Brenda Mathias, Kiran Magee, Regina Jackson, Phillip W Graham, Kristine Madsen
Building Bridges and Strengthening Bonds: An Exploratory Investigation Into Social Capital and Youth Programming
Progress in community health partnerships : research, education, and action
believe television going test modern world new opportunity see beyond range vision shall discover either new unbearable disturbance general peace saving radiance sky shall stand fall television author e b white1television media represent one important underrecognized influences children adolescents health behavior 1990s impact eliciting serious concern parents educators physicians public health advocates politicians well fig 1 although objections various programming advertising practices exist common sense philosophical aesthetic humanistic public health grounds without strict scientific data2 increasing numbers studies document serious problem existsby time criteria alone television represents predominant medium young people average 16 17 hours viewing weekly beginning early age 23 video game videocassette usage added teenagers may spend many 35 55 hours front television set4 families television set telephone5however media important well adolescents spend nearly equal amounts time listening radio although music used frequently accompaniment activities46 half 15 16yearolds seen majority popular recent rrated movies one study7 separate study 92 males 84 females seen read playboy playgirl age 158finally playing video games become favorite pastime children adolescents represents 7 billion per year industry9 one survey nearly 400 seventh eighthgrade students found teens average 2 4 hours per week playing games10 although much data available young peoples use new technology internet every reason believe surfing net prove popular well indeed one recent national survey 89 teenagers reported using computer 61 surfed net 14 reported seeing something want parents know about11 1996 nearly five million youths used internet online service school home12media exert significant displacement effect2 3 hours per day spent watching television playing video games means less physical activity reading interaction friendsbut data speak causeandeffect concerns likewise content analyses demonstrate average child adolescent view even analyses disturbing reveal average american child teenager exposed annuallyyoung people view estimated 10 000 acts violence year13 recently national television violence study examined nearly 10 000 hours television programming throughout 3 years found 61 contains violence childrens programming violent fig 21416 addition 26 violent interactions involved use guns16 3 years study none key indicators violence media changed despite widespread public concern1416 recent comprehensive analysis rock music videos genres demonstrated 224 music television videos portrayed overt violence 20 rap videos contained violence weapon carrying depicted 25 music television videos17 attractive role models aggressors 80 violent music videos18each year teenagers view nearly 15 000 sexual references innuendoes jokes 170 deal abstinence birth control sexually transmitted diseases pregnancy19the socalled family hour prime time television 8 9pm contains 8 sexual incidents per hour four times much 197620 nearly onethird family hour shows contain sexual references incidence vulgar language increasing dramatically well21 internet offers unparalleled access hardcore pornography keystrokes22a recent content analysis found alcohol tobacco illicit drugs present 70 prime time network dramatic programs 38 40 topgrossing movies half music videos23 another recent study onefourth music television videos contained alcohol tobacco use24several studies document smoking making comeback hollywood movies 1994 study 62 topgrossing films 1960 1990 found levels smoking remained constant despite decreases reallife lead characters far likely smoke screen 65 reallife counterparts similar demographic characteristics2526 similarly american lung association study 133 movies released 1994 1995 found 77 depicted tobacco use27in addition programming young people view 20 000 commercials year nearly 2000 beer wine28for every say know say public service announcement teens view 25 50 beer wine advertisements29 alcohol tobacco advertisers becoming increasing commercial presence internet well 35 alcoholic beverages represented homepages devoted smoking budweiser online radio network interactive games free giveaways brand spokescharacters specially designed chat rooms12 altogether tobacco manufacturers spend 6 billion per year alcohol manufacturers 2 billion per year media trying entice young people saying yes3031data like alarming media actually responsible episodes child aggression teen homicides increased rates teenage drug use sexual activity32or entertainment industry maintains media merely mirror increasingly violent drugoriented sexualized society close examination available data essentialthe research voluminous clear relationship media violence reallife aggression causeandeffect relationship exists3338 research involves detailed crosssectional studies3943 naturalistic studies4445 longitudinal studies4650 several metaanalyses5154 two government reports 1972 surgeon generals report55 1982 national institute mental health56 report affirmed conclusion examining available data latter stated unequivocally56after 10 years research consensus among research community violence television lead aggressive behavior children teenagers watch programs conclusion based laboratory experiments field studies children become aggressive course correlations violence aggression positive magnitude television violence strongly correlated aggressive behavior behavioral variable measured authors italics research question moved asking whether effect seeking explanations effecttaken together research data persuasive high levels television viewing causally related aggressive behavior acceptance aggressive attitudes57 correlations found stable throughout time place demographics1334 added nowsizable body research demonstrating adolescents exposed violence victims violence homes communities likely use violence carry weapons themselves5861 clearly witnessing violence important determinant violent behavior media violence represents witnessing violence vicariously television movie screenas long ago 1960s laboratory experiments bandura et al62 established young children liable imitate see television screen particularly behavior performed attractive role model either rewarded goes unpunished banduras social learning theory several longitudinal correlational studies tracked children adults period 30 years found viewing media violence young ages 8 years younger significant risk factor adolescent