title: Seeya (Deadmau5 song)

text:
"Seeya" is a song by Canadian electronic music producer Deadmau5 featuring vocals by American singer Colleen D'Agostino from the punk rock band The Material. It was released as the second single from his seventh studio album While(1<2) on 27 May 2014. The track is also an updated revision of an unreleased instrumental by Deadmau5, titled "Seeya Next Tuesday".

Track listing

Charts

Weekly charts

Year-end charts

Certifications

References

2014 singles
2014 songs
Deadmau5 songs
Songs written by Deadmau5
Astralwerks singles


title: GeoPlanet

text:
GeoPlanet is a computer platform for coordinating world-wide geographic information, and providing both text and cartographic output, such as digital maps for any location in the world. It provides a location infrastructure for search engines, portals and both Web and WAP sites. It was developed by GDC, a London-based geographic information company, which was acquired by Whereonearth in 1998. When Whereonearth spun off GDC in 2002, it kept GeoPlanet. When Yahoo! purchased Whereonearth in 2005, it acquired GeoPlanet.

An integral part of GeoPlanet is the WOEID (Where On Earth IDentifier), a unique 32-bit reference identifier, now assigned by Yahoo!, that identifies any feature on Earth. In addition to the strict numerical WOEID, GeoPlanet also has a hierarchical structure that allows accessing surrounding locations, and zooming up and down administrative divisions.  In 2009, Yahoo! released GeoPlanet's WOEID data to the public, but the last release was on 1 June 2012 after which Yahoo! decided to cease making the data downloadable until they "determine a better way to surface the data as a part of the service".

In June 2015, Yahoo announced that the GeoPlanet APIs would be dropped as the functionality is now available through their Yahoo Query Language and BOSS APIs. The GeoPlanet APIs stopped responding to requests in late August 2016.

References

External links

Cartography
Discontinued Yahoo! services
Geographical technology


title: Maigonis

text:
Maigonis is a Latvian masculine given name. Its name day is September 6.

Notable people named Maigonis
Maigonis Valdmanis (1933—1999), Latvian basketball player

References

Latvian masculine given names
Masculine given names


title: WOEID

text:
A WOEID (Where On Earth IDentifier) is a unique 32-bit reference identifier, originally defined by GeoPlanet and now assigned by Yahoo!, that identifies any feature on Earth.  In 2009, Yahoo! released GeoPlanet's WOEID data to the public, with the last release on 1 June 2012, after which Yahoo! decided to cease making the data downloadable until they "determine a better way to surface the data as a part of the service".

WOEIDs are used by a number of other projects, including Flickr, OpenStreetMap, Twitter, WOEID Search Engine and Nations24.

WOEID of some popular locations on Earth

From WOEID Search Engine:
 4118         - Toronto
 44418       - London
 615702     - Paris
 2295019   - New Delhi
 2295380   - Varanasi
 2442047   - Los Angeles
 2459115   - New York
 2487956   - San Francisco
 23424851 - Iran
 29128560 - Kaithi

Example

E.g. Berlin does not know about Germany, which itself doesn't know about Europe and so forth. GeoPlanet records, or places as they are called by Yahoo!, always (except one) have a reference to its parent place and therefore offer relations between places like the following:
 Parent (direct surrounding place)
 Child (direct sub-places)
 Siblings (places sharing the same parent and place type)
 Ancestors (set of all parents)

If you take e.g. our company's district you will get the following family tree:

 Deutschland (WOEID 23424829)
 Bundesland Berlin (WOEID 2345496)
 Stadtkreis Berlin (WOEID 1259838)
 Berlin (WOEID 638242)
 Ortsteil Pankow (WOEID 26821868)
 Ortsteil Prenzlauer Berg (WOEID 26821872)
 Ortsteil Wedding (WOEID 26821851)
 Suan Luang (WOEID 12756344)
 ...

See also
 Discrete Global Grid
 List of geocoding systems

References

Geographic object identifiers
Geocodes


The Stewardship Contracting Reauthorization and Improvement Act () was a bill introduced in the 113th Congress by U.S. Senator Jeff Flake. The bill would have given the federal government more authority to enter into what are known as "forest stewardship contracts", with the goal of reducing the risk of forest wildfires.

In July 2013, Senator Flake warned the public that the legal authority for forest stewardship contracts would end by September 2013, and without extending the authority, Flake argued that the U.S. Forest Service would lose an important firefighting tool. The bill, which Flake introduced that month, would extend the legal authority for forest stewardship contracts until 2023.

Background

A forest stewardship contract is a type of contract between the U.S. Forest Service and other parties, such as forest industry companies and local government agencies. The contracts are centered around a specific piece of National Forest System land.

The contract can include an agreements on a number of forest projects. For example, a contract could give a company the right to conduct a limited amount of timber and forest restoration work.

Other examples of projects that could be included in a stewardship contract are prescribed burning (for fire prevention), road maintenance, watershed or stream rehabilitation, and the sale of forest products off the same piece of land.

When creating a forest stewardship contract, the Forest Service works with and takes input from several parties such as state and local governments, environmental conservation groups, Native American tribes, and fire safety councils.

If the contract allows forest products, such as timber, to be cut down and sold, the money from the sale is used to offset other activities spelled out in the contract.

In 2012, around 25 percent of all timber taken from National Forest System land was sold under a stewardship contract.

Arizona wildfires

The western United States, and Arizona in particular, suffers from a large number of wildfires every year. In an editorial published on April 25, 2014, The Arizona Republic newspaper wrote the following about wildfires in Arizona and other western states: "Washington, D.C., has not yet intellectually grasped the fact that wildfires in the Western states are every bit as devastating to drought-stricken Arizona, New Mexico and other Western states as hurricanes are to the Gulf Coast and tornadoes are to the Midwest."

In May 2014, a wildfire prompted the evacuation of over 3,000 residents in Coconino County, Arizona. The fire burned thousands of acres between Flagstaff and Sedona. Over 960 firefighters, 15 "hotshot" crews, and three air tankers were required to fight the fire.

Major provisions

Extension of stewardship program

The bill extends the stewardship program another ten years, until the year 2023.

Reserve funds for cancelled contracts

Due to federal rules, the government usually must hold onto the money for a forest stewardship contract for as long as the contract goes on for. Some contracts last up to ten years. The bill would give the government flexibility in how long it holds onto the money, which would help the government cover the cost of canceled contracts.

The bill would allow the government to use any excess income from stewardship contracts to pay for canceled contracts. Currently, the government must pay for the canceled contract upfront in a lump sum. The bill would change that rule to allow payment in stages. According to the Senate committee report on the bill, this change is consistent with rules that the Department of Defense uses in its contracts.

Fire liability

The bill makes the fire liability provisions of the stewardship contracts equal to the fire liability provisions in timber contracts. Timber contracts have a ceiling on how much fire liability the contractor must carry, but stewardship contracts do not have a ceiling. According to the Senate committee report on the bill, the lack of a ceiling can make stewardship contracts uneconomical for companies bidding on them.

Legislative history
In the late 1990s, Congress passed legislation that created a pilot program for stewardship contracts. In 2003, Congress expanded the stewardship program and authorized it to run until 2013.

On July 16, 2013, Senators Flake introduced the bill, along with four original cosponsors: Senators McCain, Crapo, Risch, and Heller. The Senate Subcommittee on Public Lands, Forests, and Mining held a public hearing on the bill on July 30. On December 19, the Senate Committee on Energy and Natural Resources passed the bill by a voice vote.

Related bills
The Library of Congress has identified two other bills in Congress that are similar to S. 1300:
 S. 816 - Stewardship End Result Contracting Project Act, introduced by Senator Mark Udall (D-CO)
 S. 849 - Permanent Stewardship Contracting Authority Act of 2013, introduced by Senator Michael Bennet (D-CO)

See also
 List of bills in the 113th United States Congress
 Yarnell Hill Fire
 Wallow Fire
 List of California wildfires
 List of Colorado wildfires

Gallery of Arizona wildfires

References

Further reading
 Academic articles

 Congressional documentation
Senate Report 113-179, official committee report for S. 1300
 Official report on Senate subcommittee hearing on S. 1300 (S. Hrg. 113-85), Subcommittee on Public Lands, Forests and Mining of the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, United States Senate (30 July 2013)
 Statement of Ned Farquhar, Deputy Assistant Secretary, Land and Minerals Management, Department of the Interior, Senate Energy and Natural Resources Committee, Subcommittee on Public Lands, Forests, & Mining on S. 1300, Stewardship Contracting Reauthorization and Improvement Act (Bureau of Land Management website) (July 30, 2013)
 Government literature
 Bureau of Land Management - Stewardship Contracts: BLM and Forest Service Issue Direction on Development, Implementation, and Monitoring
 Forests and Rangelands (U.S. government initiative) - Stewardship Contracting
 Navajo County, Arizona - "Sens. Flake and McCain Introduce Legislation to Help Reduce Wildfire Risks" (July 2013)
 State of Colorado - "New legislation aims to improve state's ability to prevent, fight wildfires" (Office of Governor John Hickenlooper) (January 2014)
 U.S. Forest Service - Everything You Wanted to Know About Stewardship End Result Contracting…But Didn't Know What to Ask brochure
 U.S. Forest Service - Timber Sales and Stewardship Contracts
 Legislation information
 Bill summary and status (THOMAS)
 S. 1300 bill tracking (GovTrack)
 Media coverage
 "Editorial: Change in forest policy could avert fire devastation", Las Vegas Review-Journal (4 August 2013)
 "Stewardship contracts would help address forestry needs", Wausau Daily Herald (Wisconsin) (20 January 2014)

Proposed legislation of the 113th United States Congress


title: Karachi Water and Sewerage Board

text:
The Karachi Water and Sewerage Board (KWSB) also known as the Emirates Sewage Board is responsible for production, transmission and distribution of potable water to the citizens of Karachi, Sindh, Pakistan.

