Emilie Ens|Gillian Towler|Cherry Daniels
Looking back to move forward: Collaborative ecological monitoring in remote Arnhem Land
Australian National University|Australian National University|Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew|Tharawal Aboriginal
estimated twenty per cent australia almost lies remote regions legally owned indigenous people altman et al 2007 last decades many indigenous communities established land sea management organisations known ranger groups fulfil cultural responsibilities looking country create jobs manage environmental threats blanch 2008 support communitybased initiatives governments australian government 2011 hoffmann et al 2012 nongovernment agencies fitzsimons et al 2012 moorcroft et al 2012 private sector russellsmith et al 2009 increasingly developed programmes assist indigenous australians living working country maintain conservation cultural values however financial support often coupled expectations demands increased accountability western notion see muller 2008 incorporation monitoring programmes demonstrate outcomes cultural natural resource management ncrm activities example federal governments monitoring evaluation reporting improvement framework limited implementation environmental outcome monitoring specific indigenous land management sector broader concern conservation sector australia australian national audit office 2008 internationally oecd 2002 however enable monitoring work outcomes baseline data information environmental threats technical capacity monitor report needed remote parts australia nonindigenous biodiversity ecological data scant technical capacity limited russellsmith et al 2009 however indigenous people inherited rich ecological knowledge ancestral country contains valuable prehistory baseline data eg russellsmith et al 1997 horstman wightman 2001 unfortunately many areas external influences associated colonisation dramatically affected customary lifestyles processes activities required effective ongoing intergenerational transmission knowledge although also renewed effort regain preserve knowledge present future generations mcconvell thieberger 2001 contemporary land management context documented examples indigenous knowledge used explain ecological change inform management see example russellsmith et al 1997 ens et al 2010 several reasons including lack crosscultural awareness language barriers differing forms knowledge storage use indigenous ecological knowledge largely oral written therefore tends devalued nonindigenous people result issues use indigenous ecological knowledge baseline data contested mainstream funding bodies tend request indigenous organisations use nonindigenous forms monitoring including measured outcomes communicated written reports situation presents significant challenge indigenous ranger groups particularly remote regions often low numeracy literacy skills contested governance structures hunt et al 2008 speak english first everyday language consequently situations nonindigenous people typically employed offer expertise coordination work indigenous people generally aspire regain control businesses livelihoods indigenous commentators argue need increased incorporation indigenous knowledge preferred methods work monitoring reporting sithole hunterxenie 2007 barbour schlesinger 2012 retaining meaningful useful elements nonindigenous methods knowledge also used address requirements funding bodies many examples indigenous people worked nonindigenous collaborators successfully facilitate crosscultural awareness different knowledge systems land management methods australia eg kennett et al 2004 russellsmith et al 2009 internationally eg luzar et al 2011 however many efforts fragmented space time lack longterm partnerships funding often failed deliver enough baseline data foresight encourage sustained research work particularly remote australia study looked back efforts evaluations indigenous engagement ncrm projects roughley williams 2007 sithole hunterxenie 2007 carter 2008 indigenous knowledge systems remote arnhem land collaboratively explore approaches could used enhance baseline data ecological monitoring local capacity remote indigenous land fig 1 bottomup communitybased ecological research methods preferred indigenous land managers rarely pursued nonindigenous scientists sithole hunterxenie 2007 successes failures infrequently documented methods however needed guide continued development sector roughley williams 2007 carter 2008 hope following case studies southeastern western arnhem land northern australia contribute grounded understanding twoway knowledge methods used improve baseline data ecological monitoring capacity collaborative recording indigenous ecological knowledge manwurrk rangers local community members left right laura runggurwanga sylvia ragurrk jamie billess emmanuel namarnyilk salone djandjomerr gillian towler alesha daylight george watson photograph emilie ens anecdotal evidence suggests abundance feral ungulates horse equus caballus pig sus scrofa buffalo bubalis bubalis donkey equus asinus increased southeastern arnhem land since surveys carried bayliss yeomans 1989 similar many parts northern australia management thwarted local differences cultural ethical economic perceptions species robinson et al 2005 ens et al 2010 keen protect freshwater resources raise community awareness environmental cultural impacts feral ungulates yugul mangi rangers expressed interest fencing culturally significant billabongs close main township ngukurr fig 2 map arnhem land shaded area showing main townships larger dots outstationshomelands smaller dots warddeken indigenous protected area dashed line adjacent national parks heavy black line settlement data northern territory government july 2011 founder senior cultural advisor ranger group cherry daniels remembers times billabongs heavily used feral ungulates like supermarkets full bush foods including water chestnut eleocharis dulcis water lily nymphaea spp time however according cherry community yet born seen places looked like prior proliferation feral animals furthermore exception rangers many local people without transport tend stay ngukurr lack