title: Endymion (ensemble)

text:
Endymion, formerly Endymion Ensemble, is an English chamber music ensemble, founded in 1979 and dedicated to contemporary classical music.

History
One of the founding members was John Whitfield who often conducted the group. Players have included pianist Michael Dussek, oboists Melinda Maxwell and Quentin Poole, clarinetist Mark van de Wiel, hornist Stephen Stirling and double bass player Chi-chi Nwanoku.

Whitfield conducted the ensemble in recordings dedicated to works by specific composers, including in 1988 Dumbarton Oaks, works by Igor Stravinsky, in 1989 Lichtbogen by Kaija Saariaho and other works by Finnish composers, and in 1995 Phaedra/Les Illuminations, music by Benjamin Britten.

In a series at the Southbank named Composer Choice, they have performed concerts dedicated to contemporary composers such as Michael Berkeley, Harrison Birtwistle, Gavin Bryars, Peter Maxwell Davies, Oliver Knussen, Mark-Anthony Turnage, Judith Weir and John Woolrich. Composer Jonathan Dove chose Mozart's Serenade for winds, K. 375. Stravinsky's Pastorale in the version for soprano and wind quartet, and his own Figures in the Garden, among others.

In 2004, Endymion recorded works for wind ensemble by Graham Waterhouse, including Mouvements d'Harmonie, on a CD Portrait featuring also chamber music for strings played by the English Chamber Orchestra. A review noted "All these pieces are superbly played by all concerned". In 2011, players performed at the Mahler Centenary Conference chamber music, including Mahler's Piano Quartet in the context of the Menuetto from his Third Symphony, Erich Korngold's Piano Trio, Op. 1, Shostakovich's Piano Trio No. 1 and Alfred Schnittke's Piano Quartet (after Mahler).

The ensemble often performs with the BBC Singers, conducted by David Hill. In 2013, they recorded for example Steve Reich's The Desert Music at Milton Court, London. They performed the work again at the Royal Albert Hall on 13 August 2014 at the Proms. Tim Ashley wrote in The Guardian: "The work requires vast resources of accuracy and stamina from its performers, all of whom rose superbly to its challenges."

References

External links
 Endymion Official website

 Endymion Fanfare

1979 establishments in England
Chamber music groups
Contemporary classical music ensembles
English classical music groups
Musical groups established in 1979


title: Al-Ahram International

text:
The Al-Ahram International is a men's squash tournament held in the Giza Plateau just in front of the pyramids in Cairo, Egypt. It is part of the PSA Super Series, the highest level of men's professional squash competition. The event was founded in 1996.

Past results

Men's

Women's

Source:

References

External links
Official website
PSA Al-Ahram International 2000

Squash tournaments in Egypt
Squash in Egypt


title: Dimitri Bisoli

text:
Dimitri Bisoli (born 25 March 1994) is an Italian footballer who plays as midfielder for Italian Serie B side Brescia.

Career
Bisoli began his professional career for Lega Pro Prima Divisione club Prato in 2012. He successively played for Santarcangelo and Fidelis Andria. Following an impressive season with the Apulian club, he was signed on loan by Brescia, with an option to buy.

Successively signed permanently by the Rondinelle, Bisoli established himself as a starter, being a protagonist of the team's promotion to Serie A in 2018–2019. On 25 August 2019, he made his Serie A debut during an away match at Cagliari; on 9 February 2020 he instead scored his first top flight goal, during a home league match against Udinese, ended in a 1–1 draw.

Since the 2020–21 season, following the retirement of Daniele Gastaldello, Bisoli is serving as team captain.

Personal life
He is the son of Italian football manager and former player Pierpaolo Bisoli.

References

External links
 AIC profile (data by football.it)

1994 births
Footballers from Cagliari
Living people
Italian men's footballers
Italy men's youth international footballers
Men's association football defenders
AC Prato players
Santarcangelo Calcio players
Fidelis Andria 2018 players
Brescia Calcio players
Serie A players
Serie B players
Serie C players


title: Mads Justesen

text:
Mads Justesen (born 31 December 1982) is a former Danish professional footballer who played for Danish Superliga side Hobro IK as a defender.

Career
Justesen had a part-time job as upper secondary school teacher, due to Hobro's limited success in Danish football. However, the club reached the Danish Superliga after a great 2013–14 Danish 1st Division campaign, where the small club reached promotion after a goal by Justesen against Brønshøj BK. Justesen was one of the players who helped Hobro with promotion from the Danish fourth tier to the Danish Superliga.

After 14 years at Hobro, Justesen announced that he would retire at the end of the 2017-18 season but continue at the club as a Sales Manager. On 4 March 2019 Hobro confirmed, that Justesen had decided to step back from the position.

References

External links

Profile on Hobro IK website

1982 births
Living people
Danish men's footballers
Hobro IK players
Danish Superliga players
Danish 1st Division players
Danish 2nd Division players
Men's association football central defenders


title: Sinjar massacre

text:
The Sinjar massacre () marked the beginning of the genocide of Yazidis by ISIL, the killing and abduction of thousands of Yazidi men, women and children. It took place in August 2014 in Sinjar city and Sinjar District in Iraq's Nineveh Governorate and was perpetrated by the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL). The massacre began with ISIL attacking and capturing Sinjar and neighboring towns on 3 August, during its Northern Iraq offensive.

On 8 August 2014, the United States and the United Kingdom responded with airstrikes on ISIL units and convoys in northern Iraq, which led to a military intervention from several countries against ISIL.

On 17 December 2014, the Kurdish Peshmerga, PKK and YPG forces started the December 2014 Sinjar offensive with the support of US and British airstrikes. This offensive broke ISIL's troop transport routes and supply lines between Mosul and Raqqa, the largest cities in the Islamic State at the time.

According to Noori Abdulrahman, the head of the Department of Coordination and Follow-up of the Kurdistan Regional Government, ISIL wanted to push most of the Kurds out of strategic areas and bring in Arabs who were obedient to ISIL.

Background

Sinjar was predominantly inhabited by Yazidis before the arrival of the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant.

On 29 June 2014, the Islamic State declared a caliphate in the contiguous areas of Syria and Iraq it controlled, after it had made significant advances in northern Iraq during the Northern Iraq offensive (June 2014). After Iraqi federal military forces fled from the advancing ISIL troops, local residents seized their abandoned weapons in case of an attack by the Islamic State. Kurdistan Regional Government Peshmerga fighters then moved into and took control of much of the abandoned territory in northern Iraq from their stronghold in the Kurdistan Region. The Peshmerga confiscated the weapons the Iraqi Army had abandoned, assuring residents that they would protect them.

ISIL takeover and siege

The offensive by night
As ISIL attacked Sinjar and neighboring cities, the Iraqi Kurdish Peshmerga fighters in Sinjar withdrew, leaving the civilians behind without warning. There is general agreement that the majority of the forces in Shingal on that day were affiliated with the KDP, despite wildly varying estimates as to troop levels. KDP commanders claim that there were 2,000–4,000 KDP troops in the area. Similarly, Shex Alo, the KDP frontline commander for Shingal section, claims that there were 2,000 KDP fighters in the area, along with one additional Peshmerga brigade and PUK units. Meanwhile most others, including but not limited to HPÊ commander Haydar Shesho and Senior Gorran Movement official Mustafa Saed Qadir who was the Minister of Peshmerga Affairs at the time and had some Peshmerga brigades in Shingal under his control, estimate that there were many more, around 11,000–15,000 troops stationed.

The villagers defended themselves with their own weapons, but ISIL fighters shelled them with mortars. By 3 a.m., ISIL fighters had broken through, and began killing anyone seen outdoors.

On the morning of 3 August 2014, ISIL forces captured the city of Sinjar as well as the Sinjar area. ISIL then detonated the Sayyidah Zaynab Mosque in Sinjar, executed resisters, and demanded the residents to swear allegiance and to convert to Islam or be killed.

Locals' exodus
In the surrounding villages, many residents fled immediately. According to Yazidis, ISIL fighters asked the remaining Yazidis to convert to Islam or face death, and ISIL Twitter accounts posted images of murders in the Sinjar area.

Almost 200,000 civilians, mostly Yazidis along with Shia, managed to flee from the fighting in Sinjar city.

Sinjar mountains' siege
About 50,000 Yazidis fled into the Sinjar Mountains, where they were trapped without food, water or medical care and faced starvation and dehydration.

The U.S. government, Kurdish Peshmerga forces, and Western media reported that thousands of Yazidis in the Sinjar Mountains were under siege by ISIL.

Tahseen Said, the emir of the Yazidis, issued an appeal to world leaders on 3 August 2014, asking for humanitarian help to aid those who were besieged by ISIL. On 4 August, Kurdish fighters reportedly battled ISIL to retake Sinjar.

Killings throughout the Sinjar area

On 7 August 2014, The New York Times reported that ISIL had executed dozens of Yazidi men in Sinjar city and had taken their wives for forced marriage. It was also reported that ISIL fighters executed ten caretakers of the Shia Sayeda Zeinab shrine in Sinjar before blowing it up.

While the siege of Mount Sinjar was continuing, ISIL killed hundreds of Yazidis in at least six of the nearby villages. 250–300 men were killed in the village of Hardan, 200 between Adnaniya and Jazeera, 70–90 in Qiniyeh, and on the road out of al-Shimal witnesses reported seeing dozens of bodies. Hundreds of others had also been killed for refusing to convert to Islam.

Kocho massacre

On 15 August 2014, in the Yazidi village of Kocho, south of Sinjar, over 80 men were killed after refusing to convert to Islam.
A witness recounted that the villagers were first converted under duress, According to reports from survivors interviewed by OHCHR, on 15 August, the entire male population of the Yazidi village of Kocho, up to 400 men, were rounded up and shot by ISIL, and up to 1,000 women and children were abducted.

On the same day, up to 200 Yazidi men were reportedly executed for refusing conversion in a Tal Afar prison. The massacres took place at least until 25 August when ISIL executed 14 elderly Yazidi men in Sheikh Mand Shrine in Jidala, western Sinjar, and blew up the shrine there.

Counts of casualties

A civilian reported that on 3 August 2014 alone, 2,000 Yazidis had been killed throughout the Sinjar District. A Yazidi member of the Council of Representatives of Iraq said that between 2 and 5 August, 500 Yazidi men had been killed in the city of Sinjar by ISIL, women had been killed or sold into slavery, and 70 children had died from thirst or suffocation while fleeing the ISIL advance.

From the findings of a joint October 2014 report of the OHCHR and UNAMI, ISIL had massacred up to 5000 Yazidi men during August 2014. Kurdistan Region estimated in December 2014 that the total number of killed or missing Yazidi men, women and children from Sinjar since August amounted to around 4,000.

A 2017 report by the PLOS Medical Journal estimated between 2,100 and 4,400 deaths and 4,200 to 10,800 abductions.