History
Karachi Joint Water Board constituted in 1953 was the first body which was created to expand the Karachi water supply system from the Indus River. It was transferred to the KDA in 1957 after its formation. Since the KMC handled some of the affairs of retailing and distribution of treated water and other responsibilities which were co-shared with 22 other separate agencies, there was a need to unify all of the functions under one body. Hence, in 1981, the Karachi Water Management Board (KWMB) was created, which was given both distribution and cost recovery powers. KMC was still responsible for its revenue and sewerage maintenance, hence KWMB was upgraded to KWSB in 1983 under the Mayor, Abdul Sattar Afghani, on the advice of World Bank. It was placed under the Government of Sindh, but its board of directors was mayor of Karachi. In 1996, KWSB was separated from KMC and was brought back under mayoral supervision in 2001 until it was separated again under the new SLGO 2013 act.

Corruption and mismanagement
Some members of the Board (along with local police and local politicians) have been accused and suspected in multiple corruption and bribery cases, contributing to low-income areas of the city often being in a state of chronic water crisis. In May 2022, local Jamaat-e-Islami chief Hafiz Naeemur Rehman estimated that based on official records, up to 40 per cent of water volume was stolen or wasted (with the KWSB estimating between one-quarter and one-third), and experts have estimated that demand in Karachi is nearly double the existing supply. Hundreds of hydrants have operated illegally with the support of influential people, with members of the anti-theft cell of the Board established to take action against the illegal hydrants suspected of helping facilitate their operation. Some officials previously arrested for corruption have also later been re-appointed to positions within the Board. Furthermore, as of the 2000s, gangs have set up their own lines to tap into or siphon off an estimated 10 million gallons of water per day from pipes to hydrants and tankers for profit, with unofficial tankers stealing around Rs57 billion worth of water per year. In some cases, official water distributions to certain areas of the city are so low (only providing access to water once or twice a month) that the illegal sources or exorbitantly-priced water from private vendors (which can cost 30 times that which the government charges) are the only way for the local population to get reliable access. Aging parts of the system also cannot be renovated due to a lack of funds, and despite a growing population, as of 2016, no new pipeline had been installed in a quarter-century.

See also
 Dumlottee Wells
 K-IV water project
 Water supply and sanitation in Pakistan

References

External links

Water companies of Pakistan
Government of Karachi


title: Albert Darcq

text:
Albert Darcq (Lille, 8 September 1848 - 8 March 1895) was a French sculptor who was trained by Pierre-Jules Cavelier. He exhibited at the Salon de Paris, and at the Salon des Artistes Français between 1874 and 1892. His 1874 marble medallion Portrait was his first exhibited work. He was awarded the third prize medal in 1881. His pupils included Edgar-Henri Boutry.

Sculpture of Cleopatra
Following restoration, a plaster sculpture of the suicide of Cleopatra, previously thought to be by Darcq, was revealed to be a work by Charles Gauthier after Gauthier's signature was discovered during cleaning.

References

External links

 :fr:Albert Darcq
 :es:Albert Darcq

1848 births
1895 deaths
Artists from Lille
19th-century French sculptors
French male sculptors
19th-century French male artists


title: Mosaic theory (US law)

text:
The mosaic theory is a legal doctrine in American courts for considering issues of information collection, government transparency, and search and seizure, especially in cases involving invasive or large-scale data collection by government entities. The theory takes its name from mosaic tile art: while an entire picture can be seen from a mosaic's tiles at a distance, no clear picture emerges from viewing a single tile in isolation. The mosaic theory calls for a cumulative understanding of data collection by law enforcement and analyzes searches "as a collective sequence of steps rather than individual steps."

Although the doctrine was first used in cases about national security, five justices of the US Supreme Court authored concurring opinions supporting a new Fourth Amendment framework for judging whether or not an individual has been subjected to an unlawful search, in United States v. Jones. Under this framework, the US government's actions should be considered collectively rather than independently for determining whether or not the acts constitute a search under the Fourth Amendment. It requires that police action is considered "over time as a collective 'mosaic' of surveillance," and allows that cumulative mosaic to qualify as a protected Fourth Amendment search, even if the individual steps that contribute to the full picture do not reach that constitutional threshold in isolation.

Critics of the Fourth Amendment use of mosaic theory argue that it is difficult to administer and inconsistent with other Fourth Amendment jurisprudence. Proponents, on the other hand, argue that mosaic theory is a much-needed development in light of new technologies that allow law enforcement officers to collect large volumes of personal data with little effort. Human rights workers and legal scholars have been critical of how mosaic theory in national security cases undermines civil rights. They argue that when government agencies claim that any scrap of information is part of a larger intelligence mosaic, those agencies get free rein to determine what of their work will be kept secret. This method is used by American intelligence analysts.

History

National security origins
Mosaic theory first emerged as justification for US government agencies' denial of Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) requests for records, as "apparently harmless pieces of information that when assembled together could reveal a damaging picture." Its first uses were in that national security context.

In United States v. Marchetti, 466 F.2d 1309, 1318 (4th Cir. 1972), the court enjoined a former Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) employee from publishing an exposé that covered their time working at the agency. In so doing, the court stated, "the significance of one item of information may frequently depend on the knowledge of many other items of information. What may seem trivial to the uninformed, may appear of great moment to one who has a broad view of the scene and may put the questioned item of information in its proper context."

The courts went on to solidify mosaic theory in the Halkin v. Helms and Halperin v. CIA cases, in the 1970s. Since the Marchetti decision, mosaic theory remained an enduring concept in national security law. Even then, judicial understanding of when it was appropriate to heed a "mosaic" argument was unspecified. Without those guidelines, courts displayed "heightened deference" to government cases employing the theory and allowed government agencies to define both whether requested information could constitute a national security risk and whether the mosaic theory applied to a case.

Unlike other Presidents, who held that documents should be considered for release based on their content alone, not their relationship to other sources of information, mosaic theory was supported by US President Ronald Reagan. Out of fear of Russian intelligence gathering in the Cold War, he defined the use of the mosaic theory in the executive branch to obstruct the release of records under Executive Order 12,356 in 1982.

The first Supreme Court ruling on mosaic theory occurred in CIA vs. Sims in 1985. The court denied the plaintiff's request for FOIA records, stating that the CIA was best able to judge the national security risk of releasing the requested documents. With that ruling, mosaic theory became an established, precedented legal doctrine that gave intelligence agencies like the CIA "carte blanche" to deny FOIA requests.

Expanded use after 9/11
Mosaic theory, as a legal doctrine, remained mostly out public view until the September 11 attacks in 2001. In cases like Center for National Security Studies v. U.S. Department of Justice, Bush administration officials cited the mosaic theory before the D.C. Circuit court to argue for the blanket denial of FOIA requests in the interest of US national security. Mosaic theory, as it pertains to national defense, was further codified in "32 CFR §701.31 – Mosaic or compilation response," and President Bush expanded mosaic theory in the name of national security through an executive order. These changes all came alongside increased US government secrecy, as agencies took down, redacted, and hid public documentation. In this new environment, many courts, particularly the Third Circuit, either delegated or completely abdicated their responsibility for interpreting mosaic arguments.

In CIA black sites and the US military's interrogation centers at Guantanamo, Bagram Theater Internment Facility, and Kandahar detention facility, captives not suspected of involvement with terrorism were held and interrogated, and their imprisonment was justified with a mosaic argument. US analysts believed that interrogation of these individuals, en masse, would allow them to fill in the intelligence "mosaic" and learn about actual terrorists. In one case where the mosaic theory was used against intelligence agents, US officials called for recently returned Canadian Abdullah Khadr's extradition to the US to face charges related to terrorism in December 2005. Canada's Attorney General successfully advanced claims that details of Khadr's capture and imprisonment could not be made public without endangering US national security.

Fourth Amendment interpretation

Mosaic theory further developed in response to the drastic expansion of police surveillance in public spaces, enabled by new technologies. This version of the theory asserts that the comprehensive collection of discrete data over time, if analyzed in the aggregate, exposes information about the lives, habits, and relationships of those surveilled that would have previously been impossible to gather and evaluate. As the US Supreme Court later articulated in Carpenter v. United States, the judiciary is "obligated, as subtler and more far-reaching means of invading privacy have become available to the government, to ensure that the progress of science does not erode Fourth Amendment protections."

