Leila M. Harris
Neo(liberal) citizens of Europe: politics, scales, and visibilities of environmental citizenship in contemporary Turkey
British Columbia Centre of Excellence for Women's Health|University of British Columbia
abstract aim article critically interrogate articulations environmental citizenship contemporary turkey specifically analyse articulations environmental citizenship citizen activist narratives taken interviews focus group discussions argue first scalar focus local spaces individuated responsibility action emerge narratives crucial understand future environmental politics possibilities context invoking recent discussions related politics performativities scale particular allows consideration politics visibility consequences scalar foci second themes narrative analysis show key convergences europeanization neoliberalizationrelated discourses shifts resonance overlap discourses practices significant particularly shows citizen receptivity towards broader ideas related increased citizen responsibility research contributes efforts move away theorization processes neoliberalism topdown instead enabling examination ways ideals taken expressed refashioned everyday citizens third argument emerges analysis following first two need theorize power fully discussions environmental citizenship bridging neoliberalism discussions one possible way move project forward keywords subjectivityneoliberalcitizenshipscaleenvironmental citizenship acknowledgements sincere thanks deniz zesmiyildiz research assistance becky mansfield melissa wright organizing sessions neoliberal citizenship association american geographers annual meetings chicago appreciation also goes james mccarthy jamie peck several anonymous reviewers comments earlier drafts paper also nsf advance paul robbins department geography university arizona allowing present work progress funding research generously provided graduate school european union center excellence university wisconsinmadison notes 1 term neoliberalism commonly operates shorthand ideologies networks institutions implementation marketoriented politics often includes dismantling state institutions marketization commodification goods services devolution governance see peck tickell citation2002 overview 2 overview issues challenges related civil society turkey including data related relatively low levels formal participation civil society organizations generally see bikmen meydanolu citation2006 cite figure less 6000 per every 100000 citizens turkey registered formal associations civil society organizations 3 zci citation2005 estimates 23 million granted environmental capacity building turkey part accession process 4 scale debates central political ecology studies see paulson gezon citation2005 neumann citation2009 well debates geography generally eg delaney leitner citation1997 notably scholarship issue focused ways certain geographic scales defined invoked eg local national regional global well ways scales deployed particular ends eg invoking idea global environmental issues taylor buttel citation1992 similar discussion mccarthy citation2005a gabrielson argues scalar issues constitute central contribution environmental citizenship debates theories citizenship generally 5 respect recent environmental policy turkey attention policies ruling ak party also remains important topic consideration among considered issue duru citation2006 suggests ak party rule significant policy changes line eu accession process fair degree ecological discourse among party representatives election phase less focus policy implementation suggests many policies current government would best characterized marketoriented instance examples government opening forests coastal areas private investment see also ignatow citation2005 6 exploration environmental citizenship relies narrative analysis explore ideas responsibility environmental care well notions environmental issues solutions might examination thus offers partial lens people may understand others environmental subjectscitizens broader theoretical discussion links narrative subjectivity beyond scope paper however bickerstaff et al citation2008 szerszynski citation2005 linnros citation2001 provide examples studies use focus groups query environmental narratives perceptions values yeh citation2007 secor citation2004 provide examples works engage narrative analysis consider issues identity subjectivity citizenship 7 analysis draws interviews activists nongovernmental organizations locations carried 2005 2007 also nine focus groups conducted three different cities turkey istanbul diyarbakr anlurfa southeast focus groups istanbul conducted sosyal aratrma merkezi sam research assistants moderated conducted elsewhere interviews focus groups held urban areas exception two focus groups several interviews conducted rural areas around anlurfa participants istanbul drawn sam database 10000 people living working istanbul one focus group held women two men participants aged 2040 years participants southeast region drawn primarily ngos informal social networks slightly broader age distribution aged 1860 years 8 istanbul focus group participants strangers focus groups southeast participants likely know groups southeast organized though ngos operating cities well social networks see note 6 focus groups diyarbarkr organized womens group works economic opportunities ngo focused new migrants moved city largely rural mountainous areas southeast primarily direct result kurdish conflict associated violence region third included environmental ngo participants focus groups urfa organized