broader awareness threats changes natural cultural integrity ancestral lands objective project help community members look back better understand natural cultural impacts feral animals move forward develop informed strategic feral animal management plan included ecological cultural well economic considerations first aim build ecological cultural evidence impacts collaboratively developing monitoring programme included indigenous values methods contained enough scientific rigour facilitate broader applicability findings built local technical capacity monitoring 2009 yugul mangi rangers received small grant greening australia nt fence three culturally significant billabongs parts thereof near ngukurr costello namiliwirri nalawan billabongs selected rangers approval traditional owners although male rangers knowledge fence construction previous employment cattle industry felt comfortable hiring contractor expertise fence design could also purchase required materials equipment rangers found challenging based remote community funding conditional upon annual monitoring ecological outcomes 5 years early dry july late dry october seasons 2009 2010 ecological features three fenced three nearby unfenced billabongs monitored focus research include indigenous nonindigenous participants design implementation interpretation phases monitoring project traditional indigenous observational analysis change facilitated repeated visits visual comparison adjacent experimental exclosures control areas unfenced oral interpretation changes transmission knowledge western scientific quantitative monitoring methodology instigated included point intercept transect methods water quality testing visual estimates water lily cover photo points methods chosen allowed incorporation indigenous values agreed indicators healthy damaged billabongs overly technical scientific encourage uptake rangers trained western scientific methods involved statistically robust design promote scientific rigour indigenous indicators healthy damaged billabongs elicited informal discussions knowledgeable indigenous rangers rangers stated healthy billabongs feral animals flat ground lots native grass water lilies clear water said feral animal damage included buffalo horse pig tracks buffalo wallows pig diggings muddy water fewer lilies although parameters uniquely indigenous value rangers directly eg water lilies indirectly eg water quality effects edible useful flora fauna relate culturally important species rangers also previously received water quality testing training keen reapply skills information converted questions answers cybertracker see ansell koenig 2011 ens press data collection sequences removed need advanced numeracy literacy skills sequences uploaded onto touchscreen handheld computers trimble nomad primary author initially borrowed another ranger group prior acquiring funds purchase new units first sequence used assess ground surface eg buffalo wallow ground cover eg grass features one metre intervals along three randomly placed 100m transects situated water level second sequence used enter water quality data temperature ph conductivity turbidity five points around edge billabongs using electronic water quality metres also borrowed analysis variance anova statistical analyses data conducted using spss software version 170 spss inc chicago il usa nonindigenous collaborator space restrictions ground surface ground cover data presented since 2009 feral animals broken jumped upright fences however force 20092010 wet season floodwater pushed two three fences costello namiliwirri along perimeters perpendicular water flow third exclosure nalawan incurred minor damage flood debris following wet season sections fences costello namiliwirri reerected timely manner allowed animals enter despite rangers best intentions maintain exclosures said busy nonindigenous perspective lack organisational capacity local leadership appeared obvious reasons however continued reflection became apparent assumption adequately acknowledge complex historical cultural socioeconomic political factors influenced rangers understand value engage work expect nonindigenous people engage see mcraewilliams gerritson 2010 acknowledging different social environment following 20102011 wet season nonindigenous participants worked side side rangers repair fence two months fences installed visible signs water quality improvement particularly nalawan fig 3 community members surprised water went muddy clear blue 2 months asked whether fences could erected around billabongs country rangers point view project achieved rapid success raising community awareness feral animal impacts 2 years billabong health measured study fenced nalawan site continued improve fencing successfully excluded feral ungulates threefactor year fence season anova tests suggested nalawan 2 years ground within fenced area year fence table 1 became significantly flatter going 0 60 4 5 less feral animal damage going 40 0 4 5 native grass cover 4 5 unfenced area table 1 4 5 photographs nalawan billabong fences erected july 2009 2 months september 2009 b left photograph emilie ens right photograph elodie fache fenced left image unfenced areas right image nalawan august 2010 showing vigorous grass growth less feral animal pugging feral ungulates excluded photograph emilie ens mean percentages flat ground bare ground b total feral animal damage c grass cover fenced black bars unfenced white bars sites namiliwirri nalawan costello early eds late dry seasons lds 2009 2010 error bars represent two standard errors two sites costello namiliwirri anova showed feral animals entering fenced area much nonfenced area fig 5 analysis also showed yearly seasonal fluctuations feral animal visitations grass cover sites irrespective fence suggesting need longterm monitoring understand annual seasonal changes significantly less feral animal damage flat ground costello 2010 compared 2009 year season interaction effect grass cover costello bare ground namiliwirri table 1 fig 5 although results rapid recovery following feral animal exclusion surprising considering previous research eg braithwaite et al 1984 raised community awareness impacts feral