an example, in my prior post


Version: 2019.2
Define a list of colors in the MinMaxGradient, to be chosen from at random.
The gradient is evaluated at a random point. The color returned is uninterpolated between color keys. Each color key in the gradient effectively changes the gradient to a fixed color for values between that key and the following key.


Sven Laumer
In 2008, Ford et al. (2008) pointed out for management research, that "it is time to expand our understanding of resistance to change". Since 1947, when Kurt Lewin discuss the first time the concept of resistance to change within his field theory, managerial psychology researchers have extended, criticized, modified and re-conceptualized the understanding of employees‟ responses to change initiatives. Also information systems research has identified resistance to change as major reason for IT project failures. However, as our analysis in this paper shows, there are a lot of opportunities for IS research to research resistance to IT-induced change. Using a literature review the paper discusses different concepts of resistance to change from managerial psychology and IS research in order to provide a better understanding of resistance to IT-induced change. The paper highlights implications from managerial psychology research to update the understanding of resistance to change in information systems research.


text:
Contents (view all pages)
Put here the wiki news with what's happened
Contribute to this wiki
To write a new article, just enter the article title in the box below.
- Not sure where to start?
Dinky Duck was a Terrytoons cartoon character that appeared in a number of animated shorts. Dinky was a young duck that lived on a farm with ducks, chickens and other typical farm animals. Dinky often took on the role of an orphan who simply wanted a place to call home. Other times, Dinky would perform some heroic deed and help restore calm to the barnyard when adult animals quarreled. Dinky first appeared in the 1939 short The Orphan Duck.