Refugee crisis in the Sinjar Mountains

Iraqi/US/UK/Australian food drops

40,000 or more Yazidis were trapped in the Sinjar Mountains and mostly surrounded by ISIL forces who were firing on them. They were largely without food, water or medical care, facing starvation and dehydration.

On 5 August 2014, Iraqi military helicopters reportedly dropped some food and water for the Yazidis in the mountains. The US began their own supply drops on 7 August and the UK participated 3 days later. French aid was also promised.

On 12 August, an Iraqi military helicopter, piloted by Maj. Gen. Majid Abdul Salam Ashour, crashed in the mountains while delivering aid and rescuing stranded Yazidi refugees. The general was killed in the crash, while most of the passengers, including Iraqi MP Vian Dakhil, were injured.

On 13 August, a 16-aircraft mission including US C-17s and C-130Hs, an Australian C-130J, and a British C-130J delivered supplies to mostly Yezidi civilians stranded on Mount Sinjar.

U.S. air strikes

On 7 August 2014, the U.S. President, Barack Obama, stated that the U.S. was starting air strikes to prevent a potential massacre (genocide) by ISIL of thousands of Yazidis trapped in the Sinjar Mountains. Obama further defended his decision by saying:

On 8 August 2014, US airstrikes were launched in the Erbil area, 180 km east of Sinjar. The first airstrikes in the Mount Sinjar area were reported on 9 August, when the US launched four strikes against armored fighting vehicles of ISIL fighters threatening civilians on Mount Sinjar. The continued Iraqi airdrops of food and water in the Sinjar Mountains and their picking up of some Yazidis were also backed up by the U.S. airstrikes.

After the air strikes, the U.S. government spent five days discussing the possibilities and necessity of a rescue operation with U.S. ground troops or U.S. airlifts.

Sinjar rescue operations

Kurdish PKK and YPG clearing a path for Yazidis

Between 9 and 11 August 2014, a safe corridor was established from the mountain enabling 10,000 people to evacuate on the first day. Kurdish fighters of Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK) entered the Sinjar Mountains with trucks and tractors to carry out the sick and elderly into Syria via a path that was cleared by Syrian Kurdish militants (YPG). According to Dr. Salim Hassan, a professor at the University of Sulaymaniyah and spokesman of the uprooted Yazidis, the PKK and YPG enabled an estimated 35,000 of the initially 50,000 trapped Yazidis to escape into Syria. According to the account of the Sinjar District Governor, the route was jointly set up by Peshmerga and the YPG.

Mountain siege ends, U.S. rescue mission canceled

On 12 or 13 August 2014, a dozen U.S. Marines and special forces servicemen landed on Mount Sinjar from V-22 aircraft to assess options for a potential rescue of Yazidi refugees joining British SAS already in the area. They reported that "the situation is much more manageable", that there were now far fewer Yazidis on the mountain than expected, and that those Yazidis were in relatively good condition. A U.S. rescue mission for those still on the mountain was therefore "far less likely now", said Defense Secretary Chuck Hagel.

The U.S. government officially declared the siege to be broken on 13 August 2014. This was reportedly done by U.S airstrikes and Kurdish fighters of the People's Protection Units from Syria, together with their PKK allies from Turkey, allowing more than 50,000 refugees to escape. Despite this, according to Professor Salim Hassan, between 5,000 and 10,000 people still remained trapped in the mountains. They were reportedly afraid to return to their homes and were sustained in the coming months by airdrops from a lone Iraqi helicopter.

International responses

Western military response

On 7 August 2014, U.S. President Obama ordered targeted airstrikes on IS militants and emergency air relief for the Yazidis. Airstrikes began on 8 August. (See .)

On 8 August 2014, the US asserted that the systematic destruction of the Yazidi people by the Islamic State was genocide.

President Barack Obama had authorized the attacks to protect Yazidis but also Americans and Iraqi minorities. President Obama gave an assurance that no troops would be deployed for combat. Along with the airstrikes of 9 August, the US airdropped 3,800 gallons of water and 16,128 MREs. Following these actions, the United Kingdom and France stated that they also would begin airdrops.

On 10 August 2014, at approximately 2:15 a.m. ET, the US carried out five additional airstrikes on armed vehicles and a mortar position, enabling 20,000–30,000 Yazidi Iraqis to flee into Syria and later be rescued by Kurdish forces. The Kurdish forces then provided shelter for the Yazidis in Dohuk.

On 13 August 2014, fewer than 20 United States Special Forces troops stationed in Irbil along with Special Air Service troops visited the area near Mount Sinjar to gather intelligence and plan the evacuation of approximately 30,000 Yazidis still trapped on Mount Sinjar. One hundred and twenty-nine additional US military personnel were deployed to Irbil to assess and provide a report to President Obama. The United States Central Command also reported that a seventh airdrop was conducted and that to date, 114,000 meals and more than 35,000 gallons of water had been airdropped to the displaced Yazidis in the area.

In a statement on 14 August 2014, The Pentagon said that the 20 US personnel who had visited the previous day had concluded that a rescue operation was probably unnecessary since there was less danger from exposure or dehydration and the Yazidis were no longer believed to be at risk of attack from ISIL. Estimates also stated that 4,000 to 5,000 people remained on the mountain, with nearly half of them being Yazidi herders who lived there before the siege.

Kurdish officials and Yazidi refugees stated that thousands of young, elderly, and disabled individuals on the mountain were still vulnerable, with the governor of Kurdistan's Dahuk province, Farhad Atruchi, saying that the assessment was "not correct" and that although people were suffering, "the international community is not moving".

International bodies

  – On 13 August 2014, the United Nations declared the Yazidi crisis a highest-level "Level 3 Emergency", saying that the declaration "will facilitate mobilization of additional resources in goods, funds and assets to ensure a more effective response to the humanitarian needs of populations affected by forced displacements". On 19 March 2015, a United Nations panel concluded that ISIL "may have committed" genocide against the Yazidis with an investigation head, Suki Nagra, stating that the attacks on the Yazidis "were not just spontaneous or happened out of the blue, they were clearly orchestrated".
  – On 11 August 2014, the Arab League accused ISIL of committing crimes against humanity by persecuting the Yazidis.

NGOs

 Defend International launched a worldwide campaign entitled "Save The Yazidis: The World Has To Act Now" to raise awareness about the tragedy of the Yazidis in Sinjar. DI president Widad Akrawi dedicated her 2014 International Pfeffer Peace Award "to all victims of persecution, particularly the Yazidis, Christians, and all residents of Kobanê region."
 The British Stop the War Coalition opposed the intervention on Sinjar.

Aftermath

Sinjar offensive

After August 2014, ISIL held the town of Sinjar. Several thousand Yazidis remained in the Sinjar Mountains located to the city's north, sustained by airdrops from a lone Iraqi helicopter, while an escape road from the mountains northward to Kurdish areas was under Kurdish/Yazidi control. American officials said that some of those Yazidis considered the Sinjar Mountains a place of refuge and home and did not want to leave; while a report from The New Yorker said some were afraid to return to their homes. Other Yazidis also came to the mountains after the August evacuations.

On 21 October 2014, ISIL seized territory to the north of the mountains, cutting the area's escape route to Kurdish areas. The Yazidi militias then withdrew  into the Sinjar Mountains, where the number of Yazidi civilian refugees was estimated at 2,000–7,000. The mountains had once again been partially besieged by ISIL.

On 17 December 2014, Peshmerga forces, backed by 50 U.S.-led coalition airstrikes on ISIL positions, launched an offensive to liberate Sinjar and to break the partial siege of the Sinjar Mountains. In less than two days, the Peshmerga seized the mountain range. After ISIL forces retreated, Kurdish fighters were initially faced with clearing out mines in the area, but quickly opened a land corridor that enabled Yazidis to be evacuated. The operation left 100 ISIL fighters dead.

Late on 21 December 2014, Syrian Kurdish YPG fighters south of the mountain range reached Peshmerga lines, thus linking their two fronts. The next day, the YPG broke through ISIL lines, thus opening a corridor from Syria to the town of Sinjar. By the evening, the Peshmerga took control of much of Sinjar.

Return of Yazidi population
Following ISIL's retreat from Iraqi and Kurdish forces in the region during late-2017 campaigns, both governments laid claim to the area. The Yazidi population, with only about 15% returning to Sinjar during the period, was caught in the political crossfire. Yazidis returned to an abandoned town of crumbling buildings, leftover IEDs and the remains of those killed during the massacre.

In November 2017, a mass grave of about 70 people was uncovered and a month later in December, another mass grave was discovered holding about 90 victims. According to the UN Assistance Mission for Iraq (UNAMI) and the UN Human Rights Office there are more than 200 mass graves sites across Iraq. The Documentation Project run by the NGO Yazda has provided photographic and witness testimony to document dozens of mass grave sites across the Nineveh Plain and Sinjar. In March 2019, the first mass grave site in Sinjar was exhumed by the Iraqi Mass Graves Directorate within the Martyr's Foundation and the Medical Legal Directorate under the Iraqi Ministry of Health in conjunction with UNITAD (United Nations Investigative Team to Promote Accountability for Crimes Committed by Da’esh/ISIL).

See also

 Deir ez-Zor offensive (January 2016)
 Genocide of Yazidis by ISIL
 Kobanî massacre
 List of events named massacres
 List of genocides by death toll
 Persecution of Yazidis

References

Bibliography

External links

 Sinjar: Mass grave of Yazidi women executed by Isis discovered in Iraq independent.co.uk

Conflicts in 2014
Massacres in 2014
Military operations of the Iraqi Civil War in 2014
August 2014 events in Iraq
August 2014 crimes in Asia
Massacres of the War in Iraq (2013–2017) perpetrated by ISIL
Military operations of the War in Iraq (2013–2017) involving the Peshmerga
Military operations of the War in Iraq (2013–2017) involving Australia
Military operations of the War in Iraq (2013–2017) involving the People's Protection Units
Military operations of the War in Iraq (2013–2017) involving the United States
2014 in Iraqi Kurdistan
Articles containing video clips
Persecution of Yazidis by ISIL
Persecution of Yazidis by Muslims
Massacres perpetrated by ISIL
Persecution of Yazidis in Iraq
Massacres of ethnic groups
Persecution of Kurds in Syria
Military operations of the War in Iraq (2013–2017) involving the PKK
Sexual abuse scandals in Islam
Wartime sexual violence


title: 1973 Portuguese Timorese Legislative Assembly election

text:
Elections to a Legislative Assembly were held for the first and only time in Portuguese Timor in March 1973.

Background
On 2 May 1972 the Portuguese National Assembly passed the Organic Law for the Overseas Territories, which provided for greater autonomy for overseas territories. The existing Legislative Council was expanded from 14 to 21 seats, with 10 members directly elected.

