{4.4.2.3}. For example, Carcinus maenas (European shore 
crab) has had an impact on commercial shellfish beds in 
New England and Canada, Asterias amurensis (northern 
Pacific seastar) and Ciona intestinalis (sea vase) have 
negatively affected mariculture and fisheries along the 
Korean coast, and Mytilopsis sallei (Caribbean false mussel) 
has displaced native clams and oysters that are locally 
important fishery resources in India (well established)
{4.4.2.3}. In 2019, global annual costs of biological invasions 
were estimated to exceed US$423 billion, with variations 
across regions, but this is likely to be a gross underestimate 
(Figure SPM.3) (established but incomplete) {Box 4.13}. 
Ninety-two per cent of this cost is attributed to the damage 
that the invasive alien species have caused to nature's 
contributions to people and good quality of life; only 8 per 
cent is related to the management expenditures for 
biological invasions (established but incomplete) {Box 4.13}. 
Economic benefits are often gained by a few people or 
sectors while costs, often long-term ones, are borne by 
many others (established but incomplete)
{3.2.3.5, 4.2.1, 6.2.2(6)}.
 <Section-header> A5  </Section-header> 

SUMMARY FOR POLICYMAKERS
19SUMMARY FOR POLICYMAKERS
BACKGROUND
Figure SPM 2 Examples of invasive alien species with a negative impact on nature (green), 
and, in some cases, nature's contributions to people (yellow) and/or good 
quality of life (teal). 