text:
Apple Pie Chinese Theatre
Apple Pie Language Chinese Theatre is a fun and interactive Speech & Drama programme that focus on improving Chinese oracy skills and boost self-confidence in children. Children are introduced and exposed to the aesthetics of the Chinese language through music and movement, tongue twisters, nursery songs, storytelling, language games, role play, poetry/rhymes recital, speech and drama production based on different genres and themes. By learning through play and the medium of performing arts, children will develop their imagination and creativity, improve their communication and social skills, build up their confidence to effectively express themselves in public. Our aim is to nurture and instill a life-long love and appreciation for Chinese Language in young children.
Chinese Little Theatre
Course is not just speech and drama. It is experiential education, involving a series of comprehensive educational activities carried out through the expression of drama. Through the training in the four elements of Theatre Course: Voice, Speech, Body movement and Drama performance, combined with the liberating nature of our teaching method, the Chinese Theatre Course will develop children's confidence and expressiveness which also help to cultivate children's abilities to Observe, Imitate, Think, Express and Work in teams.
Helen O'Grady Drama
Helen O'Grady Drama programme provides instruction to children in articulation, voice projection, facial expression, body language/gestures and helps them develop confidence and poise for public speaking as well as effective social and communication skills.
Kindergym is a general gymnastics program designed to develop gross motor skills, movement creativity, physical development, tumbling, body awareness and communication skills, while building self-confidence and self-esteem through fitness and fun in a safe environment through our comprehensive gymnastics classes.
Kinderdance introduces the elements of tap, ballet, imagery and acrobatics to develop the child's self-confidence and self esteem whilst encouraging body awareness and improved co-ordination, stability and flexibility.
Pre-Nursery and Nursery children will be taught both numeracy and linguistics as a step to a whole brain approach.
Phonetics Levels 1 & 2 Workshop
The phonics class will reiterate the sounds of the 26 letters of the alphabet, teach letter blending, vowels, consonants and simple frequency words for Level 1 (K1). For Level 2 (K2), comprehension, close passage, vocabulary, composition writing and English rules are incorporated. This program aims for the children to be Primary 1 ready!
P1 Preparatory Maths
We specialize in Higher order Math, Holistic Math and English for pre nursery and nursery as well as phonetics for K1 and K2. We believe in teaching with passion. Help your children be the best versions of themselves
Ru's Piano Studio
Specially designed keyboard program for your child that will:
- Experience the strengthening of right brain & speech memory
- Enjoy and appreciate different genres of music
- Have improved motor skills, hand-eye coordination that helps in reading and many other life skills
- Understand keyboard typography and note sequencing better
- Strengthen the foundation musical concepts that will help your child not only in music but the development of the whole child
Early brain development will definitely make a huge difference throughout your child's life. Using proven techniques that develop both the analytical left brain and the intuitive right brain, your child will be equipped to fully maximise their brain power, thus creating faster learning, better memory & recall, and most importantly, confidence to face challenges.
High Touch High Tech Science
Though discovery style learning, hands-on activities and inquiry based dialogue, children are engaged in exciting lessons that encourage them to explore the many wonders of science. The activities include learning how flowering plants reproduce, discovery of fungi, finding more about the footsteps of animals, discovery of our heart, making chlorophyll separate, learning more about the pH scale, discovery of our amazing sense of smell and more!
Wow!ARTec Preschool Robotics and Coding STEM Programme
An integrated curricula of Science, Engineering, Numeracy and Technology that promotes children's cognitive capabilities to think critically and innovatively, build resilience and flexibility in problem solving and promote digital competencies while having fun building robots and learning to code. The course offers lots of opportunities for hands-on experimentation and exploration, allowing children to learn and build their knowledge through play.
It also develops math's skills and spatial awareness.
John Langrehr Thinking Program
This enrichment is based on a well established principles of thinking psychology. The program is also be supported by a wide range of thinking questions, problem solving scenarios, practical hands-on activities, fun worksheets and learning games.
