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child development perspectivesvolume 5 issue 2 p 7581 full access multiple dimensions video game effects douglas gentile douglas gentile iowa state universitysearch papers author douglas gentile douglas gentile iowa state universitysearch papers author first published 10 may 2011 httpsdoiorg101111j17508606201100159xcitations 98 concerning article addressed douglas gentile iowa state university w112 lagomarcino hall ames ia 50011 email email protected aboutsectionspdf toolsrequest permissionexport citationadd favoritestrack citation shareshare give accessshare full text accessshare fulltext accessplease review terms conditions use check box share fulltext version articlei read accept wiley online library terms conditions useshareable linkuse link share fulltext version article friends colleagues learn morecopy url abstract abstract video games center debate helpful harmful children adolescents research substantiate sides existing research suggests least 5 dimensions video games affect players amount play content play game context structure game mechanics game play article describes 5 dimensions support scientific literature arguing approach allow people get beyond typical goodbad dichotomous thinking nuanced understanding video game effects provide testable hypotheses future research past 30 years digital electronic games hereafter called video games gone novelty entertainment one largest industries terms money posting 21 billion sales 2008 growing 19 despite poor global economy audience reached 92 american children playing video games gentile walsh 2002 average gamer 35 years old esa 2008 new medium video games come fire critics potential harms also praised potential benefits surprisingly rhetoric debate engenders generates heat illumination two examples demonstrate one vocal critics nowdisbarred lawyer jack thompson routinely assumed highprofile violent crimes school shootings stemmed part violent game play public letter mother ceo video game company wrote recent plethora cop killings caused part darling sons entrepreneurial energy three policemen dead alabama grand theft auto 60 minutes hope son provided flat screen tv see grief bereaved families fills screen cavalli 2008 opposite side video game industry also sometimes misrepresented issues president entertainment software association said televised 2004 interview every researcher whos come without preconceived notion trying prove video games harmful looked literature said absolutely evidence suggest violent video games harmful palmer 2004 educators long recognized potential software games teach 1980s saw push get computers classroom schools adopted early educational games oregon trail help teach schoolchildren geography pioneer life indeed games many things excellent pedagogy gee 2003 2005 gentile gentile 2008 motivating provide immediate feedback adapt level learner provide repetition point automaticity encourage distributed learning teach transfer use excellent teaching techniques ironically sides usually correct effects games tend however select different research literatures make points problem parents educators game producers policymakers researchers polarizing rhetoric damaging ultimately misses point video games neither good bad existing research suggests least five dimensions video games affect players amount play content play game context structure game mechanics game play although future studies may demonstrate additional dimensions five appear able account effects documented existing research literature discussion focuses main effect likely dimensions interact focus article describe theoretically distinct dimension amount game play many studies found associations amount game play several negative outcomes increased aggression likely however associations due amount per se artifacts relation amount dimensions gamers spend time playing effects happen furthermore greater amounts time imply increased repetition game aspects amount play likely influences magnitude effects independently total amount game time appears related school performance risk obesity physical health outcomes example figure 1 shows separate amount video game play violent game content directly predicts poorer school performance increased aggressive behavior whereas violent content directly predicts aggressive behavior school performance anderson gentile buckley 2007 gentile lynch linder walsh 2004 researchers suggest displacement hypothesis games displace time activities explanation possible argue relation might due children rather game time likely children perform poorly school likely spend time playing games may feel sense mastery eludes school nevertheless hour child spends playing entertainment games hour spent homework reading exploring creating things might educational benefit therefore although children may initially seek games poor students large amounts play likely hurt grades fact figure 1 suggests effect amount video game play early school year negatively predicted school performance later school year figure 1open figure viewerpowerpoint longitudinal path analysis demonstrating direct effects amount screen time violent game exposure adapted anderson et al 2007 studies also demonstrated association amount time spent games screen media risk childhood obesity berkey et al 2000 laurson et al 2008 vandewater shim caplovitz 2004 several mechanisms proposed including displacement physical activity increased eating highfat highsugar foods however new trend video games movementbased games dance dance revolution nintendo wii may ultimately reverse effect children play types games health issues also linked amount game play cases children reporting repetitive stress injuries due overuse game controllers even thumb injury called nintendinitis brasington 1990 total amount play also linked pathological gaming colloquially called video game addiction charlton 2002 chiu lee huang 2004 fisher 1994 gentile 2009 gentile et al 2011 