Candidates were required to be Portuguese citizens who had lived in Portuguese Timor for more than three years and be able to read and write Portuguese. Voters were required to be literate. As the Portuguese constitution banned political parties at the time, the majority of candidates were put forward by the ruling People's National Action movement, although some civic associations were allowed to nominate candidates.

Results
Out of a total population of 610,541, only 12,644 people registered to vote. A total of 11,052 people voted, giving a voter turnout of 87.4%.

References

1973 in Portuguese Timor
Portuguese Timor
Elections in East Timor
Non-partisan elections


title: Taoriba Biniati

text:
Taoriba Biniati (born 1 November 1995) is an I-Kiribati boxer.

Biniati comes from Tabiteuea, an atoll in the Gilbert Islands, Kiribati, south of Tarawa. She took up boxing after Derek Andrewartha, a former police officer from Hampshire, England, advertised for a female boxer to join his club with the aim of competing at the 2014 Commonwealth Games. She is coached by Tarieta Ruata, who represented Kiribati at the 2010 Commonwealth Games in Delhi. The club's only equipment was a single punchbag which they hung from a breadfruit tree.

In December 2013 Biniati accompanied the Queen's Baton Relay as it passed through Kiribati on the journey to Glasgow.

2014 Commonwealth Games

Biniati was selected to compete for Kiribati at the 2014 Commonwealth Games held in Glasgow, Scotland, from 23 July to 3 August 2014, in the women's lightweight division. She was the first female boxer from her nation to compete at the Games. Prior to competing at the Commonwealth Games she had never competed in a ring or against another woman; she had only sparred with male boxers in Kiribati and Glasgow. Her funding for the Games was provided by the Kiribati government and the Commonwealth Games Federation.

In Glasgow she trained at a gym belonging to the promoter Alex Morrison; because she had no boots Morrison sent an employee out to purchase her a pair. The day before the official weigh-in for her competition Biniati was two pounds under the minimum weight limit for the lightweight division but she managed to put on the additional required weight by using protein drinks.

In her first bout of the competition she faced Isabelle Ratna of Mauritius and lost on points in a unanimous judge's decision after four rounds.

References

1995 births
Living people
Boxers at the 2014 Commonwealth Games
I-Kiribati women boxers
People from the Gilbert Islands
Commonwealth Games competitors for Kiribati
Lightweight boxers


title: Grijó e Sermonde

text:
Grijó e Sermonde is a civil parish in the municipality of Vila Nova de Gaia, Portugal. It was formed in 2013 by the merger of the former parishes Grijó and Sermonde. The population in 2011 was 11,938, in an area of 12.99 km2.

References

Freguesias of Vila Nova de Gaia


title: Ponnuketha Purushan

text:
Ponnuketha Purushan () is a 1992 Indian Tamil-language film, directed by Gangai Amaran. The film stars Ramarajan, Gautami, Rajeev and Sadhana. It was released on 27 June 1992.

Plot

Cast
Ramarajan
Gautami
Rajeev
Sadhana
Vinu Chakravarthy
Goundamani
Senthil
Kovai Sarala

Soundtrack
The music was composed by Ilaiyaraaja.

Reception
RSP of The Indian Express gave an average review for the film and called Amaran's direction "so-so". He criticised the music, saying, "And the songs! Ilaiyaraja seems to be away on a summer vacation".

References

External links

1990s Tamil-language films
1992 films
1992 romantic drama films
Films directed by Gangai Amaran
Films scored by Ilaiyaraaja
Indian romantic drama films


title: Man Singh of Marwar

text:
Man Singh (3 February 1783 – 4 September 1843) was the last independent Maharaja of Marwar Kingdom and Jodhpur State ( 19 October 1803 – 4 September 1843).
He was appointed as Heir Apparent by his grandfather Vijay Singh on 7 November 1791. However upon Vijay Singh's death, Bhim Singh seized Jodhpur and proclaimed himself as the ruler of Marwar.

Man Singh was sent to Jalore for his own safety, where he remained throughout the reign of his cousin, Bhim Singh of Marwar.

He succeeded on his cousin's death on 19 October 1803. In 1804 Man Singh broke the treaty with the British for cooperation and formed an alliance with Yashwantrao Holkar, however Jodhpur was invaded by Sindhia and was forced to break their alliance with Holkar and pay heavy tribute.

Opposed by many of his principal nobles throughout his reign, he depended on the support of successive factions. The last of these were the Nath family, the Maharaja's spiritual advisers, who came to control state affairs and turned him into a recluse. Many of the nobles fled to neighbouring principalities, state repression having become entirely vengeful and cold-blooded.

Man Singh, after finding it unbearable to see his kingdom get destroyed by the Sindhias and his own corrupt nobles and ministers, entered into treaty relations with the British on 6 January 1818.

Siege of Mehrangarh
In 1806 the combined armies of Jaipur, Bikaner and Mewar declared war on Marwar in order to install a pretender as the Maharaja of Marwar. However, Man Singh defeated the combined army so comprehensively that Jagat Singh of Jaipur had to pay a sum of Rs. 2,00,000 to secure his safe passage. In honour of Man's victory over Jaipur the Jai Pol, or victory gate of, was built in the Mehrangarh fort in 1808.

Asylum to Nagpur ruler
In 1829, Man Singh gave shelter to Mudhoji II Bhonsle , also known as Appa Saheb, the dethroned ruler of Nagpur against the wishes of British. He refused to hand him over to the British in spite of persistent demands by Governor General Lord William Bentinck. Appa saheb remained in Jodhpur at Man Mandir till his death in 1840.

Death and legacy
Man Singh died at Mandore, 4 September 1843.

Works
Man Singh was a eminent poet and scholar of his time and had composed several poems and texts.

 Charan Badi Amolak Cheej
 Nath-Purana
 Nath-Sharot
 Nath-Shatak
 Siddha-Gyan

See also
Rulers of Marwar

References

1783 births
1843 deaths
Monarchs of Marwar


title: Ambala–Jagadhri Highway

text:
Ambala Jagadhri road is the national highway and the road in Haryana, India. The road not only connects Dual city ("Dual city" is used in Ambala) - (Ambala city and Ambala cant) with Jagadhri. The condition of road is not like a national highway due to local politics of Haryana and is considered slow moving and accident prone.

Geography
The total length of road is  and runs through Ambala district and Yamuna Nagar district. The road is maintained by Government of Haryana as it lies entirely in it. The major towns from where the highway passes are Mahesh Nagar, Saha, Kalpi, Mullana, do Sarka etc. Saha-Ambala highway is small section of this road and its length is . The road runs on almost same reduced level across its length with minimum number of road curves.

Education
There are many engineering and medical colleges situated on the highway. These include Ambala College of Engineering & Applied Research, Kalpi Institute of Technology, Maharishi Markandeshwar University. Sanatan Dharma College, which was established around 1916 in Lahore in undivided India, is also situated on the highway near Ambala Cantonment (the college was uprooted during the partition of India and was reestablished in 1948 near Ambala Cant).

Transport
The transport services on the highway is controlled by Haryana State Road Transport Corporation. Buses run on the road at regular intervals every day.

See also
 Grand Trunk road

References

National Highways in Haryana
Transport in Ambala
Yamunanagar district


title: Gulpilhares e Valadares

text:
Gulpilhares e Valadares is a civil parish in the municipality of Vila Nova de Gaia, Portugal. It was formed in 2013 by the merger of the former parishes Gulpilhares and Valadares. The population in 2011 was 22,019, in an area of 10.61 km².

References

Freguesias of Vila Nova de Gaia


title: American Samoa at the 2014 Summer Youth Olympics

text:
American Samoa competed at the 2014 Summer Youth Olympics in Nanjing, China from 16 August to 28 August 2014.

Athletics

American Samoa qualified one athlete.

Qualification Legend: Q=Final A (medal); qB=Final B (non-medal); qC=Final C (non-medal); qD=Final D (non-medal); qE=Final E (non-medal)

Boys
Track & road events

Wrestling

American Samoa qualified four athletes based on its performance at the 2014 Oceania Cadet Championships.

Boys

References

2014 in American Samoan sports
Nations at the 2014 Summer Youth Olympics
American Samoa at the Youth Olympics


title: Michaelangelo Meucci

text:
Michaelangelo Meucci (1840–1909) was an Italian artist, known for his paintings of birds, including dead game birds. He also painted still-life pictures of flowers.

He was active in Florence ().

References

Wildlife artists
1840 births
1890 deaths
19th-century Italian painters


title: Mafamude e Vilar do Paraíso

text:
Mafamude e Vilar do Paraíso is a civil parish in the municipality of Vila Nova de Gaia, Portugal. It was formed in 2013 by the merger of the former parishes Mafamude and Vilar do Paraíso. The population in 2011 was 52,422, in an area of 10.58 km².

References

Freguesias of Vila Nova de Gaia


title: 1973 Macanese legislative election

text:
Elections to a Legislative Assembly were held in Macau in March 1973.

Background
On 2 May 1972 the Portuguese National Assembly passed the Organic Law for the Overseas Territories, which provided for greater autonomy for overseas territories. The Assembly would have 13 members, one of which would be appointed by the Governor to represent the interests of the Chinese community.

Candidates were required to be Portuguese citizens who had lived in Macau for more than three years and be able to read and write Portuguese. Voters were required to be literate. As the Portuguese constitution banned political parties at the time, the majority of candidates were put forward by the ruling People's National Action movement, although some civic associations were allowed to nominate candidates.

Results
Out of a total population of 248,316, only 2,620 people registered to vote. A total of 1,765 people voted.

References

Legislative election
Macau
Elections in Macau
Macanese legislative election,1973


title: Tori & Dean: Cabin Fever

text:
Tori & Dean: Cabin Fever is a docu-series starring Tori Spelling, her husband, Dean McDermott, and their four children. The premise of the series is the family heads to Dean's native Ontario, Canada to live and experience cottage country as they renovate a cottage.

References

2010s American reality television series
2014 American television series debuts
2014 American television series endings
Spelling family
Television series by Corus Entertainment


title: Pedroso e Seixezelo

text:
Pedroso e Seixezelo is a civil parish in the municipality of Vila Nova de Gaia, Portugal. It was formed in 2013 by the merger of the former parishes Pedroso and Seixezelo. The population in 2011 was 20,426, in an area of 20.88 km2.

References

Freguesias of Vila Nova de Gaia


title: St. Ignatius Church (Buenos Aires)

text:
Saint Ignatius' Church () is a Roman Catholic church situated at the Illuminated Block, in Buenos Aires's neighbourhood of Montserrat. The first building, which was made of adobe, was built by the Society of Jesus in 1675. The southern tower and the present facade were built in 1686, and the rest of the Church construction started in 1712. Today's church was completed in 1722 and consecrated in 1734.