Abacus-Mental Arithmetic Course
To provide students with a head start in Mathematics. Benefits include improving listening ability, memory and concentration power, boosting thinking ability, building confidence and developing a greater interest in Mathematics.
Public Speaking for Kids
We are the leading Public Speaking School for kids in Singapore. Our comprehensive programs are meticulously crafted by our panel of professional speakers and business leaders to be well-rounded and effective. Our children have multiple opportunities to practice their public speaking skills in front of their peers to ensure public speaking becomes second nature to them.
Read and Write Program (Creative Writing)
The Read & Write Program is offered to Kindergarten 2 students to build confidence and interest in reading and writing independently.
The course encompasses step-by-step guided reading and writing to equip the student for future learning in primary education.
- Each student be able to read independently
- Each student be able to express him/herself creatively in speech and writing
- Logical and sequential thinking in story and event narration
GREEN APPLE CULTURE COMMUNICATION
- To acquire knowledge of Chinese phonetics.
- To be able to substitute difficult or unknown Chinese characters with Hanyu Pinyin in written work.
- To be able to read books with Hanyu Pinyin.
- To improve proficiency in Mandarin.
- Pronunciation of initials, finals and syllables
- The 4 tones and rules of writing tone-graph
- Rules of phonetics spelling
- Nursery rhymes, tongue twisters, etc.
|1||Chinese Speech and Drama|
|3||English Speech and Drama|
|6||Preparatory Classes + Phonetics Level 1 & 2 Workshop|
|10||P1 Preparatory Maths|
|11||High Touch High Tech Science|
|12||Robotics STEM program|
|13||John Langrehr Thinking Program|
|14||Abacus-Mental Arithmetic Course|
|15||Public Speaking for Kids|
|16||Read & Write Program (Creative Writing)|
|2||Chinese Little Theatre|


text:
All food has a limited shelf life which will vary depending on the type of food, how it is packaged and how carefully it is transported and stored.
The storage life of food products is influenced by many factors. Some foods spoil because microbes can still grow. Other foods are affected by chemical changes such as a slow development of brown colour and/or flavour changes, and rancidity in fats.
The environmental conditions under which food is stored also influence storage life. Water uptake or loss can affect texture and other food attributes. Warm storage temperatures, bright light, air (containing oxygen), and high humidity all shorten storage life – and ultimately affect your product quality, price and marketability.
Appropriate packaging and refrigeration can substantially reduce the rate at which food will deteriorate. Low temperatures slow the growth of microorganisms and the rate of chemical (including enzymic) changes in food.
Maximising shelf life
Many factors are critical in maximising shelf life, such as ingredient selection, processing techniques and packaging, as well as handling practices, storage protocols and cold chain transport solutions.
It is important to check that your storage room or refrigerator is operating correctly. Your thermometer should show a temperature below 5°C in the main section of the refrigerator.
Avoid crowding stored products in the refrigerator, ensure good air circulation around each item. Proper storage not only keeps your products in good condition and safe from the growth of food poisoning bacteria, but saves you money because it reduces waste.
The responsibility of determining the shelf life of a food, and thus its best-before or use-by date, lies with the manufacturer/packer.
The most direct way of doing this is to conduct properly constructed storage trials under realistic, defined conditions. This may not be possible for smaller manufacturers, in particular those just entering the market.
Retailers may also have their own demands about shelf life of particular product categories especially those with a relatively short shelf life. Food technologists, based at SARDI, can use a range of methods and models to investigate shelf-life and use-by dates.
Want to know more?
The legal requirement for manufacturers of packaged foods to open date mark foods was introduced in Australia in 1978. This followed similar moves internationally and the publication of a standard by the Codex Committee on Food Labelling. It was argued by consumer groups that with the rapid changes occurring in food manufacturing, packaging and retailing, consumers could no longer rely on traditional wisdom and habits to dictate how long a food may be stored.
It is an offence to sell packaged food past its use-by date and this form of date marking is tied to food safety.
For more information, visit CSIRO's Food Science.
Want to know more?
CSIRO storage advice
The environmental conditions under which food is stored directly relates to storage life.


