title: Direct energy conversion

text:
Direct energy conversion (DEC) or simply direct conversion converts a charged particle's kinetic energy into a voltage. It is a scheme for power extraction from nuclear fusion.

History and theoretical underpinnings

Electrostatic direct collectors

In the middle of the 1960s direct energy conversion was proposed as a method for capturing the energy from the exhaust gas in a fusion reactor. This would generate a direct current of electricity. Richard F. Post at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory was an early proponent of the idea. Post reasoned that capturing the energy would require five steps: (1) Ordering the charged particles into linear beam. (2) Separation of positives and negatives. (3) Separating the ions into groups, by their energy.  (4) Gathering these ions as they touch collectors. (5) Using these collectors as the positive side in a circuit. Post argued that the efficiency was theoretically determined by the number of collectors.

The Venetian blind
The Venetian blind design is a type of electrostatic direct collector. The Venetian Blind design name comes from the visual similarity of the ribbons to venetian window blinds. Designs in the early 1970s by William Barr and Ralph Moir used repeating metal ribbons at a specified angle as the ion collector plates.  These metal ribbon-like surfaces are more transparent to ions going forward than to ions going backward. Ions pass through surfaces of successively increasing potential until they turn and start back, along a parabolic trajectory. They then see opaque surfaces and are caught. Thus ions are sorted by energy with high-energy ions being caught on high-potential electrodes.

William Barr and Ralph Moir then ran a group which did a series of direct energy conversion experiments through the late 1970s and early 1980s. The first experiments used beams of positives and negatives as fuel, and demonstrated energy capture at a peak efficiency of 65 percent and a minimum efficiency of 50 percent. The following experiments involved a true plasma direct converter that was tested on the Tandem Mirror Experiment (TMX), an operating magnetic mirror fusion reactor. In the experiment, the plasma moved along diverging field lines, spreading it out and converting it into a forward moving beam with a Debye length of a few centimeters. Suppressor grids then reflect the electrons, and collector anodes recovered the ion energy by
slowing them down and collecting them at high-potential plates.  This machine demonstrated an energy capture efficiency of 48 percent. However, Marshall Rosenbluth argued that keeping the plasma's neutral charge over the very short Debye length distance would be very challenging in practice, though he said that this problem would not occur in every version of this technology.

The Venetian Blind converter can operate with 100 to 150 keV D-T plasma, with an efficiency of about 60% under conditions compatible with economics, and an upper technical conversion efficiency up to 70% ignoring economic limitations.

Periodic electrostatic focusing
A second type of electrostatic converter initially proposed by Post, then developed by Barr and Moir, is the Periodic Electrostatic Focusing concept. Like the Venetian Blind concept, it is also a direct collector, but the collector plates are disposed in many stages along the longitudinal axis of an electrostatic focusing channel. As each ion is decelerated along the channel toward zero energy, the particle becomes "over-focused" and is deflected sideways from the beam, then collected. The Periodic Electrostatic Focusing converter typically operates with a 600 keV D-T plasma (as low as 400 keV and up to 800 keV) with efficiency of about 60% under conditions compatible with economics, and an upper technical conversion efficiency up to 90% ignoring economic limitations.

Induction systems

Conduction systems

From the 1960s through the 1970s, methods have been developed to extract electrical energy directly from a hot gas (a plasma) in motion within a channel fitted with electromagnets (producing a transverse magnetic field), and electrodes (connected to load resistors). Charge carriers (free electrons and ions) incoming with the flow are then separated by the Lorentz force and an electric potential difference can be retrieved from pairs of connected electrodes. Shock tubes used as pulsed MHD generators were for example able to produce several megawatts of electricity in channels the size of a beverage can.

Induction systems
In addition to converters using electrodes, pure inductive magnetic converters have also been proposed by Lev Artsimovich in 1963, then Alan Frederic Haught and his team from United Aircraft Research Laboratories in 1970, and Ralph Moir in 1977.

The magnetic compression-expansion direct energy converter is analogous to the internal combustion engine. As the hot plasma expands against a magnetic field, in a manner similar to hot gases expanding against a piston, part of the energy of the internal plasma is inductively converted to an electromagnetic coil, as an EMF (voltage) in the conductor.

This scheme is best used with pulsed devices, because the converter then works like a "magnetic four-stroke engine":
 Compression: A column of plasma is compressed by a magnetic field that acts like a piston.
 Thermonuclear burn: The compression heats the plasma to the thermonuclear ignition temperature.
 Expansion/Power: The expansion of fusion reaction products (charged particles) increases the plasma pressure and pushes the magnetic field outward. A voltage is induced and collected in the electromagnetic coil.
 Exhaust/Refuel: After expansion, the partially burned fuel is flushed out, and new fuel in the form of gas is introduced and ionized; and the cycle starts again.

In 1973, a team from Los Alamos and Argonne laboratories stated that the thermodynamic efficiency of the magnetic direct conversion cycle from alpha-particle energy to work is 62%.

Traveling-wave direct energy converter

In 1992, a Japan–U.S. joint-team proposed a novel direct energy conversion system for 14.7 MeV protons produced by D-3He fusion reactions, whose energy is too high for electrostatic converters.

The conversion is based on a Traveling-Wave Direct Energy Converter (TWDEC). A gyrotron converter first guides fusion product ions as a beam into a 10-meter long microwave cavity filled with a 10-tesla magnetic field, where 155 MHz microwaves are generated and converted to a high voltage DC output through rectennas.

The Field-Reversed Configuration reactor ARTEMIS in this study was designed with an efficiency of 75%. The traveling-wave direct converter has a maximum projected efficiency of 90%.

Inverse cyclotron converter (ICC)

Original direct converters were designed to extract the energy carried by 100 to 800 keV ions produced by D-T fusion reactions. Those electrostatic converters are not suitable for higher energy product ions above 1 MeV generated by other fusion fuels like the D-3He or the p-11B aneutronic fusion reactions.

A much shorter device than the Traveling-Wave Direct Energy Converter has been proposed in 1997 and patented by Tri Alpha Energy, Inc. as an Inverse Cyclotron Converter (ICC).

The ICC is able to decelerate the incoming ions based on experiments made in 1950 by Felix Bloch and Carson D. Jeffries, in order to extract their kinetic energy. The converter operates at 5 MHz and requires a magnetic field of only 0.6 tesla. The linear motion of fusion product ions is converted to circular motion by a magnetic cusp. Energy is collected from the charged particles as they spiral past quadrupole electrodes. More classical electrostatic collectors would also be used for particles with energy less than 1 MeV. The Inverse Cyclotron Converter has a maximum projected efficiency of 90%.

X-ray photoelectric converter

A significant amount of the energy released by fusion reactions is composed of electromagnetic radiations, essentially X-rays due to Bremsstrahlung. Those X-rays can not be converted into electric power with the various electrostatic and magnetic direct energy converters listed above, and their energy is lost.

Whereas more classical thermal conversion has been considered with the use of a radiation/boiler/energy exchanger where the X-ray energy is absorbed by a working fluid at temperatures of several thousand degrees, more recent research done by companies developing nuclear aneutronic fusion reactors, like Lawrenceville Plasma Physics (LPP) with the Dense Plasma Focus, and Tri Alpha Energy, Inc. with the Colliding Beam Fusion Reactor (CBFR), plan to harness the photoelectric and Auger effects to recover energy carried by X-rays and other high-energy photons. Those photoelectric converters are composed of X-ray absorber and electron collector sheets nested concentrically in an onion-like array. Indeed, since X-rays can go through far greater thickness of material than electrons can, many layers are needed to absorb most of the X-rays. LPP announces an overall efficiency of 81% for the photoelectric conversion scheme.