Saint Ignatius is the oldest church preserved in Buenos Aires, and was declared a National Historic Monument in 1942. On June 16, 1955, during a government campaign against the Church, after a failed revolution against Juan Domingo Perón's government, Peronist mobs burnt most churches of Buenos Aires, including Saint Ignatius.

Gallery

See also
 List of Jesuit sites
 List of tallest structures built before the 20th century

References

External links
 San Ignacio de Loyola

Roman Catholic churches in Buenos Aires
Roman Catholic churches completed in 1722
18th-century Roman Catholic church buildings in Argentina
1722 establishments in the Spanish Empire
Baroque church buildings in Argentina


title: Right in Front of You

text:
Right in Front of You may refer to:

 "Right in Front of You", a 2002 song by Celine Dion from A New Day Has Come
 "Right in Front of You" (Anna Abreu song), a 2014 song by Anna Abreu from V


title: Sandim, Olival, Lever e Crestuma

text:
Sandim, Olival, Lever e Crestuma is a civil parish in the municipality of Vila Nova de Gaia, Portugal. It was formed in 2013 by the merger of the former parishes Sandim, Olival, Lever and Crestuma. The population in 2011 was 17,168, in an area of 34.16 km².

References

Freguesias of Vila Nova de Gaia


title: Myndalne

text:
Myndalne or Mindalnoye (; ) is a village in the Sudak Municipality of the Crimea, a territory recognized by a majority of countries as part of Ukraine and annexed by Russia as the Republic of Crimea.

Previously, the settlement was known as the Arka-Deresi village (). Following the forced deportation of the Crimean Tatars in 1944, the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the Russian SFSR published a decree on May 18, 1948 renaming the settlement along with many others throughout Crimea from their native Crimean Tatar names to their current variants.

Myndalne is located on Crimea's southern shore at an elevation of . Its population was 6 in the 2001 Ukrainian census. Current population:

References

Villages in Crimea
Sudak Municipality


title: Bacillus aminovorans

text:
Bacillus aminovorans is a Gram-positive, rod-shaped species of bacteria. Samples of this species have been isolated from dust above the Atlantic Ocean. Though phenotypically similar to the species Sporosarcina globispora (formerly Bacillus globisporus), Bacillus marinus, and Bacillus insolitus, B. aminovorans is the only one of these species capable of using sucrose as a sole carbon source.

References

Further reading

aminovorans


title: Santa Marinha e São Pedro da Afurada

text:
Santa Marinha e São Pedro da Afurada is a civil parish in the municipality of Vila Nova de Gaia, Portugal. It was formed in 2013 by the merger of the former parishes Santa Marinha and São Pedro da Afurada. The population in 2011 was 33,714, in an area of 6.91 km². It contains the city centre of Vila Nova de Gaia.

References

Freguesias of Vila Nova de Gaia


title: Serzedo e Perosinho

text:
Serzedo e Perosinho is a civil parish in the municipality of Vila Nova de Gaia, Portugal. It was formed in 2013 by the merger of the former parishes Serzedo and Perosinho. The population in 2011 was 14,250, in an area of 11.97 km².

References

Freguesias of Vila Nova de Gaia


title: Cambodia at the 2014 Summer Youth Olympics

text:
Cambodia competed at the 2014 Summer Youth Olympics, in Nanjing, China from 16 August to 28 August 2014.

Athletics

Cambodia qualified one athlete.

Qualification Legend: Q=Final A (medal); qB=Final B (non-medal); qC=Final C (non-medal); qD=Final D (non-medal); qE=Final E (non-medal)

Girls
Track & road events

Swimming

Cambodia qualified one swimmer.

Boys

Wrestling

Cambodia was given an invitation to compete from the Tripartite Commission.

Girls

References

2014 in Cambodian sport
Nations at the 2014 Summer Youth Olympics
Cambodia at the Youth Olympics


title: Jebel Sasan

text:
Jebel Sasan () is a large hill in the Tel Afar District of Nineveh Province of northern Iraq.
The name may also be rendered as Jabal Sasan.

Geology

Jebel Sasan is in a transitional folded zone between an alpinotype area to the northeast and the Arabian Shield to the southwest.
Tectonic movements in the Late Cretaceous caused formation of a rapidly subsiding trough aligned east-west passing below Jabal Sinjar and Jabal Sasan into the Butmah area. Open-sea globigerina sedimentation filled the trough at about the same rate as subsidence throughout the Late Cretaceous.
The crystalline basement in the Jebel Sasan area is at a depth of about .

Geography

The region includes the anticlines of Jebel Sinjar, Jebel Sinu, Jebel Sasan, Jebel Zambar, Jebel Sheik Ibrahim and Jebel Adaiya.
The Jebels Zambar and Ibrahim are sometimes treated as one structure.
The Sanjar-Zambar mountain range includes the Teymurlenk (Tamerlane) hills, which contain the Turkmen city of Tal Afar.
The Jebel Sasan structure is about  in extent.
A shallow saddle to the southeast divides it from the similar Jebel Zambar structure.

Agriculture

The first farming villages in the Mespotamian lowlands are those of the Hassuna pottery makers, dating to around 6000 BC.
These villages are most concentrated in the northern Jazira plains to the north and south of Jebels Sinjar and Ishkaft, to the west and north of Jebel Sasan. Average annual rainfall is about , enough to support dry farming.

Jebel Sasan is part of an arc of hills that includes Jebel Abd el-Aziz and Jebel Sinjar to the west, and Jebel Ishkaft, Jebel Ibrahim and Jebel Maqlub to the east.
As moist air travels up the valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates it deposits moisture on the southern slopes of these hills, creating a more fertile zone to the south of the dry farming area.
To the south of Tel Afar in the gap between Jebel Sasan and Jebel Ibrahim there is lower rainfall than to the north, but more groundwater, with many springs along the southern edge of the hills behind Tel Afar.
In ancient times this zone contained significant kingdoms. Of these Karana may lie below Tel Afar.

References

Sources

Mountains of Iraq
Nineveh Governorate


title: Iraq Alliance

text:
The Iraq Alliance (Etelaf Al-Iraq), (list 262) is an Iraqi political coalition formed for the 2014 Iraqi parliamentary election by various liberal and pro-business figures.

References

External links
Iraq Alliance official website

2013 establishments in Iraq
Electoral lists for Iraqi elections
Liberal parties in Iraq
Political parties established in 2013


title: Old Homestead, Southgate, Michigan

text:
Old Homestead is a neighborhood on the east side of the Metro Detroit suburb of Southgate, Michigan. Usually, Old Homestead is bordered by Superior Street to the north, Eureka Road to the south, M-85 (Fort Street) to the east and either Trenton Road or Burns Street to the west. Commercial districts are located along Eureka Road and Fort Street and the rest of the neighborhood is mostly single-family homes, most of which were built during the 1940s and 1950s. The most common housing styles within Old Homestead consist of one-story ranch homes, one-and-a-half-story Cape Cods and two-story colonial revivals.

History
Old Homestead was originally platted in 1923 as a subdivision of Ecorse Township, however, for approximately the next two decades, it continued to remain mostly agricultural land. From this original plat, only four of the residential streets-Sycamore, Chestnut, Commonwealth and Superior Streets-retain their original names. In 1958, the remaining areas of Ecorse Township were incorporated as the city of Southgate-this included Old Homestead.

Education
Old Homestead residents are zoned to Fordline and Grogan Elementary Schools, Davidson Middle School and Southgate Anderson High School, none of which are in Old Homestead. Until the 2012–13 school year, Old Homestead residents were also zoned to Chormann Elementary School.

Before 1982, Old Homestead was zoned to Southgate High School (which became Southgate Anderson) in what was then the McCann school district. Before the opening of Southgate High School and the incorporation of Ecorse Township into Southgate, Old Homestead residents were served by Theodore Roosevelt High School in Wyandotte.

Public transportation
The Suburban Mobility Authority for Regional Transportation operates three bus routes along the borders of Old Homestead. Route #125 travels from Detroit Metropolitan Wayne County Airport along Eureka Road and Fort Street to River Rouge via Southland Center and during weekday rush hours continues into downtown Detroit. Route #160 travels along Eureka Road along the southern edge of Old Homestead, connecting it to Trenton, downtown Wyandotte, Wayne County Community College District's Downriver Campus and Southland Center. Route #830 is a weekday-rush-hour park and ride service that runs along Trenton Road in Old Homestead and connects Trenton and downtown Detroit.

References

External links
 Original Old Homestead plat

1923 establishments in Michigan
Populated places established in 1923
Neighborhoods in Michigan
Southgate, Michigan


title: Arab League boycott of Israel

text:
The Arab League boycott of Israel is a strategy adopted by the Arab League and its member states to boycott economic and other relations between Arabs and the Arab states and Israel and specifically stopping all trade with Israel which adds to that country's economic and military strength. A secondary boycott was later imposed, to boycott non-Israeli companies that do business with Israel, and later a tertiary boycott involved the blacklisting of firms that do business with other companies that do business with Israel.

An official organized boycott of the Yishuv (pre-state Jewish community in Palestine) was adopted by the Arab League in December 1945, and persisted against Israel after its establishment in 1948. The boycott was designed to weaken Jewish industry in Palestine and to deter Jewish immigration to the region.

Egypt (1979), the Palestinian Authority (1993), Jordan (1994), Bahrain (2020), UAE (2020), Sudan (2020) and Morocco (2020), signed peace treaties or agreements that ended their participation in the boycott of Israel. Mauritania, which never applied the boycott, established diplomatic relations with Israel in 1999. Algeria and Tunisia do not enforce the boycott. In 1994, following the Oslo Peace Accords, the Cooperation Council for the Arab States of the Gulf (GCC) states, ended their participation in the Arab boycott against Israel. The move prompted a surge of investment in Israel, and resulted in the initiation of joint cooperation projects between Israel and Arab countries. In 1996, the GCC states recognized that total elimination of the boycott is a necessary step for peace and economic development in the region. There are still residual laws banning relations with Israel. For example, until 2021 Sudan had a law, dating back to 1958, that forbade establishing relations with Israel, and outlawed business with citizens of Israel as well as business relationships with Israeli companies or companies with Israeli interests. The law also forbade the direct or indirect import of any Israeli goods.

While in its heyday, the Arab boycott had a moderate negative impact on Israel's economy and development, but also had significant negative effect on economic welfare in participating Arab countries, as the result of a deterioration in the foreign direct investment climate in the Arab world, and reduction in the volume of trade. In present days, the boycott is sporadically applied and ambiguously enforced, and therefore, no longer has significant effect on the Israeli or Arab economies.

Today, Syria and Lebanon are the only Arab states which actively enforce the primary boycott, although Iran (which is not a member of the Arab League) also enforces it as a member of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation. Syria is the only country to continue to enforce the secondary and tertiary boycotts.