text:
October 16, 2011
- arrears (noun)
- What does it mean?
- 1 : the state of being behind in the paying of debts2 : unpaid or overdue debts
- How do you use it?
- After a couple months of being in arrears with the rent, the roommates finally got caught up and started paying rent on time again.
- Are you a word wiz?
Don't get behind on answering this one; start right away! Which of the following words do you think shares a common ancestor with "arrears"?We won't hold back the answer! It's B, "retroactive." Both "arrears" and "retroactive" have as a Latin ancestor the word "retro," meaning "back." "Arrears" traces back through French to the Latin phrase "ad retro," meaning "backward." "Retroactive," which means "intended to apply or take effect at a date in the past," also traces back through French to its Latin ancestor. It derives from the Latin word "retroagere," meaning "to drive back, reverse," a combination of "retro" and "agere," meaning "drive."


text:
Demographic data is used to identify minority and low-income populations that may be affected by a project. The analysis is conducted as part of the environmental review required by the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA).
This web page is designed for a technical audience and provides directions for how to retrieve demographic data.
The EJView Website
The EJView website was developed and maintained by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). It uses data from the U.S. Census Bureau and the American Community Survey to calculate demographic data through a geospacial map interface.
The Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) has agreed that reports generated using this website are sufficient demographic documentation for CE and DCE level projects. Additional data may be needed for EA and EIS level projects.
Use Adobe Flash Player to view the training videos. The videos are listed in a specific sequence because you must enter the project information in this order for the website to generate accurate reports.
School Data Website
FHWA requires verification of demographic data because Census Data is only collected every ten year. The preferred secondary data source is school demographic data. The Office of the Superintendent of Public Instruction (OSPI) website is updated annually and provides detailed information about schools in Washington State.


Process and Activity-Based Costing
Managerial and Cost Accounting
( 15 )
39 pages
This book is the eleventh of fifteen books which introduces the basic principles of accounting.
This is a Business eBook
Access this book on our eReader, no adverts inside the book
Latest eBooks
About the author
This book is the eleventh of fifteen books which introduces the basic principles of accounting. In this book you will learn about process and activity-based costing. Key costing concepts include: cost flows, equivalent units, cost allocation to completed units and units in process, journal entries, identifying activities, determining traceable costs and allocation rates, and assigning costs based upon predetermined overhead rates.
 1. Process Costing and Activity-Based Costing
 2. Process Costing
 1. Process Costing
 2. Comparing Job and Process Costing
 3. Introduction to the Cost of Production Report
 4. Job Costing Flows
 5. Process Costing Flows
 6. Job Costing Flows on Job Cost Sheets
 7. Process Costing Flows on Cost of Production Reports
 3. Equivalent Units
 1. Factors of Production
 2. An Illustration of Equivalent Units Calculations
 3. Cost per Equivalent Unit
 4. Cost Allocation to Completed Units and Units in Process
 1. Cost of Production Report
 2. Journal Entries
 3. Subsequent Departments
 4. The Big Picture
 5. FIFO Process Costing
 5. Activity-Based Costing
 1. Pros of ABC
 2. Cons of ABC
 3. The Reality of ABC
 4. A Closer Look at ABC Concepts
 5. The Steps to Implement ABC
 6. A Simple Analogy
 7. A Case Study in ABC
 8. Study Process and Costs
 9. Identify Activities
 10. Determine Traceable Costs and Allocation Rates
 11. Assign Costs to Activities
 12. Determine Per-Activity Allocation Rates
 13. Apply Costs to Cost Objects
 14. What Just Happened?
 15. A Great Tool, But not a Panacea
 The book is a must have. Good job indeed.
 More reviews


