Selection of programming languages From the 358 programming languages in The Stack, we
selected 86 languages. The assignment of data to programming languages was performed based
solely on file extension (Kocetkov et al., 2022). We included all programming languages with
more than 500 MB of data, as well as languages that were ranked in the top 50 on Githut 2.0 or
the December 2022 TIOBE Index of programming language popularity. In addition, we included
dialects of already selected programming languages (e.g., Racket and Scheme for Lisp). We excluded
configuration languages (Nix, Puppet, etc.) and languages that are no longer actively supported
(ActionScript). We also included data formats like JSON and YAML but limited its data volume (see
“JSON and YAML” paragraph for details). The full list of selected programming languages can be
found in Tables 1 and 2. Out of the languages present in MultiPL-E (Cassano et al., 2023), only D
StarCoder_paper (1)