How many domains do they create ontologies for?
4
In this paper, we present hierarchical relationbased latent Dirichlet allocation (hrLDA), a data-driven hierarchical topic model for extracting terminological ontologies from a large number of heterogeneous documents. In contrast to traditional topic models, hrLDA relies on noun phrases instead of unigrams, considers syntax and document structures, and enriches topic hierarchies with topic relations. Through a series of experiments, we demonstrate the superiority of hrLDA over existing topic models, especially for building hierarchies. Furthermore, we illustrate the robustness of hrLDA in the settings of noisy data sets, which are likely to occur in many practical scenarios. Our ontology evaluation results show that ontologies extracted from hrLDA are very competitive with the ontologies created by domain experts.
Although researchers have made significant progress on knowledge acquisition and have proposed many ontologies, for instance, WordNet BIBREF0 , DBpedia BIBREF1 , YAGO BIBREF2 , Freebase, BIBREF3 Nell BIBREF4 , DeepDive BIBREF5 , Domain Cartridge BIBREF6 , Knowledge Vault BIBREF7 , INS-ES BIBREF8 , iDLER BIBREF9 , and TransE-NMM BIBREF10 , current ontology construction methods still rely heavily on manual parsing and existing knowledge bases. This raises challenges for learning ontologies in new domains. While a strong ontology parser is effective in small-scale corpora, an unsupervised model is beneficial for learning new entities and their relations from new data sources, and is likely to perform better on larger corpora. In this paper, we focus on unsupervised terminological ontology learning and formalize a terminological ontology as a hierarchical structure of subject-verb-object triplets. We divide a terminological ontology into two components: topic hierarchies and topic relations. Topics are presented in a tree structure where each node is a topic label (noun phrase), the root node represents the most general topic, the leaf nodes represent the most specific topics, and every topic is composed of its topic label and its descendant topic labels. Topic hierarchies are preserved in topic paths, and a topic path connects a list of topics labels from the root to a leaf. Topic relations are semantic relationships between any two topics or properties used to describe one topic. Figure FIGREF1 depicts an example of a terminological ontology learned from a corpus about European cities. We extract terminological ontologies by applying unsupervised hierarchical topic modeling and relation extraction to plain text. Topic modeling was originally used for topic extraction and document clustering. The classical topic model, latent Dirichlet allocation (LDA) BIBREF11 , simplifies a document as a bag of its words and describes a topic as a distribution of words. Prior research BIBREF12 , BIBREF13 , BIBREF14 , BIBREF15 , BIBREF16 , BIBREF17 , BIBREF18 has shown that LDA-based approaches are adequate for (terminological) ontology learning. However, these models are deficient in that they still need human supervision to decide the number of topics, and to pick meaningful topic labels usually from a list of unigrams. Among models not using unigrams, LDA-based Global Similarity Hierarchy Learning (LDA+GSHL) BIBREF13 only extracts a subset of relations: “broader" and “related" relations. In addition, the topic hierarchies of KB-LDA BIBREF17 rely on hypernym-hyponym pairs capturing only a subset of hierarchies. Considering the shortcomings of the existing methods, the main objectives of applying topic modeling to ontology learning are threefold. To achieve the first objective, we extract noun phrases and then propose a sampling method to estimate the number of topics. For the second objective, we use language parsing and relation extraction to learn relations for the noun phrases. Regarding the third objective, we adapt and improve the hierarchical latent Dirichlet allocation (hLDA) model BIBREF19 , BIBREF20 . hLDA is not ideal for ontology learning because it builds topics from unigrams (which are not descriptive enough to serve as entities in ontologies) and the topics may contain words from multiple domains when input data have documents from many domains (see Section SECREF2 and Figure FIGREF55 ). Our model, hrLDA, overcomes these deficiencies. In particular, hrLDA represents topics with noun phrases, uses syntax and document structures such as paragraph indentations and item lists, assigns multiple topic paths for every document, and allows topic trees to grow vertically and horizontally. The primary contributions of this work can be specified as follows. The rest of this paper is organized into five parts. In Section 2, we provide a brief background of hLDA. In Section 3, we present our hrLDA model and the ontology generation method. In Section 4, we demonstrate empirical results regarding topic hierarchies and generated terminological ontologies. Finally, in Section 5, we present some concluding remarks and discuss avenues for future work and improvements.