Word Study
Table of Contents
common ginger | common good | common grape hyacinth | common grape vine | common ground | common gum cistus | common heath | common hop | common hops | common horehound | common horsetail
common gum cistus
For further exploring for "common gum cistus" in Webster Dictionary Online
created in 0.33 seconds
powered by bible.org


dka' thub
From Rangjung Yeshe Wiki - Dharma Dictionary
Jump to navigation Jump to search
Or go directly to for more upcoming features.
1) ability to undergo hardships, fortitude, tolerance of hardship / suffering, asceticism, austerity, ascetic practice, penance. 2) to bear what is difficult. 3) an ascetic, hermit. 4) the first month of the Tibetan calendar [RY]
practicing asceticism [RY]
asceticism, penance, an ascetic, name for first month of Tibetan calendar, white species of plant calotropis gigantea, austerity, ascetic practices, ascetic discipline [JV]
ascetic practice / life [RY]
spiritual challengs; ascetic practice [RB]
1) exertion; 2) ability to undergo hardships, asceticism, austere ascetic practice, fortitude, tolerance of hardship, enduring suffering, bear what is difficult, penance, ascetic, hermit; 3) 1st month [IW]


text:
Late Pleistocene Faunal and Temperature Patterns of the Colombia Basin, Caribbean Sea
Warren L. Prell, James D. Hays, 1976. "Late Pleistocene Faunal and Temperature Patterns of the Colombia Basin, Caribbean Sea", Investigation of Late Quaternary Paleoceanography and Paleoclimatology, R. M. Cune, J. D. Hays
Download citation file:
High-salinity, low-productivity Sargasso Sea type water developed in situ within the Colombia Basin during glacial extremes. Evidence for "ice-age aridity" in northern South America supports this hypothesis. Q-mode factor analysis of total planktonic foraminiferal faunas from three Colombia Basin sediment cores defines equatorial-tropical and southern Sargasso faunal assemblages, which correspond to interglacial and glacial conditions in the Colombia Basin. The oceanographic conditions represented by these assemblages were deduced from the present faunal distributions in the North Atlantic Ocean. The interglacial assemblage has maximum abundances in the equatorial zone, which is characterized by moderate salinities, strong currents, and high nutrients and productivity. The glacial assemblage occurs today in the distinctive southern Sargasso Sea water of high salinity, low nutrients, and low productivity. The alternation between interglacial-equatorial and glacial-Sargasso Sea assemblages in the Colombia Basin suggests that during glacial periods, Sargasso type water was formed in situ within the Colombia Basin.
Paleotemperature estimates derived by the Imbrie and Kipp technique (1971) reveal only 2° to 3°C average temperature changes between interglacial and glacial stages. During glacial stages, however, seasonal contrast (Ts−Tw) was increased; the winters had much larger variations (4° to 5°C) than did the summers (1° to 2°C). Because the evaporation/precipitation ratio (E/P) is greatest today during the Caribbean winter, increased seasonal contrast during glacial stages may have increased the E/P, resulting in high salinities similar to present Sargasso water. The increased E/P suggests that the Intertropical Convergence Zone was on the average located over South America more during the glacial stages than at present.


text:
Math is the basis for music, but for those of us who aren't virtuosic at either, the connection isn't always easy to grasp. Which is what makes the videos of Vi Hart, a "mathemusician" with a dedicated YouTube following, so wonderful. Hart explains complex phenomena--from cardioids to Carl Gauss--using simple (and often very) funny means.
As Maria Popova pointed out yesterday, Hart's latest video is a real doozy. In it, she uses a music box and a Möbius strip to explain space-time, showing how the two axes of musical notation (pitch and tempo) correspond to space and time. Using the tape notation as a model for space-time, she cuts and folds it to show the finite ways you can slice and dice the axes. Then, she shows us how you can loop the tape into a continuous strip of twinkling notes:
If you fold space-time into a Mobius strip, you get your melody, and then the inversion, the melody played upside down. And then right side up again. And so on. So rather than folding and cutting up space-time, just cut and tape a little loop of space-time, to be played over, and over.
It's a pretty magical observation, and it makes even me--the prototypical math dunce--wish I'd tried harder. Yet there's still time: Hart works for the Khan Academy, a nonprofit that offers free educational videos about math, biology, and more. Check it out.
[H/t Brain Pickings]