Direct energy conversion from fission products

In the early 2000s, research was undertaken by Sandia National Laboratories, Los Alamos National Laboratory, The University of Florida, Texas A&M University and General Atomics to use direct conversion to extract energy from fission reactions, essentially, attempting to extract energy from the linear motion of charged particles coming off a fission reaction.

See also
 Antiproton Decelerator
 Cherenkov radiation
 Landau damping

References

Energy conversion
Nuclear power
Nuclear fusion
Nuclear technology


title: The Origin of Birds

text:
The Origin of Birds is an early synopsis of bird evolution written in 1926 by Gerhard Heilmann, a Danish artist and amateur zoologist. The book was born from a series of articles published between 1913 and 1916 in Danish, and although republished as a book it received mainly criticism from established scientists and got little attention within Denmark. The English edition of 1926, however, became highly influential at the time due to the breadth of evidence synthesized as well as the artwork used to support its arguments. It was considered the last word on the subject of bird evolution for several decades after its publication.

Through the course of the research represented in the book, Heilmann considers and eventually rejects the possibility of all living and several extinct groups of reptiles as potential ancestors for modern birds, including crocodilians, pterosaurs and several groups of dinosaurs. Despite his acknowledgment that some of the smaller Jurassic theropods had many similarities to Archaeopteryx and modern birds, he determined that they were unlikely to be direct bird ancestors and that they were instead closely–related offshoots, and concluded that the similarities were a result of convergent evolution rather than direct ancestry. Based essentially on a process of elimination, Heilmann arrives at the conclusion that birds must be descended from thecodonts, a group of archosaurs that lived during the Permian and Triassic periods. Although this conclusion was later shown to be inaccurate, The Origin of Birds was regarded as a masterful piece of scholarship at the time and set the international agenda for research in bird evolution for nearly half a century, and much of its research remains of interest.

Background

When Heilmann began his research in the early 1900s, the early bird Archaeopteryx was only known from three fossils found in the limestone quarries of Solnhofen near Eichstätt, Germany. The three fossils consisted of two nearly complete skeletons found in 1861 and 1877 and a single feather from 1860. They had been discovered just a few decades after the discovery of the dinosaurs, and as some dinosaurs appeared somewhat birdlike, Archaeopteryx was regarded as a possible "missing link" between reptiles and birds by many paleontologists at the time.

The similarities between  Archaeopteryx, known dinosaurs and extant birds were examined and emphasized, with Thomas Huxley championing the idea that Archaeopteryx as well as modern birds had more in common with theropod dinosaurs than any other group of animals. This was at the time in opposition to the view of anatomist Sir Richard Owen of the British Museum, who viewed Archaeopteryx as no different taxonomically from modern birds. Huxley's work was controversial, and this climate of uncertainty and contention about bird origins persisted well into the beginning of the 20th century.

While the dinosaur-bird connection (or lack thereof) was being pursued in paleontology, the problem of the evolution of flight was under scrutiny as well. It was observed that a number of animals with moderate flying or gliding ability, such as bats, flying lizards and flying squirrels have arboreal lifestyles. This led to the idea that the ancestors of birds must have gradually acquired the ability to fly from leaping among branches in the tops of trees. The Hungarian paleontologist Franz Nopcsa proposed an alternate hypothesis in 1907, arguing that the ancestors of birds were fast-running, bipedal animals related to theropod dinosaurs. When Heilmann came onto the paleontology scene, these two sets of conflicting theories provided the framework for his research and eventual conclusions.

Publication

Between 1913 and 1916, Gerhard Heilmann published a series of articles in the journal of the Danish Ornithological Society, all heavily illustrated and dealing with the question of the origin of birds. He first proposed the idea of a popular treatise on bird evolution in 1912 to Otto Helms, the editor of the journal of the Danish Ornithological Society. Helms supported the idea but recommended that Heilmann first seek professional advice on the topic. Despite the lack of formal training in zoology, Heilmann succeeded in amassing his research with the help of several others, including the expert in prehistoric animals at the Zoological Museum in Copenhagen, Adolf Herluf Winge, and the biologist D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson of the University of Dundee. Winge, though initially showing interest in Heilmann's work, later proved to be a source of frustration by refusing to engage Heilmann in depth on various scientific queries. Heilmann eventually broke off contact, expressing some bitterness at the apparent change of heart, which Heilmann later ascribed to Winge's belief in Lamarckism.

Heilmann's original articles were publicly ignored by Danish zoologists, but caused considerable unrest behind the scenes. Danish zoologist R.H. Stamm, for example, mocked Heilmann in private letters to Helms shortly after the publication of his first article. Other Danish zoologists openly expressed their disdain for Heilmann's work as well, including the professors of zoology in Copenhagen University J.E.V. Boas and Hector Jungersen. Despite this, Helms continued to steadfastly support Heilmann and his ideas, which eventually began to gain attention from abroad. In April 1913, the American expert in fossil birds R. W. Shufeldt came across Heilmann's first article by chance. Shufeldt, who was married to a Norwegian, could understand some Danish and was able to interpret Heilmann's work and initiated contact with him shortly thereafter. This opened up the opportunity for international correspondence with distinguished paleontologists for Heilmann, which was instrumental to the recognition of his work outside of Denmark.

Heilmann's articles were later collected and published as a book in Danish in 1916 with the title as in his series, Vor Nuvaerende Viden om Fuglenes Afstamming ("our present knowledge about the origin of birds"). This met the same lack of interest and is thought to have been a result of publishing in Danish, as this made it inaccessible to many scientists working in the U.S. and much of Europe. The field of paleontology at the time was dominated by American and English scientists, and the discipline in continental Europe was dominated by Germany and to a lesser degree France.

Consequently, and at the urging of Shufeldt, Heilmann devoted much of the next few years attempting to find an English–language publisher willing to undertake a translation of his work. None of the larger publishers he approached were willing to do so unless Heilmann himself was prepared to finance it, which he was unable to do. In the meantime, Heilmann took the opportunity to revise and improve his manuscript, which included information he acquired from examining the Berlin specimen of Archaeopteryx for the first time in 1923 at the invitation of Josef Felix Pompeckj, a professor at the Natural History Museum in Berlin. Examining this important specimen in person allowed Heilmann to add some additional details and revisions to his understanding of the hip, the skull, and the flight feathers. With the help of the English paleontologist Arthur Smith Woodward of the British Museum, he finally met success in finding a small London publisher willing to produce an English version of his manuscript in 1926.

Editions
While most of the original material was published in the journal of the Danish Ornithological Society between the years of 1913 and 1916, the first English version of the book was published in London in 1926 by H. F. & G. Witherby. It was published in the United States the following year by D. Appleton & Company. The book was reprinted in 1972 by Dover Publications, Inc., with the only change being the grayscale reproduction of several illustrations originally published in color.

The English and Danish editions differed in several significant ways. The English edition was somewhat shorter and more concise, and included newer information that Heilmann had acquired by studying the actual fossils of Archaeopteryx in Berlin, as well as from foreign scientists who sent him photographs and plaster casts. It also contained considerably less harsh language towards Boas and others with whom he disagreed. Curiously, the English edition did not contain the transformational sequences inspired by D'Arcy Thompson, though Heilmann still briefly acknowledged the use of his methods in reconstructing his Proavis.

Book outline

Heilmann's book was divided into four main parts. The first three draw evidence for bird evolution from the fossil record, from the embryos of birds and other animals, and from living birds, respectively. The fourth and most groundbreaking section examines several groups of extinct animals in order to determine the probable root of modern birds.