History

Boycotts in Mandatory Palestine
As part of the Arab opposition to the increasing Jewish presence in Mandatory Palestine, some Arab leaders sought to orchestrate anti-Jewish boycotts from 1922. The original boycott forswore any dealings with any Jewish-owned business operating in Mandatory Palestine. Palestinian Arabs "who were found to have broken the boycott ... were physically attacked by their brethren and their merchandise damaged" when Palestinian Arabs rioted in Jerusalem in 1929. Another, stricter boycott was imposed on Jewish businesses following the riots that called on all of Arabs in the region to abide by its terms. The Arab Executive Committee of the Syrian-Palestinian Congress called for a boycott of Jewish businesses in 1933, and in 1934 the Arab Labor Federation conducted a boycott as well as an organized picketing of Jewish businesses. In 1936, the Palestinian Arab leadership called on another boycott and threatened those who did not respect the boycott with violence. However, this boycott was unsuccessful as Jewish lawyers, physicians, and hospitals were too heavily integrated into Palestinian society.

First Arab League boycott
On 2 December 1945, the newly formed Arab League, then comprising six members, issued its first call for an economic boycott of the Jewish community of Palestine. The declaration urged all Arab states (not just members) to prohibit the products and usage of the products of Jewish industry in Palestine. The declaration read:

In 1946, the Arab League established the Permanent Boycott Committee, based in Cairo, Egypt. After the Partition Plan of Palestine into Arab and Jewish states was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on 29 November 1947, efforts to apply the boycott were intensified. However, the boycott was unsuccessful, as noted in the first annual report of the Boycott Committee, and trade between Palestine (the vast majority by Jews) and Arab states neighboring Palestine continued to thrive.

Following the Israeli declaration of independence on 14 May 1948, the Permanent Boycott Committee ceased to function upon the outbreak of war between Israel and surrounding Arab States on 15 May 1948, and the Arab League repeated its calls for a ban on all financial and commercial transactions with Palestinian Jews, boycotting the newly formed State of Israel. The Arab League cut off postal, telegraphic, and radio communications with Israel, and Arab states imposed a land, sea, and air blockade on the fledgling state.

The Boycott Committee moved to Damascus, Syria in 1949, and called upon Arab states to set up national boycott offices. Later measures adopted by the Committee included requiring those selling goods to Arab states to provide a certificate of origin to prove the goods were not manufactured by Palestinian Jews, the allocation of 50% of the value of goods confiscated in this manner to customs officials, the prohibition by Arabs of the use of Jewish banks, insurance companies, contractors, and transport in Palestine. Member states of the Arab League began implementing these resolutions through legal and administrative measures.

Egypt boycott

Israeli goods, shipped through Alexandria, Port Suez and Port Said, were confiscated by Egyptian inspectors. A prize court established in Alexandria in 1949 authorized the seizure of cargo ships destined for Israel. In 1950, regulations were promulgated to allow the search of ships and aircraft and the seizure of Israeli-bound goods found within.

On 6 February 1950, King Farouk of Egypt issued a decree under which manifests and cargoes of ships could be searched to ensure that no "war contraband" was present on vessels bound directly or indirectly for Israel. War contraband included arms, munitions, and war material. However, article 10 additionally stipulated that other goods were to be considered "contraband" and were to be treated as war material — ships, chemicals, motor vehicles, money, gold, and fuel of any kind. At the time 90% of Israeli oil was supplied by Iran and imported through the Straits of Tiran. To prevent Iranian oil from entering Israel, Egypt blockaded the Straits of Tiran and the Gulf of Aqaba. Oil tankers proceeding through the Suez Canal were required to submit documentation to guarantee none of their cargo would arrive at an Israeli port. To enforce the policy of denying strategic goods to Israel, the decree authorized the use of force against any ship attempting to avoid search, including live gunfire, to make it submit to inspection. If a ship were to subsequently allow a search and reveal that they were not carrying any "contraband", the ship would be allowed to continue its voyage. However, if the ship resisted a search by force, it would be considered to have violated its neutrality. For this "hostile act", ships were to be seized and their cargo impounded even if they were not found to possess any "contraband". Ships found or suspected to transgress the Egyptian shipping practices delineated in this decree were blacklisted by Egypt and denied free use of the Suez Canal. The decree of February 1950 signaled a shift in the policy of the Arab League. The boycott's immediate purpose had originally been to prevent direct Arab trade with Israel (called a primary boycott). With this decree the boycott was expanded to the interruption of international trade with Israel (a secondary boycott). On 8 April 1950, the Arab League Council embraced this shift, approving a decision by its political committee to the effect that all ships carrying goods or immigrants to Israel were to be blacklisted.

In mid-1950, the governments of Britain, Norway, and the United States lodged a complaint with Egypt about some of their tankers being blacklisted and barred from using the Suez Canal. On 1 September 1951, after ships destined for Eilat had been stopped at the entrance of the Gulf of Aqaba, Israel went to the United Nations, demanding Egypt terminate its restrictions on navigation through international waterways in adherence to the 1949 Armistice and to Security Council resolutions prohibiting further hostilities between the Arab states and Israel. The United Nations Security Council issued a resolution which condemned the Egyptian practice as an "abuse of the exercise of the right of visit, search and seizure." The UNSC resolution was ignored by Egypt.

On 28 November 1953, Egypt increased expanded its list of "contraband" to include "foodstuffs and all other commodities likely to strengthen the potential of the Zionists in Palestine in any way whatsoever."

Establishment of Central Boycott Office
On 19 May 1951, the Arab League Council established the successor to the defunct Permanent Boycott Committee, the Central Boycott Office (CBO), with its headquarters in Damascus, and branch offices established in each Arab League member state. The position of Boycott Commissioner was created to direct the CBO and deputies were appointed, who were to function as liaison officers accredited by each member state of the Arab League. The primary task of the Damascus CBO was to coordinate the boycott with its affiliated offices, and to report regularly to Arab League Council. Biannual meetings were to be held each year after 1951 to coordinate boycott policies and to compile blacklists of individuals and firms which had violated the boycott. Each member state of the Arab League would enforce the resolution through legal and administrative measures. Finally, the resolution stipulated that "participation in regional conferences organized on the initiative of one country or by an international organization could not be attended if Israel were also invited", expanding upon its 1950 decree that such a conference would not be organized by an Arab state.

Boycotts were almost exclusively applied against specific individuals and firms in third countries, and very rarely against the countries themselves, excluding a few short-lived boycotts of countries in the early 1950s. A plan was made by the Arab League in 1952 to boycott the Federal Republic of Germany after it signed the Reparations Agreement with Israel, which would provide Israel with restitution for the slave labor of Jews during the Holocaust and compensate for losses in Jewish livelihood and property that was stolen due to Nazi persecution and genocide. The Arab League strongly opposed the agreement, but its threats to boycott West Germany were never carried out due to economic considerations—the Arab League would be impacted far more negatively by losing trade with West Germany than vice versa. Similarly, at its second meeting on the boycott in 1953, the Arab League proposed a wide range of restrictions on trade with Cyprus, which had become a hub of illicit Arab-Israeli trade. The restrictions were greatly relaxed due to international criticism of the boycott of an entire state not involved in the Arab-Israeli conflict, but they were not eliminated.

The boycott of third parties (secondary boycott) originally applied solely to funds and strategic commodities.

By 1953 the Arab boycott was a well-established feature of international trade relations, and becoming more brazen. In early 1953 the first reports were released about Arab attempts to make American and European airlines boycott Israel by refusing to service Israelis or land in Israel, or at a minimum to not invest in Israel. This tertiary boycott marked another fundamental shift in boycott policy wherein Arab states would pressure third party states to agree to boycott Israel. However, these rudimentary efforts were unsuccessful and the airline boycotts remained isolated to the Arab world.

On 11 December 1954 the Arab League Council passed Resolution 849, approving the Unified Law on the Boycott of Israel. The provisions of this resolution, implemented in legislation by most member states over the following year, formalized the application of the boycott in the Arab States uniformly. The resolution contained new recommendations prohibiting Arab entities and individuals from dealing with agencies of persons working for Israel, and with foreign companies and organizations with interests, agencies, or branches in Israel. The export of Arab goods to countries to be re-exported to Israel was criminalized with a penalty of large fines and hard labor.

Further intensification of the boycott and international capitulation to tertiary boycotts
In the mid-1950s boycott activities intensified, and gained a new and highly powerful ally — the Soviet Union. During Israel's early years it was seen by the USSR as a potential ally due to the significant socialist aspirations advocated by its founders and applied in its conception. The Soviet Union was one of the first countries to recognize Israel de jure upon its establishment in 1948. However, as Israel's democratic nature became evident and its ties with Western states were solidified, the Soviet Union would view Israel as an enemy in the West vs. East dichotomy of the Cold War. Instead, the Soviet Union would form an alliance with the revolutionary Arab regimes, Egypt, Syria, Yemen, Sudan, and later in the decade Iraq, united in anti-American and anti-Israel political objectives. The clout of the Soviet Union gave the boycott new international legitimacy and guaranteed anti-boycott resolutions a veto at the UN Security Council. The tertiary boycott, formerly ignored as an affront to international trade relations, became enforceable through the sheer political and economic power of the Soviet Union. In 1958, Air France capitulated to Arab League demands after being denied overflight and landing rights in Arab states for eighteen months due to its alleged investment in Israeli development projects.

With the success of the first tertiary boycott the Arab League became increasingly demanding of uninvolved states to adhere to its boycott of Israel. In 1958 the boycott was expanded to prohibit all goods exported from a third state identical to goods imported by the state from Israel, including goods produced with Israeli raw materials or components. In the same year, ships visiting an Arab port and an Israeli port within the same trip were blacklisted.

Height of the boycott — the Oil Crisis

The Arab boycott of Israel escalated with the 1973 oil crisis, when the members of the Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries (OAPEC, consisting of nine Arab members of OPEC plus Egypt and Syria) announced an oil embargo in October 1973, following the American resupply of arms to Israel during the 1973 Yom Kippur War. The OAPEC embargo targeted Canada, Japan, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom and the United States. OAPEC threatened to cut oil production 5% monthly "until the Israeli forces are completely evacuated from all the Arab territories occupied in the June 1967 war...." The embargo lasted for about five months before it was lifted in March 1974, though its aftereffects were to continue.

Weakening of the boycott

A number of companies found ways of bypassing the boycott and managed to trade with both Israel and the Arab world. For example, some firms that did business with Arab countries officially complied with the boycott, but in practice subcontracted their trade with Israel to companies already blacklisted by the Arab states, while others did business with Israel through divisions or affiliates whose links to the company were disguised. Others strove to cultivate good personal relationships with Arab leaders, who would allow them to trade with Israel without economic repercussions in their own countries as a favor. Some firms placed on the blacklist managed to lobby or buy their way off it.

