Ayelet Baram?Tsabari|Jonathan Osborne
Bridging science education and science communication research
Technion – Israel Institute of Technology|Stanford University
senses science education science communication share common goals seek educate entertain engage public science somewhat surprisingly given common goals evolved disparate academic fields pays little attention other1 purpose special issue therefore attempt form rapprochementto contribute building better awareness contribute value scholarship conducted fields attempting reconciliation though useful point several main differences science education science communication research traditions one difference emphasis give three aspectseducating entertaining engaging public whereas priority science education surprisinglyeducationand entertainment engagement helpful product field science communication engagement priority another difference critical view science communication research adapts towards science scientists result possibly journalistic sociological foundations science education tends position science says scientists things truth frames model students learn contrast many science communication researchers position science says one many types potentially relevant knowledge scientists things imperfect way making sense world furthermore context formal school versus informal media environments strongly affected possible methods subjects study one simply cannot give random sample adult television viewers onehour test natural setting changes nature questions addressed addition compared science educationa field study emerged 1950s science communication relatively young field one consequences differences fields distinct separate emphases instance one goals science education educate next generation scientists aspect concerns science communicators work young people engage stimulate sustain interest science given significance interest sustaining engagement study science maltese melki wiebke 2014 nevertheless important contribution moreover field science education much could beg borrow steal better job sustaining student interest given evidence failings henriksen lyons schreiner 2011 osborne simon collins 2003 end 12th grade students gained sufficient knowledge practices crosscutting concepts core ideas science engineering engage public discussions sciencerelated issues critical consumers scientific information related everyday lives p24 one response demand long list initiatives place consideration exploration role science society curriculum major stimulus beginning perhaps publication rachel carsons book silent spring carson 1963 realization science longer offered simple technical solutions challenges facing humanity rather also source problemsa thesis developed cogently ulrich beck risk society beck 1992 light public discourse science implications school science curriculum chose maintain hermetic seal science society risked irrelevance science applications also implications uk led early initiatives science society lewis 1981 rapidly followed pragmatic science technology society satis association science education 1986 science public understanding hunt millar 2000 us early initiatives science education public understanding project begun 1987 lawrence hall initiatives brought program research explored socioscientific issues might addressed classroom goals work kolst 2001 levinson 2006 ratcliffe 1997 ratcliffe grace 2003 zeidler 2003 zeidler sadler simmons howes 2005 others gone arguing scientific literacy meaning concept knowledge shared within community orientated towards political action hodson 2003 roth calabrese barton 2004 democracy functions majority decision major issues complexity require increasing amount background knowledge example environmental ethical issues cannot subject informed debate unless young people possess certain scientific awareness moment decisions area often based subjective emotional criteria majority lacking general knowledge make informed choice clearly mean turning everyone scientific expert enabling fulfill enlightened role making choices affect environment understand broad terms social implications debates experts similarly need make everyone capable making considered decisions consumers p24 simplistic assumption often made within science education matters content knowledgean assumption made initially interest science communication early work exposed apparent ignorance public basic scientific ideas durant evans thomas 1989 miller 1983 findings fitted deficit model public outcome emphasized imperative communicating knowledge bodmer 1985 deficit model rests assumption scientific information public decisions support agree scientific consensus sympathy public would toward science brossard lewenstein 2009 however empirical support premises best mixed survey data shows relationship scientific knowledge attitudes toward science changes substantially specific domains science technology allum sturgis tabourazi bruntonsmith 2008 rather research would suggest variance public attitudes controversial socioscientific issues better explained values emotions ideology social identity trust scientific institutions scientific knowledge per se furthermore validity many surveys used measure publics knowledge science questioned many us know knowledge exists useit loseit basis asking individuals questions specific pieces domainspecific knowledge often likely result display ignorance stocklmayer bryant 2014 kitcher 2010 bromme goldman 2014 also feinstein paper special issue point public knowledge science always limited moreover ryder 2001 shown detailed examination knowledge necessary interpret science media content knowledge one six types knowledge necessary critically read reports science required well knowledge methods collecting data data interpreted role modeling science role uncertainty science science communicated public domain thus science education really deliver goal educating students able make enlightened choices needs broaden conception aspects scientific knowledge address give credit credit due next generation science standards ngss based set 8 scientific practices ask students explicitly engage many aspects ryders list missing however framework k12 science education basis ngss specification procedural epistemic knowledge science engaging practices develop contrast latest pisa assessment framework oecd 2012 defines scientific literacy terms competencies explain phenomena scientifically evaluate design scientific enquiry interpret data evidence scientifically attempt define body procedural epistemic knowledge necessary undertake practices thus sense work science communication forced agenda science education making narrow domainspecific content focus hard justify notwithstanding signs convergence umbrella public engagement science feinstein issue central difference found implicit assumptions underlying two research traditions science education makes optimistic assumption people