Part I: Some Fossil Birds

In the first section, Heilmann examines in exquisite detail the fossil remains of several extinct birds, including Hesperornis, Ichthyornis, Archaeopteryx, and "Archaeornis", the name used commonly at the time for the Berlin specimen, which was then thought to represent a separate genus. Throughout this section are many finely detailed and labeled renderings of different parts of the skeletal anatomy of these birds, as well as other groups of extinct reptiles and some modern birds. Heilmann's attention to detail in his artwork is inspired at least in part by his dissatisfaction with anatomical renderings of these animals in scholarly works of the time, which he deemed as "unsatisfactory" and "containing misleading errors."

Early in this section Heilmann embarks on a thorough description of the Berlin Archaeopteryx specimen, which includes detailed comparisons to specific aspects of modern birds. Following a comparison of its skull to that of Aetosaurus, Euparkeria, and a modern pigeon, Heilmann states that he disagrees with the scientific consensus of the time that the skull of Archaeopteryx is that of a true bird. He writes that the reptilian features of the skull are much more pronounced, citing features of the teeth, fenestrae, and jaw structure as being undeniably un-birdlike. Heilmann found that much of Archaeopteryx'''s anatomy, in fact, was decidedly reptilian and generally opposed to that of modern birds. This included the pelvis, which lacks a pectineal process and has a very different os sacrum from modern birds, as well as the carpus, which Heilmann wrote exhibited the same phenomena found in the wrists of modern reptiles. Its tail was also noted by Heilmann as being extremely reptilian and resembling nothing known of modern birds.

He goes on to state that other features of Archaeopteryx, however, are remarkably birdlike and bear little resemblance to their reptilian analogues. The hand of Archaeopteryx is observed as being one of its most remarkable features, having what Heilmann calls a "reptilian basis" which has come to support primary feathers. He compares this to a primitive five-digit reptile hand, noting the obvious differences, before outlining the striking similarity of the hand to that of the theropod Ornitholestes. Here Heilmann goes into considerable detail about the wing arrangement of Archaeopteryx, drawing from his observation of the Berlin specimen. The latter part of this section deals with analyzing the skeletal anatomy of the fossil birds Hesperornis and Ichthyornis, but Heilmann ultimately decides that they are of no importance to his investigations. He concludes the section by stating that Archaeopteryx "may be characterized as a reptile in the disguise of a bird", and states that his studies must turn from the skeleton to the soft tissue in order to reach a final conclusion.

Part II: Embryonic Stages of Reptiles and Birds

In this section, Heilmann draws evidence from his observations of germ cells, impregnation, cell division, ontogeny and comparative embryology about the probable ancestry of birds. A fair amount of detail is devoted early in the section to comparative studies between the germ cells of many different species of extant bird and reptile (and several mammals), including some comments on the corkscrew locomotion observed in the spermatozoa cells of several bird and reptile species, but no mammals. He then goes on to offer a similar comparison between the egg cells of birds and reptiles, and finds considerably more similarity there than either has to the egg cell of a mammal. Following an analysis of the germ cells, he moves onward through the developmental cycle by next examining the process of fertilization and subsequent cleavage of the zygote. He presents here several figures and illustrations of the cleavage of the blastoderm in reptiles and birds.

He examines in detail the expression of evolutionary stages in the development of embryos, tracing from the process of cell division to the development of specific anatomical features. He finds a striking resemblance between the embryonic development of reptiles and birds, including details of the skeletal anatomy (with special attention to the hands and feet) and various organs. He notes that bird and reptile embryos develop visceral arches, hinting at their aquatic ancestry. Of more interest to his goal, Heilmann writes in a similar vein that the embryos of certain birds clearly show a three-clawed finger structure, at least one of which (the hoatzin) retains actual claws after hatching. He mentions other anatomical features of bird embryos that hint at their reptilian ancestry as well, such as the embryonic splitting of the pygostyle into distinct separate vertebrae.

Part III: Some Anatomical and Biological Data
Part III deals with anatomical comparisons between extant birds and reptiles, wherein Heilmann finds traces of the relationship between them in examples of fenestrae, claws, the brain, sense organs, sexual organs, and other features. He concludes that many of these features are "nearly identical" between reptiles and birds. He cites other features as being clearly derived from one another, such as the avian feather essentially being a cylindrical, fringed scale.

He begins the section with an analysis of the temporal opening found in the skull of many extant birds. After a thorough comparison, he rejects the notion, which was common at the time, that this temporal opening was homologous with the supratemporal fenestra in reptiles. Instead, he concludes that it is a recent feature. Next he makes some observations on the wing structure of modern nestling birds. He finds that some species of extant birds have claws on their first and second fingers when very young, and some, like the hoatzin, will even use these temporary claws to climb about, including in the branches of trees. He also discovers that far more nestlings have a nonfunctional claw on the first digit, and some adult birds do as well.

Organs are next examined in detail, with various comparisons drawn between reptiles and birds. He starts with the brain, analyzing in detail the cerebral and cerebellar structure of several animals including birds, crocodilians, and mammals. Though noticeably more developed, Heilmann finds that the general structure of the brain is very similar in birds and reptiles, and he describes the brain of modern birds as "further evolution of the peculiar characters already found in the reptile." He also finds the eyes of birds and reptiles to be remarkably similar, especially the development of the lens, as well as the ear, which reveals a much wider gap between the Sauropsida and mammals than with birds. He describes the sexual organs of birds and reptiles to likewise be structurally similar, and finds that while most species of male bird have lost the penis to reduce weight, those that retain it bear remarkable similarities to extant reptiles. He writes that secondary sexual characteristics are also similar between birds and reptiles, with both groups frequently utilizing bright colors and structures for display. He concludes the section by offering a few more comparisons of structures and organs, including the lungs, ambiens muscle, and beak and scale sheaths. Taken together, Heilmann interprets these many similarities as further evidence for the close kinship of birds and reptiles.

Part IV: The Proavian
In the final section Heilmann seeks to synthesize the information in the previous three sections to uncover the probable origins in a particular group of ancestors. In doing so he discusses the specific morphology of a hypothetical creature, which he refers to as "the proavian", that must have existed between modern birds and their reptilian ancestors. After making a bold assertion that birds are descended from reptiles, Heilmann cites Dollo's law of irreversibility as the primary reason why he believes birds cannot be descended from theropod dinosaurs, despite their many morphological similarities. Dollo's Law states that a feature or organ once lost by evolution cannot be regained. One consistently confounding issue Heilmann had encountered in his research into the bird-reptile link was that modern birds possess a wishbone and theropod dinosaurs, by his observations, did not. Since ancient reptilian fossils that predated dinosaurs clearly possessed a different sort of wishbone, Heilmann concluded that this feature could not have been lost and regained again over the course of evolution. Based on this law, he therefore rejected the possibility of a direct theropod ancestor of birds, though he acknowledged that theropods and birds must have shared a close relationship.

Throughout this section, Heilmann examines several groups of possible ancestors in addition to coelurosaurs, including pterosaurs, predentates, and pseudosuchians. Based on his rejection of theropods due to the wishbone issue as well as what Heilmann saw as striking morphological similarities between the skull of Archaeopteryx, Aetosaurus and Euparkeria, Heilmann concludes that a pseudosuchian origin of birds is the most probable. The final part of this section addresses the issue of the Proavian, which Heilmann illustrated speculatively both in skeleton in a natural setting. He constructed a hypothetical skull for this animal based on a mathematical combination of the skulls of Archaeopteryx, Euparkeria, Aetosaurus, and Ornithosuchus. He constructed its skeleton in a similar manner. In this section he also compares his own Proavis to a similar sort of Proavis constructed by the American naturalist William Beebe. Heilmann examines and rejects Beebe's own Proavis (named "Tetrapteryx" by Beebe) based on his analysis of Beebe's documentation of pelvic wings in bird embryos, which Heilmann found little evidence for.