Israel responded to the boycott by creating its own blacklist of firms that respected the boycott, and circulated them around the world to encourage Jewish-owned businesses to avoid dealing with them. In addition, Israel supporters in some Western countries managed to get anti-boycott laws passed, but they typically went unenforced everywhere except the United States. In 1977 the United States Congress passed a law that President Jimmy Carter signed, which made it a criminal offense to adhere to the boycott and imposed fines on American companies that were found to be complying with it. For the surveillance after the implementation of this law, an office called the "Office of Antiboycott Compliance" was opened in the US Department of Commerce. Despite the fines, there were some American companies (like McDonald's) which preferred to pay the fines and continue boycotting Israel rather than lose their business with the Arab world.

Israel also took a series of steps to evade the embargo and clandestinely trade with the Arab world. Front companies in third countries were set up, which imported goods, then re-exported them to Arab countries with false labels and certificates of origin. In other cases, foreign companies would purchase Israeli technology and materials, use them to assemble completed products, and export them to Arab countries while concealing this fact from their customers. Arrangements with American companies were worked out where the American companies would buy goods from Israeli affiliates and export them as American-made goods. Israeli ships were re-flagged as ships of other nations and provided with faked bills of landing so they could directly export goods to the Arab and Muslim world. Greece and Cyprus were particularly popular hubs for smuggling Israeli goods into the Arab world due to their location, multilateral economic connections, large merchant fleets, and Cyprus' corporate and bank secrecy laws.

Egypt was the first nation to abandon boycott, doing so in 1980 after signing a peace treaty with Israel the previous year. After more or less consistently adhering to the practice of seizing cargo bound for Israel since 1950, the Straits of Tiran and the Gulf of Aqaba were opened to Israeli trade and Israeli cargo went unmolested for the first time in decades. Afterwards, Egypt became a convenient destination to smuggle Israeli goods into the rest of the Arab world, as Israeli goods could be legally imported into Egypt and relabeled as Egyptian for trade with other Arab countries, although the treaty led to other Arab countries becoming more suspicious of Egyptian products. By the late 1980s, Israel's counter-measures against the boycott were proving a success, and the Boycott Office estimated that between $750 million to $1 billion worth of Israeli goods, or about 10% of Israel's exports at the time, were reaching Arab markets per year.

In 1995, a year after it signed a peace treaty with Israel, Jordan lifted its boycott. The Palestinian Authority likewise agreed not to abide by the boycott that same year. In 1994 several of the Arab states of the Persian Gulf abandoned the secondary and tertiary boycotts. The period also saw "low-level diplomatic relations" between Israel and Morocco, Mauritania, Oman, and Qatar. In 1994, following the Oslo Peace Accords, the Cooperation Council for the Arab States of the Gulf (GCC) states, ended their participation in the Arab boycott against Israel. The move prompted a surge of investment in Israel, and resulted in the initiation of joint cooperation projects between Israel and Arab countries. In 1996, the GCC states recognized that total elimination of the boycott is a necessary step for peace and economic development in the region. Algeria, Morocco, and Tunisia do not enforce the boycott. Mauritania, which never applied the boycott, established diplomatic relations with Israel in 1999. Saudi Arabia had pledged to end its economic boycott as a condition for membership in the World Trade Organization but came back on the promise following its acceptance into the organization on December 11, 2005.

As the boycott was relaxed (or rather, not as stringently enforced) starting in the late 1980s and early 1990s, many companies which previously stayed out of the Israeli market had entered it, e.g. McDonald's and Nestlé. In 1985, the ban was lifted on Ford, which had been in place since the company had opened an assembly plant in Israel, and Colgate-Palmolive, although five other companies were added to the blacklist. Toyota began selling cars in Israel in 1991, although it claimed that it had never complied with the boycott, arguing that it did not have the resources to sell cars in the country.

Military non-cooperation

The Arab League boycott of Israel extends to military and security non-cooperation. For example, before the Gulf War (1990–91) the United States sought to form a military coalition that included Arab countries to confront Saddam Husein’s Iraq following his invasion of Kuwait. During the war, Iraq fired many Scud missiles potentially containing poison gas at Israel, which caused considerable distress and damage in Israel, hoping to provoke an Israeli military response. The Iraqi government hoped that Arab states would withdraw from the coalition, as they would be reluctant to fight alongside Israel. US President Bush pressured Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Shamir not to retaliate and withdraw Israeli jets, fearing that if Israel attacked Iraq, the other Arab countries would either desert the coalition or join Iraq. It was also feared that if Israel used Syrian or Jordanian airspace to attack Iraq, they would intervene in the war on Iraq's side or attack Israel.

Contemporary boycott
Today, most Arab states, Syria being the exception, no longer attempt to enforce the secondary or tertiary boycotts. Syria, Lebanon, and Iran (though not an Arab state and not a member of the Arab League) are the only states which actively enforce the primary boycott. The Central Boycott Office has become obsolete. With the vast majority of Arab states benefiting from trade with Israel, any "boycott" has become symbolic in nature, limited to bureaucratic slights such as passport restrictions.

The Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions (BDS) movement was founded in 2005 in an attempt to increase economic and political pressure on Israel and advocates a total, international boycott of Israeli products, divestment of investments in Israel and sanctions. Besides anti-Israel economic measures, the BDS movement also strives to disrupt cultural exchanges and business involving Israel, Israelis and businesses which deal with them. In addition, sporting teams from various Arab states continue to boycott international matches when they are drawn against an Israeli team, choosing instead to forfeit the match.

Recognition and diplomatic relations

Today, 15 of the 22 members of the Arab League — Algeria, Comoros, Djibouti, Iraq, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Mauritania, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Somalia, Syria, Tunisia, and Yemen — do not recognise or have diplomatic relations with Israel; with the exceptions being Bahrain, Egypt, Jordan, Morocco, Palestine, Sudan, and the United Arab Emirates. At Arab League urging, a further 9 members of Organisation of Islamic Cooperation also do not have diplomatic relations with Israel — Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Brunei, Indonesia, Iran, Malaysia, Mali, Niger, and Pakistan. In 2002, the Arab League offered normalisation of relations between Israel and Arab countries as part of the resolution of the Palestine-Israel conflict in the Arab Peace Initiative.

Other diplomatic exclusions
United Nations members formed themselves into regional groups as a means of sharing the distribution of posts for General Assembly committees. Many UN bodies are allocated on the basis of geographical representation. Top leadership positions, including Secretary-General and President of the General Assembly, are rotated among the regional groups. The groups also coordinate substantive policy and form common fronts for negotiations and bloc voting. Israel is geographically in Asia, but it has been blocked from joining the Asia group by the Arab-Muslim bloc in the group, denying Israel an opportunity to become an active member of UN bodies and positions. In 2000, Israel was admitted as a member of the Western European and Others Group to bypass the Arab-Muslim block. As a consequence, for example, Israel has never been a member of the United Nations Commission on Human Rights.

Another boycott has been applied to Israel's potential participation in the Middle East and North Africa Financial Action Task Force (MENAFATF), a regional body of the Financial Action Task Force on Money Laundering (FATF), instead being an observer in the European regional FAFT style group, Moneyval.

Travel restrictions
The passports of some countries are not valid for travel to Israel, including Bangladesh, Brunei, Iran, Iraq, and Pakistan. Thirteen countries do not accept Israeli passports: Algeria, Bangladesh, Brunei, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Malaysia, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, Syria and Yemen. In addition, seven of these countries — Iran, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Syria and Yemen — do not allow entry to people with evidence of travel to Israel, or whose passports have either a used or an unused Israeli visa. The stamp may be a visa stamp, or a stamp on entry or departure. Because of these issues, Israeli immigration controls do not stamp passports with an entry visa, instead stamping on a separate insert which is discarded on departure. However, a stamp of another country which indicates that the person has entered Israel may frustrate that effort. For example, if an Egyptian departure stamp is used in any passport at the Taba Crossing, that is an indication that the person entered Israel, and a similar situation arises for land crossings into Jordan. Several Arab League member states now accept Israeli passports for transit passengers on flights.

In August 2020, the United Arab Emirates permitted direct flights to and from Israel, with Saudi Arabia and Bahrain authorizing overflying their territory for such flights. On 8 October 2020, Israel and Jordan reached an agreement to allow flights to cross over both countries’ airspace. It will also allow the UAE and Bahrain, along with other countries in the region, to fly over Israeli airspace.

Effects of the boycott

Economic effects
Although it cannot be estimated to what extent the boycott hurt Israel's economy, the boycott cannot be said to have affected it to the extent the Arabs intended. Israel's economy has performed relatively well since 1948, achieving a higher GDP per capita than that of all Arab countries except for the oil-rich gulf states of Kuwait and Qatar. The boycott nevertheless has undoubtedly harmed Israel to some extent. The Israeli Chamber of Commerce estimates that with the boycott Israeli exports are 10 percent less than they would be without the boycott and investment in Israel likewise 10 percent lower.

Arab states suffer economically from the boycott as well. In its report on the cost of conflict in the Middle East, Strategic Foresight Group estimates that Arab states lost an opportunity to export $10 billion worth of goods to Israel between 2000 and 2010. Moreover, the Arab states of the Persian Gulf and Iran together stand to lose $30 billion as the opportunity cost of not exporting oil to Israel in the second half of the decade.

Because of the boycott, products that were ubiquitous throughout the First World, such as Pepsi, McDonald's and most Japanese cars were not to be found in Israel until the boycott began waning in the late 1980s. A similar situation existed in the Arab world which boycotted the products of companies that were selling in Israel as in the case of Coca-Cola, Ford and Revlon.

Avoiding the boycott
Despite the boycott, Israeli goods often do make it onto markets in boycotting Arab countries. The boycott evasion tactic of using a third country as a front to export Israeli goods to the Arab and Muslim world has been used. In addition, Israeli products are not heavily boycotted in the Palestinian territories and often make it into the larger Arab world through the Palestinians or other neutral countries.

Foreign reactions to the boycott
The United States adopted two anti-boycott laws that seek to counteract the participation of U.S. citizens in other nation's economic boycotts or embargoes (although these laws do not restrict the ability to engage in disinvestment campaigns.) These laws are the 1977 amendments to the Export Administration Act (EAA) and the Ribicoff Amendment to the Tax Reform Act of 1976 (TRA). The antiboycott provisions of the Export Administration Regulations (EAR) apply to all "U.S. persons," defined to include individuals and companies located in the United States and their foreign affiliates, and prohibit them to participate in unsanctioned boycotts against other nations, punishable by fines of up to $50,000 or five times the value of the exports involved or jail term of up to 10 years.