plants.
The lumen is defined as the amount of luminous flux emitted across a solid angle of one steradian by a light source of one candle of intensity.
Don't be scared, we are going to get practical.
Of course, every plant will have her own ideal light needs, but in this thread we are trying to speak as generally as possible, so I will leave a reasonable rule of thumb for general purposes. You should aim to deliver at least 20,000 lumens per square meter of growing space (roughly equivalent to 2,000 lumens per square foot) for plants sustaining vegetative growth, and at least 30,000 lumens per square meter (about 3,000 lm per square foot) if you are growing for fruits, flowers or seeds. Remember that the amount of energy contained in a long wavelength (red range) photon is smaller than the amount of energy contained in a short wavelength (blue range) photon, so you need to make up for that difference by delivering more photons to the plant, and that means more lumens per surface unit.
Now let's take a look to the alternatives we have to achieve this.
4.2.– Lamp Parameters
I'm compiling here different wiki definitions for all the relevant parameters that you will find in lamp specifications.
Potency: Is the measure of the consumption of energy by the lamp, measured in Watts.
Luminous Flux: Is the total output of the lamp, measured in Lumens, when working at full wattage power.
Efficacy: It's the measure of lumens the lamp delivers per every Watt of power consumption. Low efficacy means high production of heat (waste of energy). In order to maximize the results of energy consumption, and considering that gardening lamps will be working for a long time, it's important to aim for high efficacy values. The measure of efficacy, then, is expressed in Lumens/Watt (lm/W)
Color Temperature (CCT) – It's the temperature needed for an ideal black body radiator to emit light of a comparable hue to that of the light source. It's measured in degrees Kelvin (K). For our practical purposes, it will be enough to remember that the CCT rating is an indication of how "warm" or "cool" the light source is. CCTs of up to 3000 K correspond to warm colors, and CCTs of 5000 K and more correspond to cool colors.
Spectrum: It's the portion of the EM spectrum that can be found in the light produced by the lamp. A good spectrum for gardening delivers plenty of light in the wavelength bands that are optimally used by the plants.
4.3.– Lighting Technologies: Types of Lamps
In the last three decades, indoor gardening and horticulture have been revolutionized by the advances in lighting technologies. Here's a summary of the current standard types of lamps. Please note that figures are approximated, and that generally efficacy ranges relate to different wattage powers and different chemical materials within the same category of lamps.
Incandescent Lamps
Wattage Range: 5-500 W
Efficacy: 4-20 lm / W
CCT: 2400-3400 K
Spectrum: Continuous
Lifetime: 2-2,000 hours
Incandescent light bulbs produce light by heating a filament with electric current until it glows. In this family you can find the classic tungsten incandescent bulbs and the halogen lamps. They are cheap but very inefficient, since most of the electric energy they use (95% or more) is converted to heat, and only a little fraction is converted to light. Their spectrum is not good for gardening either. Unless you want to grow plants that have extremely low light requirements (such as certain types of ferns), and you want to make them sweat while wasting a lot of energy, these types of bulbs have no place in an indoor garden.
Fluorescent Lights (FLs)
Wattage Range: 15-80W (up to 250W in Compact Fluorescents)
Efficacy: 50-100 lm / W
CCT: 2700 – 5000 K, depending on the type of fluorescent
Spectrum: Combined (Continuous from the phospor coating, plus the line spectra of the mercury gas discharge)
Lifetime: 8000-20,000 hours
Fluorescent lamps use electricity to excite gas vapors, producing them to emit short wave ultraviolet light that causes the coating in the tube to fluoresce. The coating produces the visible light, and different types of coating deliver different qualities of light. The overall spectrum of a fluorescent results from the combination of the light emitted by the vapor inside of the tube and the light emitted by the phosphorescent coating.
FLs have much higher efficacy and efficiency than incandescent lamps; they require 25-30% of power to produce the same light as an incandescent. Different types of FL lamps will deliver different CCTs and color dominances, so the choice of lamp should be related to the type of result you want to achieve.
Cool White and Daylight FL produce a small amount of light in the red range and a larger amount in the blue range, what makes them good for starting seeds or for leafy plants that will not be encouraged to flower.
Warm White FL deliver primarily red wavelengths and less blue light, so they are not ideal for vegetative growth and are more often used to supplement Cool White FLs.
There is also another difference within tubular fluorescent bulbs. You will often see FLs labeled as T5, T8 or T12. The letter T indicates the Tubular shape of the bulb, and the number following represents the diameter of the bulb in eighths of an inch. The standard fluorescents use T12 bulbs, and these are fine for seedlings and early stages. However, if you intend to use FL seriously for growing, you should look for the T5 fluorescent grow lights. Those are much more efficient than the regular wider FL bulbs.
Update: Let's make it a T4. More efficient, thinner fluorescent lamps have become available. I've added a couple 20W T4 6400K tubes to my indoor space, for germination and vegetation, and I'm very pleased with the results.
Compact Fluorescent Lights (CFLs) use the same technologies, but their tubes are curved and folded to fit into the space of an incandescent bulb, and include a compact electronic ballast (see 4.4 below) in the base of the lamp. This architecture allows much longer tubes, hence larger power inputs.
They are usually available either in full-spectrum bulbs, that produce a vast range of light wavelengths, and cool-spectrum bulbs that mostly produce blue light. In spite of being placed in a regular incandescent fixture, they also as FLs burn much cooler than incandescent lights, so they can be placed very close to the plant without risks of burning the leaves.
High Intensity Discharge Lamps (HID)
HID Lamps produce light with an electric arc between two electrodes housed inside of a alumina or quartz tube, filled with gas and metal salts. They are more efficient than fluorescent lamps, producing more light per unit of electric power consumed. That makes them a good choice for illuminating larger areas, or simply to provide an overall higher light output using a single lamp instead of multiple fluorescent tubes. However, you should always do the maths to see which combination is better for your interests.
They produce light in discrete lines or bands, used in spectral analysis to identify or fingerprint the material producing the light. Different types of HID lamps are classified depending on the elements used inside of the tube.
a.- Mercury Vapor Lamps (MV)
They are the less expensive among HID lamps. Unfortunately, they provide the worst spectrum for plant growth, so they are not recommended for indoor gardening.
b.- High Pressure Sodium Lamps (HPS)
Wattage Range: 35-1000 W
Efficacy: 55-140 lm / W
CCT: 1800 – 2200 K
Spectrum: Broadband
Lifetime: 10,000-40,000 hours
Unlike Low Pressure Sodium lamps (extremely efficient light sources, often used in street lamps but not useful for gardening due to their narrow yellow light spectrum), HPS lamps emit a wide spectrum more concentrated in the range of red/orange light, so they are particularly useful for the fruiting and flowering stages of plant development.
They show overall a little advantage regarding other HID lamps in terms of efficiency, light output and lifespan, although as said they do have a slightly more specific gardening profile.
c.- Metal Halide Lamps (MH)
Wattage Range: 70-1500 W
Efficacy: 75-125 lm / W
CCT: 3000 – 20,000 K
Spectrum: Quasi-continuous
Lifetime: 6,000-20,000 hours
MH lamps produce an intense white light output, closer to sunlight than any other HID source, have a good CRI measure, and same as FLs, CFLs and HPS, they are extensively used in indoor gardening. They show a wide spectrum with a strong presence of blue wavelengths, which makes them overall good and specially suitable for vegetative growth. Traditional MH lamps use a quartz arc tube and can also be referred to as QMH.
Also, CMH lights are definitely worth a mention. Thanks to Shaolin for the heads up.
Ceramic Metal Halide (CMH)
Wattage Range: 20-400W
Efficacy: 80-117 lm / W
CCT:


