9 Datapoints used to train notable artificial intelligence systems, Our World in Data, 2023.  

10 Technically it is not words, but rather “tokens” (particular sequences of characters) for technical reasons – but 
this distinction is not important for the purposes of the report.  

11 Language models are better than humans at next-token prediction, Shlegeris et. al, 2022. 

12 Fine-tuning is an optional additional training process that can be applied to pre-trained models to add specific 
capabilities or improvements by leveraging particular datasets. 
13 Introduction in GPT-4 System Card, OpenAI, 2023. 

14 For example, see GPT-4 (vision) system card, OpenAI, 2023. 

15 Compute: Computational processing power, including CPUs, GPUs, and other hardware, used to run AI 
models and algorithms. 

16 The AI Triad and What It Means for National Security Strategy, Buchanan, 2020. 

17 Section 3.35 AI foundation models: Full report, Competition and Markets Authority, 2023.
Capabilities and risks from frontier AI 