Fabrice Lehoucq
E<scp>LECTORAL</scp>F<scp>RAUD</scp>: Causes, Types, and Consequences
Centro de Investigación y Docencia Económicas
abstract article reviews research electoral fraudclandestine illegal efforts shape election results handful works classify reports electoral fraud identify nature magnitude causes review therefore looks larger number historical works well ethnographies surveys discuss ballot rigging conclusions threefold first fraud takes panoply forms ranges procedural violations electoral law may may intend distort results outright use violence voters second even ballot rigging integral part electoral competition infrequently decisive fraud nevertheless undermines political stability close races crucial third political competition shapes rhythm nature electoral fraud efforts steal elections increase inequality competitivenesswhich institutions help shapedetermines ballotrigging strategies parties adopt