text:
Pureco, a household cleaning product provider, is stepping up its environmental sustainability commitment by initiating a carbon offset program. In collaboration with Fairatmos, a climate technology company specializing in high-quality carbon offsets, Pureco is gradually taking steps towards carbon neutrality. This initiative builds upon their ongoing sustainability efforts, such as offering refillable product options.
Established in 2019, Pureco focuses on producing household cleaning essentials for babies and children, including dishwashing soap, laundry detergent, fabric softeners, hand soap, floor cleaners, and more. With the campaign slogan "Feel the Goodness of Plant," Pureco promises that all its products are made from plant-derived active ingredients and formulated without harsh chemicals. These products are not only intended for babies and children but also cater to adults with sensitive skin.
Ringgo, the Founder of Pureco, states, "Indogo Corporation and the Pureco team aspire to make a positive impact on the lives of Indonesian consumers. We aim to grow our business responsibly by providing household products that benefit the environment and promote consumer well-being."
According to data from the World Data Lab's World Emission Clock, Indonesia's Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions surged to 2.1 gigatons in 2022. Individual contributions are estimated to account for 7.6 gigatons of GHG emissions annually. Carbon offsetting emerges as a progressive step to complement other GHG reduction efforts.
Natalia Rialucky, CEO of Fairatmos, emphasizes, "Collaborating with local businesses that share our mission is crucial for Fairatmos. Furthermore, Pureco's impact extends to households and the wider community. We hope this collaboration will spread a positive message to the public and other businesses."
Previously, Pureco partnered with Siklus, a refill company dedicated to reducing single-use packaging. Through the Siklus app, Pureco customers can order and purchase products online, with Siklus delivery riders bringing refillable containers to the customer's doorstep. However, there remains an inevitable contribution to GHG emissions. Therefore, Pureco's carbon offset initiative represents a continued commitment to environmental sustainability, addressing unavoidable GHG emissions stemming from energy consumption in production and other sources.
In summary, Pureco's new carbon offset initiative demonstrates its dedication to environmental responsibility, furthering their mission to provide eco-friendly household products while offsetting carbon emissions to mitigate their environmental impact.