He concludes this final section by fleshing out his Proavis and summarizing his view of bird origins, in which birds would have departed from reptiles at the pseudosuchians. From this branching point, birds and dinosaurs would have evolved along parallel evolutionary tracks for millions of years, as cousins rather than ancestors. He imagines that these reptiles would have gradually assumed a bipedal gait, and transformed eventually from terrestrial runners to arboreal climbers, developing leaping capabilities ever increasing in length. Along the way, the ancestral reptilian scales would have become "frayed" and gradually developed into feathers, beginning along the forearm and tail and gradually spreading to the entire body. The need for this animal to be an adept climber would have catalyzed the lengthening of its phalanges, which would eventually become long and strong enough to support a wing. Powerful muscles would have developed to anchor these limbs, which would have reacted upon the breastbone. All of this together would have facilitated the origin of an accelerated metabolic rate, resulting in the warm-blooded state known of modern birds. This development would have occurred alongside of the enlargement of the brain, needed to coordinate and supervise these refined features. It is in this way, Heilmann concludes, the reptile has been changed into a bird.

Legacy

In 1868, Thomas Huxley published On the animals which are most nearly intermediate between birds and reptiles, making a strong case for the bird-dinosaur ancestral link. Huxley's proposal that birds arose from dinosaurs – based primarily on his observation of the similarities between Archaeopteryx and Compsognathus – remained respectable and widespread in the paleontological community until the publication of The Origin of Birds. Heilmann more than anyone else was responsible for a widespread rejection of the dinosaur-bird link. His conclusions involved more than the mere rejection of a dinosaurian ancestry for birds, however: for instance, he favored the arboreal origin of avian flight, he allied birds firmly with reptiles instead of mammals, and he was responsible for finally putting an end to the idea that birds descended from pterosaurs. Several aspects of his research have continued to be influential long after its publication.

Wishbones and the dinosaur-bird link
The proposed thecodontian ancestry eventually fell out of favor, in part because the clade "thecodontia" is not monophyletic, meaning that it has no unique, diagnostic characteristics (and is largely considered an obsolete grouping today). But the principal reason why Heilmann's hypothesis was proven incorrect lies in the issue of the clavicle. Heilmann came extremely close to linking theropods and birds to one another, even going so far as to write that "it would seem a rather obvious conclusion that it is amongst the Coelurosaurs that we are to look for the bird ancestor." However, he was prevented from doing so by the apparent lack of the clavicle in the predatory dinosaurs, which reflected his strict adherence to Dollo's Law: reptilian ancestors had possessed a clavicle, but had lost it at some point during their evolution to the dinosaurs. Therefore, in order for Heilmann to believe that bird ancestry lie in the dinosaurs, there would need to be proof of clavicles in dinosaurian clades.

Most coincidentally, a small theropod dinosaur named Oviraptor philoceratops had been discovered while Heilmann was working on his book, and was described by Henry Fairfield Osborn in 1924. Figure 8 of Osborn's paper, redrawn from the fossil, shows what was later proven to be an oviraptorid wishbone between the animal's arms, interpreted by Osborn as the interclavicle ("Ic." in Figure 8). Unfortunately, this important structure was misidentified. If Heilmann had examined this paper as closely as he had much of his source material – or had travelled to New York to see the specimens in person – he may have reversed his conclusions entirely.

As it was, Heilmann's conclusion was so persuasive that it forestalled further debate on the subject even in the face of additional conflicting evidence. In 1936, paleontologist Charles Lewis Camp described a new theropod from the Jurassic of North America, Segisaurus. Like Oviraptor, Segisaurus had an unmistakable clavicle, but unlike Oviraptor, it was also plainly identified as being such in the paper that described it. Despite this, the implication of a wishbone-bearing dinosaur was blatantly ignored until much later, and for many years the state of dinosaur research stagnated, possibly due to the effects of the Depression and World War II.

The reinvigoration of interest in the dinosaur–bird link was largely due to the discoveries and research of paleontologist John Ostrom in the 1960s. In particular was his discovery and description of the well-preserved dromaeosaur dinosaur Deinonychus. Ostrom described Deinonychus as being extremely bird-like, with avian features such as a furcula, large sternal plates, horizontal posture, a birdlike spine, and ossified sternal ribs and uncinate processes. Ostrom's study of this animal had the effect of revolutionizing the way people thought about dinosaurs: as metabolically energetic, active predators. Some years later, Ostrom also reanalyzed the fossils of Archaeopteryx, concluding that the animal was more reptilian than originally described by Heilmann, noting in particular the similarity of its feet to those of Deinonychus, as well as a host of other features. In fact, so strong were the similarities that the hand of Archaeopteryx was later described as "a miniature version of Deinonychus's." These discoveries provided the basis for the revival of the dinosaur–ancestry hypothesis of bird origins.

Models of flight evolution
Heilmann envisioned that birds evolved from ground–dwelling animals that became arboreal and capable of jumping between branches over time. Their descendants would eventually be able to glide as the length of leaps increased, leading to greater specialization and eventual flapping capabilities. This "from the trees down" hypothesis was originally proposed by Othniel C. Marsh in 1880. This general theory about the mode of the evolution of flight in birds has persisted to modern times, especially (but not exclusively) among opponents of a theropod origin of birds. This includes paleontologists such as Alan Feduccia, who essentially agree with Heilmann's assertion that the ancestors of birds must have been arboreal.

The origin of bird flight itself is still hotly debated. It is clear that feathers must have been a prerequisite for flight in birds (though flight may have not been a prerequisite for feathers). There has yet to be a consensus on whether flight involved from the ground up or the trees down, and Heilmann was largely responsible for popularizing the trees-down idea early on. The modern idea of the arboreal (or trees-down) hypothesis has changed little since Heilmann's time, and it states that bird flight would have originated by climbing birds gliding down from the tops of trees, making gliding a precursor to flapping or powered flight. As these early birds became more efficient gliders, they would have begun to extend their range and capability by developing more powerful flight. In this proposed mode of bird evolution, Heilmann's "Proavis" is strongly implicated, which would have probably been a climbing, perching, early-stage gliding quadruped. This hypothesis for the origin of bird flight has had many adherents, including Walter J. Bock and Alan Feduccia.

Competing with the arboreal hypothesis is the idea that birds evolved from running bird ancestors, known as the cursorial (or ground up) hypothesis. This scenario may have involved ancient birds jumping or running along the ground and briefly becoming airborne, perhaps to avoid obstacles or catch insects. As these animals strove to overcome the force of gravity, powered flight may have appeared early on. They may also have used their ground speed to run up trees or other steep slopes, developing increasingly sophisticated flapping mechanism to assist with this. This model requires a highly cursorial and feathered ancestor. Proponents of the cursorial hypothesis cite the legs, feet and hands of Archaeopteryx as inheritance from a cursorial maniraptoran ancestor. This model has also had many adherents over the years, including John Ostrom and Jacques Gauthier.