The D.C. Circuit court was the first to apply mosaic theory to a Fourth Amendment issue in United States v. Maynard, a case involving GPS surveillance of a car over a period of twenty-eight days. To answer this question, the court applied the test developed by Justice Harlan in Katz v. United States. Under the Katz test, courts consider "whether the individual has an expectation of privacy that society is prepared to recognize as reasonable," with the reasonableness of the expectation of privacy dependent in large part on whether or not the information was "expose[d] to the public."

The court looked to mosaic theory in national security cases, used in that context to justify the withholding of information requested under the Freedom of Information Act on the grounds that aggregated data might allow an observer to piece together secret information like the identity of an intelligence source. The Maynard court assessed the four-week period of surveillance as a whole, noting that the surveillance "illustrate[d] how the sequence of a person’s movements may reveal more than the individual movements of which it is composed."

The D.C. Circuit ultimately held that the warrantless use of GPS surveillance over a 28-day period was an illegal search under the Fourth Amendment, in large part because the data captured by the GPS over that period had not been exposed to the public and because the respondent in Maynard had a reasonable expectation of privacy. The D.C. Circuit then reversed the conviction of one of the two respondents because the conviction rested on evidence that had been obtained through the unlawful search.

The Supreme Court of the United States upheld the D.C. Circuit’s reversal in United States v. Jones, which also dealt with extended GPS location surveillance of the defendant’s vehicle. While not making explicit reference to mosaic theory, Justice Alito’s concurring opinion, joined by three other justices, and Justice Sotomayor’s concurring opinion are both understood to offer strong defenses of the mosaic theory developed by the D.C. Circuit in Maynard. Justice Alito argued that courts should consider mosaic theory when applying the Katz test, looking to the length of time of the surveillance when deciding whether it constitutes a search under the Fourth Amendment, without setting an exact, appropriate time limit for warrantless surveillance. Justice Sotomayor offered a different formulation of mosaic theory, one in which courts should instead consider the quantity and quality of the data obtained through surveillance when determining whether it constitutes a search. Justice Sotomayor expressed concern over the constitutionality of the generation of a comprehensive and detailed record of a defendant’s public movements, regardless of whether that record was developed in the long or short term.

As a result of these cases, singular US law enforcement acts that are not "searches" in the traditional sense can be deemed a "search" when aggregated.

Other cases

Riley v. California
Although mosaic theory was not identified by name in Riley v. California, some argue that the theory underpinned the majority’s holding that warrantless searches of cell phones are not permitted under the Fourth Amendment. The majority cited Justice Sotomayor’s concurrence in Jones to support the idea that the information carried on a device like a cell phone is both quantitatively and qualitatively different from that which can be obtained through other searches. For Chief Justice Roberts, the author of the majority opinion, access to the aggregation of personal information found on a cell phone could allow the government to gain a revealing picture of a person’s life.

Carpenter v. United States

Some also argue that mosaic theory also underpinned the Court’s reasoning in Carpenter v. United States. In Carpenter, the Court held that the acquisition of cell site location information (CSLI), information that could be used to determine the approximate location of a cell phone at a given time, from a wireless carrier was a search under the Fourth Amendment.

Ordinarily, the third-party doctrine would allow the government to obtain information that a person voluntarily turns over to an entity like a bank or telephone company. Such information, for example the deposit slips a customer provides to a bank, can be obtained directly from the third-party without constituting a search under the Fourth Amendment. Unlike other information obtained from third parties, in Carpenter v. United States, the CSLI was protected by the Fourth Amendment because it could be used to create a "detailed chronicle of a person’s physical presence" that "implicate[d] privacy concerns far beyond those considered" by the Court in other third-party cases. The Court’s focus on the depth, breadth, and comprehensive scope of the CSLI is seen as an endorsement of the mosaic theory.

Lower court cases
In the wake of Jones and Carpenter, lower courts have engaged with arguments rooted in mosaic theory. For example:
 In United States v. Kubasiak, the U.S. District Court for the Eastern District of Wisconsin denied a defendant’s motion to suppress video footage from a surveillance camera that had been installed on an adjacent property by the Wisconsin Department of Justice for the purpose of monitoring the defendant’s home. The defendant invoked mosaic theory to argue that the surveillance was a search because it "allowed law enforcement . . . to monitor every single event that took place in his back yard for a long time." But the court rejected this argument in part because the camera, fixed in place to monitor the defendant’s backyard, "did not present the kind of aggregate view of intimate details of the defendant’s every movement that concerned the concurrence in Jones, or the majority in Carpenter."
 In United States v. Moore-Bush, the U.S. District Court for the District of Massachusetts granted a defendant’s motion to suppress footage of the defendant’s home captured by a surveillance camera installed by law enforcement officers on a nearby utility pole. Determining that mosaic theory had effectively been adopted by the Supreme Court when it cited to Justice Alito and Justice Sotomayor’s concurring opinions in Carpenter, the court found that the government’s use of a surveillance camera constituted a search. For the court, the government’s ability to surveil the defendant’s home for an extended period of time, ability to manipulate the camera to zoom in on details such as the license plates of cars parked near the home, ability to capture footage of the defendant’s driveway and the front of her home, and the ability to compile the footage in a searchable log allowed the government to "piece together intimate details of [the defendant’s life]."
 In United States v. Shipton, the U.S. District Court for the District of Minnesota denied the defendant’s motion to suppress evidence that had been obtained from his computer through police monitoring of peer-to-peer (P2P) file-sharing networks. The defendant cited Justice Alito and Justice Sotomayor’s concurrences in Jones to support his argument that the "sweeping scope" of the surveillance at issue gave "rise to a reasonable expectation of privacy." The court rejected this argument noting that while the police surveillance did implicate a vast quantity of information from a broad set of P2P network users, only a small portion of that information pertained to the defendant. Additionally, the information obtained through the surveillance, limited to "identifying information about files," was nowhere near as revealing as the CSLI at issue in Carpenter or the GPS tracking at issue in Jones.

Criticism

National security
Legal scholar David Pozen, writing in 2005, argued that the lenient interpretation that courts have given to government mosaic arguments is an abdication of judicial judgment. As a result, "In over thirty years of the theory's existence, only one FOIA court on record has rejected a government agency's mosaic defense. In theory, highly speculative mosaic claims are unfalsifiable; in practice, they have proven unimpeachable."

Monica Eppinger noted, in intelligence gathering, mosaic theory arguments could allow an to individual  be held and interrogated indefinitely, even if they were not a suspect:

Eppinger pointed out the human rights violations this caused. If individuals being held for interrogation were actual suspects, they would receive due process—a right those held under the mosaic theory were denied.

Fourth Amendment
One criticism of mosaic theory is that it creates a significant "line drawing" problem: it is difficult to determine just how much data needs to be gathered before actions by law enforcement officers become a search. Another criticism is that mosaic theory is inconsistent with other Fourth Amendment doctrines under which data gathered through public observation or by receipt from third-parties is not the product of a search. Under current law observations made through the police’s visual surveillance would not implicate the Fourth Amendment, but the same data might if gathered by a GPS device. Others have argued that application of mosaic theory will "unjustifiably expand or contract the Fourth Amendment’s protections."

Proponents of mosaic theory argue that current Fourth Amendment doctrine used to assess whether or not government action constitutes a search "potentially undervalue[s] privacy rights." The "large-scale and long term aggregations of data" at issue in cases like Carpenter merit protection under the Fourth Amendment because they are fundamentally different from that which might be gathered in "single event" or "small-scale" acts of surveillance. Supporters also argue that new technologies employed by law enforcement officers alter the "balance between the State and its citizens" making it much easier for the government to collect large amounts of data, often in ways "so pervasive that no citizen can realistically be aware of what data about him is being collected."

See also
 Fruit of the poisonous tree
 Sugar bowl (legal maxim)
 Third-party doctrine
 Minimally invasive warrantless search
 Mosaic theory (investments)
 Kyllo v. United States

References

Further reading

United States Fourth Amendment case law
Jurisprudence
Search and seizure case law
Intelligence gathering law
United States privacy case law
American legal terminology
Legal doctrines and principles


title: Ann Shin

text:
Ann Shin is a filmmaker and writer based in Toronto, Ontario, Canada.

Early life
Shin was born in London, Ontario to parents Sue Shin (née Kim) and Albert Shin. Her mother was born in South Korea, moved to Canada, and worked as a registered nurse. Her father was an agriculturalist specializing in Animal Husbandry in Denmark and at the University of Guelph. Her parents met and married in Toronto, but soon moved to Langley, British Columbia to start a mushroom farm. Shin spent most of her childhood years on the family farm. In 2019, Shin lost her father to dementia.

Shin moved to Toronto to pursue a degree at University of Toronto, completing a Bachelor of Arts, Honors, and Master of Arts in English Literature. During her university years she was a feature editor for The Varsity and a radio host for Rights Radio on CIUT radio station. Upon graduation she started working at CBC as a radio producer.

Journalism career
Shin's journalism career began at CBC Radio where she produced a number of shows including Metro Morning, Tapestry, Roots and Wings, Sunday Morning Live. During this time she produced sound poetry and radio documentaries, including How to Breathe the Air of our Ancestors, which won a Gold Medal at the New York Festivals in 1998.