ungulates primary research aim ranger confidence skills also enhanced evident rangers proud project community feedback presentations local ranger conferences article local ngukurr newsletter warddeken indigenous protected area ipa covers 13 950 km2 western arnhem land fig 2 approximately half arnhem plateau bioregion bioregion one highest levels plant endemism australia 172 plant species occurring nowhere else woinarski et al 2006 paucity herbarium plant records arnhem land data bioregion come kakadu national park hence research warddeken ipa may detect even higher levels endemism according warddeken ipa technical information document warddeken land management limited 2009 northern territory nt herbarium records 1238 vascular plant species within ipa boundary 26 represented 1 specimen 63 less five little known distribution taxa biological inventory arnhem plateau regarded research priority national land water resources audit 2002 similarly considerable indigenous ecological knowledge exists danger passed complex socioeconomic historical factors indigenous ecological knowledge active knowledge requires use kept alive particularly used adaptive management country berkes 1999 terrah guymala chairman warddeken board stated old people important resource important anything else need work much especially recording knowledge documenting passed must late go bonj thats end cant bring back warddeken land management limited 2010 p 3 given shortage information sources main objective project add botanical baseline data looking back seek existing information herbaria local indigenous knowledge sources build move forward use collaborative twoway indigenous nonindigenous methods complementary objective work promote twoway learning capacity building exchange nonindigenous indigenous botanical knowledge skills collaborative approaches therefore used generate shared knowledge participants could understand better inform local management planning document indigenous plant knowledge risk lost elders pass away project conducted 10 field trips 12 weeks warddeken ipa september 2008 november 2010 build twoway capacity collaborators embarked evolving adaptive approach explored combined indigenous nonindigenous ways building knowledge skills drawing available resources participants interests result project involved number collaborative initiatives development local herbarium collection involved taking local manwurrk rangers community members country places choosing conducting training nonindigenous plant collecting techniques specimen preparation field data recording many participants first time systematically collected plants purpose botanical assessment possible scientific local language names kundedjnjenghmi andor kunwinjku recorded nonindigenous indigenous participants using available printed electronic resources consultation community elders pressed specimens mounted labelled placed folders conjunction herbarium database developed using filemaker pro software program already used rangers create electronic profile plant addition standard collection details also included photographs information local customary uses seasonal availability plants unable identified field ranger office kabulwarnamyo fig 2 taken northern territory herbarium national herbarium new south wales australian national herbarium determination reincorporated ranger collection number specimens also formally lodged institutions permission traditional owners reciprocate crosscultural exchange information training rangers offered nonindigenous participants arnhem land early 2010 nonindigenous participants hosted two manwurrk rangers royal botanic gardens national herbarium new south wales sydney visit involved guided tour botanical collections discussions function herbaria value plant collections resources scientists land managers historians rangers proud see warddeken specimens herbarium indigenous plant name names collectors pointed specimen label conscious aim work recognise contributions indigenous plant collectors redress historical lack acknowledgement clarke 2008 2011 continued herbarium visit initiative supporting involvement two manwurrk rangers student botanical internship program australian national herbarium canberra fig 6 rangers participated first 2 weeks 7week programme deemed appropriate terms content training subject areas included australian flora principles plant identification curation botanical collections including mounting handling plant specimens plant collecting techniques field data recording map reading victor garlngarr mounting plant specimens part botanical internship program australian national herbarium canberra 2011 photograph sam bentleytoon addition development local herbarium plant database indigenous nonindigenous participants also filmed elders speaking local plants customary uses language sometimes english late 2010 visited three places mary kodjdjan kolkiwarra senior elder kabulwarnamyo community learn kunwinjku names uses plants placecentred stories fig 7 occasion group participants included five 15 community members aged five 70 three nonindigenous scientists work designed situate record practice indigenous knowledge directed elders community oncountry plant collecting trip left right amy namarnyilk mary kolkiwarra gill towler emilie ens larissa daylight emmanuel namarnyilk joylene cameron photograph sam bentleytoon following field work nonindigenous indigenous participants edited film footage ranger office using existing apple imac computers imovie software together participants interpreted language selected film footage added scientific names added indigenous names uses using local ethnobotanical reference garde et al 2003 end product 29min video documenting names uses 30 local plants bush products found onset tropical wet season kunumeleng 50 copies film made community members diverse crosscultural botanical surveys conducted far collected information 180 species interrogation australian virtual herbarium database nonindigenous participants found 8172 specimens representing 1327 vascular 57 nonvascular plant species collected within warddeken ipa fig 8 lodged australian herbaria nonindigenous scientists national data search