The arboreal hypothesis was popular in Heilmann's day, even prior to his research, as it had been advanced by Marsh. It fell out of favor following Ostrom's research in the 1960s and 1970s, which suggested that the ancestors of birds were fast–running bipedal animals, lending credence to the cursorial model. The focus shifted back to the arboreal model when several Chinese non–avian theropods from the Early Cretaceous were found in the early 2000s. These new finds, represented chiefly by Epidendrosaurus and Microraptor, have been described as possessing features that indicate an arboreal lifestyle; Microraptor even has flight feathers on its legs, which suggest it was a glider. While the arboreal hypothesis is still popular in modern times, there are several proponents of the cursorial model and no consensus has been established. Adherence to the arboreal model is shared both by paleontologists who accept the dinosaurian ancestry of birds, and by a minority who still believe birds to have evolved from a non-dinosaurian group of reptiles. Although the arboreal model was somewhat popular before Heilmann's research, his writings helped to advance and popularize it and the idea continues to have a hold.

Beebe's leg-wings

In the fourth section of The Origin of Birds, Heilmann examines the Tetrapteryx hypothesis proposed by William Beebe in 1915. This hypothesis was based on observations of bird embryos and hatchlings, which Beebe found to possess a presumably atavistic fringe of flight feathers on their hindlimbs. His main evidence came from examination of incipient quill feathers on the thigh of a four-day-old white-winged dove. He theorized based on this embryological fringe and the recapitulation theory that birds had once passed through a "Tetrapteryx" stage in their distant evolution, which he represented as a hypothetical four-winged gliding animal.

Heilmann, though excited about Beebe's idea, found little evidence for these leg-wings when studying the nestlings in the Zoological Museum collection in Copenhagen. He also examined the nestlings of more basal bird species, such as the ostrich and the emu, searching for a trace of leg-wings there, again without success. Even after studying the nestlings of birds closely related to Beebe's doves, including pigeons, he still found no trace of leg-wings. Instead he found on the nestlings' thighs "a series of permanent feathers, and no atavism. If it were a genuine relic from such a very remote past, it would make its appearance, like a glimpse, in the embryo or squab, quickly to vanish again." Heilmann went on to outline the morphological difficulties involved in such a leg-wing, indicating that it could hinder survival. In effect, Beebe's Tetrapteryx theory was completely disregarded by Heilmann, and this remained the consensus in ornithological literature until much later. Despite this, Heilmann's Proavis illustrations sport a short border of feathers behind the thigh, which some authors have suggested was inspired by Beebe's Tetrapteryx idea.

Beebe was relatively undeterred by the scientific community's acceptance of Heilmann's rejection of his theory, as is evidenced by the fact that he was still writing about his Tetrapteryx hypothesis well into the 1940s. His adherence to his theory was well-placed, as in 2003 a revolutionary discovery was made in the early Cretaceous Jiufotang Formation of Liaoning, China: Microraptor gui, the small, four-winged dromaeosaur that had led to renewed credence of the arboreal model for the origin of bird flight. This animal's most remarkable feature was the existence of long, pennaceous feathers on both its arms and legs, forming a set of four aerodynamic wings that its discoverers theorized were used for gliding. This discovery had the immediate effect of resurrecting the idea that leg feathers may have had some bearing on the origin of flight in birds, building on the idea originally proposed by Beebe and rejected by Heilmann.

Today, Beebe's 1915 description of his hypothetical four-winged bird ancestor is regarded as prescient, and there is no doubt that Microraptor looks startlingly similar to the almost-century old Tetrapteryx illustrations. After its discovery, Microraptor had the effect of both reinvigorating the arboreal hypothesis as well as finally putting an end to the widespread acceptance of Heilmann's disregard for the Tetrapteryx theory.

Footnotes

See also
 Proavis

References

External links
 Full text of The Origin of Birds at HathiTrust Digital Library
 The original Danish articles in Dansk Ornithologisk Forenings Tidsskrift'' 1 2 3 4 5

1926 non-fiction books
Paleontology books
Books about evolution
Ornithological literature
D. Appleton & Company books


title: Alcea tabrisiana

text:
Alcea tabrisiana is a species of flowering plant in the hollyhock genus Alcea, family Malvaceae. It is native to Turkey, the Transcaucasus, and Iran. It occurs on dry stony slopes, in mountain steppe and in forests, between 750 and 1,750 m elevation.

References

tabrisiana
Flora of Turkey
Flora of the Transcaucasus
Flora of Iran
Plants described in 1949
Taxa named by Friedrich Alexander Buhse
Taxa named by Pierre Edmond Boissier


title: Rugby Europe

text:
Rugby Europe is the administrative body for rugby union in Europe. It was formed in 1999 to promote, develop, organise, and administer the game of rugby in Europe under the authority of World Rugby (the sport's global governing body). However, it is not responsible for the organisation of the Six Nations Championship or the competitions run by European Professional Club Rugby (the European Rugby Champions Cup and Challenge Cup).

The predecessor to Rugby Europe was the Fédération Internationale de Rugby Amateur (FIRA), which was established in 1934 to administer rugby union in Europe outside the authority of the International Rugby Football Board (as World Rugby was then called), and came to spread outside the continent. FIRA agreed to come under the auspices of World Rugby in the 1990s, and appended 'Association Européenne de Rugby' to its name in a return to being a European body. In 2014 the organisation was renamed Rugby Europe as part of a re-branding.

After the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, Rugby Europe suspended Russia from international and European continental rugby union competition. In addition, the Rugby Union of Russia was suspended from Rugby Europe.

Member unions
Rugby Europe has 47 member unions as of December 2021. Not all European member unions are members of World Rugby. Rugby Europe's members are listed below, with the year each union joined World Rugby shown in brackets.

Thirty-nine World Rugby members are part of Rugby Europe:

Six members of Rugby Europe are not affiliated with World Rugby:

Nine European nations are not currently affiliated with Rugby Europe or World Rugby:

Notes:

History

FIRA (1934–1999)
In 1931, the French Rugby Federation (FFR) was suspended from playing against the other IRFB  nations, because the sport's authorities had suspected for many years that the (FFR) was allowing the abuse of the rules on amateurism.
As a result, Fédération Internationale de Rugby Amateur (FIRA) was founded in 1934.
It was designed to organise rugby union outside the authority of the International Rugby Football Board (as it was known at the time). The founder members were Italy, France, Spain, Belgium, Portugal, Catalonia, Romania, Holland and Germany. In 1941 the Spanish dictator Francisco Franco forcibly merged Catalonia's team into the Spanish rugby team. Nowadays the Catalan Federation is trying unsuccessfully to reverse this decision, claiming the historical rights as a founder member.

In 1965, FIRA inaugurated the FIRA Nation's Cup, and in 1974 the FIRA Championship, later renamed the European Nations Cup (ENC). The ENC provided international competition for European countries outside the Five Nations. The ENC was played in three divisions, comprising most countries in Continental Europe. The ENC later expanded its horizons, taking in Morocco and Tunisia.
The ENC first division competition was won most often by France, but Romania won it five times, and Italy once, in its last edition, in 1995–1997. France and Italy no longer play in the ENC, as both countries now play in the Six Nations Championship.

FIRA–AER (1999–2014)
In the 1990s, FIRA recognised the IRB as the governing body of rugby union worldwide and after negotiations with the IRB, it agreed to integrate itself within the organisation. In 1999, it changed its name to "FIRA – Association of European Rugby" (FIRA–AER), to promote and rule over rugby union in the European area and to run the junior world championship. FIRA-AER organised both the under-19 and under-21 world championships until IRB folded them into the competitions now known as the World Rugby Under 20 Championship and World Rugby Under 20 Trophy in 2008.