encounter science everyday life least theory acquire necessary knowledge reach informed scientificallybased decision contrast science communication finds people make meaning science encounter lives using different narratives based culturally relevant prior knowledge may may include science feinstein 2012 laslo baramtsabari lewenstein 2011 furthermore ability reach informed decision based first hand evaluation true second hand evaluation trust bromme goldman 2014 science education rejects idea sciencerelated decisions based trust challenge findings pose science education individuals educated judge true instance one issue challenging researchers cern issue whether large hadron collider could potentially create black hole swallowing earth local french farmer judge truth claims given school science syllabi even mention black holes unlikely individual necessary scientific content knowledge kind knowledge would helpful explored formal science curriculum like many issues arise public domainbe threats posed mmr vaccinations gmo foods climate change many public faced binary choice denial unquestioning acceptance formal education reduce epistemic distance expert lay individual message field science communication answer lie content knowledge rather attempts engage public dialogue could unite fields perhaps common vision role importance science contemporary society however beyond fascination awe either field sense grand narrative science may argue era postmodernity image science sullied threats posed technological advance narrative needed even counter productive goal science education science communication foster critical engagement rather blind devotion nevertheless would contend flaws needs broader recognition within fields cultural contribution science made contemporary thought great literature brought us means capturing portraying human condition science brought us deep understanding material world surrounds us achieved using six forms reasoningmathematical deduction emerged 2000 years ago greeks experimental exploration began 14th century flourished italian renaissance hypothetical modeling imagine world small see large imagine categorization classification world surrounds us enabling biologists identify distinct living species chemists identify elements physicists distinguish concepts heat temperature probabilistic statistical thinking identify patterns nature define limits certainty evolutionary accounts origins species universe continents elements crombie 1994 hacking 1992 netz 1999 make point fields offer important contribution work common enterprise would ask either fields share sense common enterprise might bean issue also discussed lewenteins commentary hope well identifying differences papers provided special issue help build sense common vision special issue born view little dialogue today science education focusing k12 students higher education learning informal environments science communication focusing interactions scientific community publics lack communication two fields impedes identification shared ideas trends methods science educators sometimes view science communication marginal subcategory informal science education many science communication researchers frown thought studying science communication educational perspective found point origins separation lewensteins commentary gratifying therefore issue blancolpez espaaramos gonzlezgarca francomariscal establish link two research fields surveying experts needs adult publics order inform science education aimed school students another consequence divorce fields run risk reinventing wheel example field science communication moved deficit model dialogic model engaging public science later perspective sees communication new public knowledge science dialogue scientists society science communication feels science education still imbued traditional deficitmodel negative connotations science educators made theoretical change acquisitiontransfer model learning participatoryconstructivist model long theoretically done field science communication issue feinstein provides notable example theoretical conceptual depth could gained fruitful dialogue disciplines theoretical constructs research programs waiting put use educational perspectives argumentation could used study science communication basic communication concepts framing could prove useful science education researchers issue davis russ demonstrate media context analytical lens framing familiar science communication studied manner familiar science education moreover methods theoretical constructs could shared mutual benefit basic concepts research teaching learning science still rarely used educating training scientists engage science communicationa professional skill increasingly expected scientists result much teaching done learning goals mind without proper assessment attainment goals baramtsabari lewenstein 2013 besley dudo storksdieck issue make initial exploration science communication training viewed scientists factors make less likely see value participate programs set papers much represents important attempt rapprochement two fields goal begin conversation two groups people although often share common goal communicating science ironically communicate well issue received 26 papers covering diverse range topics four published reflection diversity article feinstein community service reminding us obsession present forget novel issues may seem us many seen light day santayana said forget lessons history condemned repeat mistakes past feinstein done reexamine debate existed little less 100 years ago walter lippman often considered founder american media studies john dewey lippman pointed problem knowledgethat public debate level knowledge us topic limited given possible involve public political debate feinstein points serious issue science education justifies place curriculum table argument enables students become scientifically literate engage debate lippman dewey shamos philosophers phillip kitcher would argue science education selfdenial shamos 1995 instance argues scientific literacy means knowing basics established project 2061 doomed fail time entire history us public school education much knowledge science expected realised high school graduates p151 kitcher 2010 puts even strongly arguing absurd fantasy believe citizens scant backgrounds pertinent field make responsible decisions complex technical matters one might ask goal enabling students engage critical evaluation science either media affects personally hopelessly unrealistic feinsteins answer comes dewey argues checks balances science depend community capacity transcend individual limitations diverse wellfunctioning community individual need know particular topic long meaningfully connected someone feinsteins argument message science education wish support students engage science lives must show work collectively thus rather futility attempting educate student scientifically