griffiths hunt 1998 johansson gotestam 2004 yee 2001 research pathological gaming still young likely although amount may turn necessary factor cannot sufficient factor gentile 2009 amount spent may also matter educators know distributing practice time better longterm learning putting lot time known massed practice anderson 1983 one study among gamers playing equal amounts violent games split play regular frequent intervals likely become aggressive distributed play less gentile gentile 2008 thus gamers distribute amount play may matter simply much play content game play standard definition content although definitions would likely focus script elements themes game example game script included requiring player solve math puzzles would likely provide educational math content whereas game script characters included shooting would provide violent content dozens studies shortterm longterm effects violent video game including experimental studies demonstrate causal effects anderson dill 2000 anderson et al 2007 ballard wiest 1996 bushman anderson 2002 correlational studies demonstrate realworld associations anderson dill 2000 anderson et al 2007 bartholow bushman sestir 2006 gentile et al 2004 krahe moller 2004 wiegman van schie 1998 longitudinal studies demonstrate effects accumulating across time anderson et al 2007 anderson et al 2008 hopf huber weiss 2008 moeller krahe 2009 wallenius punamki 2008 metaanalyses demonstrate playing violent games increases aggressive cognitions aggressive feelings aggressive behaviors anderson 2004 although several theories posit mechanisms effect suggest violent content primes aggressive concepts conversely games include prosocial content characters help nonviolent ways predict prosocial behavior short term long term studies also demonstrated gentile et al 2009 many educational games teach specific skills reading math metaanalyses demonstrate although successful others educational games good teaching content murphy et al 2002 games designed teach health knowledge skills example young cancer patients played video game designed teach cancer treatment learned patients played entertainment video game instead beale kato marinbowling guthrie cole 2007 addition patients better regular adherence taking prophylactic antibiotics kato cole bradlyn pollack 2008 studies used games designed teach children recognize symptoms take care asthma diabetes general research found games greater effect childrens healthcare compliance behaviors giving children pamphlets information lieberman 1997 2001a 2001b overall clear children learn game content learning learning affect future behaviors game context least researched dimension game effects game context alters creates effects context also least well defined describe several aspects first changing rules goals game type ingame context could moderate effects example one play version capture flag violent game halo players one context players form teams attempt shoot teams players order capture flag another context players play slayer mode shoot player contexts could expose player amount game violence effects might different might everyone approach leads greater increases aggressive thoughts lower empathy greater desensitization one plays part team studies examined viable hypothesis research television movie context effects support similarly social context games might moderate effects example massively multiplayer online mmo games world warcraft one play thousands players games cliques form either informally formally within game sometimes called joining guild many game goals require multiple people complete provides social context game content therefore one playing game segment requires violence complete social context could moderate effect could enhances violence effect one receives social support people one considers friends behaving aggressively game could however mitigates effect ones motivations altered player focuses prosocial motivations help ones teammates rather focusing aggressive motivations although reasonable hypotheses studies yet conducted test noted earlier although dimensions describe theoretically independent likely interact game play many games game context influence game content players may experience different script elements based decisions make game world warcraft example demonstrates player plays guild players access game content solo player addition moderating effects content effects teamwork contextual variable may direct effects collaboration cooperation skills example two studies virtual game environment designed encourage teamwork cooperative working methods among vocational students found game encourage collaboration hmlinen 2008 hmlinen manninen jrvela hkkinen 2006 another context aspect may independent effects game provides contextual clues ingame problem solving example one study problemsolving skills used encountering impasses playing novel game asked frequent infrequent gamers think aloud playing blumberg rosenthal randall 2008 frequent gamers made significantly references using insight resolve impasse specific game strategies achieve specific goals furthermore complexity many games means potential promote complex problemsolving strategies study postings ingame mmo bulletin boards 86 posts focused development understanding social knowledge construction including collaboratively solving problems argumentation using evidence presentation counterarguments steinkuehler duncan 2008 addition many posts included detailed scientific mathematical models explain game features thus game context creates environment fosters models informal scientific reasoning practices date however seems written potential game contexts affect problemsolving skills studies testing de freitas griffiths 2007 ravenscroft 2007 steinkuehler 2008 game structure games require players get information screen display screen displays therefore carefully structured provide meaningful information one level similar communication scholars call formal features