How are the expert and crowd-sourced annotations compared to one another?
Expert annotators incorporate domain knowledge from multimodality theory while non-expert cannot but they are less time-consuming and use less resources.
This article compares two multimodal resources that consist of diagrams which describe topics in elementary school natural sciences. Both resources contain the same diagrams and represent their structure using graphs, but differ in terms of their annotation schema and how the annotations have been created - depending on the resource in question - either by crowd-sourced workers or trained experts. This article reports on two experiments that evaluate how effectively crowd-sourced and expert-annotated graphs can represent the multimodal structure of diagrams for representation learning using various graph neural networks. The results show that the identity of diagram elements can be learned from their layout features, while the expert annotations provide better representations of diagram types.
Diagrams are a common feature of many everyday media from newspapers to school textbooks, and not surprisingly, different forms of diagrammatic representation have been studied from various perspectives. To name just a few examples, recent work has examined patterns in diagram design BIBREF0 and their interpretation in context BIBREF1, and developed frameworks for classifying diagrams BIBREF2 and proposed guidelines for their design BIBREF3. There is also a long-standing interest in processing and generating diagrams computationally BIBREF4, BIBREF5, BIBREF6, which is now resurfacing as advances emerging from deep learning for computer vision and natural language processing are brought to bear on diagrammatic representations BIBREF7, BIBREF8, BIBREF9. From the perspective of computational processing, diagrammatic representations present a formidable challenge, as they involve tasks from both computer vision and natural language processing. On the one hand, diagrams have a spatial organisation – layout – which needs to be segmented to identify meaningful units and their position. Making sense of how diagrams exploit the 2D layout space falls arguably within the domain of computer vision. On the other hand, diagrams also have a discourse structure, which uses the layout space to set up discourse relations between instances of natural language, various types of images, arrows and lines, thus forming a unified discourse organisation. The need to parse this discourse structure shifts the focus towards the field of natural language processing. Understanding and making inferences about the structure of diagrams and other forms of multimodal discourse may be broadly conceptualised as multimodal discourse parsing. Recent examples of work in this area include alikhanietal2019 and ottoetal2019, who model discourse relations between natural language and photographic images, drawing on linguistic theories of coherence and text–image relations, respectively. In most cases, however, predicting a single discourse relation covers only a part of the discourse structure. sachanetal2019 note that there is a need for comprehensive theories and models of multimodal communication, as they can be used to rethink tasks that have been previously considered only from the perspective of natural language processing. Unlike many other areas, the study of diagrammatic representations is particularly well-resourced, as several multimodal resources have been published recently to support research on computational processing of diagrams BIBREF10, BIBREF8, BIBREF11. This study compares two such resources, AI2D BIBREF10 and AI2D-RST BIBREF11, which both feature the same diagrams, as the latter is an extension of the former. Whereas AI2D features crowd-sourced, non-expert annotations, AI2D-RST provides multiple layers of expert annotations, which are informed by state-of-the-art approaches to multimodal communication BIBREF12 and annotation BIBREF13, BIBREF14. This provides an interesting setting for comparison and evaluation, as non-expert annotations are cheap to produce and easily outnumber the expert-annotated data, whose production consumes both time and resources. Expert annotations, however, incorporate domain knowledge from multimodality theory, which is unavailable via crowd-sourcing. Whether expert annotations provide better representations of diagrammatic structures and thus justify their higher cost is one question that this study seeks to answer. Both AI2D and AI2D-RST represent the multimodal structure of diagrams using graphs. This enables learning their representations using graph neural networks, which are gaining currency as a graph is a natural choice for representing many types of data BIBREF15. This article reports on two experiments that evaluate the capability of AI2D and AI2D-RST to represent the multimodal structure of diagrams using graphs, focusing particularly on spatial layout, the hierarchical organisation of diagram elements and their connections expressed using arrows and lines.