Virginia W. Berninger|Robert D. Abbott
Listening comprehension, oral expression, reading comprehension, and written expression: Related yet unique language systems in grades 1, 3, 5, and 7.
agenormed tests listening comprehension oral expression reading comprehension written expression administered grades 1 n128 3 5 3 n113 5 7 confirmatory factor analyses compared one four factor models grade level supported four factor model language ear mouth eye hand multiple regressions identified three language skills explained unique variance four language skill outcomes provided additional evidence language single skill individuals ipsative scores amount standard score age language measure deviated individuals mean four measures showed 25 30 individuals showed relative strengths weaknesses 1 sd specific language skills 7 stable across grades 3 5 findings discussed reference theoretical implications idea comprehension expression via language ear mouth eye hand b educational applications observed developmental individual differences general special gifted education