Conduct that may be penalized under the TRA and/or prohibited under the EAR includes:
Agreements to refuse or actual refusal to do business with or in Israel or with blacklisted companies.
Agreements to discriminate or actual discrimination against other persons based on race, religion, sex, national origin or nationality.
Agreements to furnish or actual furnishing of information about business relationships with or in Israel or with blacklisted companies.
Agreements to furnish or actual furnishing of information about the race, religion, sex, or national origin of another person.

Of all the Western countries, only the United Kingdom has not passed legislation against the Arab boycott.  Despite this, many companies in Western nations practice some degree of compliance with the boycott.

Japan was the industrialized nation that complied most with the boycott.  As a result, Israel–Japan relations have been limited until the 1990s.

Notable targets of the blacklist

People
The following is a list of notable people who were at any time blacklisted in the Arab world.

 Marilyn Monroe, for "pronounced pro-Israeli sympathies" and "help[ing] to collect donations for Israel"  (also converted to Judaism)
 Elizabeth Taylor, her films were banned after converting to Judaism and purchasing Israeli bonds
 Louis Armstrong, for performing in Israel
 Edward G. Robinson, for "pronounced pro-Israeli sympathies" and "help[ing] to collect donations for Israel" (also Jewish)
 Eartha Kitt, for "pronounced pro-Israeli sympathies" and "help[ing] to collect donations for Israel"
 Frank Sinatra, due to his pro-Jewish and pro-Israel activism
 Harry Belafonte
 Helen Hayes
 Kirk Douglas
 Jerry Lewis
 Paul Newman
 Paul McCartney, for performing in Israel
 Mick Jagger, for performing in Israel
 Elton John, for performing in Israel
 Paul Stewart, for performing in Israel (also Jewish)
 Roger Moore, for performing in Israel
 Paul Simon, for performing in Israel (also Jewish)
 Sophia Loren for filming a movie in Israel, taken off the blacklist when she promised not to be in any more films there.
 Phil Silvers
 Raquel Welch, for purported Israeli nationality, taken off after this was discovered to be false

Corporations

The following is a list of notable corporations that were at any time blacklisted in the Arab world.

 RCA
 Zenith
 Coca-Cola
 Barclays Bank
 McDonnell Douglas
 Bantam Books
 Sears Roebuck
 Revlon
 Ford Motor Company
 General Electric
 Hewlett Packard
 Hughes Aircraft
 Hilton
 Mercedes-Benz
 Avis
 IBM
 Citibank
 Nestlé
 Raytheon, for supplying Hawk anti-aircraft missile systems to Israel in the 1970s
 Marks & Spencer (until 2007)

Films
The following is a list of notable films that were at any time blacklisted in the Arab world.
 I Love You, Alice B. Toklas (1968), filmed in Israel
The Big Red One (1980), filmed in Israel
 Delta Force (1986), filmed in Israel
Wonder Woman (2017); the title star, Gal Gadot, is Israeli and previously undertook mandatory service in the Israel Defense Forces.

See also

Antisemitic boycotts
Boycotts of Israel
Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions

References

External links
Office of Antiboycott Compliance at the United States Department of Commerce
The Arab Boycott at JVL

Arab League
Boycotts of Israel
Arab–Israeli conflict


title: Liu Shaoqi

text:
Liu Shaoqi ( ; 24 November 189812 November 1969) was a Chinese revolutionary and politician. He was Chairman of the NPC Standing Committee from 1954 to 1959, first Vice Chairman of the Chinese Communist Party from 1956 to 1966 and Chairman of the People's Republic of China, the head of state, from 1959 to 1968, during which he implemented policies of economic reconstruction in China.

For 15 years, Liu held high positions in Chinese leadership, behind only Chairman Mao Zedong and Premier Zhou Enlai. Although originally considered as a successor to Mao, from 1966 onward, Liu was criticized and then purged by Mao. Liu was arrested and imprisoned in 1967. He was forced out of public life and was labelled the "commander of China's bourgeoisie headquarters", China's foremost "capitalist-roader", and a traitor to the revolution. He died in prison in 1969 due to complication from diabetes. Liu was widely condemned in the years following his death until he was posthumously rehabilitated by Deng Xiaoping's government in 1980. Deng's government granted Liu a national memorial service.

Biography

Youth

Liu was born into a moderately rich peasant family in Huaminglou, Ningxiang, Hunan province; his ancestral hometown is located at Jishui County, Jiangxi. He attended Ningxiang Zhusheng Middle School and was recommended to attend a class in Shanghai to prepare for studying in Russia. In 1920, he and Ren Bishi joined a Socialist Youth Corps; the next year, Liu was recruited to study at the Comintern's University of the Toilers of the East in Moscow.

He joined the newly formed Chinese Communist Party (CCP) in 1921. The next year he returned to China and, as secretary of the All-China Labor Syndicate, led several railway workers' strikes in the Yangzi Valley and at Anyuan on the Jiangxi-Hunan border.

Early political activities
In 1925, Liu became a member of the Guangzhou-based All-China Federation of Labor Executive Committee. During the next two years he led numerous political campaigns and strikes in Hubei and Shanghai. He worked with Li Lisan in Shanghai in 1925, organizing Communist activity following the May Thirtieth Incident. After his work in Shanghai, Liu traveled to Wuhan. He was briefly arrested in Changsha and then returned to Guangzhou to help organize the 16-month-long Canton-Hong Kong strike.

He was elected to the Party's Central Committee in 1927 and was appointed to the head of its Labor Department. Liu returned to work at the Party headquarters in Shanghai in 1929 and was named Secretary of the Manchurian Party Committee in Fengtian. In 1930 and 1931 he attended the Third and Fourth Plenums of the Sixth Central Committee, and was elected to the Central Executive Committee (i.e., Politburo) of the Chinese Soviet Republic in 1931 or 1932. Later in 1932, he left Shanghai and traveled to the Jiangxi Soviet.

Senior leader

Liu became the Party Secretary of Fujian Province in 1932. He accompanied the Long March in 1934 at least as far as the crucial Zunyi Conference, but was then sent to the so-called "White Areas" (areas controlled by the Kuomintang) to reorganize underground activities in northern China, centered around Beijing and Tianjin. He became Party Secretary in North China in 1936, leading the anti-Japanese movements in that area with the assistance of Peng Zhen, An Ziwen, Bo Yibo, Ke Qingshi, Liu Lantao, and Yao Yilin. In February 1937 he established, with the rest of the North China Bureau, in Beijing. In the same year, he challenged Zhang Wetian on the Party's historical problems, criticizing the leftist errors after 1927, thus breaching the consensus reached at the Zunyi Conference that the Party line had been essentially correct. Liu ran the Central Plains Bureau in 1939; and, in 1941, the Central China Bureau.

In 1937, Liu traveled to the Communist base at Yan'an; in 1941, he became a political commissar of the New Fourth Army. He was elected as one of five CCP Secretaries at the Seventh National Party Congress in 1945. After that Congress, he became the supreme leader of all Communist forces in Manchuria and northern China, a role frequently overlooked by historians.

Liu became the Vice Chairman of the Central People's Government in 1949. In 1954 China adopted a new constitution at the first National People's Congress (NPC); at the Congress's first session, he was elected chairman of the Congress's Standing Committee, a position he held until the second NPC in 1959. From 1956 until his downfall in 1966, he ranked as the First Vice Chairman of the Chinese Communist Party.

Liu's work focused on party organizational and theoretical affairs. He was an orthodox Soviet-style Communist and favored state planning and the development of heavy industry. He elaborated upon his political and economic beliefs in his writings. His best known works include How to be a Good Communist (1939), On the Party (1945), and Internationalism and Nationalism (1952).

State Chairman
Liu spoke very strongly in favour of the Great Leap Forward at the Eighth CCP National Congress in May 1958. At this Congress Liu stood together with Deng Xiaoping and Peng Zhen in support of Mao's policies against those who were more critical, such as Chen Yun and Zhou Enlai.

As a result, Liu gained influence within the party. In April 1959, he succeeded Mao as Chairman of the People's Republic of China (Chinese President). However, Liu began to voice concern about the outcomes of the Great Leap in the August 1959 Lushan Plenum. In order to correct the mistakes of the Great Leap Forward, Liu and Deng led economic reforms that bolstered their prestige among the party apparatus and the national populace. The economic policies of Deng and Liu were notable for being more moderate than Mao's radical ideas. For example, in the period when the economic turmoil of the Great Leap Forward prompted the Party to delay the Third Five Year Plan, Liu led a group of high officials which worked to revive the economy through an increased role for markets, greater material incentives for workers, a lower rate of investment, a more moderate pace for developmental goals, and increased funding for consumer industries. During preliminary work on the Third Five Year Plan, Liu stated:

Conflict with Mao

Liu was publicly acknowledged as Mao's chosen successor in 1961; however, by 1962 his opposition to Mao's policies had led Mao to mistrust him. After Mao succeeded in restoring his prestige during the 1960s, Liu's eventual downfall became "inevitable". Liu's position as the second-most powerful leader of the CCP contributed to Mao's rivalry with him at least as much as Liu's political beliefs or factional allegiances in the 1960s, especially during and after the Seven Thousand Cadres Conference, indicating that Liu's later persecution was the result of a power struggle that went beyond the goals and well-being of either China or the Party.

Liu was among the senior officials who in 1964 were initially reluctant to support Mao's proposed Third Front campaign to develop basic industry and national defense industry in China's interior to address the risk of invasion by the United States or the Soviet Union. In an effort to stall, Liu proposed additional surveys and planning. Academic Covell F. Meyskens writes that Liu and the high-ranking colleagues who agreed with him did not want to engage in another rapid industrialization campaign so soon after the failure of the Great Leap Forward and that instead they sought to continue the gradual approach of developing areas and increasing consumption. When fears of American invasion increased after the Gulf of Tonkin Incident, Liu and his colleagues changed their views and began fully supporting the Third Front construction.

By 1966, few senior leaders in China questioned the need for a widespread reform to combat the growing problems of corruption and bureaucratization within the Party and the government. With the goal of reforming the government to be more efficient and true to the Communist ideal, Liu himself chaired the enlarged Politburo meeting that officially began the Cultural Revolution. However, Liu and his political allies quickly lost control of the Cultural Revolution soon after it was called, when Mao used the movement to progressively monopolize political power and to destroy his perceived enemies.

Whatever its other causes, the Cultural Revolution, declared in 1966, was overtly pro-Maoist, and gave Mao the power and influence to purge the Party of his political enemies at the highest levels of government. Along with closing China's schools and universities, and Mao's exhortations to young Chinese to randomly destroy old buildings, temples, and art, and to attack their teachers, school administrators, party leaders, and parents, the Cultural Revolution also increased Mao's prestige so much that entire villages adopted the practice of offering prayers to Mao before every meal.