adult aggressive behavior even criminal violence4345485063 researchers concluded children learn attitudes violence young age learned attitudes tend lifelong64american media also rife portrayals justified violence eg good guy beating bad guy research shows single strongest positive reinforcer young people3065 media violence facilitate aggressive antisocial behavior may also desensitize viewers future violence also increase viewers perception living mean dangerous world3666 problem entertainment industry want admit connection tobacco industry acknowledge causeandeffect relationship cigarette smoking lung cancer63media violence sole cause violence society poverty racism inadequate parenting dissolution american family individual psychologic differences may far impact studies found child abuse sexual abuse witnessing domestic violence witnessing community violence may play key role determining become violent58616770but use violence achieve goals settle conflicts fact learned behavior learning occurs social groups family peer groups gangs television media may function super peer respect32how much media contribute reallife violence 22 separate estimates effect size collated various surveys size effect media violence estimated 5 153035 given factors contributing violence able isolate media violence one factor significanthomicide suicide second third leading causes death among adolescents guns contribute significantly both71 links adolescent homicides american media glamorization guns represent 26 violent interactions television table 11636 although specific data linking viewing gunplay media actual gunrelated offenses real life connection seems logical least one television critic72on average violent crime committed us every 17 seconds entertainment industry alone cannot blamed guns alone people pull triggers blamed gunrelated deaths however connections inescapable fewer guns fewer people would shot death fewer violent images fewer people might moved seek violent solutionsunfortunately data nearly clear determining relationship exists early sexual activity heavy diet sexualized content7374 although 1000 studies linking media violence reallife violence 5 studies demonstrating connection media high sexual content changes teenagers sexual behavior attitudesthus sexual activity inferences must drawn violence literature ie children teenagers learn aggressive behavior shouldnt able learn sexual behavior well79 addition united states continues highest teenage pregnancy rate western world despite fact american teenagers sexual intercourse greater numbers western peers8081 important finding points absence societal expectation even early sexual initiation birth control necessity data suggest media represent important effective source sexual information teenagers table 23274 high united states pregnancy rate could resulting several interrelated factors lack easy access birth control lack information birth control sex education classes glut inappropriate sexual messages media absence appropriate messages media abstinence use birth control82studies indicate 8 billion advertising tobacco alcohol manufacturers pitch every year american public significant impact adolescents beliefs attitudes smoking drinking may influence actual consumption well correlational studies indicate small positive 015 020 relationship ad exposure consumption83in addition advertising exposure seems influence initial drinking episodes turn contribute excessive drinking abuse83 long 20 years ago national science foundation commissioned report effects advertising children concluded84it clear available evidence television influence children research demonstrated children attend learn commercials advertising least moderately successful creating positive attitudes toward desire products advertised younger viewers appear vulnerable numerous recent studies document children adolescents exposed greater amounts tobacco alcohol advertising likely either use intend use products298590 makes intuitive sense well 8 billion year lot money commit advertising influence people consume product advertising extremely effective especially reaching younger audiences table 391the evidence strongest regarding cigarette advertising promotions8592 one wellpublicized study children young 6 years old likely recognize old joe mouseketeer logo disney channel associate directly cigarette smoking93 addition positive correlation advertising expenditures brand consumption table 48594 revenues cigarette advertising also shown influence editorial content print media95 cigarette brands popular teens likely advertise magazines high youth readerships96 1997 study found onethird teens owned cigarette promotional items teens four times likely smokers97 importantly recent longitudinal study found estimated onethird adolescent smoking could causally related tobacco promotional activities98for alcohol correlations far moderate83the preponderance evidence indicates alcohol advertising stimulates favorable predispositions higher consumption greater problem drinking young people nevertheless evidence clearly support interpretation advertising exerts powerful uniform direct influence seems advertising contributing factor increases drinking related problems modest degree rather major determinantas one leading researcher recently noted concerning media violence scientific debate over99 remains anything entertainment industry response public health concerns determining negative effects successfully mitigated media education approachesit entirely possible potential effects follow pattern strength known correlations considerable new data needed regarding medias impact teenagers sexual behavior particular sexual content influence sexual activity use contraception sexual orientation answers remain unknown longitudinal correlational studies performed furthermore recent research indicates may considerable variation different teenagers view program depending ethnicity family background characteristics100 findings may special relevance sexual portrayals impact teenagersother muchneeded research includes ongoing content analyses violence sex drug use television programming movies rock music videos longitudinal study effect violent video computer games childrens attitudes behavior longitudinal study impact rock music adolescents affective states suicidal behavior studies children teenagers use internetin addition although relationship advertising consumption well established unknown counteract unhealthy aspects advertising portrayals present counteradvertising seem able reach density mainstream advertising thus making less useful solution30 might teenagers susceptible antidrug messages embedded creatively mainstream programming101will proposed settlement tobacco industry includes ban cartoon characters advertisements impact young children studies neededa vast body literature exists attests power media influence childrens adolescents beliefs potentially behavior well currently american media contribute adverse health outcomes positive prosocial ones remain way many solutions available ranging controlling way children view media parents role effective office counseling public health activism physicians role regulating media governmental role improving product entertainment industrys roleindustry spokespeople frequently claim parents like children see button television set computer parents counter programs media produced healthier would worry impact fact groups right parents need exercise better control media children use entertainment industry also needs take responsibility health repercussions producemost parents control media children adolescents exposed consistency regularity parents frequently underreport number hours offspring view33 also underreport problematic shows view fig 3102 addition onefourth preschoolers onethird gradeschoolers half highschool youth television sets bedrooms fig 4102 two 1997 surveys involving total nearly 1500 parents found less half parents report always watching television children102103 coviewing thought effective mechanism mediating untoward effects television viewing adult watching program child discussing serves simultaneously values filter media educator table 530104 however one recent survey found 44 children teenagers watch something different usually music television alone viewing parents105despite data parents apparently concerned influence television media102106 given sheer quantity hours children spend front television set concerns seem justified however media seem less significant quantitatively may extremely important qualitatively television suggests movies videos one researcher notes107according recommendations issued american academy pediatrics based review available data date parents should108given deleterious public health effects media youth imperative health professionals appreciate relatively new cultural influence young patients educate parents advocate improved healthier media physicians treat children adolescents learn take media history table 61 especially seeing patients history aggressive behavior school difficulties32educating parents accomplished using media education materials variety organizations table 7 addition physicians serve role models using television sets videocassette recorders waiting rooms educational programming finally physicians important community resources schools media education programs local television stations parents parent teacher associations also advocate improved media writing national networks hollywood studios united states congress federal communications commission could also instrumental pressuring television industry begin broadcasting birth control advertising urging entertainment industry restrict depictions violence sexuality responsible portrayalsone role health professionals remains controversial advocating greater numbers public service announcements offset deluge tobacco alcohol ads young people currently see commercial broadcasting expends amount money per minute 400 000 produce commercials therefore difficult compete density also production values109 viewing public service announcements make audience aware problem make problem seem important offer information110 effects intensified interventions occurring simultaneously eg antismoking public service announcements restrictions smoking public places111112 one aggressive antismoking campaign vermont demonstrated 35 lower smoking rate 4 years radio television ads combined standard schoolbased program113 however sometimes public service announcements used industries targeting deflect criticism eg know say whenboth parents health professionals need begin engaging vigorously media advocacythe strategic use mass media advancing social public policy initiative114 according wallack115 current debates must reframed refocus public attention health issues individuals weaknesses example tobacco manufacturers long deflected attention framing debate smoking issue individual freedom similarly national rifle association confused issue handgun control claiming constitution guarantees everyones right handgun despite fact federal court ever overturned gun control law violation second amendment116118 simply reclassifying guns consumer product would profound public health effect especially sale manufacture guns currently subject less stringent regulations sale manufacture teddy bears118119 successful reframing involves exposing unethical industry practices rather trying improve individuals behaviors urging healthier115the united states one western nations lacks comprehensive schoolbased media education program recently australia mandated media education nearly every student kindergarten grade 12 ontario canada mandated media education middle high school students england scotland south africa far formal training programs united states104 number advocacy groups table 7 devised tested curricula used variety settings school officials often resent commit time financial resources view extracurricular programs viewed context protecting children adolescents crucial public health problems early sexual intercourse interpersonal violence drug involvement however programs take new urgencymore research needed regarding efficacy media education programs nevertheless several curricula fieldtested indicating programs accomplish exactly set do120126 one curriculum particular worked change attitudes television violence among first third graders well decreasing levels aggressive behavior rated peers127 another recent curriculum shown decrease thirdgraders intention drink alcohol128 computer video games could also used prosocial learning129although united states first nation world television unique lacking clear public policy regarding it34130 american television established regulated according communications act passed congress 1934 preamble act states public owns airwaves leased networks produce programmingin publics best interests authors italics industrys reluctance regulate especially regarding violent content production educational programming children congress federal communications commission taken increasingly aggressive role past decade 1990 childrens television act required local broadcasters produce educational informational programming children unfortunately broadcasters tried cite programs like jetsons educational teaching children life like 21st century131irritated industrys lack compliance childrens television act continued high levels media violence132 legislators passed telecommunications act 1996 put teeth 1990 childrens