Rugby Europe (2014–present)
In June 2014, during the annual convention of FIRA-AER in Split, it was decided to rename the organisation to Rugby Europe to provide it with a shorter, more recognisable name.

Rugby Europe international competitions
The highest level of rugby competition played among European countries is the Six Nations Championship, contested every year in February and March by the tier-1 European nations: England, France, Ireland, Italy, Scotland and Wales. The tournament is the oldest international rugby tournament in the world, having begun in 1883, and has been known as the Six Nations Championship since 2000, when Italy joined; it had previously been known as the Home Nations and the Five Nations. There is no promotion or relegation, and since 2000, no country has entered or left the Six Nations. Rugby Europe is not responsible for the organisation of the Six Nations Championship, which is run by the national unions of its participating nations.

The next level of international rugby, played by tier-2 and tier-3 European countries, is the Rugby Europe International Championships. It is made up of five levels or divisions: Championship, Trophy, Conference 1, Conference 2 and Development. Each division consists of five, six, or eight teams, and is played on a round robin format for a one-year cycle, with promotion and relegation between levels and the end of the season. As of 2023, the top division Rugby Europe Championship is contested by eight countries – Belgium, Georgia, Germany, the Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Romania, and Spain. Of these countries, all but two (Belgium and Poland) have played in a Rugby World Cup and are routinely ranked in the Top 30 in the world. Other countries that have participated in past editions include the Czech Republic and Ukraine.

Other international competitions

Senior Men
Men XV
 Rugby Europe International Championships
 Championship
 Trophy
 Conference 1 (2 Conferences: North and South)
 Conference 2 (2 Conferences: North and South)
 Development
 Rugby World Cup 2023 Qualifier
 Rugby Europe Super Cup (Club tournament)
Men VII
 Rugby Europe Sevens
 Championship Series
 Trophy
 Conference 1
 Conference 2
 2020 Olympics Rugby Europe Men's Sevens Qualifier
Snow rugby
 Rugby Europe Snow Rugby Men's European Championship
Beach rugby
 European Beach Five Men's Rugby Championships

Senior Women
Women XV
 Rugby Europe Women's Championship
 Championship
 Trophy
 2021 Rugby World Cup qualifier(1)
Women VII
 Rugby Europe Women's Sevens
 Championship Series
 Trophy
 Conference
 2020 Olympics Rugby Europe's Women's Sevens Qualifier
Snow rugby
 Rugby Europe Snow Rugby Women's European Championship
Beach rugby
 European Beach Five Women's Rugby Championships

Youth
Men XV
 Rugby Europe Under-20 Championship
 Rugby Europe Under-18 Championship
Men VII
 Rugby Europe Under-18 Sevens Championship
 Championship Series
 Trophy
Women VII
 Rugby Europe Women’s Under-18 Sevens Championship
 Championship Series
 Trophy

Rugby Europe club competitions
The highest levels of European club competition played in Europe are the European Rugby Champions Cup and Challenge Cup. These tournaments are contested every year by clubs from the tier-1 European nations: England, France, Ireland, Italy, Scotland and Wales.  Rugby Europe is not responsible for the organisation of these competitions, which is run by the European Professional Club Rugby.

Some European clubs from tier-2 and tier-3 European nations participated in the European Shield, which made up the third-tier club competition below the now defunct Heineken Cup and European Challenge Cup. This competition, which was organised solely by European Rugby Cup Ltd, ran from 2002 to 2005 and was primarily made up of tier-1 nations club teams that were knocked out in the first round of the European Challenge Cup, with the addition of one or two teams from tier-2 and tier-3 European nations (Spain, Portugal, and Romania) invited to make up the numbers.

From 2014 to 2019 clubs from tier-2 and tier-3 European countries competed in the European Rugby Continental Shield. This competition was a joint venture between Rugby Europe, European Professional Club Rugby, and the Federazione Italiana Rugby and it provided the winners of this tournament entry into the European Rugby Challenge Cup.

In 2021 Rugby Europe set up the Rugby Europe Super Cup which enabled clubs from tier-2 and tier-3 European countries to participate annually. Teams are divided into two conferences: western and eastern. Each team will play every conference rival home and away. The two best teams from each conference will advance to the semi-finals, where they will compete to play in the final. Currently there are eight clubs involved but this is expected to rise to sixteen by 2025.

World Rugby Rankings

Professional competitions

The following table shows the professional rugby union competitions in various European countries.

Notes:
 Average attendances vary significantly by country within the Pro14—Ireland (12,347), Wales (8,136), Scotland (4,570), and Italy (2,744).
 The English Premiership and French Top 14 both turned professional in 1996. Two Italian teams joined the Celtic League (since renamed Pro12) in 2010.
 England's second-level Championship became fully professional in 2009 after having been semi-professional.

References

External links
 rugbyeurope.eu

Sports governing bodies in Europe
Sports organizations established in 1934
1934 establishments in Europe
Organizations based in Paris


title: Kenilworth Plantation House

text:
The Kenilworth Plantation House is a historic plantation house located at 2931 Bayou Road in St. Bernard Parish, Louisiana, United States. According to a sign in front of the house, the French Creole style house was built in 1759. Its nomination to the National Register of Historic Places, however, indicates it was built circa 1820. During the early 19th century, the French Creole style was the predominant architectural form of St. Bernard Parish; however, most of the parish's French Creole buildings from the period are no longer standing, and Kenilworth is one of the best-preserved examples of the style.

The two-story house has a raised basement, and the upper story is considered the primary living space. A gallery supported by turned colonnettes surrounds both stories of the house; all entrances from the gallery feature French doors. The house's hipped roof has an intricate truss support system and exposed, shaped rafter tails typical of Creole designs.

In the 1980s, the home was owned by Dr. Acosta, a Chalmette dentist.

The house was added to the National Register of Historic Places on April 24, 2006.

The house was a filming location for the movie Stay Alive.

References

Dr Acosta died in a car accident in the what the locals call the "Tunnel of Trees" which are oak trees in Meraux on St Bernard Highway.

External links
Louisiana National Register of Historic Places Database entry for the Kenilworth Plantation House

Plantation houses in Louisiana
Houses in St. Bernard Parish, Louisiana
Houses on the National Register of Historic Places in Louisiana
Creole architecture in Louisiana
Antebellum architecture
National Register of Historic Places in St. Bernard Parish, Louisiana


title: Direct conversion

text:
Direct conversion may refer to:

 Direct energy conversion (DEC), a scheme for power extraction from nuclear fusion,
 Direct-conversion receiver (DCR), a type of radio receiver.


title: Flock-1

text:
Flock-1 is a CubeSat satellite constellation launched on 9 January 2014. The satellite is built in a CubeSat bus, and each constellation consists of 28 satellites.
All instruments are powered by solar cells mounted on the spacecraft body, along with triple-folded wings, providing approximately 20 watts at maximal power.

Launch
Flock-1 constellation was launched from Mid-Atlantic Regional Spaceport Launch Pad 0, Wallops Island, on 9 January 2014 by an Antares 120 rocket. The satellites were deployed from the International Space Station (ISS) from 11 February 2014 to 28 February 2014.

Another Flock start in January 2015 on a Falcon 9 launch vehicle.

Mission
The satellite is intended for commercial Earth observation service. For this purpose, each satellite is equipped with a camera capable of  ground resolution. Details of intended service by individual satellites were never released publicly and are largely unknown.

References

External links
 Flock-1

Spacecraft launched in 2014
Commercial imaging satellites of the United States
CubeSats
Satellites deployed from the International Space Station


title: Conversion reactor

text:
In futurology and science fiction stories, a conversion reactor is any artificial device or process which can result in higher or complete conversion of matter into energy, or vice versa in some proportion of E = mc2.