In both national politics and Chinese popular culture, Mao established himself as a demigod accountable to no one, purging any that he suspected of opposing him and directing the masses and Red Guards "to destroy virtually all state and party institutions". After the Cultural Revolution was announced, most of the most senior members of the CCP who had voiced any hesitation in following Mao's direction, including Liu Shaoqi and Deng Xiaoping, were removed from their posts almost immediately and, with their families, subjected to mass criticism and humiliation.
Liu and Deng, along with many others, were denounced as "capitalist roaders". Liu was labeled as a "traitor" and "the biggest capitalist roader in the Party"; he was displaced as Vice Chairman of the CCP by Lin Biao in July 1966.

By 1967, Liu and his wife Wang Guangmei were placed under house arrest in Beijing. Liu's major economic positions were attacked, including his "three freedoms and one guarantee" (which promoted private land plots, free markets, independent accounting for small enterprises, and household output quotas) and "four freedoms" (which permitted individuals in the countryside to lease land, lend money, hire wage laborers, and engage in trade).

Liu was removed from all his positions and expelled from the Party in October 1968. After his arrest, Liu disappeared from public view.

Vilification, death and rehabilitation

At the Ninth Party Congress, Liu was denounced as a traitor and an enemy agent. Zhou Enlai read the Party verdict that Liu was "a criminal traitor, enemy agent and scab in the service of the imperialists, modern revisionists and the Kuomintang reactionaries". Liu's conditions did not improve after he was denounced in the Congress, and he died soon afterward.

In a memoir written by Liu's principal physician, he disputed the alleged medical maltreatment of Liu during his last days. According to Dr. Gu Qihua, there was a dedicated medical team in charge of treating Liu's illness; between July 1968 and October 1969, Liu had seven total occurrences of pneumonia due to his deteriorating immune system, and there had been a total of 40 group consultations by top medical professionals regarding the treatment of this disease. Liu was closely monitored on a daily basis by a medical team, and they made the best effort given the adverse circumstances. He died in prison from complications due to diabetes at 6:45 a.m. on 12 November 1969 under a pseudonym in Kaifeng, and was cremated the next day.

In February 1980, two years after Deng Xiaoping came to power, the Fifth Plenum of the 11th Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party issued the "Resolution on the Rehabilitation of Comrade Liu Shaoqi". The resolution fully rehabilitated Liu, declaring his ouster to be unjust and removing the labels of "renegade, traitor and scab" that had been attached to him at the time of his death. It also declared him to be "a great Marxist and proletarian revolutionary" and recognized him as one of the principal leaders of the Party. Lin Biao was blamed for "concocting false evidence" against Liu, and for working with the Gang of Four to subject him to "political frame-up and physical persecution". A high-profile national memorial ceremony was held for Liu on 17 May 1980, and his ashes were scattered into the sea at Qingdao in accordance with his last wishes.

On 23 November 2018, the CCP's general secretary Xi Jinping delivered a speech in the Great Hall of the People in Beijing to commemorate the 120th anniversary of the birth of Liu Shaoqi.

Personal life

Liu married five times, including to He Baozhen () and Wang Guangmei ().
His third wife, Xie Fei (), came from Wenchang, Hainan and was one of the few women on the 1934 Long March. His wife at the time of his death in 1969, Wang Guangmei, was thrown into prison by Mao Zedong during the Cultural Revolution; she was subjected to harsh conditions in solitary confinement for more than a decade.

His son Liu Yunbin (Chinese: 刘允斌; pinyin: Liú Yǔnbīn) was a prominent physicist who was also singled out for abuse during the Cultural Revolution. He committed suicide in 1967 by lying on the tracks before an oncoming train. Liu Yunbin was posthumously rehabilitated and his reputation restored in 1978.

Works

See also

 History of the People's Republic of China
 Liu Shaoqi's Former Residence

References

Citations

Sources

 "Fifth Plenary Session of 11th C.C.P. Central Committee", Beijing Review, No. 10 (10 March 1980), pp. 3–10, which describes the official rehabilitation measures.

External links
 The Liu Shaoqi Reference Archive
The Theory of Transition in China: The Thought of Liu Shaoqi by Raymond Yeap

|-

|-

|-

|-

Presidents of the People's Republic of China
1898 births
1969 deaths

20th-century Chinese heads of government
Burials at sea
Chairmen of the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress
Chinese Communist Party politicians from Hunan
Chinese nationalists
Chinese people of World War II
Communist University of the Toilers of the East alumni
Delegates to the 5th National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party
Heads of government who were later imprisoned
Members of the 7th Politburo of the Chinese Communist Party
Members of the 8th Politburo Standing Committee of the Chinese Communist Party
People from Ningxiang
People of the Cultural Revolution
People persecuted to death during the Cultural Revolution
People's Republic of China politicians from Hunan
Politicians from Changsha
Secretaries of the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection
Spouses of Chinese politicians
Vice presidents of the People's Republic of China


title: Greg Briggs

text:
Greg Briggs (born October 19, 1968) is a former American football safety in the National Football League (NFL) for the Dallas Cowboys, Cleveland Browns, Chicago Bears and Minnesota Vikings. He was also a member of the Frankfurt Galaxy in Frankfurt Galaxy the World League of American Football (WLAF). He first enrolled at Copiah-Lincoln Community College before transferring to the University of Arkansas at Pine Bluff and Texas Southern University.

Early years
Briggs attended Franklin High School in Meadville, Mississippi, where he focused on playing basketball. As a senior, he received All-district honors. He also practiced track.

He accepted a basketball scholarship from the Copiah-Lincoln Community College. He decided to try out for the football team in his third year there. In 1989, he started all of the games at free safety, compiling 6 interceptions, while receiving All-JUCO and All-state honors.

In 1990, he accepted a basketball scholarship from the University of Arkansas at Pine Bluff. The football coaching staff convinced him into changing sports. He played in the first two contests before being declared ineligible because of a class conflict. At the end of the season, the football program was suspended for 1991 by the NAIA, paving the way for Briggs and six of his teammates to walk-on at Texas Southern University, where the coach said he'd have to sleep on the floor because he didn't have an extra dorm room available.

As a senior, he began playing mostly in the nickel defense and on special teams. He became a starter at outside linebacker after the fourth game of the season, when a starter went down with an injury. He also combined the responsibilities of a safety and received All-SWAC honors. He recorded 42 tackles, 3 passes defensed, 2 sacks, one fumble recovery, one interception and one blocked kick. He was a teammate of future hall of fame player Michael Strahan.

Professional career

Dallas Cowboys
Briggs was selected by the Dallas Cowboys in the fifth round (120th) of the 1992 NFL Draft, after impressing in the NFL Combine. He was tried at safety, before focusing on playing linebacker. On August 25, he was placed on the physically unable to perform list with a right hip injury. The team would go on to win Super Bowl XXVII. In 1993, he was switched to tight end, before being waived on August 24.

Cleveland Browns
On December 15, 1993, he was signed to the Cleveland Browns practice squad. He was waived on July 21, 1994.

Frankfurt Galaxy
After being out of football for a year, he played for the Frankfurt Galaxy of the World League of American Football in 1995, where he led his team in tackles and contributed to win World Bowl '95.

Hamilton Tiger-Cats
On July 20, 1995, he signed with the Hamilton Tiger-Cats of the Canadian Football League. He was released before the start of the season.

Dallas Cowboys
Briggs was signed as a free agent by the Dallas Cowboys in 1995. He was released on August 27. He was re-signed on September 21. He played in 11 games, registering 9 special teams tackles and was a part of the Super Bowl XXX winning team. He wasn't re-signed after the season.

Chicago Bears
On June 6, 1996, he was signed by the Chicago Bears to play linebacker and special teams, reuniting with head coach and former Cowboys defensive coordinator Dave Wannstedt. He was waived on October 1. He was later re-signed on October 15.

Minnesota Vikings
In April 1997, he signed with the Minnesota Vikings, as a linebacker that was focused on playing special teams. He was cut on August 24, 1998.

Personal life
After retiring from professional football, he traveled with Reggie White and spoke at churches. His nephew Diyral Briggs also played in the National Football League.

References

External links
Professional Football Stats

Living people
1968 births
People from Meadville, Mississippi
Players of American football from Mississippi
American football safeties
Canadian football defensive backs
African-American players of American football
African-American players of Canadian football
Junior college men's basketball players in the United States
Copiah-Lincoln Wolfpack football players
Arkansas–Pine Bluff Golden Lions football players
Texas Southern Tigers football players
Dallas Cowboys players
Cleveland Browns players
Frankfurt Galaxy players
Hamilton Tiger-Cats players
Chicago Bears players
American expatriate players of American football
Minnesota Vikings players
American men's basketball players
21st-century African-American people
20th-century African-American sportspeople


title: Purplebricks Canada

text:
Purplebricks Canada is a Canada-based real estate brokerage and a subsidiary of Desjardins Group.

History
Initially known as ByTheOwner, it comprised PrivateRealEstate in Ontario, ComFree in Alberta, ComFree in Manitoba, and Skhomes4sale in Saskatchewan, was acquired by DuProprio in 2009. After the acquisition, the company was rebranded as the ComFree network.

In January 2012, the two ComFree Commonsense Network brokerages were launched in Ontario and Alberta.

In July 2013, WeList.com joined the ComFree network.

In 2015, DuProprio (the site's parent company) was purchased by Yellow Pages Group for $50 million.

In 2018, the Purplebricks purchased the Canadian real estate network ComFree/DuProprio for $51 million from the Yellow Pages Group.

Purplebricks rebranded the purchased network and launched in Canada on January 8, 2019. They operated as Purplebricks in ON, MB and AB.

In July 2020, Purplebricks Canada was acquired by Desjardins Group.

On December 1, 2021, Purplebricks rebranded as FairSquare Group Realty.

On February 16, 2023, FairSquare Group Realty’s social media pages and webpage were updated to include an announcement that it is no longer accepting new business. It was decided and announced internally the day prior, that the company was being dissolved.

Services
Clients have their home listed on Purplebricks.ca and Realtor.ca through a board’s MLS® system. Purplebricks employs local Realtors who know the local real estate market. These Realtors provide clients with a home evaluation that includes pricing recommendations based on current market analysis of their local area. Clients pay a fee to list their home with Purplebricks rather than a commission based on the home’s value. The fee includes photography, a home listing on Realtor.ca and Purplebricks.ca, full-time customer support, and selling advice from a local Realtor. Clients also have a Realtor to handle offers, negotiations and paperwork, and the company manages booking showings.

Purplebricks offers a cash back Home Buying service to help clients find a home with the help of local Realtors who specialize in the field. They help the client find homes that match their criteria. Once a home is chosen, the Realtor helps the clients decide on an offer amount, handle the negotiations, navigate multiple offer situations, and finalize the deal.

References

External links
Official website

Real estate companies established in 2009
Real estate companies of Canada
Canadian real estate websites
Yellow pages