added 258 species warddeken plant list records 18 vascular plant species documented collaborative research garde et al 2003 likely species occur within ipa large tracts land yet surveyed fig 8 fact figure 5 shows arnhem land large gaps documented plant diversity distribution knowledge especially compared adjacent kakadu national park 19 804 km2 37 422 specimens lodged national herbaria documenting 2000 plant taxa avh data accessed march 2011 herbarium specimen locations dots arnhem land adjacent national parks bold lines warddeken indigenous protected area shaded area data australian virtual herbarium march 2011 case studies demonstrated indigenous rangers nonindigenous scientists collaboratively explored ways build baseline data ecological monitoring capacity prelude future monitoring indigenous land management outcomes monitoring ecological values threats work effort beneficial acquiring funding reporting demonstrating accountability external stakeholders also requested indigenous rangers local skill development increased employment opportunities adaptive management accountability local communities projects could also address concerns national biodiversity ecological monitoring gaps anzec bdac 2001 particularly remote parts australia furthermore incorporating indigenous knowledge systems elements western science developed locally meaningful approaches recording using valuable threatened cultural knowledge contemporary land management promote indigenous control ownership engagement monitoring programmes detailed case studies use terms methods interest importance indigenous rangers integral see also barbour schlesinger 2012 two case studies employed different combinations indigenous nonindigenous knowledge skills methods successful engagement interest projects rangers demonstrated communication results within local broader community increased communication outcomes indigenous ranger effort also contribute greater crosscultural awareness understanding often raised constraint development indigenous ncrm sector broadly roughley williams 2007 important note case study 2 indigenous participants preferred use plant nomenclatural system reflecting commitment culture indigenous differentiation species differ western scientific classifications example kundedjnjenghmi speakers split western science calls buchanania obovata two species andudjmi anwodberr distinguished tree height garde et al 2003 require different fruit harvesting methods however many participants also wanted learn western systems classification botany evidenced interest herbarium visits participation botanical internship program furthermore nonindigenous participants interested learning indigenous botanical knowledge language names evidenced frequent use latter conversation indigenous participants important feature work reciprocal sharing knowledge skill expertise also place sharing place facilitated sharing situated knowledge important part indigenous learning sithole hunterxenie 2007 also helped build trust understanding collaborators use knowledge systems strengthened enriched twoway capacity building botanical data collection facilitated crosscultural awareness last often documented substantial constraint effective crosscultural research roughley williams 2007 sithole hunterxenie 2007 hoffmann et al 2012 research also promoted intergenerational transfer indigenous knowledge oncountry trips young older people indigenous participants interested engaged learning documenting plant diversity distributional information told elders actively used country eg digging yams cooking combination cultural historical stories also found form oncountry learning facilitated uptake methods baseline data collection herbarium collections videos still photography use computers especially younger people fig 1 research eg roughley williams 2007 elucidated local communities lack necessary degree local organisational governance capacity maintain longterm projects suggesting ongoing requirement nonindigenous involvement although ranger group research requested specific projects became evident organisational capacity strong enough develop consistently implement required activities independently first case study example yugul mangi rangers relied nonindigenous collaborators complete funding application forms organise fencing contractor instigate fence repairs suggest inability rangers inhibited effort rather different perceptions expectations around work roles indigenous nonindigenous collaborators mcraewilliams gerritson 2010 methodology also required continued input nonindigenous ecologist analysis cybertracker data envisaged local rangers may take interest numbers skills interest increases time consider important sustained commitment remains consideration scientists intend working indigenous rangers remote parts australia collect longterm data meaningful local communities well external stakeholders similarly warddeken ipa initial enthusiasm learning herbarium skills use video cameras film making rangers still relied nonindigenous collaborators instigate much continued work even though said important project examples showed need enhanced organisational capacity support indigenous rangers well increased recognition role nonindigenous staff collaborators often integral part onground work effort therefore suggest respectful bottomup collaborative approaches monitoring fundamentally incorporate local interests skills similar described case studies needed support indigenous rangers aspirations create strong selfsufficient organisations promote indigenous culture concomitantly addressing external stakeholder expectations contributions national conservation objectives thank sidney myer fund greening australia nt financing innovative collaborative project federal governments working country programme funding rangers kabulwarnamyo manmoyi ngukurr indigenous communities embracing research also appreciate mentorship peter cooke insightful comments two anonymous reviewers well jon altman eva mcraewilliams greg dickson special thanks also goes sam bentleytoon assisting 2010 field work nunzio knerr centre australian national biodiversity research kindly assisted acquisition avh data