Energy to matter conversion
Positron and electron production: For photons at high-energy (MeV scale and higher), photon–photon collisions can efficiently convert the photon energy into matter in the form of a positron and an electron:

 +  →   +

Proton and antiproton production: Conventional matter consists of protons and electrons, with electrons having insignificant mass compared to protons. One conventional model for producing protons from energy is extremely high-energy cosmic ray protons colliding with nuclei in the interstellar medium, via the reaction:  +  A →  +  +  + A.  (A represents an atom, p a proton, and  an antiproton.) A portion of the kinetic energy of the initial proton is used to create two additional nuclei: another proton plus an antiproton.

Matter to energy conversion
Conventional nuclear reactions such as nuclear fission and nuclear fusion convert relatively small amounts of matter only indirectly into useful energy, such as electricity or rocket thrust. For electricity production released nuclear energy in the form of heat is typically used to boil water to turn a turbine-generator.

Possibly matter is almost completely converted into energy in the cores of neutron stars and black holes by a process of nuclei collapse resulting in: proton → positron + 938 MeV, resulting in a  >450 MeV positron-electron jet. Trace nuclei swept up in such a beam would achieve an approximate energy of (nucleus mass/electron mass) × 450 MeV, for example an iron atom could achieve about 45 TeV. An up to 45 TeV atom impacting a proton in the interstellar medium should result in the p + A process described above.

Ion-electron or positron-electron plasma with magnetic confinement theoretically allows direct conversion of particle energy to electricity by the separation of the positive particles from the negative particles with magnetic deflection. Direct conversion of particle energy to thrust is theoretically simpler, merely requiring magnetically directing a neutral plasma beam. Present lab production of relativistic 5 MeV positron-electron beams mimic on a small scale the relativistic jets from compact stars, and allow small scale studies how different elements interact with 5 MeV positron-electron beams, how energy is transferred to particles, the shock effect of gamma-ray bursts, and possible direct thrust and electricity generation from neutral plasmas. Lab positron-electron plasmas could be useful for studying compact star jets and other phenomena. However thrust generation or magnetically separating neutral beams for electrical generation will probably only be useful if there is a practical continuous process for generating neutral plasma by nuclear reactions.

See also
 Antimatter
 Post-scarcity
 Replicator (Star Trek)

References

Science fiction themes
Fictional technology


title: Alchemilla bursensis

text:
Alchemilla bursensis is a species of lady's mantle that is endemic to two sites in northwestern Turkey; the Tahtaköprü forest and near Sincanlı. It inhabits streamsides and banks under beech forests. It is likely to be threatened by climate change and forestry.

References

bursensis
Endemic flora of Turkey
Near threatened flora of Asia


title: Zhang Renjie

text:
Zhang Renjie (Chang Jen-chieh 19 September 1877 − 3 September 1950), born Zhang Jingjiang, was a political figure and financial entrepreneur in the Republic of China. He studied and worked in France in the early 1900s, where he became an early Chinese Anarchist under the influence of Li Shizeng and Wu Zhihui, his lifelong friends. He became wealthy trading Chinese artworks in the West and investing on the Shanghai stock exchange. Zhang gave generous financial support to Sun Yat-sen and was an early patron of Chiang Kai-shek. In the 1920s, he, Li, Wu and the educator Cai Yuanpei were known as the fiercely anti-Communist Four Elders of the Chinese Nationalist Party.

Early years
Zhang was born September 13, 1877, in Wuxing, Zhejiang, but his family's ancestral home was Nanxun, Zhejiang Province, where his grandfather was a prosperous salt and silk merchant. Zhang's father, Zhang Baoshan (张宝善, 1856–1926), developed the family business, and married into a family of Shanghai silk compradores which had extensive contacts among Western businesses.

As a boy, Zhang was adventurous and bright; he enjoyed both riding horses and calligraphy, memorized classics, and was especially good at Go. As a child he suffered from a form of arthritis, which continued to affect him for the rest of his life, and an eye condition which eventually required him to wear dark glasses. Yet he was a sociable child. So self-confident was he that he gave himself the name "Renjie," meaning "outstanding personality." Zhang's grandfather, convinced that Renjie should become an official, purchased the office of "Expectant Daotai" for him. The family arranged a marriage for him with Yao Hui, and the first of his five daughters was born in 1901.

On a trip to Beijing in 1901 to arrange a suitable posting for himself as "Expectant Daotai," Zhang met the equally well-placed and adventurous Li Shizeng, son of a high Qing official. The two discovered that they shared a dissatisfaction with the state of Chinese politics and society. When in 1902 Li was appointed as attache on the staff of the Minister to France, Sun Baoqi, Zhang used his family influence to join him and be appointed as "Third Secretary." After stopping over in Shanghai to meet Wu Zhihui, who was by then a well-known anti-Manchu revolutionary, Zhang and Li arrived in Paris as part of Sun's delegation on December 17, 1902. Zhang's wife, Yao Hui, accompanied him.  Li quickly resigned his official position to study French and biology, but Zhang did not resign until 1905.

Paris, anarchism, and revolution

In Paris he established the Ton-ying Company (), with a gallery on the Place de la Madeleine,  which imported Chinese tea, silk, and art. This was the first of its kind in France, and employed, among others, C.T. Loo, who was to become one of the most influential dealers of Chinese art. With the financial assistance of $300,000 Chinese dollars from his father, the firm was the basis of Zhang's own considerable fortune.  Ton-ying remained a family business branching out to New York from its original base in Paris and its source in Shanghai. Because of Zhang’s position in China, the Company was able to source high quality works of art directly, including items from the old Imperial Collection. Although Zhang later dealt extensively on the Shanghai stock exchange, a great deal of his wealth and therefore the financing of the Nationalist (then Tongmenghui) cause, came from the profits created by the Ton-ying Company.

 Li soon introduced Zhang to the doctrines of Anarchism and they began to apply them to analyzing the situation in China. Zhang told friends of the anti-religion and anti-family theories which he had adopted. He also opposed traditional ideas of sex: "It is obvious," he told them, "the reason why society is divided along sexual lines is because of traditional customs.... It's not impossible to reform them." Zhang's interest in anarchism later cooled, however, and he was probably more attracted by its aura of science and iconoclastic social reform than its political side.

On a trip to London in 1905, Zhang renewed his friendship with Wu Zhihui, who was nearly ten years older than Li and Zhang, and a deeper scholar. Backed by Zhang's money, the three formed the Shijie she (The World), a publishing house for radical social ideas. On a steamship returning from China to Europe in 1906, Zhang met and was entranced by Sun Yat-sen, the anti-Manchu revolutionist, giving him the first of many substantial contributions. The two established a code for Sun to use if he needed money: "A" meant send $10,000 Chinese dollars, "B" meant send $20,000, and so forth. On his return to Paris, Zhang led Wu and Li to join Sun's Tongmenghui, the more politically radical of the anti-Manchu groups. Zhang had been sworn into the society by Hu Hanmin and Feng Ziyou, two of Sun's important lieutenants (in view of his attacks on religion, they allowed him to omit the oath "by heaven").