Film-making career
Realizing her love for long-form documentary, Shin moved into television and began to produce for television series for a number of networks, as well as direct independent documentaries. Her documentary credits include the documentary My Enemy, My Brother which was shortlisted for a 2016 Academy Award and nominated for a News and Documentary Emmy Award. The feature version won Grand Jury Prize at San Diego Film Festival, and the short version was awarded Best Short Documentary in eleven international film festivals including Traverse City Film Festival, Russia's Doker International Festival, Grand Prize Winner of the Best Shorts Humanitarian Awards, the Sepanta Award for Best Short Film. Other films include documentary film The Defector: Escape from North Korea (2012), The Four Seasons Mosaic (CBC (2005), Western Eyes (CBC Newsworld) (2000), The Roswell Incident (History) (1998), Almost Real (CBC Newsworld) and How to Breathe the Air of Our Ancestors (CBC Radio) (1998). Shin has produced programs for CBC, TVO, PBS, HBO, ABC, Slice, HGTV, W, Discovery and History, and her programs have sold in territories in the US, Europe, Australia, East Asia and Southeast Asia.

The Defector: Escape from North Korea was highly praised by critics. CNN Connect the World called it an "incredible story", while The Toronto Star named it one of the 10 Must See Films at the Hot Docs Canadian International Documentary Festival. Next Projection said of the film, "The Defector exposes a part of the world that is so heavily shielded we can only know through conjecture."

Shin has also created the cross-platform project The Defector: Escape from North Korea which won Best Documentary and won Best Documentary Director at the 2014 Canadian Screen Awards, as well picking up the SXSW Interactive Festival Award, the FITC Award and nextMedia Canadian Digi Awards.

Filmography

Documentary
How to Breathe the Air of Our Ancestors, 1998 - director
Turning Points of History: The Roswell Incident, 1998 - director
The Fall of an Asian Tiger, 1999 - director
Western Eyes, 2000 - director
Almost Real, Connecting in a Wired World, 2002 - director
Opening Night: The Four Seasons Mosaic, 2005 - director
The Defector: Escape from North Korea, 2013 - writer/director/producer
My Enemy, My Brother, 2014 - writer/director/producer
Sugar Sisters, 2017 - co-writer, co-director
The Superfood Chain, 2018 - director
Artificial Immortality, 2021 - director, writer, producer

Series

Rags to Red Carpet
The List
I Do…Let's Eat (2012)
Save Us from Our House (2005)
Modern Manners (2000)
Venture
Face-Off

Writing career
Shin is a poet and fiction writer, with work published in various anthologies and magazines in both Canada and the United States. She is one of four poets featured in Crossroads Cant, published by Broken Jaw Press in 1997. Mansfield Press published her first volume of poetry, The Last Thing Standing in 2000 to acclaim. In 2013, Brick Books published her second book of poetry, The Family China which won the 2013 Anne Green Award.

Author Nino Ricci referred to her first volume of poetry, The Last Thing Standing as "A beautiful and memorable book. Ann Shin writes about love, loss and the idea of home with clarity, wit and grace". Of her second collection of acclaimed poetry, author and poet Karen Connelly wrote, "… This short, dazzling collection of poems contains a universe—nothing short of North American life in the late twentieth and early twenty-first century. Somehow it is all here, joyously offered up, birth, death, and everything in between…".

Her novel The Last Exiles was the winner of the Trillium Book Award for English Prose in 2022.

Bibliography
Crossroads Cant, Broken Jaw Press, 1997
The Last Thing Standing, Mansfield Press, 2000
The Family China, Brick Books, 2013
The Last Exiles, Park Row, 2021

Honors, Awards, Nominations, and Accomplishments
Her films have garnered numerous awards and screened at film festivals around the world, including SXSW, Tribeca International Film Festival, Toronto International Film Festival, Hot Docs Canadian International Documentary Festival, the San Francisco Film Festival, Thessaloniki International Human Rights Film Festival, Montreal World Film Festival, New York Festivals, Mumbai International Film Festival and the Chris Awards.

At the 2015 Vancouver International Film Festival, the Canadian Images shorts jury gave Shin an honorable mention in the Most Promising Director of a Canadian Short Film category for My Enemy, My Brother.-

Film and Television

2017 My Enemy, My Brother, the feature version, wins Grand Jury Prize at the San Diego Asian International Film Festival.
2015 My Enemy, My Brother, Shortlisted for Academy Award and nominated for an News and Documentary Emmy Award.

The Defector: Escape from North Korea

2014 Canadian Screen Awards
Best Director in a Documentary Program (Won)
Best Documentary Program (Won)
Diversity Award (Won)

2013 SXSW Interactive Festival Award
Best Motion Graphics (Won)

2013 nextMEDIA Canadian Digi Awards
Best in Cross Platform Non-Fiction (Won)

2013 FITC Awards
Best Motion Graphics (Won)

2012 Sheffield Doc/Fest
Sheffield Innovation Award (Nominee)

Opening Night

2005 Gemini Awards
Best Direction in a Performing Arts Program or Series (for the episode "The Four Seasons Mosaic") (Nominee)

Western Eyes

2000 NFB Diversity Competition
Reel Diversity Award (Won)

Turning Points of History: Incident at Roswell

2000 Columbus International Film and Video Festival
Bronze Plaque Award (Documentary) (Won)

How to Breathe the Air of Our Ancestors

1998 New York Festivals
Gold Medal (Won)

Literature

The Family China
2013 Anne Green Award (Won)

References

External links

1968 births
Living people
Canadian documentary film directors
Canadian people of South Korean descent
Film directors from British Columbia
Film directors from London, Ontario
Film directors from Toronto
Writers from British Columbia
Writers from London, Ontario
Writers from Toronto
Canadian women film directors
Place of birth missing (living people)
Canadian television directors
Canadian women television directors
20th-century Canadian poets
20th-century Canadian women writers
21st-century Canadian poets
21st-century Canadian novelists
21st-century Canadian women writers
Canadian women poets
Canadian women novelists
Canadian writers of Asian descent
Canadian women documentary filmmakers


title: Afrochilis insularis

text:
Afrochilis insularis is the only known member of the genus Afrochilis of the family Machilidae, which is from the order Archaeognatha. It is endemic to the Socotra archipelago, a group of isolated islands.

References

Archaeognatha
Endemic fauna of Socotra
Insects described in 2001


title: Karachi Fire Department

text:
Karachi Fire Department is responsible for the provision of fire protection in the city of Karachi, Sindh, Pakistan. Karachi Fire Department as well as responding to building collapses, drowning cases, gas leakage, oil spillage, road and rail accidents, bird and animal rescues, fallen trees and taking appropriate action during natural calamities.

The Fire Departments of Pakistan inherited its first Fire Department Building in 1947 right after the independence of Pakistan in 1947. The Central Fire Brigade was later called ‘Al-Markaz’ and was located near the Civil Hospital Karachi. The building has since been renovated only in 1976.

The documentary specially focuses on 15 January 2007 when eight firemen were buried and burned alive in a burning cotton factory at the Site Industrial Area of Karachi. Pakistanis mourned the loss and the viewers explore first hand the emotional turmoil which these families had to deal with and how some of the firemen barely escaped death . As the firemen talk about the uncertainty of their lives and the medical services they get, the viewers will get a unique insight into the lives of these selfless individuals.

The Mayor of Karachi, Syed Mustafa Kamal admits that the CFS needs more equipment and resolves to do so. The CFS has been battling many a challenges in the past few years, some of which have been discussed in the documentary; the reason for its appeal in the country.

Important focus has also been on the PNSC fire. The 15-storey Pakistan National Shipping Corporation building caught fire on Sunday, 18 February 2007 in Karachi, leaving at least two firefighters injured and destroying a large number of valuable documents. The PNSC building, which was built in the early 1970s, has seen the second outbreak of a fire in seven months. The 18 Feb fire 'believed to have been caused by a short circuit' destroyed official records of the National Engineering Services of Pakistan. But this was not the first fire the PNSC building would endure.

The second fire broke out on 19 August just a few months after the first one. This time Manager Administration officer suffered a fatal heart attack at the scene after witnessing the inferno. Two Navay helicopters were used in rescue operations and one man who was working on a mobile phone tower on the roof was rescued.

See also
 Fire Departments of Pakistan
 List of fire departments

References

Further reading
 Karachi Fire Brigade in shambles

Fire departments of Pakistan
Government of Karachi


title: De kabel

text:
De kabel (English: The cable) is a nickname for a group of five Afro-Dutch association footballers of Surinamese descent, who at the time played for Dutch football club AFC Ajax and for the Netherlands national team. The term originated in the media following an alleged rift between players of the national team during the 1996 European Football Championship.

The members of the cable, as mentioned in the media were as follows:

 Winston Bogarde
 Edgar Davids
 Patrick Kluivert
 Michael Reiziger
 Clarence Seedorf

The name arose during an interview on the TV show , where Davids, Kluivert and Seedorf were present. This was where the term 'kabel' was first mentioned to describe the friendship between the three. During the 1996 UEFA Euro the term was then taken over to describe the aforementioned quintet.