literatesomething lippman sees bridge farfeinstein finishes optimistic note arguing dewey looking science education support collective group action offer way making education science relevant enabling students article blancolpez espaaramos gonzlezgarca francomariscal contribute longstanding goal linking content aims science education citizens need order participate effectively society authors empirically assessed extent consensus spain regarding principal aspects scientific competence citizens possess using delphi process involving scientists engineers researchers private sector scientists philosophers science science educators science communicators type approach raises two issues first asking present day needs order plan present day curriculum means inherently accepting expecting curriculum would serve needs past however since true prophecy rare days strategy merit might boosted insights futures studies second issue involves surveying experts order determine lay peoples needs askwho experts needs layman shouldnt draw experiences nontechnical publics trying address needs dilemma presents yet another potentially useful meeting point science communication research looks authentic interactions laypeople science related issues science education research conceptualizes interaction ideally conducted laslo et al 2011 analysis blancolpez espaaramos gonzlezgarca francomariscal concludes nontrivial result leading aspects identified panel experts cover range general skills attitudes values exclusively related sphere science technology eg critical attitudethinking ability work part team authors see core skills attitudes values lie heart personal education moreover experts generally rated aspects related attitudes values higher referring knowledge suitability expert advice studied background realworld sciencerelated situations well science education experience teaching competences independent specific content besley dudo storksdieck take different angle science society issue looking scientists rather rest society learning building science communication tradition research issue referred teaching learning activities training within context public engagement science sharing knowledge ways interest laypeople still key element science communication scientists emphasis shifts focus scientists information transmission skills towards getting scientists think science communication dialogue public therefore science institutions shift providing media training aimed speaking journalists towards communication training aimed helping scientists foster open dialogue public partly order reach wider publics attentive science need change attitude skills professionals brings mind wealth research teachers professional development unfortunately completely alien science communication studies besley dudo storksdieck explored scientists views training 1 make science messages understandable 2 build trust credibility 3 demonstrate one listens public 4 demonstrate one cares publics views 5 frame messages resonate audiences preexisting values tension seems scientists ethical doable eg make message understandable science communication research dims effective eg frame message resonate audience authors wish use understanding value scientists might see communication training concerns might ethicality appropriateness order support training design recruitment sobering finding paper though willing involve kinds communication training scientists surveyed cannot counted active science communicators although seeing value activities rated willingness engage public online fairly low slightly willing reach public via media showed moderate willingness best engage public facetoface improving attitudes relevant teacherscientists partnerships designed activities involving scientists refreshing think scientists someone could develop better knowledge attitudes skills activities paper pryce davis rosemary russ explore particular text communicating piece research constructed altered adapted summarized lay audience text piece research looking prescription proton pump inhibitors veterans drugs commonly used reduce gastric acid research finds drugs often prescribed higher doses necessary moreover remain prescribed longer necessary research picked university news service study follows detail using extensive interviews research read reporters translated form communicated wider audience work draws theoretical construct framingthat idea texts contains elements organize perceivedto explore research framed intended public choices made reporters focusing certain elements reporters manipulate individuals notice attend authors argue construct framing significant field science education science teachers frame science present students paper authors show concepts initially framed original publication using economic arguments raising issues uncertainty commonness prescription justify importance role research explore certain frames picked news reporters article reframed emphasis given frames rather others economic frame paper turns look frames read interpreted one member public study science beyond high school work shows individual draws frames interpret aspects research making detailed comparisons intended message researcher might called message ultimately attained lay reader authors argue framing dynamic process message never really fixed implications science education may need teach students identify frames embedded text switch make sense text trying communicate science communicators authors argue need employ range frames highlight different features research alternatively wish sustain single frame needs repeatedly cued throughout text work adds field science education another piece role framing potential significance meaning constructed science texts science communicators concept framing wellestablished offers insight dynamic nature process framing tacit unpredictable nature frames public might adopt authors use findings argue concept framing something potential act bridge two fields science education science communication finally wish acknowledge stephen norris one original initiators special issue tragically passed away year ago february 2014 philosopher stephen brought field science education analytic lens clarifying refreshing philosophers characteristic asking hard questions community goals values concepts guided work respect one seminal contributions examination really meant concept scientific literacy norris phillips 2003 paper product long line work beginning exploration science communicated way people construct meaning texts norris phillips 1994 whether goal intellectually independence truly achievable norris 1997 recently adapted primary literature used within science education work summarized last book yarden norris phillips 2015 stephen norris somebody recognized first duty intelligent man ask hard questions others avoided undoubtedly part intent initiating special issue hope offered would met expectations