text:
Prints, Drawings, and Photographs
The Sunflower Quilting Bee at Arles
Faith Ringgold, American, born 1930. Printed by Tamarind Institute, Albuquerque, New Mexico, 1970 - present.
Currently not on view
1996-124-1Gift of Anne d'Harnoncourt, 1996
In this lithograph, eight powerful African American women from the past and present display a colorful quilt that is a communal symbol of their achievements. From upper left they are Madam Walker, Sojourner Truth, Ida Wells, Fannie Lou Hammer, Harriet Tubman, Rosa Parks, Mary McLeod Bethune, and Ella Baker. A ninth figure, on the lower left, is Willia Marie Simone, a fictional character created by the artist. Vincent van Gogh, well known for his paintings of sunflowers, stands to the right.
Through words and text, symbol and metaphor, Ringgold acknowledges the contributions of African American women and honors their traditions. She is a painter, soft sculptor, quilter, performance artist, and author; and she always speaks in a clear voice that affirms women, especially African American women.


The Wikipedia entry for Lapis Niger mentions that the inscription was written in boustrophedon, alternating reading direction between every line. This inscription is far from complete. Are there Latin inscriptions that were written in boustrophedon that have have (essentially) completely survived to us?
I could not find examples of Latin inscriptions in boustrophedon besides the one I mentioned, probably because I am not familiar with any inscription databases. What I want is a good example or two, not necessarily a full listing of all known inscriptions (if there are many). I don't mind if an example inscription is short, but it should have at least two lines, of course.
 - 2
 The Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum, known as CIL, is online cil.bbaw.de/cil_en/index_en.html This is the ultimate collection of inscriptions in Latin (not completely digitized though, there are 30 volumes). Caveat: it needs some training how to use it. – Alex B. Mar 13 '16 at 13:03
 - _USER_., thanks! I had heard of CIL but had never seen it online. Is it possible to search it for boustrophedon inscriptions? I can't see how to do that. – Joonas Ilmavirta Mar 13 '16 at 13:21
 - I thought to remember my teacher mention that TETEROROMAMANUNUDADATETELALATETE was not only confusing (ore more elaboratela: onomatopoetic representation of barbaric language) by its lack of white space or letter case or interpunction in its original, but additionally confusing when written as boustrophedron. But perhaps this does not imply that the origianl was written that way... – Hagen von Eitzen May 1 '20 at 10:28
Since this is not exactly my area of expertise, I will quote Rex Wallace (Wallace 2011).
He argues that the earliest Latin inscriptions were written from right to left and from left to right (p. 22). He mentions three examples of right-to-left inscriptions in Latin: the Vetusia inscription (ET La 2.1) and the Fibula Praenestina (CIL I².3). Not everyone agrees whether the language of the Vetusia inscription should be considered Latin, though, and the authenticity of the Fibula Praenestina gets questioned from time to time (the artifact, not the text).
Note: Michael Weiss writes, in the new, second edition of his Outline of the Historical and Comparative Grammar of Latin (2020),
"New scientific investigation with a scanning electron microscope by Edilberto Formigli and Daniela Ferro (2014) has now shown beyond a reasonable doubt that both the fibula and its inscription are ancient" (Weiss 2020: 24, ft. 2).
The third example is the bronze Fucine Lake inscription (CIL I².5), which was found in 1877 but is lost now. Clackson and Horrocks 2007/2011 give its text in a new version proposed in Crawford 2006.
This is what it looks like in CIL (de visu, I took the picture myself):
Most importantly, Wallace observes that
"By the middle of the republican period, however, writers had settled on left-to-right direction as the norm, and almost all Latin inscriptions after this date are written in this manner. Inscriptions in other formats, such as boustrophendon, appear rather infrequently" (Wallace 2011: 22).
Also note that there is a difference between boustrophedon (the direction of writing alternates) and sinistroverse (the direction of writing is right-to-left), e.g. a bronze tablet from Falerii Novi (CIL I² 365); please follow the link to see it, since it is copyrighted. Here's the glossed text, from Clackson and Horrocks:
enter image description here
Clackson and Horrocks 2007 argue it is written in Latin and not Faliscan (contrary to what Getty Images says). As they put it, it is written in the Faliscan manner (sinistroverse), with Faliscan letter forms and mainly Faliscan orthography (see Clackson and Horrock 2007: 119-120 for further detail).
John Bodel (Bodel 2012) observes that by the end of the fifth BCE Latin texts "regularly ran left to right" (p. 82). He discusses two theories, neither of which, he argues, can be proven correct at this point.
According to the first theory, "[w]hen inscribed writing began to be used to label larger monuments, however, the fixed position of (generally) rectilinear objects necessitated accommodating a more limited range of viewing perspectives" (p. 83).
The second theory holds that Roman script is dextroverse because of the desire to make it look as much different as possible from sinistroverse ductus in Etruscan, due to rising political and cultural ambitions of Rome.
Bodel, John. 2012. Paragrams, punctuation, and system in ancient Roman script. In S. Houston (ed.), The Shape of script: How and why writing systems change, pp. 63-90. Santa Fe, NM.
Clackson, James, and Geoffrey Horrocks. 2007. The Blackwell history of the Latin language.
Wallace, Rex. 2011. "The Latin Alphabet and Orthography." In James Clackson (ed.), A Companion to the Latin Language, pp. 9–28. London/New York: Wiley-Blackwell.
 - 2
 StackExchange allows html formatting for superscripts and subscripts. 1 and 2 gives you superscript 1 and subscript 2 but it doesn't seem to work in comments. (_USER_.M.Weimer, you may also want to know this.) Does Wallace's article contain photographs or drawings of the inscriptions so that one could actually see the boustrophedon in action? I can't access it now; I'll see if I have better luck tomorrow when I'm on campus. And thanks, this is a good answer, and so is the other one! – Joonas Ilmavirta Mar 14 '16 at 0:21
We do in fact have a couple.
The best little collection of Old Latin inscriptions is found in Warmington's old Loeb, Remains of Old Latin IV: Archaic Inscriptions. It's a tiny bit out of date, but otherwise holds up well as an anthology of old inscriptions with a very good translation to go along with it.
Thumbing through quickly, I noticed a couple dedicatory inscriptions. They're generally easy to find in here, as there are arrows by the editor which show the direction of the text. The first I noticed was the second of the dedicatory inscriptions, which is known as the Lapis Fucinus or Caso Cantovios bronze (CIL 1².5, dated c. 300 BCE). Below is a screenshot to the online Loeb edition, since I cannot figure out how to accurately preserve formatting without it looking a mess.
Lapis Fucinus, example of boustrophedon
in English:
Caso Cantovios Aprufclanos set up pillars at the Esalican boundary in the city Casontonia; and his allies brought a sacred gift to Angitia on behalf of Marsian legions.
This seems to be the best example of a complete inscription in boustrophedon. We also have examples of sinistroverse (left-to-right) inscriptions, such as a Falerian bronze tablet (Warmington 71).
Falerian Bronze, example of sinistroverse
I can't find a quick picture of the inscription, but the arrows again show the direction of the inscription.
Edit: See Alex B.'s post for a picture of the text.
Your Answer