Origin
The reason for the widespread attention to 'the cable' came after the second group match of the European Championship against Switzerland. Clarence Seedorf started this game as libero in defense. But because the Swiss played in a different formation than expected, Seedorf accidentally slipped into a role as an end-marker. After several fouls were necessitated to stop his direct opponent, thus suffering a yellow card, head coach Guus Hiddink decided to substitute him off in the 26'-minute. Edgar Davids, who was on the bench at the time, reacted aggressively towards Hiddink's decision. After the match, he expressed his discontent with harsh criticism over Hiddink towards a Swiss journalist, stating that Hiddink was listening to certain players too much (referring specifically to Danny Blind and Ronald de Boer by name). Hiddink "must get his head out of players' asses so he can see better" according to Davids. After the brief interview, Hiddink decided to waive Davids, whereby he would no longer participate in the remainder of the tournament.

Furthermore a photograph which was released by the NOS circulated, where the public believed the five aforementioned players were living in discord with the rest of the selection. The media reported that the picture showed the five players sitting apart from the rest of the group at a separate table during breakfast. This however was not correct. Bogarde, Kluivert and Seedorf sat together at the same table, Davids and Reiziger not. The others who were sitting at the table were John Veldman, Aron Winter and the white Rob Witschge. Patrick Kluivert indicated in his biography that the table order changed every day, and that there were no permanent seats. The media never focused on the fact that five reverse (white) Dutch players would sit together separately.

After Edgar Davis was sent home from the tournament, the remaining four players remained, playing in the final group match, as well as the quarter-final match against France where the Dutch were eliminated. The developments surrounding the affair with the photograph and the media caused a disturbed relationship amongst the players in the national team, the public and the five players known as 'the cabal' whereby Seedorf to date is still widely excluded.

Background
In the beginning stages very little information surfaced regarding the matter, but years later the altercation was clarified by several of the players who were involved. The cause for the immense tension amongst the players was largely due to salary and power differences at Ajax. This was first brought to light by Bogarde in March 2006 during the airing of the TV show Profiel. It was later confirmed in May 2008 on another show Andere Tijden Sport. Maarten Oldenhof, commercial manager at Ajax at the time, confirmed that there were indeed big salary differences at the time. Danny Blind for example earned six times the amount of club top scorer Kluivert in 1996. Bogarde also expressed that the power differences amongst the team frustrated him greatly. Certain players such as Ronald and Frank de Boer and Danny Blind would consult with the Board on how much their teammates should earn, including 'the cable' players, helping to determine their salary. Ronald de Boer admitted on Andere Tijden that they had in fact called for a higher salary for these players, and that the discontent was created when some players had control over the rest of the selection. He also indicated that a lot of the dissatisfaction was revealed during the European Championship after the match against Switzerland, when Guus Hiddink left the players to themselves in the locker room to settle their differences.

Post-Euro 1996
Guus Hiddink remained head coach of the national team for two more years. He settled his differences with Edgar Davids, and all cable players stayed playing for the Netherlands, and were all present at the 1998 FIFA World Cup. There were no more noteworthy incidents after the European Championship surrounding the Dutch national team. Team captain Frank de Boer called the teams from '98 and 2000 a "very close group" in an episode of Voetbal International in May 2008.

Croky-affaire
Meanwhile at Ajax there was still one more incident which Kluivert dubbed as the "Croky affair". During the 1996–97 season, Blind and the De Boer twins arranged a sponsorship deal with a Dutch brand of potato chips , without the knowledge of the rest of the selection. The agreement consisted of creating Pogs of the Ajax players, which yielded ƒ500,000 guilders. The proceeds would be distributed over the entire selection. Bogarde, Kluivert and Veldman (who was never identified as a member of the kabel through the media) refused to sign, so the action was threatening to be cancelled. Bogarde gave this as another example of the uneven power distribution amongst the players, since the opinion of the squad was never asked, after consultation the three remaining players signed on and the Croky deal came to fruition.

Clarence Seedorf had already left the club in 1995, after which Kluivert and Bogarde departed in the Summer of '97 as the last of the Kabel players at Ajax, with Davids and Reiziger having left the club a year prior.

Bibliography
 Mike Verweij, Kluivert, House of Knowledge, Schelluinen, 2006,
 Marcel Rözer, Winston Bogarde: Deze neger buigt voor niemand , Houtekiet, Purmerend, 2005,

References

Kabel
Kabel
Kabel
Kabel
Kabel


title: Loxton railway line

text:
The Loxton railway line is a closed railway line in the northern Murray Mallee region of South Australia. It ran north-east from Tailem Bend to grain silos near Loxton.

History
The first stage of the Brown's Well railway line  opened from Tailem Bend to Wanbi on 6 January 1913, and extended to Paruna by the end of April the same year.  A branch from Alawoona to Loxton opened on 13 February 1914. The main line to Alawoona and only remaining branch to Loxton closed on 6 January 1996 to be gauge converted from broad gauge to standard gauge to retain connection to the main line from Adelaide to Melbourne after that line was converted. The last grain train left the silos on 20 June 2015, marking the closure of the line.

Route
The railway branched off the main line just south of Tailem Bend, and tracked roughly north-east. The Karoonda Highway from Murray Bridge East paralleled it after about 24 kilometres at Kulde. The railway and highway continued together 100 kilometres north-east through Karoonda to Alawoona, then both turned north for the final 35 kilometres to Loxton.

The line no longer continues to Loxton station, having been curtailed at a bulk grain facility a few kilometres short of the town. The end of the main line became the grain terminal at what was originally the Tookayerta siding. The line closed on 20 July 2015, with all grain traffic now taken by road.

References

Closed railway lines in South Australia
Railway lines closed in 2015
Standard gauge railways in Australia


title: 1916 United States elections

text:
The 1916 United States elections elected the members of the 65th United States Congress. The election occurred during the Fourth Party System, six months before the United States entered World War I. Unlike 1912, the Democrats did not benefit from a split in the Republican Party, but the Democrats still retained the Presidency and the majority in the Senate. Democrats lost the majority in the House, but retained control of the chamber.

Democratic President Woodrow Wilson defeated the Republican nominee, former Supreme Court Justice Charles Evans Hughes, in the presidential election. Hughes won the Republican nomination on the third ballot of the 1916 Republican National Convention, defeating several other candidates. Republicans won several Northern states, but Wilson's success in the rest of the country gave him a small margin in the electoral college and the popular vote. Wilson's win made him the first sitting Democratic President to win re-election since Andrew Jackson. Wilson's running mate, Thomas R. Marshall, was the first sitting Vice President to win re-election since John C. Calhoun.

Republicans made moderate gains in the House, gaining a narrow plurality. However, Democrat Champ Clark won re-election as Speaker of the House.

In the second Senate election since the ratification of the 17th Amendment, Republicans made minor gains, but Democrats retained a solid majority.

See also
1916 United States presidential election
1916 United States House of Representatives elections
1916 United States Senate elections
1916 United States gubernatorial elections

References

1916 elections in the United States
1916


title: Bizarre-nosed chameleon

text:
The bizarre-nosed chameleon (Calumma hafahafa) is a species of chameleon endemic to Madagascar. Its scientific name was named after the Malagasy word hafahafa, which means "bizarre" or "strange" (a reference to the species' unusually upturned rostral appendages).

Distribution and habitat
Although the true extent of the bizarre-nosed chameleon's range is not known, it is estimated to less than 100 square kilometers. Specimens have been taken from several locations in northeastern Madagascar, all at relatively high altitude. It appears the species lives only in montane humid forests.

Description
The primary distinguishing characteristic of the bizarre-nosed chameleon is the single large rostral ("nose") appendage appearing on the males. Otherwise it is quite similar to Calumma malthe and Calumma peltieriorum. It has around 18 gular spines as well.

Conservation and threats
Mostly due to its extremely small range and ongoing habitat loss, the bizarre-nosed chameleon is ranked as critically endangered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature. Its population is probably declining, and conservation action is necessary to prevent extinction.

References

Calumma
Endemic fauna of Madagascar
chameleon
chameleon
Reptiles described in 2006
Taxa named by Christopher John Raxworthy
Taxa named by Ronald Archie Nussbaum


title: Habenaria distans

text:
Habenaria distans, the hammock bog orchid, is a species of orchid. It is native to Latin America from Mexico to Argentina, as well as Florida, the Greater Antilles, and the Galápagos.

References

distans
Orchids of South America
Orchids of North America
Orchids of Central America
Orchids of Belize
Flora of Florida
Flora of the Caribbean
Plants described in 1866
Flora without expected TNC conservation status


title: Francis Cleetus

text:
Francis Cleetus () is an American cartoonist, painter, and sculptor. He is also a creative director, graphic designer, and copywriter, who has worked at various ad agencies including Foote, Cone & Belding, Ogilvy & Mather, J. Walter Thompson and Doe-Anderson in India, Hong Kong and the US.

A member of the National Cartoonists Society of America, Cleetus is the author of two It's Geek 2 Me tech cartoon compilations. He has created contemporary art inspired by Indian themes for multiple art shows in the US. He has also developed advertising campaigns for global brands including Moen, Maker's Mark, and MTV.

Cleetus lives in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA, and continues to work on visual art, advertising and marketing communications projects.

