Online Hate Speech

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(2019) exploit variation in early adoption of Twitter to show that higher
Twitter usage is associated with an increase in anti-Muslim hate crimes since
the start of Trump’s campaign. Their results provide preliminary evidence that
social media can act as a propagation mechanism between online hate speech
and ofﬂine violent crime. Together, this work suggests that online hate speech
may have powerful
ranging from negative
psychological effects at the individual level to violent attacks ofﬂine.

real-world consequences,

combating online hate speech

Rising concern regarding these real-world effects of online hate speech have
prompted researchers, policymakers, and online platforms to develop strategies
to combat online hate speech. These approaches have generally taken two
forms: content moderation and counter-speech.
Social_Media_and_Democracy