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widespread concern declining literacy skills recent young japanese present study investigated higherlevel reading writing proficiencies underpinned basic literacy skills japanese adolescents large database popular literacy exams japan retrospectively analyzed word textlevel data middle high school students taken exams period 2019 academic year using structural equation modeling extracted main data 161 students well six independent datasets validation results validated threedimensional view wordlevel literacy reading accuracy writing accuracy semantic comprehension demonstrated writing semantic skills underpinned text writing reading respectively semantic comprehension words affected text writing indirectly via text reading however could replace direct effect word writing accuracy findings robustly replicated multiple independent datasets provided new evidence dimensionspecific relationships word textlevel literacy skills confirmed unique contribution word handwriting acquisition text literacy proficiency replacement handwriting digital writing eg typing global trend however dualpathway model literacy development identified study suggests advantages sustaining early literacy education handwriting growth higherlevel language skills future generations online version contains supplementary material available 101007s11145023104333