describe structuring information screen affects psychological meaning huston wright 1994 example couple enter bedroom shut door fades black take away specific meaning happened behind door however see couple shut door cuts next scene assume thing cases content identical way structured changes psychological meaning therefore structure games could independent effects players possible improve perceptual skills practice improvements theoretically specific types structural information perceived several studies demonstrated experience video games improve certain types visual attention skills one line research focused action video games generally violent games things could jump attack improve visual attention periphery video screen green bavelier 2003 2006a 2006b 2007 greenfield dewinstanley kilpatrick kaye 1994 seems intuitively reasonable action video game player needs constantly scanning full screen enemy could pop anywhere player needs able detect small changes color texture periphery react quickly seems similar type skill air traffic controller needs many games require player navigate threedimensional 3d virtual world although information navigation represented twodimensional 2d screen practice types games improve 2d 3d transfer skills greenfield brannon lohr 1994 types games could also improve navigation placelearning wayfinding skills cnovas espnola iribarne cimadevilla 2008 many games require players maintain awareness orientation virtual world objects also likely games improve mental rotation skills cherney 2008 okagaki frensch 1994 sims mayer 2002 exhaust possible structural aspects games include perceptual spatial cognitive skills could affect additional research find one additional aspect deserves mention however theoretically attempting teach transfer simulation realism greatly enhance learning transfer therefore screen representations become realistic effects likely enhanced game mechanics video games require player work type controller could mouse keyboard game control pad balance board joystick simplest level practice devices improve skills could increase fine motor skills thumb controller gross motor skills swinging wii remote like baseball bat even balance skills wii balance board sometimes effects used intentionally physical therapy deutsch borbely filler huhn guarrerabowlby 2008 improve dynamic balance control brain surgery betker szturm moussavi nett 2006 similar argument game structure expect greater transfer perhaps faster learning also mechanics realistic example would expect greater transfer ones realworld driving one plays racing games wheel pedals one plays mouse keyboard design factors might also relevant controller designs may easier learn use others hutchins hollan norman 1985 still dark 2008 finally important realize although game mechanics structure theoretically distinct independent practice continuous feedback loop two players see screen directs use mechanical game controller many motions game controller result changes screen results changes game controller analogous perceiver motion allows detection new perceptual information discovery new affordances gibson 1979 visually guided motion colloquially called handeye coordination skill also improve practice although structure mechanics dimensions seem esoteric help explain video game effects easily understandable otherwise example study laparoscopic surgeons perform surgery outside patients body looking screen played video games past least 3 hr week 27 faster made 37 fewer errors advanced surgical skills rosser et al 2007 fact video game experience better predictor surgical skill prior laparoscopic surgical experience years practice impossible explain result content effect surgeons playing normal video games surgical simulators explain solely amount effect context effect however explain structure mechanics effects laparoscopic surgeons need get 3d information 2d screen need maintain spatial awareness attention information screen need able make fine motor adjustments basis see important note however correlational study thus cannot determine causality although studies demonstrated video games causally train skilled behaviors gopher weil bareket 1994 conclusion digital games routinely vilified praised critics often cite research effects violent video games whereas proponents often cite research perceptual skills irony critics proponents correct effects games flaw extend arguments conclude video games ultimately harmful beneficial recognizing games effects multiple dimensions allows us way dichotomous thinking fact game perceived positive negative effects time example consider hypothetical situation 12yearold boy spends lot time playing violent game grand theft auto spends lot time playing might predict poorer school performance violent content might predict increased aggressive thoughts feelings ultimately behaviors plays friends online might enhance mitigate violence effect could train teamwork skills shooting driving game might predict improved 2d 3d transfer skills improved visual attention skills plays joystick might predict improved joystick skills perhaps improved handeye coordination therefore simplistic dichotomy games good bad applies extent one focuses solely specific dimension particular game two additional benefits approach provides testable hypotheses inform game instructional technology designers greatest effects game designers consider dimensions creating games hoped dimensional approach value game designers researchers public discourse game effects references anderson c 2004 update effects playing violent video games journal adolescence 27 113 122 anderson c dill k 2000 video games aggressive thoughts feelings behavior laboratory life journal personality social psychology 78 772 790 anderson c gentile buckley k e 2007 violent video game effects children adolescents theory research public policy new york oxford university press anderson c sakamoto gentile ihori n 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