It's Geek 2 Me cartoons

A tech cartoon about people and their off-center relationships with technology, "It's Geek 2 Me" pokes fun at its ubiquitous role in people's lives. Cleetus self-published his first compilation of tech cartoons in 2012 titled Wish Your Mouth Had A Backspace Key in the United States through Amazon.com. In 2013, a new compilation titled It's Geek 2 Me – Total Timepass Tech Toons was published by Hachette India for the Indian subcontinent. He has also drawn tech cartoons for the Pittsburgh Tech Council's TEQ magazine, Tata Consultancy Services' @TCS magazine and other publications.

Contemporary Indian art

In February 2012, the Phipps Conservatory and Botanical Gardens in Pittsburgh commissioned Cleetus to recreate ceiling murals from a 16th-century palace for their Tropical Forest India exhibit. The Asia Institute – Crane House in Louisville invited him to host a solo exhibition in June 2017. Pittsburgh's Not-white Collective featured his paintings in their 2018 juried exhibition "In Between the Middle". In January 2018, the Greater Pittsburgh Arts Council (GPAC) showcased "Karmalogue", a themed show that featured Cleetus' paintings, drawings and sculptures as part of the Gallery Crawl organized by the Pittsburgh Cultural Trust. In August 2018, the Westmoreland Cultural Trust put together "Conglomeration", a group show that included his work. The RAW artists organization invited Cleetus in November 2018 to participate in their Pittsburgh creative showcase "Ovation" that featured over 60 artists. In January 2020, his paintings were part of the "Past, Present, Future" exhibit organized by GPAC along with 140 other visual artists.

Advertising campaigns

Cleetus has created multimedia advertising campaigns for global brands at ad agencies in three countries. After spending his formative years at Draft FCB in India, he moved in the mid-nineties to Hong Kong and worked at Ogilvy, JWT and D'Arcy, before relocating to the United States in 2001 to work at Doe-Anderson. In 2007, he moved to Pittsburgh-based agency MARC USA. His advertising campaigns have crossed geographic as well as cultural borders and won creative awards in Asia, Europe and the US.

Photo art for dogs

A lifelong dog lover, Cleetus launched a collection of conceptual photography art just for dogs in 2019. The entire collection is conceived from a dog's perspective of the world, and features larger-than-life dog portraits; fire hydrant centric scenery; dog food still life and renderings of chewed-up tennis balls. The artwork is specifically designed to be hung at a dog's-eye level near the food bowl and brighten up the pet's personal space.

Compilations
 Total Timepass Tech Toons (August 2013, Hachette India, )
 Wish Your Mouth Had a Backspace Key (October 2006, Amazon.com, )

References

External links

Cleetus with a 'C' as in Creative
"It's Geek 2 Me" tech toons
Fine Art for Refined Dogs
The Office of Public Art: Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh Artist Registry
Total Timepass Tech Toons on Amazon.in
Wish Your Mouth Had A Backspace Key on Amazon.com

Living people
American male artists of Indian descent
21st-century American male artists
American comic strip cartoonists
American copywriters
American art directors
Creative directors
Year of birth missing (living people)


title: LGBT rights in the Middle East

text:
Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) people generally have limited or highly restrictive rights in most parts of the Middle East, and are open to hostility in others. Sex between men is illegal in 9 of the 18 countries that make up the region. It is punishable by death in five of these 18 countries. The rights and freedoms of LGBT citizens are strongly influenced by the prevailing cultural traditions and religious mores of people living in the region – particularly Islam.

All same-sex activity is legal in Cyprus, Northern Cyprus, Israel, Lebanon, Turkey.

Male same-sex activity is illegal and punishable by imprisonment in Kuwait, Egypt, Oman and Syria. It is also punishable by death in Iran, Saudi Arabia, Qatar and the United Arab Emirates. In Yemen and the Gaza Strip, the punishment might differ between death and imprisonment depending on the act committed.

History

Evidence of homosexuality in the Middle East can be traced back at least until the time of Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia. In ancient Assyria, sex crimes were punished identically whether they were homosexual or heterosexual. An individual faced no punishment for penetrating someone of equal social class, a cult prostitute, or with someone whose gender roles were not considered solidly masculine. In an Akkadian tablet, the Šumma ālu, it states, "If a man copulates with his equal from the rear, he becomes the leader among his peers and brothers". However, homosexual relationships with fellow soldiers, slaves, royal attendants, or those where a social better was submissive or penetrated, were treated as bad omens. A Middle Assyrian Law Codes dating from 1075 BC has a rather harsh law for homosexuality in the military, which reads: "If a man have intercourse with his brother-in-arms, they shall turn him into a eunuch."

Around 250 BC, during the Parthian Empire, the Zoroastrian text Vendidad was written. It contains provisions that are part of sexual code promoting procreative sexuality that is interpreted to prohibit same-sex intercourse as sinful. Ancient commentary on this passage suggests that those engaging in sodomy could be killed without permission from a high priest. However, a strong homosexual tradition in Iran is attested to by Greek historians from the 5th century onward, and so the prohibition apparently had little effect on Iranian attitudes or sexual behavior outside the ranks of devout Zoroastrians in rural eastern Iran. Attitudes toward lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) people and their experiences in the Muslim world have been influenced by its religious, legal, social, political, and cultural history.

The Quran narrates the story of the "people of Lot" destroyed by the wrath of God because the men engaged in lustful carnal acts between themselves. Within the Quran, it never states that homosexuality is punishable by death, and modern historians conclude that the Islamic prophet Muhammad never forbade homosexual relationships, although he shared contempt towards them alongside his contemporaries. However, some hadith collections condemn homosexual and transgender acts, prescribing death penalty for both the active and receptive partners who have engaged in male homosexual intercourse.

There is little evidence of homosexual practice in Islamic societies for the first century and a half of the early history of Islam, although male homosexual relationships were known and ridiculed, but not sanctioned, in Arabia.

During the medieval period and the early modern age, Middle Eastern societies saw a flourishing of homo-erotic literature. Shusha Guppy of the Times Higher Education Supplement argued that although it "has long been assumed that the Arab-Islamic societies have always been less tolerant of homosexuality than the West", in "the pre-modern era, Western travelers were amazed to find Islam 'a sex-positive religion' and men openly expressing their love for young boys in words and gestures."

During the Islamic Golden Age, the Abbasid dynasty is known for being relatively liberal regarding homosexuality. This is due to a variety of factors, notably the move towards a more bureaucratic Islamic rule and away from literalist adherence to the scripture.

Many Islamic rulers were known to engage in, or at least tolerate, homosexual activity. For instance, Umayyad Caliph Al-Walid II was said to enjoy "al-talawut", an Arabic word for sex with other men. Abu Nuwas, one of the most prominent Arab poets to extensively produce homoerotic works, did so under the tutelage and protection of Harun al-Rashid. Harun al-Rashid's successor, Al-Amin, rejected women and concubines, preferring eunuchs instead.

Homosexual acts are forbidden in traditional Islamic jurisprudence and are liable to different punishments, including the death penalty, depending on the situation and legal school. However, homosexual relationships were generally tolerated in pre-modern Islamic societies, and historical records suggest that these laws were invoked infrequently, mainly in cases of rape or other "exceptionally blatant infringement on public morals". Public attitudes toward homosexuality in the Muslim world underwent a marked negative change starting from the 19th century through the gradual spread of Islamic fundamentalist movements such as Salafism and Wahhabism, and the influence of the sexual notions and restrictive norms prevalent in Europe at the time: a number of Muslim-majority countries have retained criminal penalties for homosexual acts enacted under European colonial rule.  name="KlaudaGlob">
Die Vertreibung aus dem Serail: Europa und die Heteronormalisierung der islamischen Welt (Berlin: Männerschwarm-Verlag, 2008)
In the 19th and early 20th century, homosexual activity was relatively common in the Middle East, owing in part to widespread sex segregation, which made heterosexual encounters outside marriage more difficult. Georg Klauda writes that "Countless writers and artists such as André Gide, Oscar Wilde, Edward M. Forster, and Jean Genet made pilgrimages in the 19th and 20th centuries from homophobic Europe to Algeria, Morocco, Egypt, and various other Arab countries, where homosexual sex was not only met without any discrimination or subcultural ghettoization whatsoever, but rather, additionally as a result of rigid segregation of the sexes, seemed to be available on every corner." Homosexuality was outlawed in 1943 in Lebanon, to conform to the rule of the Vichy regime of France. The law is known as article 543 in the country's Penal Code. In Iran, men could be intimate with other men without being in a formal relationship. Young men without facial hair were considered beautiful and older men would pursue them. It was not until the nineteenth century, when Europeans began to visit Iran, that the view of homosexual male relationships became negative. European men claimed the relations between Iranian men were immoral. This European perspective was widely adopted by Iranian society. This outlook on queerness within the Middle East has worsened as totalitarian governments, beginning in the 1970s, came to power and justified their values on Islamic fundamentalism.

Transgender people have also faced backlash in the Middle East in the late 1900s. There was fear that because one could not differentiate men and women based on their outer appearance, it would cause instability within society. Gender-affirming surgeries were introduced and became accessible and prevalent among transgender women in Iran. In 1976, the Medical Council of Iran outlawed gender reassignment surgery after seeing the increase of procedures among transgender women. They have changed this ruling since then.

Before globalization, Middle Eastern men and women who had homosexual relations did not consider themselves to be 'homosexual'. Due to the exchanges between the West and Middle East, the idea of "homosexuality" was introduced to Middle Eastern regions and these people were then encouraged to associate themselves with new labels, such as "gay", "lesbian", "straight", and more. Before the use of these labels, people did not categorize their sexuality in that way.

The Middle East today
In Iran, Saudi Arabia, Qatar, the United Arab Emirates, and Yemen, the laws state that if a person is found guilty of engaging in same-sex sexual behavior, the death penalty would be applied. According to Country Reports of the US Department of State, in Saudi Arabia there are no established LGBT organizations. Furthermore, reports of official and social discrimination on the grounds of sexual orientation remains unclear because of strong social pressure of not to discuss LGBT matters. In Iraq, homosexuality is not de jure punishable by law but LGBT people can be charged under public indecency law 401. Which penalizes anything deemed contrary to public decency or morality with up to 6 months imprisonment and fines. People also face vigilante execution, beatings, torture, and attacks by vigilantes and Sharia courts.

Jordan and Bahrain are the only Arab countries where homosexuality is legal; Some Middle Eastern nations have some tolerance and legal protections for transsexual and transgender people. For example, the Iranian government has approved sex change operations under medical approval. The Syrian government has approved similar operations back in 2011. LGBT rights movements have existed in other Middle Eastern nations, including Turkey and Lebanon. However, in both Turkey and Lebanon, changes have been slow and recent crackdown on LGBT oriented events have raised concerns about the freedom of association and expression of LGBT people and organizations.

Israel is a notable exception, being the most supportive towards LGBT rights and recognizing unregistered cohabitation. Popular support for LGBT rights  and the disparity between the liberal LGBT rights in Israel and Palestine  render the motivation of these assertions dubitable, especially because of the very low popular support for LGBT rights in Palestine. Same-sex marriage is not legal in the country but there is public support for recognizing and registering same-sex marriages performed in other countries. Israel also allows transgender individuals to legally change their gender without surgery. Transgender individuals can serve openly in the Israel Defense Forces.

There are different legal systems in Palestine. A report of Human Rights Watch in relation to sexual orientation and gender identity in the Middle East notes:
The British Mandate Criminal Code Ordinance, No. 74 of 1936 is in force in Gaza. In the West Bank, including East Jerusalem, the Jordanian Penal Code of 1960 applies, and does not contain provisions prohibiting adult consensual same-sex conduct. In Gaza, having "unnatural intercourse" of a sexual nature, understood to include same-sex relationships, is a crime punishable by up to 10 years in prison. In February 2016, Hamas's armed wing executed one of its fighters ostensibly for "behavioral and moral violations", which Hamas officials acknowledged meant same-sex relations.

Meanwhile, popular support for LGBT-rights in Palestine is practically non-existent and LGBT persons are regularly endangered by mob violence.

Arab and Muslim views of homosexuality as a purely "Western" creation have been explored in the film Dangerous Living: Coming Out in the Developing World. The starting line of the dialogue spoken by an as yet unseen gay Egyptian man stating "I was accused of being Westernized."

A report of Human Rights Watch in relation to LGBT rights in the Middle East notes:
In a few places, like Egypt and Morocco, sexual orientation and gender identity issues have begun to enter the agendas of some mainstream human rights movements. Now, unlike in earlier years, there are lawyers to defend people when they are arrested, and voices to speak up in the press. These vital developments were not won through identity politics. Those have misfired disastrously as a way of claiming rights in much of the Middle East; the urge of some western LGBT activists to unearth and foster ‘gay’ politics in the region is potentially deeply counterproductive. Rather, the mainstreaming was won largely by framing the situations of LGBT (or otherwise-identified) people in terms of the rights violations, and protections, that existing human rights movements understand. (Human Rights Watch 2009, p. 18)

Although many Middle Eastern countries have penal codes against homosexual acts, these are seldom enforced due to the difficulty to prove unless caught in the act. In the Middle East today many countries still do not have codification of homosexuality or queerness as an identification of sexual orientation. In Saudi Arabia, gender segregation is practiced to uphold the purity of women, because this separation exists some women and men will openly seek homosexual companionship in open spaces like coffee shops, public bathrooms, their cars, and their households. To navigate their own sexuality many men who engage in homosexual acts in Saudi Arabia do not deem the acts to be homosexual unless they are a bottom, which is a sexual position deemed to be more feminine while a top is deemed to be masculine.

In Iran there is a strict gender binary. The government enforces the gender binary by suppressing information about homosexuality and encouraging people questioning their sexuality to undergo sex reassignment surgery. Since the sex reassignment surgery is accepted by the government and religious institutions along with obtaining funding from the government for the surgery many Iranians who are attracted to the same sex see this as a way to be public about their sexual orientation without being persecuted by the government. Since being homosexual is not an option presented to Iranians, there has been a surge in the amount of Iranians who undergo gender reassignment surgery when their sexual orientation is towards the same sex. Sex reassignment surgery is encouraged by clerics, psychologists, and the government as homosexuality is illegal and punishable by imprisonment, lashing or execution. This has led to a bolstering transgender community in Iran as homosexuality has been removed from society as an identity leading homosexuals and transsexuals to all seek gender reassignment surgery. The people who undergo these surgeries are fully accepted by the government but families still often reject family members who undergo sex reassignment surgery. Family members are a primary resource for job acquisition in Iran. Without a social network to call on for job leads it is increasingly difficult to find work, and transsexuals are discriminated against in the job market forcing them into sex work.

Qatar, however, has modified the LGBT laws in the wake of 2022 FIFA World Cup tournament. Homosexuality is a criminal offence in Qatar, yet the Arab nation stated that LGBT fans would be welcome to the biggest sports event. In May 2022, the Emir of Qatar Sheikh Tamim bin Hamad al-Thani stated "everyone is welcome" to attend the FIFA World Cup 2022 event in Qatar, including the LGBTQ fans.
"We will not stop anybody from coming and enjoying the football. But I also want everybody to come and understand and enjoy our culture. We welcome everybody, but also we expect and we want people to respect our culture", he said.

Qatar aimed to host the FIFA World Cup tournament in a welcoming and safe manner with the football fans and LGBTQ+ fans. According to Numbeo Crime Index by Country 2022, out of 142 surveyed nations, Qatar has maintained its position as the 'Safest Country' in the world. Although the European teams competing at the 2022 Qatar World Cup walked back their plans to wear OneLovearmbands in support of LGBTQ rights during the tournament, following warnings from international soccer governing body FIFA that they would be penalized for doing so.

The Ministry of Education in UAE approved a code of conduct that prohibits education professionals from discussing "gender identity, homosexuality or any other behavior deemed unacceptable to the UAE's society" in their respective classes. A majority of education professionals working at the Emirati institutions are foreign nationals employed as English language teacher. The ruling could affect a majority of its recipients in the Gulf state. As far as homosexuals maintain a low profile in the UAE, they have remained safe from legal scrutiny.

Regional LGBTQ NGOs and solidarity groups
Listed below are a few ally organizations that aim to help and support LGBT people in the Middle East. Other organizations with the same goal exist as well; however, these are the organizations that have made the most impact in the regions thus far.

Rainbow Street

Rainbow Street is a non-governmental organization (NGO) that is determined to help LGBT people in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region by providing support to those who experience systemic oppression and persecution due to their gender identity and/or sexual orientation. The organization aims to provide queer and trans people with the necessary resources needed to ensure they have access to safe, discrete and capable providers.

OutRight Action International

OutRight is a NGO that promotes human rights of LGBT people around the world, including in the Middle East. The organization focuses more on Iraq, Iran, and Turkey, but also partners with other groups in the region in order to listen to local LGBT activists, and advocate on their behalf at the United Nations. The partnerships include organizations in Algeria, Egypt, Jordan, Libya, Morocco, Kuwait, Oman and Lebanon. The organization works with these groups on "different topics through capacity building, advocacy, research and holistic security." The largest project that they have is in Iran which is focused on assistance to the LGBT community in Iran. In order to counter prejudiced views in the media, provide necessary legal and religious frameworks that promote tolerance and in an effort to make their research accessible OutRight Action International created a wide range of resources in Persian.

OutRight has a significant program in the organization called LBQ Connect which aims provide for support for "lesbian, bisexual and queer activism around the world." Due to the marginalization of women who identify as queer, bisexual or lesbian as well as trans and nonbinary people, the organization centers these people in their framework in effort to provide support and resources. OutRight seeks to challenge prejudice, violence and discrimination experienced by those who identify as LGBT throughout the world and providing these individuals with training and monetary resources to strengthen their skills and improve research. The research conducted influences changes in the LBQ program and overall advocacy agenda of the organization.