network employees restaurant group men coffee shop neighbourhood networks rural villages 9 inclusion sites southeast important region relatively understudied region intense interest eu also given regions low indicators civil society activism development kurdish context southeast key geographic differences also important instance many participants southeast tied environmental inaction context war illiteracy problems underdevelopment 10 environmental citizenship connotes responsibilities rights visvis environment including attention statesociety relations subjectivity connotes questions identity sense self relation environment 11 others waged critique eg robbins citation2006 arguably agrawals formulation leaves room issues focus work environmental subjectivity date disconnect exists emergent literature works green governmentalities 12 also read consistent ignatows citation2006 argument need attend multidimensionality environmental concerns eg based spiritual ecological models rather assuming one environmentalism consistent social educational bases 13 focus group transcripts iteratively read coded themes create discursive tables summarized important story lines cf linnros citation2001 focus group analysis typically include counting quantitative assessment narratives rather relies analyst characterize frequency extensiveness focus particular issues barbour kitzinger citation1999 however provide indicators substantiate claims respect relative emphasis certain themes table 1 14 overarching themes isolated upon initial reading transcripts transcripts reread identify relevant exchanges quotes related themes local scale vs transnational citizen responsibility vs state role etc rereading transcripts also sought identify counterexamples related arguments 15 noteworthy earlier studies found high degrees concern among turks national environmental issues local issues dunlap et al citation1993 ignatow citation2005 attributes strong nationalist traditions turkey among issues also offers several interesting issues consideration related environmental concern turkish context work corroborates elements earlier studies sense presents somewhat contradictory findings 16 perhaps surprisingly narratives also directly connected cleanliness green space islam instance islam cleanliness planting tree emphasized religion plant tree get prayers enjoy shade fruits despite dont give much importance environment 05fc9 19 another said learned cleanliness school cleanliness comes faith good clean always 05fc6 30 others suggested links religions man religion doesnt pollute educated christian muslim doesnt matter cleanliness heart religions 05fc6 50 17 mention need fines need deal unemployment first step able appropriately tackle environmental challenges instance lacking turkey strong regulation state fines fees police exist europe needed 05fc7 5 deal directly issue article considers constructions turkishness europeanness relation visions environmentalism lack regulation turkey often juxtaposed notions strong regulations western europe 18 state statistical agency estimates literacy rates 87 overall 80 females 94 males based 2000 census 19 approach suggests everyday practices narratives may serve sediment particular scalar notions giving appearance naturalness even never fixed given kaiser nikiforova explain citation2008 p 543 performativity scale focuses attention production scales scalar hierarchies end products social construction reiterative citational practices discourse produces effect scale instead treating scales things world interact performativity approaches seek understand scale naturalized way seeing world explore enacted discourses time work produce scale effects 20 indeed hierarchy needs sorts connections made often although detail see analysis gken et al citation2002 21 szerszynski citation2005 considers ways different social groups might able understand environmental questions across scales ways enable type enlarged thinking demanded environmental citizenship mccarthy citation2005a argues work theme generally 22 see discussion rankin citation2001 bacchi eveline citation2003 phillips ilcan citation2004 ways individuation central neoliberal agendas larner citation2000 maniates citation2001 offer discussion parallels arguments larner interested new zealander subjectivities become aligned individual assumptions underpin neoliberalism maniates interested ways individuation environmentalist discourses limits political possibilities respect themes turkey bikmen meydanolu citation2006 offer discussion devolution turkish context transformations underway affect civil society statesociety relations 23 referring power dynamics respect turkeyeu relations play neoliberalization including role international financial institutions loan conditionalities uneven trade relationships forth see peck tickell citation2002 overview neoliberalism consider issues 24 turkish context one trace clear links similar discourses selfcontrol need forge new types citizen subjectivities relation kemalist policies discourses related modern civilized enlightened turkish subject kadolu citation1998 25 consistent guthmans citation2008 suggestion order understand people become lawn people use chemical treatments might also consider people also respond alternative approaches lawn care 26 implicit explicit discussions type individuals take responsibility environmental issues eg bell citation2005 given focus good citizenship neoliberal discourses associated voluntary governance self cf katz citation2005 calling need selfreflexive underlying assumptions imperatives literatures