What kinds of offensive content are explored?
non-targeted profanity and swearing, targeted insults such as cyberbullying, offensive content related to ethnicity, gender or sexual orientation, political affiliation, religious belief, and anything belonging to hate speech
As offensive content has become pervasive in social media, there has been much research in identifying potentially offensive messages. However, previous work on this topic did not consider the problem as a whole, but rather focused on detecting very specific types of offensive content, e.g., hate speech, cyberbulling, or cyber-aggression. In contrast, here we target several different kinds of offensive content. In particular, we model the task hierarchically, identifying the type and the target of offensive messages in social media. For this purpose, we complied the Offensive Language Identification Dataset (OLID), a new dataset with tweets annotated for offensive content using a fine-grained three-layer annotation scheme, which we make publicly available. We discuss the main similarities and differences between OLID and pre-existing datasets for hate speech identification, aggression detection, and similar tasks. We further experiment with and we compare the performance of different machine learning models on OLID.
Offensive content has become pervasive in social media and a reason of concern for government organizations, online communities, and social media platforms. One of the most common strategies to tackle the problem is to train systems capable of recognizing offensive content, which then can be deleted or set aside for human moderation. In the last few years, there have been several studies published on the application of computational methods to deal with this problem. Most prior work focuses on a different aspect of offensive language such as abusive language BIBREF0 , BIBREF1 , (cyber-)aggression BIBREF2 , (cyber-)bullying BIBREF3 , BIBREF4 , toxic comments INLINEFORM0 , hate speech BIBREF5 , BIBREF6 , BIBREF7 , BIBREF8 , BIBREF9 , BIBREF10 , and offensive language BIBREF11 . Prior work has focused on these aspects of offensive language in Twitter BIBREF3 , BIBREF7 , BIBREF8 , BIBREF11 , Wikipedia comments, and Facebook posts BIBREF2 . Recently, Waseem et. al. ( BIBREF12 ) acknowledged the similarities among prior work and discussed the need for a typology that differentiates between whether the (abusive) language is directed towards a specific individual or entity or towards a generalized group and whether the abusive content is explicit or implicit. Wiegand et al. ( BIBREF11 ) followed this trend as well on German tweets. In their evaluation, they have a task to detect offensive vs not offensive tweets and a second task for distinguishing between the offensive tweets as profanity, insult, or abuse. However, no prior work has explored the target of the offensive language, which is important in many scenarios, e.g., when studying hate speech with respect to a specific target. Therefore, we expand on these ideas by proposing a a hierarchical three-level annotation model that encompasses:   Using this annotation model, we create a new large publicly available dataset of English tweets. The key contributions of this paper are as follows: