title: Kazakh famine of 1930–1933

text:
The Kazakh famine of 1930–1933, also known as the Asharshylyk, was a famine during which approximately 1.5 million people died in the Kazakh Autonomous Socialist Soviet Republic, then part of the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic in the Soviet Union, of whom 1.3 million were ethnic Kazakhs. An estimated 38 to 42 percent of all Kazakhs died, the highest percentage of any ethnic group killed by the Soviet famine of 1930–1933. Other research estimates that as many as 2.3 million died. A committee created by the Kazakhstan parliament chaired by Historian Manash Kozybayev concluded that the famine was "a manifestation of the politics of genocide", with 1.75 million victims.

The famine began in the winter of 1930, a full year before the famine in Ukraine, termed the Holodomor, which was at its worst in the years 1931–1933. The famine made Kazakhs a minority in the Kazakh ASSR; it caused the deaths or migration of large numbers of people, and it was not until the 1990s, after the dissolution of the Soviet Union, that the Kazakhs became the largest ethnicity group in Kazakhstan again. Before the famine, around 60% of the republic's residents were ethnic Kazakhs, a proportion greatly reduced to around 38% of the population after the famine. The famine is seen by some scholars to belong to the wider history of collectivization in the Soviet Union and part of the Soviet famine of 1932–1933. Soviet authorities engaged in repressive policies during the famine such as blacklisting entire districts from trading with other areas and shooting thousands of Kazakhs dead during attempts to flee across the border to China.

Some historians describe the famine as legally recognizable as a genocide perpetrated by the Soviet state, under the definition outlined by the United Nations; however, some argue otherwise. In Kazakhstan, it is sometimes termed as Goloshchyokin's genocide (, ) after Filipp Goloshchyokin, who was the First Secretary of the Communist Party in the Kazakh ASSR, to emphasize its man-made nature.

Etymology
The famine is commonly known as the Asharshylyk. It comes from Kazakh: Ашаршылық, , meaning 'famine' or 'hunger'.

Background
In the years leading up to the famine, several interconnected factors played a crucial role in exacerbating the dire situation. The historical context was shaped by a complex interplay of demographic changes and traditional nomadic pastoralism practices in Central Asia, particularly centered around a meat and dairy based diet. The nomadic lifestyle of Kazakhs involved the seasonal movement of herd across vast expanses of steppe as a response to the unpredictable availability of grazing resources, driven by the region's harsh climate and varied terrain. As a result, the reliance on meat from livestock, especially during the long and harsh winters, became a fundamental aspect of survival in the Kazakh steppe.

The demographic landscape also played a crucial role, as the population in the region was marked by a substantial number of nomadic Kazakh herders, contributing to the reliance on livestock for sustenance. The traditional practices of raising animals and consuming their meat were intricately linked to cultural norms and historical traditions of Kazakhstan.

However, the destruction of nomadic pastoralism had its roots in the 19th century with the Russian conquest of Central Asia, which marked a significant turning point. Russian authorities introduced changes that included the auctioning fertile land as an effort to lure Russian peasants in the region with a focus on agriculture, aiming to transform the traditional nomadic lifestyle. This alteration in land use and economic activities disrupted the delicate equilibrium that had been maintained by Kazakh pastoralists for millennia, resulting in decreased nomadic mobility and increased consumption of grain. These changes set the stage for further disruptions in the early 20th century, as the region grappled with the aftermath of the Russian Revolution and the subsequent Russian Civil War. The situation was exacerbated by the policy of Prodrazvyorstka adopted by the Bolshevik government, coupled with the already challenging effects of severe intermittent drought, involved requisitioning grain from rural areas to support urban populations and export which led to the Kazakh famine of 1919–1922, with an estimated 400,000 to 2 million people dying in the event.

With the establishment of the Soviet Union in 1922, Kazakhstan was drawn into the sphere of Soviet authority. This transition placed the region under the influence of policies enacted by the Soviet government, particularly the first five-year plan implemented under the leadership of Joseph Stalin. At the heart of these policies was the drive for collectivization of agriculture, a practice which involved in integrating private landholdings and labour into collective farming.

Overview
Signs of the Kazakh famine began emerging in the late 1920s, with the factor being the zud from 1927 to 1928, which was a period of extreme cold in which cattle were starved and were unable to graze.

In 1928, the Soviet authorities started a collectivization campaign to confiscate cattle from richer Kazakhs, who were called bai, known as Little October. The confiscation campaign was carried out by Kazakhs against other Kazakhs, and it was up to those Kazakhs to decide who was a bai and how much to confiscate from them. While nomadic Kazakhs, involved in pasturing, were forcefully placed in collective farms which resulted in decline of adequate grazing. This engagement was intended to make Kazakhs active participants in the transformation of Kazakh society. More than 10,000 bais may have been deported due to the campaign against them. The campaign corresponded to arrests of former members of the Alash movement and repression of religious authorities and practices. Kazakhstan's livestock and grain were largely acquired between 1929 and 1932, with one-third of the republic's cereals being requisitioned and more than 1 million tons confiscated in 1930 to provide food for the cities.

One third of Kazakh livestock was confiscated between 1930 and 1931. The livestock was transferred over to Moscow and Leningrad which in the opinion of Niccolò Pianciola shows that Kazakhs were consciously sacrificed to the imperial hierarchy of consumption. Some Kazakhs were expelled from their land to make room for 200,000 "special settlers" and Gulag prisoners, and some of the inadequate food supply in Kazakhstan went to such prisoners and settlers as well. Food aid to the Kazakhs was selectively distributed to eliminate class enemies. Many Kazakhs were denied food aid as local officials considered them unproductive, and food aid was provided to European workers in the country instead. Despite this, the Kazakhs received some measure of emergency food assistance from the state, though much of it did not arrive or was heavily delayed. Soviet officials sent medical personnel into Kazakhstan to inoculate 200,000 Kazakhs from smallpox.

However, Kazakh victims of the famine were widely discriminated against and expelled from virtually every sector of Kazakhstan's society. Soviet authorities referred to Kazakhs in private memos as "two-legged wolves". As famine raged Soviet authorities continued to procure grain from the Kazakhs, with Stalin explicitly advocating for a "repressive track" in the collection process due to procurements having "undergone sharp declines." In this vein within 1932, 32 out of the less than 200 districts in Kazakhstan that did not meet grain production quotas were blacklisted, meaning that they were prohibited from trading with other villages. As Historian Sarah Cameron describes it in an interview with Harvard University's Davis Center, "[in] a strategy explicitly modeled upon a technique that was used against starving Ukrainians, several regions of Kazakhstan were blacklisted. That essentially entraps starving Kazakhs in zones of death where no food could be found." In 1933, Filipp Goloshchyokin was replaced with Levon Mirzoyan from Armenia, who was repressive particularly toward famine refugees and denied food aid to areas run by cadres who asked for more food for their regions using, in the words of Cameron, "teary telegrams"; in one instance under Mirzoyan's rule, a plenipotentiary shoved food aid documents into his pocket and had a wedding celebration instead of transferring them for a whole month while hundreds of Kazakhs starved. Shortly after his arrival, Mirzoyan announced that those who fled or stole grain were 'enemies' of the Soviet Union, and that the republic would take 'severe measures' against them. However, as Cameron notes, this definition could be extended to every starving refugee in the country. With this campaign, Mirzoyan pushed for the use of brutal punishment such as shootings.

Thousands of Kazakhs violently resisted the collectivization campaign with weapons left over by the white army with 8 rebellions occurring in 1930 alone.  In the Mangyshlak Peninsula 15,000 rebels resisted between 1929 and 1931. In one rebellion Kazakh took over the city of Suzak in Irgiz returning confiscated property and destroying grain depots. Rebels also decapitated and cut the ears off of party members upon their takeover of said city. Other Kazakhs in the rebellions fought to reopen previous closed down mosques and free religious leaders. OGPU officials are reported to have drunk the blood of Kazakhs shot during the repression of the rebellions. Lower level cadres often disaffected and joined the rebellions to help fight against Red Army forces.

Prominent Kazakh writer Gabit Musirepov reported finding corpses "stacked like firewood" by the roadside in the Turgai district of Kazakhstan. Another first account testified that “It is not rare to meet a Kazakh family, fleeing from who knows where and dragging behind them a sled, on top of which lies the corpse of a child, who died along the way.”

In scholar James Richter's Famine, Memory, and Politics in the Post-Soviet Space: Contrasting Echoes of Collectivization in Ukraine and Kazakhstan, published by Cambridge University Press, many testimonies from survivors are documented:"My first memory is of the moon. It was autumn, cold and we were on the tramp somewhere. Wrapped up, the cart swayed beneath me. A sudden stop, and I saw in the black sky this enormous moon. It was full, round and shone brightly. I lay on my back and couldn’t tear myself from the sight for a long time. Turning over, I could clearly see on the ground some kind of thickets with stretched-out, crooked branches; there were a lot of them on both sides of the road: they were people. Stiff and silent they lay on the ground. … It was ’31 and we were then moving from a ramshackle aul to Turgai."

Casualties
Kazakhstan included some of the regions affected severely by famine, percentage-wise, although more people died in famine in Soviet Ukraine, which began a year later. In addition to the Kazakh famine of 1919–1922, Kazakhstan lost more than half of its population in 10–15 years due to the actions of the Soviet state. The two Soviet censuses indicated that the number of Kazakhs in Kazakhstan dropped from 3,637,612 in 1926 to 2,181,520 in 1937. Ethnic minorities in Kazakhstan were also significantly affected. The Ukrainian population in Kazakhstan decreased from 859,396 to 549,859 (a reduction of almost 36% of their population) while other ethnic minorities in Kazakhstan lost 12% and 30% of their populations. Ukrainians who died in Kazakhstan are sometimes considered victims of the Holodomor.

Refugees

Due to starvation, between 665,000 and 1.1 million Kazakhs fled the famine with their cattle outside Kazakhstan to China, Mongolia, Afghanistan, Iran, Turkey, and the Soviet republics of Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, and Russia in search of food and employment in the new industrialization sites of Western Siberia. These refugees took an estimated 900,000 head of cattle with them.

Kazakhs who tried to escape were classified as class enemies and shot. The Soviet government also worked to repatriate them back to Soviet territory. This repatriation process could be brutal, as Kazakhs homes were broken into with both refugee and non-refugee Kazakhs being forcibly expelled onto train cars without food, heating, or water. 30% of the refugees died due to epidemics and hunger. Refugees that were repatriated were integrated into collective farms where many were too weak to work, and in a factory within Semipalatinsk half the refugees were fired within a few days with the other half being denied food rations.

Professor K.M. Abzhanov, Director of the Institute of History and Ethnology of the Kazakhstan Academy of Sciences stated that "One-sixth of the indigenous population left their historical homeland forever."

As the refugees fled the famine, the Soviet government made violent attempts to stop them. In one case, relief dealers placed food in the back of a truck to attract refugees, and then locked the refugees inside the truck and dumped them in the middle of the mountains; the fate of these refugees is unknown. Starting from 1930 onward thousands of Kazakhs were shot dead as they attempted to flee to China, such as in one infamous killing of 18 to 19 Kazakhs by state border guards called the Karatal Affair which not only had killings but also the rape of several women and children occurring in the incident as noted by a doctor who analyzed the event. The flight of refugees was framed by authorities as a progressive occurrence of nomads moving away from their 'primitive' lifestyle. Famine refugees were suspected by OGPU officials of maintaining counterrevolutionary, bai, and kulak 'tendencies', due to some refugees engaging in crime in the republics they arrived in.

Swiss reporter Ella Maillart, who traveled through Soviet Central Asia and China in the early 1930s, witnessed and wrote of viewing the firsthand effects of the repatriation campaign:“In every wagon carrying merchandise there were Kazakh families wearing rags. They killed time picking lice from each other. […] The train stops in the middle of a parched region. Packed alongside the railway are camels, cotton that is unloaded and weighed, piles of wheat in the open air. From the Kazakh wagons comes a muted hammering sound repeated the length of the train. Intrigued, I discover women pounding grain in mortars and making flour. The children ask to be lowered to the ground; they are wearing a quarter of a shirt on their shoulders and have scabs on their heads. A woman replaces her white turban, her only piece of clothing not in tatters, and I see her greasy hair and silver earrings. Her infant, clutching her dress and with skinny legs from which his boney knees protrude; his small behind is devoid of muscle, a small mass of rubbery, much-wrinkled skin. Where do they come from? Where are they going?”One report from an officer in Siberia reads: “When one thinks of the extreme distress in which Kazakhs live here with us, one can easily imagine that things in Kazakhstan are much worse."

Cannibalism
Some of the starving became so desperate that they resorted to cannibalism. This ranged from consuming corpses to acts of murder in order to eat. Similar acts occurred during the parallel famine in Ukraine, as Ukrainians and Kazakhs were starved under the same tactics. As Timothy Snyder wrote of the Soviet-imposed famines:Survival was a moral as well as a physical struggle. A woman doctor wrote to a friend in June 1933 that she had not yet become a cannibal, but was "not sure that I shall not be one by the time my letter reaches you." The good people died first. Those who refused to steal or to prostitute themselves died. Those who gave food to others died. Those who refused to eat corpses died. Those who refused to kill their fellow man died. Parents who resisted cannibalism died before their children did.

Aftermath and legacy
Two thirds of the Kazakh survivors of the famine were successfully sedentarized due to the 80% reduction of their herds, the impossibility of resuming pastoral activity in the immediate post-famine environment, and the repatriation and resettlement program undertaken by Soviet authorities. Despite this, Niccolò Pianciola says that the Soviet campaign to destroy nomadism was quickly rejected after the famine, and that nomadism even experienced a resurgence during World War II after the transfer of livestock from Nazi-occupied territories.

Ibragim Khisamutdinov, who lived through the famine as a young boy, saw starving Kazakhs dying in the streets on his way to school. More than 50 years later, he noted, "To this day, I can hear the desperate cries of the dying and their calls for help."

A monument for the famine's victims was constructed in 2017. The Turkic Council has described the famine as a "criminal Stalinist ethnic policy". A genocide remembrance day is commenced on 31 May for the victims of the famine.

Assessment, Legality, and Censorship

Like the Holodomor, there is heated debate as to whether or not the famine fits in with the legal definition of genocide, as defined by the UN.  In November 1991, the Kazakhstan parliament created a committee, chaired by Historian Manash Kozybayev, to investigate the famine and its causes. A year later, the commission reported out that “the magnitude of the tragedy was so monstrous that we can, with full moral authority, designate it as a manifestation of the politics of genocide."

Europeans in Kazakhstan had disproportionate power in the party, which has been argued as a cause of why indigenous nomads suffered the worst part of the collectivization process rather than the European sections of the country. Notably, many scholars have compared the internal colonization of Kazakhs as similar to American policies towards Native Americans such as the Sioux, who were similarly nomads. Niccolò Pianciola argues that the Soviet authorities undertook a campaign of persecution against the nomads in the Kazakhs, believing that the destruction of the 'class' was a worthy sacrifice for the collectivization of Kazakhstan., and that from Lemkin's point of view on genocide all nomads of the Soviet Union were victims of the crime, not just the Kazakhs. However, other nomads within Soviet territory were also Indigenous Turkic or Mongolic Central and North Asian peoples, had similar treatment by the Soviet Union, and discrimination that continues to this day. Kazakhs and other Central Asians are still referred to in Russian sometimes as aziaty, or as Churka or Churki (Russian: Чурка), a racial slur that means "darkie" or "block of wood".

A historian of the revolution and author Vladimir Burtsev, who knew Filipp Goloshchyokin, characterized him in his writing:This is a typical Leninist. This is a man who does not stop the blood. This trait is especially noticeable in his nature: the executioner, cruel, with some elements of degeneration. In party life he was arrogant, was a demagogue, a cynic. He did not count the Kazakhs as people at all. Goloshchekin did not have time to appear in Kazakhstan, as he stated that there is no Soviet power, and it is "necessary" to orchestrate a "Small October".Historian Stephen G. Wheatcroft believes that the high expectations of central planners were sufficient to demonstrate their ignorance of the ultimate consequences of their actions. Wheatcroft views the state's policies during the famine as "criminal acts of negligence", though not as intentional murder or genocide. However Historian Sarah Cameron, author of The Hungry Steppe: Famine, Violence, and the Making of Soviet Kazakhstan, stated in an interview with Harvard University's Davis Center that "Moscow’s sweeping program of state-led transformation clearly anticipates the cultural disruption of Kazakh society. And there's evidence to indicate that the Kazakh famine fits an expanded definition of genocide." She also says:"I think if we look historically, we can find that we've often been quick to dismiss violence committed against mobile peoples. We rationalize it as part of a process necessary to civilize so-called backward peoples.

When the Kazakh famine is mentioned in the scholarly literature, it's often referred to as a miscalculation by Stalin, a tragedy, a misunderstanding of cultures. But such depictions, I would argue, downplay the disaster's very violent nature, and seem to stress or imply that the Kazakh famine originated from natural causes, which of course it didn't.

I show in my book, there's nothing inevitable about this famine. Pastoral nomadism is not a backwards way of life, but rather it was a highly sophisticated and adaptive system. Nor can the famine itself be attributed to a simple miscalculation by Stalin as such depictions would seem to suggest."Regarding the legal definition of genocide as determined by the UN, Michael Ellman states that it "seems to be an example of 'negligent genocide' which falls outside the scope of the UN Convention". Historian Isabelle Ohayon stated she found "no evidence nor motive for the deliberate starvation" of the Kazakh population, and concludes that the famine did not constitute a genocide under international juridical standards, and therefore labelling it was an "empty exercise". Maya Mehra concludes that the famine was caused by intentional act of violence on part of Stalin and the Soviet state, but it was not in the legal sense a genocide. In Red Famine: Stalin's War on Ukraine, Pulitzer Prize winner Anne Applebaum says that the UN definition of genocide is overly narrow due to the Soviet influence on the Genocide Convention, as extensively documented by scholars such as Anton Weiss-Wendt in his book The Soviet Union and the Gutting of the UN Genocide Convention. Instead of a broad definition that would have included Soviet crimes, Applebaum writes that genocide "came to mean the physical elimination of an entire ethnic group, in a manner similar to the Holocaust. The Holodomor does not meet that criterion ... This is hardly surprising, given that the Soviet Union itself helped shape the language precisely in order to prevent Soviet crimes, including the Holodomor, from being classified as 'genocide.'"

Historian Robert Kindler disagrees with calling the famine a genocide, commenting that doing so masks the culpability of lower-level cadres who were locally rooted among the Kazakhs themselves. Kindler goes as far as to say that speaking in terms of genocide with the Holodomor and the famine eclipses “how the nations themselves were responsible for catastrophes” rather than the Soviet Union. However, Sarah Cameron stated that the Soviet decision to have Kazakhs serve as lower-level cadres was "a strategy purposefully designed to shatter old allegiances and sow violent conflict in the Kazakh Awul"

While serving as a Kluge Fellow at the Library of Congress for her research on the famine, Sarah Cameron identified the lack of a strong Kazakh diaspora as part of the reason why there's been no international recognition of the genocide:In the West, the study of the Ukrainian famine has been supported by a very active Ukrainian diaspora community. They have endowed institutes across North America, and in the 1980s the Ukrainian famine was the subject of a US congressional investigation. There was no similar movement among the Kazakh diaspora–I’m not aware of a single Kazakh studies chair or Kazakh studies institute in the West. The Kazakh famine did not become incorporated into the US Cold War narrative about the Soviet Union.

In Famine, Memory, and Politics in the Post-Soviet Space: Contrasting Echoes of Collectivization in Ukraine and Kazakhstan, James Richter highlights:The link between the genocide argument and the use of Kazakh language was made explicit by the historian Kaidar Aldazhumanov in an interview with Radio Azattyq in 2014. In this interview, Aldazhumanov suggests that foreign scholars and even Russian speakers at home do not regard the famine as genocide because “they cannot read witnesses or evidence in the Kazakh language and rely fundamentally on research in Russian…. They do not want to know anything about research in the Kazakh language, nor do Russian researchers or Russian speakers living in Kazakhstan”Historian Isabelle Ohayon, among other scholars, noted the importance of oral histories in Kazakh culture, and wrote of disappearing famine accounts and lack of public narrative and awareness:First, the bearers of the memory of this story—the witnesses, the actors, the victims of the famine—traversed the Soviet century in obscurity by virtue of the ideological ban on discussing this tragic chapter in the collectivization campaign, but also due to the hiatus generated by the powerful phenomenon of acculturation, or even deculturation, after the death of a third of the nomadic population.

Because mortality was greater among the elderly during collectivization, the traditional bearers of collective memory were unable to tell their stories. Abruptly introduced into Soviet modernity--with its new forms of authority and its obsession with written records and bureaucracy--surviving elders no longer found conditions in which they could relate their experiences.It is also important to note that Kazakhstan's government maintains close relations with Russia today, which contributes to its official documentation and statements on the famine as genocide. This connection is based on lasting Soviet ties, intimidation, and the dependence of Kazakhstan's economy on Russian imports, especially basic items such as food and clothing, and 40% of Kazakhstan's market needs are covered by Russia. As Anne Applebaum explains current denialism, "Putinism is an oligarchic autocracy that would be in trouble if there was complete freedom of speech, freedom of the press, and the rule of law." Only recently with the invasion of Ukraine in 2022 has there been notable disconnect between the allies.

Former President Nursultan Nazarbayev of Kazakhstan was noted as careful while speaking of the famine. However, an official inscription at the monument for the famine victims quoted him stating “the hunger that put an entire nation on the brink of disappearing, will never be forgotten”, which lends credence to the common speculation that he was trying to appease Moscow in fear of retribution for recognizing the famine as genocide.

Portrayals in Media

 The Crying Steppe (2020), director Marina Kunarova, and selected as the Kazakhstani entry for the Best International Feature Film at the 93rd Academy Awards. The movie follows an eagle hunter trying to save his family.
 Qash (Forthcoming), director Aisultan Seitov. The movie follows a gravedigger facing a difficult choice during the famine.

See also
 Ethnic demography of Kazakhstan
 History of Kazakhstan
 Kazakh famine of 1919-1922
 Droughts and famines in Russia and the Soviet Union
 Russian conquest of Central Asia
 Russian Empire
 Soviet famine of 1930–1933
 Holodomor
 Holodomor Denialism
 Excess mortality in the Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin
 Indigenous Peoples
 Genocide of indigenous peoples
 Uyghur genocide
 Xinjiang Internment Camps

References

Bibliography

 Conquest, Robert, The Harvest of Sorrow: Soviet Collectivization and the Terror-famine, Edmonton: The University of Alberta Press in Association with the Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies, 1986.

 Sahni, Kalpana. Crucifying the Orient: Russian orientalism and the colonization of Caucasus and Central Asia. Bangkok: White Orchid Press, 1997.

1932 in the Soviet Union
1933 in the Soviet Union
1932 disasters in the Soviet Union
1933 disasters in the Soviet Union
Famine-genocide of 1930-1933
20th-century famines
Famine-genocide of 1930-1933
Kazakhstan of 1932-33
Genocides in Asia
Human rights abuses in the Soviet Union
Human rights abuses in Kazakhstan
Joseph Stalin
Persecution of Kazakhs


title: A330 (disambiguation)

text:
A330 usually refers to the Airbus A330, a 1992 long-range widebody airliner created by Airbus Industrie.

A330 may also refer to:

 A330 road (Great Britain), a road in Zone 3 of the Great Britain numbering scheme
 Aero A.330, a Czechoslovak biplane
 Van Hool A330 transit bus, a part of the Van Hool A3 transit bus series


title: 1987 Davis Cup World Group

text:
The World Group was the highest level of Davis Cup competition in 1987.

Australia were the defending champions, but were eliminated in the semifinals.

Sweden won the title, defeating India in the final, 5–0. The final was held at the Scandinavium in Gothenburg, Sweden, from 18 to 20 December. It was the Swedish team's 4th Davis Cup title overall.

Participating teams

Draw

First round

Italy vs. Sweden

France vs. South Korea

Paraguay vs. United States

Spain vs. West Germany

India vs. Argentina

Czechoslovakia vs. Israel

Mexico vs. Great Britain

Australia vs. Yugoslavia

Quarterfinals

France vs. Sweden

Paraguay vs. Spain

India vs. Israel

Australia vs. Mexico

Semifinals

Spain vs. Sweden

Australia vs. India

Final

Sweden vs. India

Relegation play-offs
The first-round losers played in the Relegation Play-offs. The winners of the play-offs advanced to the 1988 Davis Cup World Group, and the losers were relegated to their respective Zonal Regions.

Results summary
Date: 24–26 July

 , ,  and  remain in the World Group in 1988.
 , ,  and  are relegated to Zonal competition in 1988.

South Korea vs. Italy

United States vs. West Germany

Czechoslovakia vs. Argentina

Yugoslavia vs. Great Britain

References

External links
Davis Cup official website

World Group
Davis Cup World Group
Davis Cup


title: Elizabeth Williams (artist)

text:
Elizabeth Williams is a New York City-based illustrator, courtroom artist and author. She has covered many high-profile court cases such as those of John DeLorean, Martha Stewart, John Gotti, Michael Milken, Bernard Madoff, Dominique Strauss-Khan, Michael Cohen, and the Times Square Bomber. Williams is the author with true crime writer Sue Russell of The Illustrated Courtroom: 50 Years of Court Art, a history of American courtroom sketch artistry published by CUNY Journalism Press in 2014.

Career

Williams’ career began in Hollywood, California, where she was a fashion illustrator for designers such as Michael Travis and in the atelier of Bob Mackie. Following the suggestion of a teacher she decided to pursue the possible career as a court artist. While working as a fashion illustrator she went to an art show in San Diego, California, where she saw the courtroom art of well-known sketch artist Bill Robles. After a meeting with Robles, she began to work as a courtroom artist. The first court case she covered was the San Bernardino, California hearing of a child molester in 1980.

After Williams met Robles at a trial in Los Angeles, California, that they were both covering and he began to mentor her. The first high-profile trial she covered was the 1984 drug trafficking trial of John DeLorean for Los Angeles-based channel KABC-TV. Later that year Williams returned to her native New York and began working as a courtroom artist in New York City. While in New York City, Williams gained a reputation for reporting on white-collar crime. She covered the trials inside traders Ivan Boesky, Michael Milken, Raj Rajaratnam, and Martha Stewart. Williams also reported on the trials of financial figures such as Bernard Madoff, Bernard Ebbers, and Dominique Strauss-Khan. Non-financial trials reported on by Williams include those of John Gotti, Times Square Bomber, terrorist Abu Anas al Libi, and Russian spy Anna Chapman.

In 2012, 61 of Williams’ sketches depicting the Sean Bell trial were acquired by the Lloyd Sealy Library at the John Jay College of Criminal Justice.

Along with crime writer Sue Russell, Williams authored The Illustrated Courtroom: 50 Years of Court Art, which was published in 2014 by CUNY Journalism Press. The book is a retrospective of American courtroom sketch art of high-profile trials produced from 1964 to 2014 and contains work from artists Howard Brodie, Aggie Kenny, Bill Robles, Richard Tomlinson, and Williams.

Education and style
Williams studied art at the Sam Fox School of Design & Visual Arts at Washington University in St. Louis, the Parsons The New School for Design, Syracuse University and the Otis Art Institute. Much of her artwork is created with brush pens, colored pencils, oil pastel and oil paint sticks.

References

American women artists
Courtroom sketch artists
American illustrators
Living people
Sam Fox School of Design & Visual Arts alumni
Parsons School of Design alumni
Syracuse University alumni
Otis College of Art and Design alumni
Fayetteville-Manlius High School alumni
Year of birth missing (living people)


title: Hugh Aiken House

text:
Hugh Aiken House is a historic home located at Greenville, South Carolina. It was designed in 1948, by noted Greenville architect William Riddle Ward and built in 1952. It is a -story frame residence in the Colonial Revival style. A large, tapered stone chimney dominates the front elevation of the house. The property features an extensively landscaped lot that is a heavily wooded, natural setting with falling topography and natural springs.

It was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 2003.

References

Houses on the National Register of Historic Places in South Carolina
Colonial Revival architecture in South Carolina
Houses completed in 1952
Houses in Greenville, South Carolina
National Register of Historic Places in Greenville, South Carolina


title: Little Partridge River (Buick River tributary)

text:
The Little Partridge River is a river in Manitoba and Nunavut, Canada. It is in the Hudson Bay drainage basin and is a left tributary of the Buick River.

The river begins at Roosevelt Lake in the Kivalliq Region of Nunavut and travels south into Division No. 23 in Manitoba before reaching its mouth at Jonasson Lake. The lake drains via the Buick River and the Thlewiaza River to Hudson Bay.

References

Rivers of Manitoba
Rivers of Kivalliq Region
Tributaries of Hudson Bay


title: Palestinian tunnels

text:
Palestinian tunnels may refer to:
 Gaza Strip smuggling tunnels, passages along the border between Gaza Strip and Egypt
 Palestinian tunnel warfare in the Gaza Strip, military tunnels employed by the Palestinians in their warfare against Israel


title: Chief of Staff (Canada)

text:
Chief of Staff may refer to the following positions in Canada:

Military
 Since 1964:
 Chief of the Defence Staff (Canada), the senior officer of the combined Canadian armed forces
 In the Armed Forces Council, various subordinate positions such as "Chief of Staff (Materiel)"
 Before 1964:
 Chief of the General Staff (army) from 1904
 Chief of the Naval Staff from 1928
 Chief of the Air Staff from 1938
 Chiefs of Staff Committee (Canada), from 1951 the above three plus a chairman

Other
 Chief of Staff to the Prime Minister (Canada), since 1987 the top official of the Prime Minister's Office


title: Kurnik

text:
Kurnik may refer to
 Kurnik (pirog), a type of Russian pirog
 PlayOK, a website of board and card games formerly known as Kurnik


title: Hamilton Primary School

text:
The Hamilton Primary School is a historic school building located  on 107 E. Main Street in Otterville, Illinois. The two-story Italianate building was constructed in 1873 using limestone from the original school building, which was built in 1835. The original school was the first free and integrated school in the United States. The building was added to the National Register of Historic Places on August 6, 1998.

History
Dr. Silas Hamilton, for whom the school is named, was born in New England. He later owned and operated a plantation in Mississippi, hoping to influence his neighbors by treating his slave humanely. His neighbors were unimpressed, and after the death of his son, Silas abandoned his dream. In 1827, he freed his 28 slaves in Cincinnati. He then moved to Illinois, settling in Otterville (then known as Gullum) in 1830. When Hamilton died in 1834, he left $4000 for the construction of a free and integrated public school. The school, which was completed in 1835, was the first free school in Illinois and the first free and integrated school in the United States. In 1839, the Illinois General Assembly legally incorporated the school. The original building was demolished in 1872, and the current school building was built from the same stone the following year.

George Washington, one of Hamilton's former slaves, bequeathed $1500 upon his death in 1864 to build a monument to Hamilton. The marble monument, erected in front of the school the same year, is currently maintained by the Illinois Department of Natural Resources. A plaque in front of the Jersey County Courthouse also commemorates the school.

The school building served Otterville's students until 1971. The Otter Creek Historical Society took control of the building in 1982; however, the school has suffered from poor maintenance since then due to insufficient funding. Landmarks Illinois named the school as one of the ten most endangered historic places in Illinois in April 2014.

Architecture
The two-story, limestone school has an Italianate design. The limestone used to build the school came from the 1835 school building and was originally from the Hiram White Quarry in Mississippi Township; due to its local abundance, limestone was a popular building material in Jersey County in the mid-19th century. The front entrance has an arched double door below a second-floor arched section with two arched windows and an oculus; another oculus is above the opening, and a pediment tops the entrance bay. The other first- and second-story windows are tall and narrow with arched hoods. The school's roof has wide eaves with decorative brackets and is topped by a cupola.

References

External links
Hamilton Primary School website

School buildings on the National Register of Historic Places in Illinois
Italianate architecture in Illinois
School buildings completed in 1873
Buildings and structures in Jersey County, Illinois
National Register of Historic Places in Jersey County, Illinois


title: 2005 Spa-Francorchamps GP2 Series round

text:
The 2005 Spa-Francorchamps GP2 Series round was a GP2 Series motor race held on September 10 and 11, 2005 at the Circuit de Spa-Francorchamps in Stavelot, Belgium. It was the penultimate round of the 2005 GP2 Series season. The race weekend supported the 2005 Belgian Grand Prix.

Classification

Qualifying

Feature race

Sprint race

Notes

References

External links
 Motorsportstats.com

Spa-Francorchamps
GP2
Auto races in Belgium


title: Cave Church, Rsovci

text:
The Cave Church, also known as Cave Church of Sts. Peter and Paul, is situated near the village of Rsovci, Stara Planina, in a cave on Kalik Hill, 22 km from Pirot. Dedicated to Saint Peter and Paul the Apostle, the church was built in the 13th century. It contains a fresco, painted on the wall of the cave, depicting a bald-headed Jesus. The church has been under Serbian state protection as a national cultural heritage site since 1981.

Characteristics
The fresco of a bald-headed Jesus (on its northern interior wall) is also known as the fresco of the young Jesus (Ser. Исус Младенац). The color and style of the painting indicate it is from the middle or second half of the 13th century; it is believed to have been done at a time when large numbers of Sinai anchorites came to Serbia, during the reign of Lazar of Serbia (1373–1389).

In the past, the path to the church was almost impassable, making access extremely difficult, but funding from the World Travel Agency made access possible. Since the whole church was formed of rock, the entrance to the cave became the entrance to the church. The iconostasis was made of ordinary wooden beams. Although the church had a simple design, over the centuries the shrine became a spiritual hermitage for pilgrims from afar who came to the village during the summer.

Bald-headed Jesus

Serbian journalist and photographer Dragan Bosnić, who discussed the fresco in his Amazing Serbia, explains:
In a small temple which is fifty square meters in size, dedicated to Sts. Peter and Paul, the clergy and the believers are praying below a fresco with an image of a young bald-headed Jesus, depicted by a local painter as having no hair. Bald-headed Jesus was painted in the second half of the 13th century on the north wall of the church. He is shown in Buddhist robes inside the octagonal mandorla, or inside the star, which is the greater miracle.

Bosnić adds:
The fresco of a young bald-headed Jesus is unique in Serbian fresco painting and also in Christian art as a whole. There is no precise information on how this miracle fresco was created but it is assumed that under the rule of knez Lazar, the fresco was painted by ascetics from Sinai who came to Serbia. At that time hermitage sanctuaries were not subject to the episcopal canons. As a result, people believed the image of the bald-headed Jesus was painted by the ascetics from that church. Today, the beauty of the fresco attracts a large number of both worshippers and tourists.

It is suggested that this bald-headed Jesus could have been painted here only because the place did not suffer from "Episcopalian censorship". It is believed by some that the image of the young Jesus was painted by a painter or group of painters influenced by the different directions of Christianity. Only after Bosnić's photograph, could it be seen that he was a very young man, with chubby cheeks, blue eyes and a halo indicating his divinity. It can be clearly seen that Jesus has a naked chest and uncovered arms as a result of the cloak he is wearing. He bears no cross in his hands but raises three of his fingers in a symbol of baptism.

References

External links

13th-century Serbian Orthodox church buildings
Cave churches
Pirot District
Serbian Orthodox church buildings in Serbia


title: Berkan Afşarlı

text:
Berkan Afsarli (born 1 March 1991) is a German professional footballer who most recently played as a midfielder for Turkish club Kızılcabölükspor.

Career
In February 2015, Afsarli was diagnosed with cancer but he fully recovered and joined Denizlispor in August 2016.

References

External links

 Profile

1991 births
Living people
People from Lindau
Footballers from Swabia (Bavaria)
German sportspeople of Turkish descent
German men's footballers
Men's association football midfielders
Germany men's youth international footballers
Süper Lig players
TFF First League players
TFF Second League players
Swiss Challenge League players
FC Wil players
Mersin Talim Yurdu
Denizlispor footballers
Pendikspor footballers
Bayrampaşa SK footballers
German expatriate men's footballers
German expatriate sportspeople in Switzerland
Expatriate men's footballers in Switzerland


title: Wrestling at the 2014 Commonwealth Games – Women's freestyle 48 kg

text:
The women's 48 kg freestyle wrestling competitions at the 2014 Commonwealth Games in Glasgow, Scotland was held on 29 July at the Scottish Exhibition and Conference Centre.

Results
Results:

Bracket

Repechage

References

Wrestling at the 2014 Commonwealth Games
Com


title: U Mumba

text:
U Mumba is a professional kabaddi team based in Mumbai, Maharashtra, that plays in the Pro Kabaddi League. The franchise is currently led by Surinder singh, and will be coached by Gholamreza Mazandarani ,  coach of Iran national Kabbadi team. The team is owned by Unilazer Ventures Pvt. Ltd with co - founders in Ronnie Screwvala and Supratik Sen. U Mumba play their home matches at the Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel Indoor Stadium, Mumbai.

In the inaugural season of the PKL, U Mumba were one of the most dominant teams in the league but lost the ultimate match of the competition, thus ending as runner's up to the Jaipur Pink Panthers. In 2015, they were out to make up for their mistakes and successfully won the tournament after defeating Bengaluru Bulls in the Final. Later next season in 2016(January), U Mumba lived up to the tag of the best team in PKL history and made their third successive PKL final before eventually ending as runner's up, as they were defeated by the Patna Pirates by a narrow margin despite a lion hearted comeback in the second half of the final.

Ahead of the June 2016 season, in the PKL auction, U Mumba lost many of their key players who were a part of the squad that reached three consecutive finals. The team wasn't able to deal with the changes as they failed to make the playoffs in the following two seasons- 2016(June) season and 2017. An inspired change of personnel by the owners ahead of the 2018-19 season, saw U Mumba regain their lost touch and qualified for the playoffs after two failed attempts. In the process U Mumba once again became the force they once were, and ended the league stage with dominant wins and the most highest score difference than any other team. But inability to peak in big games with narrow margins, saw them getting knocked out by the UP Yoddha in the playoffs.

U Mumba contest the Maharashtra derby against state rivals Puneri Paltan and have the bragging rights as well by winning 9 of the 15 encounters between the two teams.

In season 7, they went out in the 2nd semi-final losing to the eventual champions Bengal Warriors, by a score of 35–37.

Franchise history

Pro Kabaddi League (PKL) is a professional kabaddi league in India, based on the format of the Indian Premier League T20 cricket tournament. The first edition of the tournament was played in 2014 with eight franchises representing various cities in India. U Mumba is a Mumbai based franchise owned by Unilazer sports promoted by Ronnie Screwvala.

Current squad

Seasons

Season I

U Mumba finished runners-up in the first season after losing to Jaipur Pink Panthers in the finals.

Season II

This season U Mumba finished the league as the Champions.

Season III

Season IV

Season V

Season VI

Season VII

Season VIII

Season IX

Season X

Head coach record

Records

Overall results Pro Kabbaddi season

By opposition
''Note: Table lists in alphabetical order.

Sponsors

U Mumba announced TATA Motors will continue as their principle sponsor for Season 4, 2016. Associate sponsors are Enerzal, TVS Tyres, Adidas, Killer Jeans, Lawman pg3, Amul Macho, Prayag, Red FM 93.5, Courtyard by Marriott, Smaaash and Wockhardt Hospitals

References

Pro Kabaddi League teams
Sport in Mumbai
2014 establishments in Maharashtra
Kabaddi clubs established in 2014


title: T. Q. Donaldson House

text:
T. Q. Donaldson House, also known as the Dr. Davis Furman House, is a historic home located at Greenville, South Carolina. It was built about 1863, and is a two-story, frame, vernacular Italianate style cottage.  It consists of a two-story rectangular block with a one-story wing and one-story rear ells. Also on the property is a contemporary three-room frame, weatherboard outbuilding built for use as a kitchen and servant's quarters. It was built by William Williams for Thomas Q. Donaldson, a lawyer and member of the South Carolina Senate from Greenville County from 1872 to 1876.

It was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1980.

References

Houses on the National Register of Historic Places in South Carolina
Italianate architecture in South Carolina
Houses completed in 1863
Houses in Greenville, South Carolina
National Register of Historic Places in Greenville, South Carolina


title: Puneri Paltan

text:
Puneri Paltan is a professional kabaddi team which represents the city of Pune, Maharashtra in the Pro Kabaddi League. The team, coached by BC Ramesh, plays at the Shree Shiv Chhatrapati Sports Complex. Puneri Paltan, a founding member of the Pro Kabaddi League, has been relatively unsuccessful after finishing last during its first two seasons (2014 and 2015). The Paltans did learn from their mistakes during the 2016(January) season, making the playoffs for the first time and eventually finishing third. After narrowly missing the playoffs in the 2016 (June) season, they earned a playoff spot in 2017 season. In the 2018-19 season, the team failed to qualify for the playoffs.
 Inconsistency has been the major reason that has hampered Pune's success throughout the Pro Kabaddi League. On 15 December 2022 Puneri Paltan beat Tamil Thalaivas in the semi-final of 9th season of Vivo Pro Kabaddi League and advanced to their maiden pro kabbadi league final to face Jaipur Pink Panthers.

Overview
The Pro Kabaddi League's first season was in 2014, with eight teams. Four teams were added for the league's fifth season, bringing the total to 12. Its log includes a lion, the team mascot.

Colours, logo and mascot

Colours
Puneri Paltan's current team colors are orange and vermilion, traditional colors in Maratha culture. Though Logo was changed in SEASON VII , its colours remained same.

Logo and mascot
Puneri paltan's older logo had Dhal (shield) & two talwars behind it. Illustration of Side-faced lionhead was also present in that logo. There was a Chandrakor on the 'i' of word 'puneri'. The logo had orange and silver colours.

Current logo was introduced in SEASON VII. New logo has a front-facing Lion-head illustration. The lion has a white Chandrakor Tilak on forehead.

Lion includes aspects like leadership, royalty, power & strength.

Current squad

Seasons

Season I

Puneri Paltan finished eighth in its first season.

Season II

Puneri Paltan finished last in the second consecutive season.

Season III

Season IV

Season V

Bengal Warriors finished 8th in the Fourth season.

Season VI

Season VII

Season VIII

Season IX

Season X

Records

Overall results Pro Kabbaddi season

By opposition
''Note: Table lists in alphabetical order.

Sponsors

References

External links
 Official website

Pro Kabaddi League teams
Sport in Pune
2014 establishments in Maharashtra
Kabaddi clubs established in 2014
Sport in Maharashtra


title: Fabio Reato

text:
Fabio Reato (born 20 March 1993) is an Italian former professional footballer who plays as a defender.

Career
Born in L'Aquila, Abruzzo, Reato started his career at Lombard club A.C. Milan. In 2010–11 season he was a member of Berretti under-18 team. In 2011, he was signed by Pavia. In 2012, he was signed by Serie B club Cesena on a co-ownership deal with Pavia, for €150,000 transfer fee (César Meza Colli plus €75,000). He signed a 3-year contract.

Reato also returned to Pavia on a temporary deal in 2012–13 and 2013–14 Lega Pro Prima Divisione seasons. Cesena team-mate Matteo Zanini also joined Pavia along with Reato. In 2013 and again in 2014 the co-ownership deal were renewed.

In 2014, he left for Forlì along with L.Arrigoni, T.Arrigoni, N.Capellini, and M.Đurić. In June 2015 Cesena acquired Reato outright, as well as Pavia acquired Caio De Cenco outright.

References

External links
 AIC profile (data by football.it)

Italian men's footballers
AC Milan players
AC Pavia 1911 SSD players
AC Cesena players
Serie C players
Men's association football defenders
Sportspeople from L'Aquila
Footballers from Abruzzo
1993 births
Living people


title: Nihar Ranjan Laskar

text:
Nihar Ranjan Laskar (1 May 1932) was an Indian politician. He was elected to the Lok Sabha the lower house of Indian Parliament from Karimganj, Assam in 1962,1967,1971,1977 and 1980.He was member of the Indian National Congress.

References

External links
 Official Biographical Sketch in Lok Sabha Website

1932 births
Lok Sabha members from Assam
India MPs 1962–1967
India MPs 1967–1970
India MPs 1971–1977
India MPs 1977–1979
India MPs 1980–1984
People from Cachar district
Living people
Indian National Congress politicians from Assam


title: Crkvenica

text:
The Crkvenica () is a Bosnian river. It is a right bank tributary of the Vrbanja River.

Crkvenica rises between the northwestern slopes of Očauš and Šipraška brda mountains, flowing southeast at around  above sea level. The river drains the central part of the northern slopes of the Dinaric mountain massif and its mouth is in Šiprage (Kotor Varoš) with a length of .

The river is known for its water mills; during the 1950s, they numbered approximately 18.

The narrow area of its headwaters contains a watershed between the confluence of the Vrbas and the Bosna Rivers.

Tufa stećci on the Crkvenica riverbank is a relic of the Bogomil settlement in the twelfth century. The stećci was originally located at the confluence of the Crkvenica and the Vrbanja. The stones were quarried and built into the walls of the surrounding buildings, possibly due to belief in their miraculous properties. One of the most well-preserved tombstones is in its original location, submerged in the River Vrbanja.

References

Rivers of Bosnia and Herzegovina


title: Partridge Lake

text:
Partridge Lake may refer to:

Canada
Partridge Lake (BC-Yukon)
Ontario
Partridge Lake (Partridge River), in Cochrane District
Partridge Lake (Lennox and Addington County)
Thunder Bay District
Partridge Lake (Fox River)
Partridge Lake (Namewaminikan River)

United States
Partridge Lake (Wisconsin)


title: Partridge Lake (Partridge River)

text:
Partridge Lake is a lake in Cochrane District in Northeastern Ontario, Canada. It is the source of the Partridge River from an outflow at middle of the east side of the lake; the Partridge River flows to James Bay. There are five unnamed inflows to the lake.

See also
List of lakes in Ontario

References

Other map sources:

Lakes of Cochrane District


title: Johannes Saeckma

text:
Johannes Saeckma (7 November 1572 – 22 December 1636), was a Dutch Golden Age magistrate and judge of Leeuwarden.

Biography
He was born in Kollum as the son of Sjoerd Saeckma and Fedke Ringia, but his father died just after he was born and he was raised by his uncle Reinalda. He was educated at Franeker, Heidelberg and Basel, where he became a doctor. In 1596 he was admitted to the admiralty of Friesland in Dokkum, and in 1600 he became procureur-generaal. He was soon judge of the Hof van Friesland, and in 1628 he was curator of the Fries university and a representative to the Staten-Generaal. He married Hylck Boner, daughter of Johannes Boner, and though they had several children, his sons died without issue and his estate was left to his daughter who married Hans van Wyckel. Hylck's portrait was documented as painted by Frans Hals, and a portrait by Frans Hals was identified as a possible pendant by Wilhelm Valentiner in 1923.

In 1910 Hofstede de Groot documented this portrait with the following description: "PORTRAIT OF A MAN STANDING. 6.30; M. 143.
Almost a three-quarter-length. He faces three-quarters right, and
looks at the spectator. His right hand is pressed to his side; his left
hand, with a ring on the ring-finger, is at his breast. He has brown hair,
a brown moustache, and large pointed beard. He wears a black silk
costume and a cloak of the same material hanging from the left shoulder
and wound round the waist. Yellowish-grey background. Painted about
1640. [Pendant to 410.] Canvas, 46 1/2 inches by 35 1/2 inches.
Sales. Rotterdam, October 18, 1843, No. 24 (190 florins, with pendant,
Lamme). A. de Beurs Stiermans and others of Hamburg, Rotterdam, April
23, 1845, No. 48 (100 florins, with pendant, Lamme). B. A. C. de Lange van Wijngaarden, Rotterdam, April 22, 1846, No. 92. Mestern, Hamburg, 1865 (bought for the Boymans Museum).
In the Boymans Museum, Rotterdam, 1907 catalogue, No. 106."

Today the identification of the man as Saeckma has been rejected because the provenance of both paintings do not match, but his name remains attached to the portrait. The identification of Hylck is also not firm, based mostly on a 19th-century label discovered on the back of her portrait, which was acquired in 1910 by the Frick Collection. The paintings do seem to match in size, position, age of the sitters, and period of creation. The Hylck-Johannes attribution is also attached to another pair of pendant portraits dated 1628, that may be of the Haarlem couple Theodor Schrevelius and his wife Maria van Teylingen.

Wedding Pendants

References

Johannes Saeckma in Abraham van der Aa

1572 births
1636 deaths
17th-century Dutch politicians
17th-century Dutch judges
Frans Hals
People from Kollumerland


The Research Office of the Reich Air Ministry (German: RLM/Forschungsamt (FA), English: "Research Bureau") was the signals intelligence and cryptanalytic agency of the German Nazi Party from 1933 to 1945. Run since its inception by Luftwaffe chief Hermann Göring, the Research Bureau was a Nazi Party institution rather than an official Wehrmacht-run military signals intelligence and cryptographic agency (headed up by the German High Command's OKW/Chi).

Described as "the richest, most secret, the most Nazi, and the most influential" of all the German cryptoanalytic intelligence agencies, its existence was well known to French intelligence (Deuxième Bureau, Bureau Central de Renseignements et d'Action) via the efforts of the spy Hans-Thilo Schmidt but little known to other countries within the Allies.

The organization was described by the historian, Dr Wilhelm F. Flicke, a German veteran cipher officer, who was commissioned by General Erich Fellgiebel, to write a history of German cryptography and cryptanalysis during World War II in his book War secrets in the ether as:

calculated to give the government and the [Nazi] dominant party such far-reaching insight into the thoughts, feelings, and aspirations of the German people as had been known in all history. Compared with this plan, the informer methods of Metternich and the French Minister of Police, Fouché had been amateurish experiments.

Other names for the FA included Hermann Göring's Research Bureau and Hermann Göring cipher bureau. Its official full name in German was Forschungsamt des Reichsluftfahrt Ministerium, and in English the "Research Office of the Ministry of Aviation",(Luftwaffe)

Emergence
The office of the RLM/Forschungsamt emerged with the events of the Reichstag Fire Decree. With Adolf Hitler's seizure of power by the Enabling Act of 1933, all postal, telegraph and telephone democracy was suspended. The Reichstag Fire Decree Articles 114, 115, 117, 118, 123, 124 and 153 of the Constitution of the German Reich were suspended until further notice. The article inter alia stated the secrecy of correspondence. It read:

The privacy of correspondence, postal, telegraphic and telephonic communications shall be inviolable. Exception may be only made by the Kingdom Act. See the §§ 99-101 of the Criminal Procedure Code from 1 February 1877 (RGBl. S. 253) in the version published on 4 January 1924 (RGBl. I. p.15)

By § 1 of the Reichstag Fire Decree, 28 February 1933 (RGBl. IS 83) was the Article 117 set "until further notice" overridden in conjunction with Article 48 para. 2 sentence 2.

History

Founding

Hermann Göring was a high ranking Nazi Party member who founded the party-run FA along with Gottfried Schapper in April 1933. Schapper had worked in the Reichswehr Ministry from 1927 to 1933 and been dissatisfied by both the scope of monitoring work and the incompetence of the methods employed there. He along with some colleagues, including Nazi, Hans Schimpf, his predecessor and a personal friend of Göring, resigned in 1933 and proposed to Göring that a separate office be created that would be free from department ties. Schimpf had previously organized a National Socialist cell within the Reichswehr without any word having leaked out about it. Schapper requested, due to both limited scope of operations and incompetence in the signals office of the Reichswehr Ministry, that the new agency be independent of the ministry. Göring consented and later stated during TICOM interrogations that he wanted an organization of his own which could handle all phases of monitoring under one central control.

Göring ensured it was camouflaged under the title Reichsluftrahrtministerium-Forschungsamt to confuse its role within the Nazi hierarchy, though in reality it was not connected to the Aviation ministry.  Göring also ensured by 1935 that it was not subordinated to the Reich Air Ministry, by having its own administration, with financing directly from the Treasury by 1938, and bore no relation to the research division of the Luftwaffe technical office, or the Luftwaffe's military intercept or cryptologic unit. By then it was known as Hermann Göring's Research Bureau.

The FA was a Nazi Party civilian organization, unlike complementary organizations that existed at the time, e.g. OKW/Chi, which were military in nature. For security purposes, a small number of individuals, who were civilians, were ordered to wear German Luftwaffe uniforms. This was to ensure fruitful communication between signals intelligence.

The original unit consisted of eight men when it was established on 10 April 1933. Later, as the agency expanded, an additional 33 cryptographers, most with Nazi leanings, would be "poached" from the Supreme Command of the Armed Forces, the OKW/Chi cipher bureau, at the time when OKW/Chi itself was facing a severe personnel shortage. This caused considerable friction between the two agencies. The FA was located in an attic in Göring's Air Ministry building and later moved to a building in Behrendstrasse, Berlin. It then moved again in late 1933 to the Hotel am Knie in Chariottenberg. In 1934 and 1935 it occupied a converted housing complex called the Schiller Colonnades at 116-124 Schillerstrase. Forced to evacuate Berlin due to the heavy Allied bombing, by January 1945 most of the unit had moved to Breslau and Luebben (site of an intercept station) and Jueterbog. By March, the remnants were sent to Kaufbeuren with a small group moving to Rosenheim. By this point the FA had shrunk from around 2000 personnel down to 450 with 100 at Rosenheim. At Kaufbeuren it occupied a block of six buildings at the airfield barracks on the local airfield, secured by the 289th Combat Engineers. The FA had been disbanded and all documents burned shortly before the arrival of the American Army. A small handful of documents discovered after an extensive search provided confirmation of the existence of the FA and provided a basic outline of its organization.

Surveillance
Whereas the operational scope of the Foreign office and the Reichswehr were organized to monitor foreign communications, the Forschungsamt was designed to monitor interior communications, to collect all communications throughout Germany, and from Germany to foreign countries. The press, all printed material, the surveillance of personal letters, and the interception of conversations were undertaken. Intercept stations were distributed all over Germany, postal districts and cable junctions all had surveillance points. All telegrams sent by anybody were copied and sent to the unit.

Interception of telephone conversations of high ranking government officials, Nazi Party members and state officials were of particular importance. Gradually, an enormous spy net was created that spanned all of Germany. No officer, no official, no party functionary and no person of importance could telephone without the conversation being monitored. The FA paid particular attention to the Reichswehr personnel and commanders of military districts. A system of confidential agents was established to pass it to the FA. Surveillance of general delivery letters formed a large part of the FA.

At the outset, the FA tried to work with the Reichswehr cipher bureau and Bureau C of the Foreign Office, but the relationship quickly soured, due to the nature of the FA always to be the receiver and never the giver. Eventually, cooperation was undertaken in a purely formal manner.

Objectives
A number of objectives came into being, in the first phase of the FA operation.

 The Officer Corps of the Reichswehr, and the armed forces, in general, were put under surveillance.
 The leading figures of the Nazi Party were put under surveillance.
 The Catholic Church, the Vatican with all its institutions and leading personalities were put under surveillance.
 Anybody in Germany who had been active in political life, e.g. trade union movements, labour organizations, Freemasonry. For this objective, there was close collaboration with the Gestapo.

Conflict

The nature of the work that the FA undertook, inevitably brought the agency to the notice of Heinrich Himmler, who attempted on his own initiative to gain control of the unit and its activity. This led to an intense rivalry between Göring and Himmler. In time, Himmler succeeded in getting a stronger influence on the unit, so that gradually power in respect of the FA passed from Göring to Himmler.

Ernst Röhm affair

The first major operation of the FA was the surveillance of Ernst Röhm. Ernst Röhm was the co-founder of the Sturmabteilung (SA; Storm Detachment), the Nazi Party's militia, and later was its commander. Röhm and his SA associates had been watched continuously since the end of 1933. Every telephone conversation, letter written, and every conversation that Röhm had uttered was reported to the FA. For many of the associates of Röhm, microphones had been placed in their private lodgings. These were concealed in their telephones, table lamps, chandeliers, electric clocks and other locations. The evidence collected was collated and evaluated in the evaluation centre of the FA. This evidence led directly to the Night of the Long Knives, which took place from 30 June to 2 July 1934 in which 85-200 members of the SA and others were assassinated.  During this action Schimpf was promoted to ministerial rank (), which ensured for himself a position of great power.

Tukhachevski affair

The second major operation of the FA was the Mikhail Tukhachevsky case.

Housecleaning affair

The third major operation of the FA was the supposed "housecleaning" operation that was undertaken by the FA in 1938, when significant numbers of personnel from the Ministry of War were forcefully removed. Two major figures were Werner von Blomberg and the aristocrat Baron Werner von Fritsch and a number of very high ranking officers who had to leave the field. Flicke considered this Göring's revenge, and the revenge of the FA for the death of Hans Schimpf.

During this time, the Foreign Office, which was controlled by Joachim von Ribbentrop, was wired with microphones without any ministry official noticing.

Austrian affair

The FA played a very important role in the intercepting communications of the government of the Federal State of Austria before the Anschluss occupation in March 1938. A special subsection in the FA was formed, and subsequently the entire communications system of Austria was intercepted. They were increasingly aided in their operation by sympathetic Austrian officials. All telephone conversations carried out in Austrian ministries, the content of all telegrams sent abroad, and many important documents were sent to the Forschungsamt. The Austrian officials even went as far as to provide all the cryptographic systems used by the Foreign Office in Vienna, by the Austrian Armed Forces and by the Austrian Police. The Austrian telephone and telegraph cables leading through the Berchtesgaden areas were tapped by the FA.

Himmler takeover

By 20 July 1944, Heinrich Himmler had firmly gained control over the FA.

TICOM

TICOM was the operation by the United States to seize military assets after the end of World War II in Europe. The existence of Göring's Research Bureau was unknown by TICOM at the start of the war, which came as some surprise when papers were discovered by TICOM Team 1 at the Kaufbeuren Air Base indicating it was the FA's final location after fleeing there from heavy combat zones in the north.

Key personnel
Hermann Göring was the most important individual at the FA. He was a German politician, military leader, and leading member of the Nazi Party (NSDAP).

Director Hans Schimpf was the first head of the FA between 10 April 1933 and 10 April 1935. A former Corvette captain (Korvettenkapitän), he was a liaison officer between the Abwehr and the navy department, Reichsmarine/B-Dienst, at the Defence Ministry.

Director Christoph Prinz von Hessen was a German SS officer who managed the agency between 10 April 1935 and 12 October 1943. He was the son of Prince Frederick Charles of Hesse and Princess Margaret of Prussia, a member of one of the oldest traceable families in Christendom (Charlemagne) and a direct relation to the British royal family. He was killed in an airplane accident in Italy on 7 October 1943. Christoph's SS membership and subsequent appointment to the Forschungsamt pointed to a close relationship between the unit and the Sicherheitsdienst (Security Service; SD), which was the SS branch that served as the intelligence gathering and ideological watchdog of the Nazi Party.

Director Gottfried Schapper, an extreme Anti semitic, was also a German SS officer who held the rank of Hauptsturmführer, and managed the agency between 12 October 1943 and the end of the war on 8 May 1945. Schapper had been a soldier in World War I and from 1916 to 1917 had been director of the cryptographic offices in the Central Command of the German Army. He had worked in the Reichswehr Ministry from 1927 onwards, becoming instrumental in bringing the scattered services at the ministry under a central organization, and eventually becoming its head in 1933. Having known Göring from the First World War, he approached Göring, along with Schimpf and Hesse, to create the new agency. It was Schapper who came up with the name of the agency, Forschungsamt. In May 1945 he was arrested near Rosenheim by TICOM agents and taken to Salzburg and later Augsburg to be interrogated.

Organization
The FA was organized into six main sections or departments (Hauptabteilung) as follows:

 Principle Department I: Administration. The department was the administrative HQ for the unit, and dealt with organization, administration and personnel. Commanded by Principle Specialist () Bergeren. The section had 50 people split into two subsections.

 Section 1: Commanded by Senior Specialist () (Abbr. ORR) Rosenhan, it was responsible for correspondence, basic personnel recruitment and budgets. This included electric eye passes, identification passes, guard rotas, work rotas, air raid precautions and soap rations.

 Section 2: Commanded by Senior Specialist () Kunsemueller, it was responsible for administration.

 Principle Department II: Personnel. Commanded by Senior Specialist Kempe. The department was responsible for personnel records and consisted of 80 to 100 men.
 Principle Department III: Intercept. Commanded by Senior Specialist Breuer. The department was responsible for intercept, including the actual intercept stations and initial sorting of intercepted messages. It consisted of over 200 personnel and two sections.

 Section 4: Commanded by Specialist Popp, it was responsible for all FA intercepts. This included intercept control, determination of priorities, locations of stations, and actual administration of the intercept personnel.

 Section 5: Commanded by Dr. Henke, the unit worked as a message center for all intercepts and distributing it to Main Section IV or Main Section V. No traffic analysis was undertaken, only sorted by language and traffic type. Non encrypted messages, e.g. private and commercial messages, press articles, telephone monitoring intercepts were sent direct to Main Section V. Code and cipher text was sorted as to type, e.g. military, diplomatic or commercial. Military intercepts were passed to OKW/Chi for decrypting. Diplomatic traffic would be shared amongst agencies. Any material which was to be worked on by the FA was automatically passed to Department IV.

 Principle Department IV: Codes and Ciphers. Consisting of 180 men, it was commanded by Leading Minister () Georg Schroeder.  The department was responsible for the cryptanalysis of all foreign, i.e. enemy signals.

 Section 6: Research. Commanded by an officer named Paetzel, it came into existence in 1944 and had about 40 personnel working in the unit. The nature of the section was one of research on new systems, work specifically that other sections could not work on. They dealt with diplomatic traffic of America, England, Japan, Free France, Spain, and Spanish America.

 Section 7: Overseas and Southwest. Commanded by Senior Specialist Weachter and consisted of between 60 and 70 personnel. Their work included USA, England, Latin America, Spain, Portugal, Turkey, Egypt and the Far East. Senior Specialist Weachter was an expert on American systems. Dr. Erfurt was the only Japanese translator in this unit.

Section 8: West and South. Commanded by Senior Specialist Schulze, it was composed of 30 to 40 people. They worked on France, Belgium, Switzerland, Netherlands, Romania and Italian ciphers.

Section 9: East, Southeast, Middle and North. Commanded by Senior Specialist Wenzel. The number of personnel varies, depending on TICOM interrogation reports, but was supposed between 45 and 70.

 Principle Department V: Evaluation. Commanded by Principle Specialist () Walter Seifert, who commanded around 400 people, which was the biggest number of people for the bureau. Seifert stated of the department:

The object of the department was the production of a purely objective and scientific picture of the world wide political and commercial situation.

Section 10: Information Dissemination. Commanded by Specialist () Dr Mews. Serving as a library and archive, containing voluminous files of practically every type of information from most countries. This included text books, maps, telephone directories, city plans, newspapers and periodicals. Essentially this section provided the material needed to evaluate and add context to decrypted messages. The staff also included four or five translators.

Section 11: Foreign Policy Evaluation under Senior Specialist Dr Kurzbach.

Section 12: Economic Evaluation. Commanded by acting head Brieschke.

Section 13: Internal Affairs Evaluation. Commanded by Specialist Rentschler, the section employed about 80 people in 1944 while in Berlin.

 Principle Department VI: Technical. Commanded by Senior Specialist Dipl. Ing. Stabenow.

 Section 14: Development of own cipher machinery.

 Section 15: Comparison and evaluation of captured Machinery.

Operations

Linguistic output

The final output of the FA was Brown Reports or Brown Sheets (Braune Meldungen or Braunblätter). Recipients of these reports included Chief of the Armed Forces Wilhelm Keitel, Chief of Operations Alfred Jodl, Göring, Foreign Minister Ribbentrop, Grand Admiral Karl Donitz and Hitler.

In cases where special reports were created, these had a much shorter distribution list, specifically only Göring and Hitler. Information that would be considered special, for example, were the Berlin-Rome telephone conversations between Italian Prime Minister Benito Mussolini and Italian Foreign Minister Galeazzo Ciano.

Hitler's view on the FA reports were that they were extremely reliable, with the material presented to Hitler verbatim. Linguists were given orders not to make guesses if there were gaps, but to fill them with rows of dots. A special courier section was used that traveled in special cars, not railway cars, with dispatch boxes set up for which only Hitler, Ribbentrop and Göring possessed the keys. Once read, reports were returned, and sometimes due to mixups in sheet numbering or missing sheets due to human error, specific sheets would be re-requested.

Primary Distribution list
The government agencies on the distribution list for daily brownsheets of the RLM/Forschungsamt were:

 Reichswirtschaftsministerium - Ministry of Domestic Economy.
 Reichsfinanzministerium - Finance Ministry.
 Reichspropagandaministerium - Propaganda Ministry.
 Auswärtiges Amt - Foreign Ministry.
 Buero Ribbentrop - Private Intelligence Service of the Foreign Ministry.
 Ministerium Speer - Armament Ministry.
 RSHA - Headquarters for the security police, security services, criminal police and Einsatzgruppen.
 Oberkommando der Wehrmacht - German Military High Command.

Interception
The FA ran its own intercept stations. To meet its operational requirements, the FA used 5 different station types, and were called Research Posts (Forschungsstellen). The stations were categorized as follows:

 A Stations - Telephone Intercept
 B Stations - Wireless Intercept
 C Stations - Radio Broadcast Monitoring
 D Stations - Teletype and Telegraph Intercept
 F Stations - Mail Censorship

The A stations were positioned throughout Germany and later in German-occupied countries. These stations were equipped with one of two interceptor switchboards, which enabled the operator to tap into any conversation. The taping was done at the post office with tap lines routed into the station. Included in each switchboard was a Wire recording recorder. The operations of the A stations changed at the start of the war. Prior to September 1939, the intercept stations acted in a civilian function, reporting on the many international lines coming into Germany. Although the locations of most A stations are not available from TICOM documentation, it is known that Berlin had a large A station, which was used to tap the conversations of the diplomatic corps. It had a staff of around 100 people, including 50 to 60 intercept personnel. After the war, these operations ceased, with new operations largely concerned with war production bottlenecks, domestic affairs and attitudes of large industries.

B stations were usually positioned outside of towns in points of good wireless reception. Radio messages were intercepted by short wave receivers and then relayed in written form to the FA headquarters. After the war, B stations became increasingly important with the end of telephone conversations between Germany and other nations with the loss of foreign information.

Only one C station existed, which performed the pure monitoring service of public broadcasts from other countries.

The 3 D stations were located in Berlin, Vienna and Dortmund, which were the chief centres of cablegrams leaving Germany. The D stations operations were also greatly diminished after the start of the war.

The F stations were created after Germany was at war, were not extensive in operation. Censorship offices were operated by OKW and later by RSHA. The F station consisted of small groups attached to these censorship posts. It was known that the FA was concerned with postal censorship

In addition to the stations operating in Germany, the FA setup operational units in occupied countries. In the Netherlands and Poland, A stations were installed with advancing troops.  In Vienna, for example, the A station was functioning two days after the occupation. Mobile units were also used during the Polish campaign, but were reported to be largely unsuccessful chiefly because of lack of cooperation with the German Army.

Specialist Oden Hoeckley, head of Section 15 of the FA, who had been employed by Siemens and Halske, and been classmates of various members of WA Pruef 7  (Waffenamt), and also collaborated on the design of the T53e (Siemens and Halske T52) teleprinter, stated the following:

There were 100 to 150 sets at the Templin and Luebben station and from 20 to 30 at Cologne, Konstanz, Eutin, and Gols. Traffic was forwarded by cipher teleprinter, i.e. the T52c, T52d or T52e. The FA did not develop its own intercept equipment, preferring to use the Army, the Reichspost or industry equipment.

Liaison

Liaison with OKW/CHI
Liaison between the OKW/Chi and the FA was known to exist A special liaison officer (German:Verbindungsmann), Dr E. Klautachke, was assigned to the Supreme Command of the Armed Forces. The form of this liaison took the form of passing intelligence to the Supreme Command and answering specific questions. Dr Klautachke stated that he did not concern himself with cryptologic matters and stated that liaison regarding these matters did not exist. Considerable ill feeling existed between the FA and OKW/Chi. Wilhelm Fenner in his homework for "TICOM" stated that friction existed between the FA and OKW/Chi started when 33 people went over from Chi to the FA. Personnel friction between Fenner and Selchow existed as well. The question of competence could be used as a lever, as Hitler had assigned the working of diplomatic messages to the FA exclusively, which OKW/Chi had decided that it was not going to let that work move to the FA. Fenner considered the FA had overreached its competence, as the continual requests for help for decipherment aid by the FA to the Pers Z S showed that the FA was not able to supply what was desired.  Indeed, the GA tried to get aid from Chi thus overlooking its claim that the OKW/Chi was not competent.  Indeed, the OKW/Chi understood neither the organization nor the operations of the FA. The FA sent its traffic to Pers Z S and Chi but to Chi only what the FA saw fit to send, and the OKW/Chi would sometimes receive material from Pers Z S, which was not supplied direct. However it was clear that intercepted traffic was still exchanged between the two units.  Indeed, up to 30% of all the intercept traffic received by OKW/Chi came from the FA  Fenner stated he had no use for the FA and considered it a private toy of Göring, for which it has no excuse except to further inflate Göring's vanity.

Attempts were made by the FA to take over the monitoring function for the OKW/Chi which was vigorously resisted and in view of the types of monitoring which the FA conducted, which was similar to the FA requirements, would suggest the duplication of monitoring activities as unnecessary.  Dr. Walther Fricke, a leading cryptographer of the OKW/Chi, who stated that he knew nothing of the FA until some of them came to Schloss Glucksburg, and who stated that they were a big names with nothing behind them, on being told that the FA employed over 2000 personnel, his comments were:
For their deciphering they should have needed a handful. They must have had other work to do, but what the devil could they have been doing with 2000 people?

Liaison with General der Nachrichtenaufklärung
As regards General der Nachrichtenaufklärung (Abbr. GDNA), the signals intelligence office of the Oberkommando des Heeres, it was evident that greater liaison took place. This liaison took the form of actual division of tasks and sharing of personnel information. Liaison was also conducted over the IBM developments (Hollerith machines). One of the most important achievements of the FA which resulted from this cooperation and was revealed by Dr Otto Buggisch, one of the leading cryptanalyst of Inspektorate 7. Buggisch reported that the FA was able to read Russian Teletype traffic. Buggisch stated that the FA had some success in reconstructing a Russian Teletype machine in 1943 and recognized it had certain similarities in design with the German SZ40. After a short time, the Soviets changed the design. The FA communicated its results to Inspektorate 7 and were given a report on the solution of a German cipher teleprinter (the model unknown). Buggisch stated this was one of the very rare cases where the FA and Insp. 7/VI exchanged results. Other areas of liaison were known to exist. Insp. 7/VI took the lead amongst German cipher agencies in the use of IBM Hollerith machinery to conduct cryptologic work. This machinery was made available to other agencies. Wilhelm Tranow of the B-Dienst stated:

About March 1942 we paid a visit, in conjunction with the Luftwaffe and the FA, to the OKH Hollerith department in Victoriastrasse, Berlin.

Liaison with OKL-Stelle
The position of the FA and the OKL-Stelle, the cipher bureau for high command of the Luftwaffe under Göring, should have facilitated an exchange of information between them. TICOM interrogation found no ill feeling between the FA and OKL-Stelle indicates that was not the case. OKL-Stelle was concerned with air traffic ciphers, so a functional division did exist between the two agencies. However, the FA did supply diplomatic and general intelligence to OKL-Stelle.  Lt. Colonel Friederich, Chief of Division III of OKL-Stelle stated:

He did not work with them [the RLM/FA] except to the extent that Chief Cryptanalyst Ferdinand Voegele, Chief of Section E,  sometimes met with cryptanalysts from this and other agencies to discuss general problems. The FA furnished the Luftwaffe with appropriate traffic on occasion. We asked what was the function of the FA. He said its purpose was really hidden from the services, who were not allowed entry to the establishment. Only Voegele had any contact with them and that only with the cryptanalysts.

Friederich knew that it was a political organization, not military. When it worked on foreign systems, it was only on traffic in the rear.

Liaison with B-Dienst
Liaison between the FA and the Signal Intelligence Agency of the Navy High Command (B-Dienst) was documented in B-Dienst Yearly Progress reports prepared by the navy and by interrogation of B-Dienst Chief Cryptologist Wilhelm Tranow. Cooperation took the form of working on the cracking of the British Inter Departmental Cipher. Tranow stated in interview:

I informed the FA, the OKW/Chi and the GAF [Luftwaffe] of the existence of this cipher in 1940 and the FA and the Navy (B-Dienst) worked on it. The OKW/Chi and the GAF restricted themselves rather to reviving the cypher data when worked out. The GAF did a little work on it, however, and passed any recovered keys on to us. The cypher went out of use in December 1942. This was the last of it. I believe it was used occasionally at a few stations. I stopped work on it [around] December 1942. The FA continued to send us occasional results. In particular these consisted again and again of information about our U-boat losses and British shipping losses etc.

According to Tranow, 2 to 3% of all intercept traffic came from the FA.

Liaison with AA/Pers Z S

The status of the liaison between the FA and the AA/Pers Z, the cipher department of the Foreign Office (Germany) was more fully understood by TICOM. Joachim von Ribbentrop, the foreign minister of Nazi Germany stated that Minister (Gesandter I Kl.) Selchow, the director of the AA/Pers SZ worked closely with the FA. The Liaison Officer was Dr Gerstmeyer.  TICOM Team 1 first learned the existence of the FA from the foreign office cryptanalysts, who knew the names of many of the section heads in Department IV in which their work was related The Yearly Report for 1942 from AA/Per Z inter alia, reveals an exchange of code book recoveries. The name of Senior Specialist Waechter of the FA appears in the Yearly Report and the names of other FA personnel occur in the code books stored in the AA/Per Z archives. From this evidence it is clear that technical cryptanalyst liaison existed between the FA and the AA/Per Z.

Cryptanalysis successes by country
Only eighty odd references to different types of intercept traffic were known to exist from TICOM interrogations, and the details surrounding these references were vague, unlike the detail provided, for example, by the Signal Intelligence Agency of the German Foreign Office, Pers Z S, the Signal Intelligence Agency of the Supreme Command of the Armed Forces, OKW/Chi or the Department of the German Naval Intelligence Service, B-Dienst when TICOM interrogations turned to liaison between the agencies, when considerable more detail was revealed. There was considerable evidence that the FA possessed copies of a surprising number of code books, although there is no indication in TICOM interrogation documentation, exactly how the FA procured the code books.

Senior Specialist Dr Martin Paetzel, who was responsible for Section 5 and alternate head of Main Section IV of the FA, was responsible for providing most of the intelligence regarding which ciphers were broken and worked on by the FA. Other sources included Georg Schroeder, responsible for Department IV, Erwin Rentschler, head of section 13 of the FA, Wilhelm Tranow, lead cryptanalyst and director of B-Dienst, Dr Kurt Sauerbier who was responsible for sub-section C of Section 9 of the FA. The Russian section is the longest, as Russia ciphers was what concerned TICOM the most.

Evaluation
The operation of the FA, in conjunction with the list of FA cryptologic successes, was believed by TICOM to provide ample evidence to state that the FA was a highly successful intelligence producing organization. From an account given to the interrogators, it was obvious that the FA received a vast amount of material, processed it and sent it to those people and organizations who could make the most use of it. The level of co-operation with other German cryptologic agencies is difficult to estimate. Certainly the statements of individuals employed by the different agencies as regard FA, were defeatist in tone.  Both the other agencies and the FA complained that they knew little of each other's operational counterparts with the other agencies personnel stating that the FA personnel were standoffish and exclusive. Yet examination of activity reports, yearly reports, captured work books, memos and other salient information revealed an active exchange of technical data, coordination and sharing of assignments of personnel at all levels.

Notes
TICOM's documentation archive consists of 11 primary documents, Volume I to Volume IX. These are aggregate summary documentation, each volume targeting a specific German military agency. The archive also consists of Team Reports, DF-Series, I-Series, IF-Series and M-series reports which cover various aspects of TICOM interrogation.

Volume VII, which covers Göring Research Bureau, contains over 32 references to the I-Series documents, which are TICOM Intelligence reports. It also covers references to the full gamut of the other types of reports, e.g. DF-Series, and IF-Series, of which there are over 1500.

 I-26 Interrogation of Oblt. Schubert (OKH/Chef HNW/Gen.d.NA) on Russian Military and Agents systems at OKM Signals School, Flensburg on 17 June 1945
 I-54 Second Interrogation of five members of the RLM/Forshungsamt
 I-93 Detailed Interrogation of Members of OKM 4 SKL III at Flensburg.
 IF-132 DAS FORSHUNGSAMT DES REICHSLUFTFAHRTMINISTERIUMS
 I-85  P.O.W. Interrogation Report on Reg. Rat Flicke, Tech, Insp. Pokojewski, Stabsintendant Hatz of OKW/Chi.
 I-147 Detailed Interrogation of Members of OKM 4/SKL III at Flensburg
 I-176 "Homework by 'Wachtmeister Dr. Otto Buggisch of OKH/Chi and OKW/Chi."
 DF-9 Activity Report OKW/Chi 1/1/44 to 25/6/44
 D-16 Translation of Annual Progress Reports by Pers ZS covering 1927, 1941, 1942

References

Cryptography organizations
History of telecommunications in Germany
Signals intelligence agencies
Signals intelligence of World War II
Research and development in Nazi Germany
Military history of Germany during World War II
Military communications of Germany


The 2014 Nordic Under-17 Football Championship is the 37th edition of the Nordic Under-17 Football Championship, an annual football competition between men's under-17 national teams organised by the football federations of the Nordic countries. The 2014 tournament was hosted by Denmark, from 28 July to 2 August 2014.

Teams

Participating teams came from the Nordic nations of Denmark, Faroe Islands, Finland, Iceland, Norway and Sweden, as well as the 10 times winners England and the United States. Each nation sent an 18-man squad composed of players born on or after 1 January 1998.

Venues

Nørre Aaby Stadion, Nørre Aaby
Kolding Stadion, Kolding
Mosevej Stadion, Kolding

Group stage
All times are in CEST (UTC+02)
.

If a group stage game ends in a draw a penalty shoot out is held to determine final position in the group if the two teams then finish level on points and goal difference

Group A

Group B

Play-off stage

7th place play-off

5th place play-off

3rd place play-off

Final

References

External links
Official Danish FA tournament site
Swedish FA tournament site

2014 in American soccer
2014 in Faroe Islands football
2014 in Finnish football
2014 in Icelandic football
2014 in Norwegian football
2014 in Swedish football
2014 in youth association football
2014–15 in Danish football
2014–15 in English football
2014
2014


title: Rick Lewers

text:
Richard Alexander Lewers (known as Rick Lewers) (born 1957–58) is an Australian bishop in the Anglican Church of Australia, who served as the Bishop of Armidale from 29 May 2012 to 30 January 2021.

Early life and parish ministry
Lewers grew up in the Sutherland Shire and originally worked in banking. He studied for ministry at Sydney Missionary and Bible College and Moore Theological College. After his ordination, he served a curacy in the late 1980s at Liverpool, and then moved to the Anglican Diocese of Canberra and Goulburn for 11 years, eventually serving as Rector of St Matthew's, Wanniassa. While in Canberra, Lewers served as sports chaplain to the Canberra Cosmos FC and the ACT Brumbies.

Lewers then returned to the Anglican Diocese of Sydney, working for the Diocese's Department of Evangelism and then serving as the rector of Engadine Anglican Church, a position which he held until his election as bishop.

Episcopal ministry
In November 2011, Lewers was appointed as the new Bishop of Armidale, succeeding Peter Brain who had served for the previous 11 years and who had retired in April that year. He consecrated bishop in St Andrew's Cathedral, Sydney on 25 May 2012 by Archbishop of Sydney Peter Jensen, and installed as Bishop of Armidale in St Peter's Cathedral, Armidale on 29 May 2012.

As Bishop, Lewers wrote a column in the local news, the Armidale Express, called "Faith Matters".

Lewers announced his intention to resign as Bishop on 21 July 2020 to take up a Rector's position at Shoalhaven Heads, New South Wales, with the resignation to take effect from 30 January 2021.

Personal life
Lewers is married to Janene, and has 3 adult children.

References

Living people
Anglican bishops of Armidale
21st-century Anglican bishops in Australia
Moore Theological College alumni
People from the Sutherland Shire
1957 births


title: Yuliya Khavaldzhy

text:
Yuliya Olehivna Khavaldzhy-Blahinya (, also transliterated Yuliia or Iulia, born February 21, 1990, in Lviv) is a Ukrainian female wrestler. She is the 2008 World bronze medalist and 2011 European champion in the 51 kg category.

She competed for Ukraine at the 2016 Summer Olympics.

References

External links

1990 births
Living people
Ukrainian female sport wrestlers
Olympic wrestlers for Ukraine
Wrestlers at the 2016 Summer Olympics
World Wrestling Championships medalists
Universiade medalists in wrestling
Universiade bronze medalists for Ukraine
European Games medalists in wrestling
European Games silver medalists for Ukraine
Wrestlers at the 2019 European Games
Sportspeople from Lviv
European Wrestling Championships medalists
Medalists at the 2013 Summer Universiade
21st-century Ukrainian women


title: Nepal Chandra Das

text:
Nepal Chandra Das (23 April 1944 - 23 January 2018) was an Indian politician. He was elected to the Lok Sabha the lower house of Indian Parliament from Karimganj, Assam in 1998 and 1999. He was a member of the Indian National Congress.

References

External links
Profile on Lok Sabha website

1944 births
2018 deaths
Lok Sabha members from Assam
India MPs 1998–1999
India MPs 1999–2004
People from Karimganj district
Indian National Congress politicians
Asom Gana Parishad politicians
Politicians from Mymensingh Division
21st-century Bengalis
20th-century Bengalis
Indian National Congress politicians from Assam