television act requiring ratings programs mandating beginning september 1997 broadcasters must air 3 hours core educational programming per week133 act also mandated television sets manufactured beginning 1998 contain vchip could programmed parents filter objectionable media violence however ratings system systems programmable onto vchip remains contentious issue one perhaps federal communications commission ultimately decideafter discussions public advocacy groups television industry developed complicated set ratings parallel current motion picture association america movie ratings134several problems exist proposed system first several studies show parents prefer specific contentbased ratings system simple categories135136 second current categories specific enough regarding content contextual impact violent sexual references completely ignored example certain content becomes lost highest rating tvm program sexual content may contain violence tv14 level given v violent content third parents may tempted place inappropriate faith rating fv fantasy violence even although research shows represents potentially detrimental programming young children1516137 finally studies document older children young teenagers drawn toward adult ratings138despite federal governments traditional reluctance regulate entertainment industry first amendment concerns several potential solutions available would make television media healthier children adolescentsthe united states unique industrialized world spending 109 per capita public broadcasting united kingdom spends 3856 canada 3215 japan 1771104130 increased revenues corporation public broadcasting could develop commercialfree series stations gearing highquality education programming toward individual agegroups 2 5 years 5 9 years 9 13 years 13 17 years annual tax television sets done britain could used raise revenues3037 future home receive 300 500 different channels shouldnt least 5 10 reserved noncommercial educational programming young peoplethis might also include funding schoolbased media education programs particular systematic program research urgently needed whose goal would development formal easily administered educational programs media sex drugs violence139it 15 years since last official government compilation available research time56 reports highlight current knowledge expose areas warrant investigation serve valuable ammunition public health campaign improve media young peopleas united states supreme court justice tom clark said war constitution common sense140compelling public health interests exist protecting least children adolescents advertising cigarettes alcoholic beverages advertising represents commercial speech rather free speech automatically protected first amendment141142 federal trade commission already empowered ban advertising unfair deceptive tobacco alcohol advertising arguably fit description28 restricting advertising may feasible constitutionally outright ban143 current proposed federal drug administration rules would restrict tobacco advertising seen children teenagers blackandwhite text only144 new proposed legislation senator mccain raz would completely eliminate tobacco advertising directed children importantly would eliminate promotional events advertising145 past decade constituted half 6 billion tobacco companies annually spend advertising29 one significant drawback broadcast ban alcohol advertising might elimination effective counteradvertising146147 two alternatives exist either require equal amounts public service announcements would extoll dangers alcohol148 mandate advertisements restricted socalled tombstone ads ie ads show product depict qualities drinker might acquire restrictions endorsed previously federal drug administration surgeon general american academy pediatrics american medical association28149150 unlikely density effectiveness public service announcements ever reach levels regular commercial advertising limiting alcohol manufacturers tombstone ads seems far prudentalthough deregulation increased regulation seems current trend washington children adolescents deserve special protection government although broadcasters complain 3 hours educational programming per week burdensome amount seems totally inadequate given free use public airwaves television networks stations mandated air least 1 hour per day educational programming children united states unique among nations regularly scheduled programminglikewise young people deserve need special protections using internet151 development special blocking services proscriptive entrances certain web sites solutions developed shield young people pornography dangerous chat rooms explicit material internet152 recent white house summit july 1997 begun process cooperation technology industries internet providersalthough entertainment industry currently sees little problem quality product research literature parents would disagree american media graphically violent sexually suggestive world present networks studios software companies little incentive create educational healthier programming indeed industry quick point exemplary works shindlers list prohumanitarian cosby show showing strong family values denies programming negative effects153unlike adults children view television movies depicting real world real adults interacting unfortunately world rife happy violence unprotected casual sex drinking smoking stereotypes variety unhealthy images behaviors154one frequently heard excuse industry merely giving people want yet significant evidence contrary gerbner132 compared nielsen ratings two samples containing 100 programs eachone violent programs programs without violence nonviolent programs higher overall rating market share similarly movie industry study found pgrated movies three times likely gross 100 million rrated films155 public opinion polls document many 80 adults believe entertainment violence harmful society30what needed virtual seachange attitude one crass commercialism one respectful paternalism unique psychology needs young people american public quick criticize teenagers early sexual activity drugtaking violent behavior yet youngsters learning important behavioral cues media surround themratings vchips schoolbased medialiteracy programs even increased parental scrutiny accomplish much substitute immediate significant decrease easy violence especially guns included casual unprotected sex frequent smoking drinking currently beamed american children adolescents table 83037156 expecting entertainment industry acknowledge responsibility public health may naive stone wall beginning crumble children teenagers comprise captive audience entertainment producers also represent next source adults american society deserve far better exposed