* Issue advocacy is deﬁned here as either (1) ads about public policy issues but that do not feature
candidates or (2) ads about public policy issues that also feature or depict federal candidates in
a negative or positive light.

9 The FEC issues “advisory opinions” as part of its statutory responsibility (see 11 CFR 112). These
are formal statements from the Commission, approved by at least four commissioners and that
answer a speciﬁc question about the reach and scope of the law. The issued opinions provide
guidance to political actors about the legality of speciﬁc proposed campaign ﬁnancing activity,
and they do not take the place of the FEC’s charge to write ofﬁcial regulations that provide more
general clarity on the law. (In truth, other political actors look to resolved advisory opinions for

https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108890960 Published online by Cambridge University Press

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Erika Franklin Fowler, Michael M. Franz, & Travis N. Ridout
Social_Media_and_Democracy