Helem

Helem (Arabic: ) is an NGO based in Lebanon, established in the 2000s, that has the main goal of annulling article 534 in Lebanon's Penal Code which punishes "unnatural sexual intercourse", particularly sexual relations involve anal sex. The organization was the first of its kind within the Arab World. Helem is an acronym for Himaya Lubnaniya lil Mithliyeen wal Mithliyat, which translates to "Lebanese protection for gays and lesbians". The acronym itself means "dream". The Penal Code is most commonly used to target people that do not conform to society's gender binary system. Individuals who express gender non-conformity are punished not only through the Penal Code but also in the interest of maintaining public morality. Helem's other goals include making Lebanese society more aware about the AIDS epidemic and other sexually transmitted diseases in the country and advocating for the rights of Lebanese LGBT individuals. Helem also allows allies to access membership to the organization. Although Helem was started to address the rights of the LGBT Community, it has incorporated social work into the organization's mission. The organization advocates for marginalized communities throughout Lebanon and the Arab World. Helem seeks to "work not only on issues related to identity and civil/political rights, but also prioritize social and economic rights by leveraging law, development, and community mobilization as tools for equality and liberation.

The focus on marginalized communities sparked outrage throughout Lebanon when Helem invited people who weren't of Lebanese nationality into the organization during the Cedar Revolution. Helem supports and advocates for domestic workers and refugees, including those who have left their home countries in fear of discrimination due to their sexual orientation. In 2006, Helem joined Samidoun, to continue their work of advocating for refugees and those affected by war. Helem created an annual event called "international day against homophobia" (IDAHO) and the first event took place in May 2005. The organization has faced scrutiny and obstacles from the government and members of the community whilst trying to carry out their mission. A longstanding belief throughout the community is that Helem is trying to impose Western imperialism and ideals in Lebanon and throughout the Arab World.

Majal

Majal is an NGO in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) that was established in Bahrain in 2016, and it focuses on "amplifying underrepresented voices". Majal "translates to opportunity or to give away" in Arabic. The organization centers the rights of different marginalized groups throughout MENA, including the LGBT community. Majal provides various platforms that focus on distributing information, resources and having community led discussion to highlight the experiences of marginalized groups. Ahwaa is a platform on Majal that provides LGBT people in MENA a digital space to have discussions through game mechanics. The space uses avatars that protect users from disclosing their identities in an effort to reduce discrimination and persecution and to promote conversations regarding gender identity and sexual orientation. When users exhibit positive contributions and are supported by their peers, they gain more access to the platform. This system protects users from individuals that are using the platform to cause harm to others.

Laws
This section is by no means exhaustive, and does not cover every particular law pertaining to LGBT rights. This is partly due to the non-existence of these laws in some Middle Eastern States, and also due to the laws being available in Arabic.

Social context and extrajudicial violence
Beyond the sphere of legislative politics, individuals who practice behaviors that can be considered LGBTQ and/or people who directly identify as lesbian, gay, bisexual, trans, or queer often face profound social consequences due to this designation falling outside of the cultural "normal". These consequences can include negative repercussions in one's family life and social marginalization, as well as direct violence and even honor killings. Discrimination towards LGBTQ people is therefore not only a legal matter but a social and cultural phenomenon that must be understood beyond just the letter of the law as it is codified. Due to the power dynamics specific to societies in the Middle East today, one must therefore look not only to law but also to social norms and cultural practices in order to understand the state of LGBTQ rights in the region. As put by Sabiha Allouche, Senior Teaching Fellow at the University of London SOAS, the traditional "formulation of the legal sphere" throughout the history of queer advocacy in the West is "not necessarily applicable to contexts where penal codes often intertwine with further regulatory systems, including religion, customs, traditions, and kin-based patterns of governance." The elitism and jargon endemic to the NGO-ization of human rights advocacy in the region can actually impede the endeavors of these organization, in that NGO-ization causes the work of local activists to be perceived as systematic colonial intervention from the west.

As happens in European and North American nations, interpretations of religious doctrine are commonly used as justifications for violence and exclusion of gay people from society. Christian populations in the Middle East persecute gay people as well, demonstrating that cultural customs may play a role as much as religion. The centrality of heterosexual family structures to social and religious rituals can also lead to heightened scrutiny from people in one's own family.

Due to the illegality and stigma around people who identify as LGBT, there is a dearth in the quantity of credible data collected regarding violence and discrimination that LGBT individuals face on a daily basis. However, a report written by Outright International submitted to UNHRC regarding violence and discrimination based on sexual orientation and gender identity in Iraq has found that despite LGBT rights being protected by the law, there exists no feasible legal recourse for victims of such hate crimes.

Censorship

Films
Due to homosexuality laws, many films with LGBT characters or themes have been banned in many Middle Eastern countries, especially in the Gulf states. Below are some notable examples.

Public opinion
A Pew Research Center survey conducted in found that over 80% of people polled rejected homosexuality as "morally unacceptable". Those who do identify with the LGBTQ community live in hiding due to the fear of backlash and punishment. While some are comfortable to attend LGBTQ themed events, many will wear masks to cover their identities.

On 22 February 2022, Ubisoft announced to withdraw the Six Invitational 2022 tournament from being held in the UAE, days after its LGBTQ+ personnel, players and fan base protested against the selection of the country for the event. The event was officially moved from the UAE due to the acute criticism of its treatment of lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender people. The Rainbow Six Siege tournament is held thrice every year; a game that features LGBTQ+ characters.

Acceptance as a practice

Acceptance by society

Acceptance as neighbours
Below is a table of attitudes towards homosexuals as neighbours in the Middle East, according to a World Values Survey from 2017 to 2020.

Justifiability

Perceived acceptance

See also

 Sexual taboo in the Middle East
 GCC homosexuality test
 LGBT in Islam
 Homosexuality and Judaism
 Transgender rights in Iran
 Islam and modernity
 Middle East and globalization
LGBT rights by country
 LGBT rights in Bahrain
 LGBT rights in Cyprus
 LGBT rights in Egypt
 LGBT rights in Iran
 LGBT rights in Iraq
 LGBT rights in Israel
 LGBT rights in Jordan
 LGBT rights in Kuwait
 LGBT rights in Lebanon
 LGBT rights in Northern Cyprus
 LGBT rights in Oman
 LGBT rights in the State of Palestine
 LGBT rights in Qatar
 LGBT rights in Saudi Arabia
 LGBT rights in Syria
 LGBT rights in Turkey
 LGBT rights in the United Arab Emirates
 LGBT rights in Yemen

References

Bibliography

Further reading
 Beirne, Rebecca and Samar Habib. "Trauma and Triumph: Documenting Middle Eastern Gender and Sexual Minorities in Film and Television" (Chapter 2). In: Pullen, Christopher. LGBT Transnational Identity and the Media. Palgrave Macmillan. 29 February 2012. , 9780230353510.
 El-Rouayheb, Khaled. Before Homosexuality in the Arab-Islamic World, 1500-1800, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005. See profile page
 Habib, Samar. Female Homosexuality in the Middle East: Histories and Representations. Routledge, July 18, 2007. , 9780415956734. View pages at Google Books.
Patanè, Vincenzo. "Homosexuality in the Middle East and North Africa" in: Aldrich, Robert (ed.) Gay Life and Culture: A World History, Thames & Hudson, London, 2006
Whitaker, Brian. Unspeakable Love: Gay and Lesbian Life in the Middle East. University of California Press, 2006. , 9780520250178. See pages at Google Books.
Wright, J. W., Jr. and Everett K. Rowson (editors). Homoeroticism in Classical Arabic Literature. Columbia University Press, 1997.

External links
 Rainbow Street, LGBT human rights organization.

LGBT rights by region


title: Andrew Keith

text:
Andrew Keith may refer to:

 J. Andrew Keith (1958–1999), American author and games developer
 Andrew Keith, Lord Dingwall (died 1606), Scottish landowner, soldier, and diplomat
 Andrew Keith (courtier) (fl. 1613), Scottish courtier

See also

 Keith Andrews (disambiguation)

 Andrew (disambiguation)
 Keith (disambiguation)


title: William Rashleigh (MP for Fowey)

text:
William Rashleigh (11 January 1777 – 14 May 1855) was an English politician and landowner from Cornwall.

Rashleigh was the son of Reverend Jonathan Rashleigh of Silverton, Devon, who was the third son of Jonathan Rashleigh (MP for Fowey) and the brother of Philip Rashleigh of Menabilly.

He was Mayor of Lostwithiel in 1802 and 1808, and in 1811 inherited the vast Menabilly estate from his uncle Philip. This gave him control of the Rashleigh family's pocket borough of Fowey, and at the 1812 general election he returned himself as Member of Parliament (MP) for Fowey. He sold the control of the borough in 1817, and at the 1818 general election retired from the House of Commons.

He was Sheriff of Cornwall for 1820–21.

He was interested in natural history, was a Fellow of the Linnean Society and was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1814.

He died in 1855 at Kilmarth, near Menabilly. He had married twice: firstly Rachel, the daughter of William Stackhouse of Trehane, with whom he had two daughters; and secondly Caroline, the daughter of Henry Hinxman of Ivychurch, Wiltshire with whom he had two sons and four daughters. Menabilly descended to his son William Rashleigh.

References

External links

1777 births
1855 deaths
Members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for Fowey
UK MPs 1812–1818
High Sheriffs of Cornwall
British naturalists
Fellows of the Royal Society
Fellows of the Linnean Society of London