The three anarchists —Zhang, Li, and Wu — established a relationship which lasted for the rest of their lives. In 1908, they started a journal, Xin Shiji (New Century), titled La Novaj Tempaj in Esperanto, funded by Zhang and edited by Wu. Another major contributor was Chu Minyi, a student from Zhejiang who accompanied Zhang back from China and would help him travel in the years to come. The journal translated radical French thinkers and introduced Chinese students in France to the history of radicalism, especially the anarchist classics of Peter Kropotkin, Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, and Élisée Reclus. They were especially impressed by their conversations with Jean Grave, who had spent two years in prison for publishing "Society on the Brink of Death" (1892) an anarchist pamphlet. But Zhang, who continued to travel back and forth to China, did not have money enough to finance both Sun Yat-sen and the journal, which ceased publication in 1910.

When the Revolution of 1911 broke out, Zhang returned to China. He was one of the organizers of the Diligent Work-Frugal Study Movement, which sent worker-students to France. Though he did not take up Sun's offer to be minister of finance, he continued to give financial support to Sun and his party, which became especially important when Sun was forced to flee to Japan as Yuan Shikai took control of the new republic. Zhang used his money and charm to make friends in many parts of Shanghai society, including the underworld, and especially among those from Zhejiang province.

Relations with the Nationalist Party and Chiang Kai-shek
During these years, Zhang did well on the Shanghai stock market and shared his earnings with Sun and the emerging Nationalist Party (GMD).  His  GMD friends from Zhejiang included Chen Qimei, a patron of the then unknown Chiang Kai-shek. When Chen was assassinated, apparently on orders of Yuan Shikai, Zhang took over Chen's role as Chiang's mentor. After Yuan's death in 1916, Sun continued to rely on Zhang, and Zhang offered Chiang Kai-shek substantial financial help, personal advice, and key political backing. On a visit to Zhang's home, Chiang met Ah Feng (Jennie), a friend of Zhu Yimin, Zhang's second wife, and immediately determined to marry her. When Ah Feng's family commissioned a detective report which found that Chiang was not only unemployed but also had a wife and concubine, Zhang reassured them that he would vouch for the young man's good intentions. At their wedding, Zhang delivered a speech wishing the couple happiness and success.  Zhang also hit it off with Chen Lifu, another of Chiang's most important advisers and supporters, also from Zhejiang, organizer of the right-wing CC Clique

 In 1923, Sun invited Soviet advisors to reorganize the Nationalist Party and incorporate the Chinese communists (First United Front), setting up an internal rivalry between the left and the right wings. Zhang, as a right-wing leader, was elected to the Central Executive Committee (CEC), along with Li Shizeng, Wu Zhihui, and Cai Yuanpei, all from Zhejiang. They became known as the GMD's  “Four Elders", or Yuanlao (国民党元老), in Japanese, genrō. Chiang Kai-shek built his rise to power and subsequent long political life on his ability to skillfully using this and other groups for a certain time, then shifting his support to opposing factions to keep both friends and enemies off balance.

When Sun died in 1925, Zhang was one of the witnesses to his deathbed Political Will, and was elected to the new State Council which convened in Canton. In the Zhongshan Gunboat Incident of March 1926, Chiang Kai-shek's life was supposedly endangered by a kidnapping plot. Chiang moved to suppress the Leftists, surprising many who had thought of him as a leftist, threatening a debilitating schism. Zhang counseled Chiang against identifying himself too closely with the right, and may have attempted to reconcile Chiang with the leftist Wang Jingwei, who had been his friend from their anarchists days in Europe.

The Four Elders were fiercely anti-Communist. Their anarchist principles led them to see the poor and uneducated as members of the Chinese nation, not members of the working class. They accused the Communists of creating class divisions and promoting class warfare.  The radical left wing of the party, led by Wang Jingwei, who set up its own headquarters at Wuhan, mounted a campaign with the slogan "Down With The Muddle-headed, Old and Feeble Zhang Jingjiang." Zhang remarked to his friend Chen Lifu, "if I were really muddle-headed, old, and feeble, would it be worthwhile to make the effort to knock me down?"  A Soviet advisor recalled that Zhang "was able to generate incredible energy in the struggle with the leftists and Communists" even though he could not walk and had to be carried upstairs in his wheelchair.  In April 1927, Zhang and the other Four Elders urged Chiang Kai-shek to purge the leftists and initiate the White Terror which killed thousands.

At this time, a rift opened between Zhang and Chiang Kai-shek which eventually became bitter and lasted until Zhang's death. Zhang had introduced Chiang to his second wife, Jennie, who was a friend of his wife, Yimin, and had felt aggrieved when Chiang abandoned her for Soong Mei-ling. To intimates Zhang confided "a man of moral integrity should not go back on his word, let alone a state leader!" In the following years, Soong Mei-ling apparently resented Zhang for his loyalty to Jennie. She and the Zhang family did not speak to each other. In 1927, after the success of the Northern Expedition and the alliance with the wealthy Soong family, Chiang perhaps was in less need of Zhang's help, and might also have feared Zhang's growing power. Zhang as an anarchist also opposed organized religion, while Chiang converted to Christianity.

The four friends from anarchist days of cultural exchange and education in France collaborated on the National Labor University, which revived two abandoned factories and used them for Work–Study.  Li Shizeng became chairman of the newly created Imperial Palace Museum in 1925 and was responsible for the inventory of the Imperial Collections. Zhang oversaw the first stage of the removal of more than half of the Imperial Collections to Shanghai in 1933 following the Japanese invasion of Manchuria. It was during this period that many imperial works of art found their way into Western collections, through dealers such as Zhang.

Chiang then asked Zhang to head the National Reconstruction Commission, whose assignment was to control the industrial sector of the economy. The Commission confiscated a number of private mines and power companies, though its influence was soon undercut by the National Economic Council headed by T. V. Soong.  Over the next few years, Zhang continued to play a profitable and influential role in Shanghai financial circles, sometimes in conjunction with Soong, sometimes in rivalry.

Provincial government and declining influence
From November 1928 to January 1930, Zhang was governor of Zhejiang, his and Chiang Kai-shek's home province. Zhang suppressed rural unrest, perhaps to avoid the opposition of landlords and local elites to his projects for building infrastructure for the power industry, as well as heading the National Reconstruction Commission. However, in 1931, T. V. Soong took charge of economic development training and limited the powers of Zhang and his commissions.  Yet Zhang's ambitious plans to expand the power grid and infrastructure made some progress before the destruction in the Japanese invasion. His pet project, however, the Hangzhou Electric Plant, had to be sold to a private group because low demand and budget shortfalls.

Zhang's influence on Chiang Kai-shek continued to decline and relations cooled. The Generalissimo placed men who were loyal into the Zhejiang government and undercut Zhang's authority in ways which embarrassed him. "If he wants me to hand in my resignation," Zhang asked after Chiang criticized the state of security in Zhejiang, "why should he play such an underhanded trick?" Giving the excuse that he needed to travel abroad for his health, Zhang resigned as governor in 1930. He kept his position in the National Reconstruction Commission but found that Chiang did not grant it enough money for its work. Zhang contributed 4,000 yuan of his own.

It is said that when he heard the news of the Japanese attack on Shanghai in 1931, he was struck with the strength of the Chinese proverb "the strong making meat of the weak," and became a vegetarian.  By the mid-1930s, Zhang had largely retired from politics and pursued his artistic inclinations and began to practice Buddhism. In 1937, at the age of fifty-four, in spite of failing health and financial strains, he decided to take his family to live in Hong Kong, then left for Europe. When his brother suggested that he telegraph Chiang Kai-shek to inform him, Zhang snapped "Why should I inform him? He's not my boss! It's none of his business!" Zhang and his family settled in Riverdale, in New York City. He and Li Shizeng sometimes met to look over the Hudson River and reminisce.

Zhang died on 3 September 1950. When his daughter, who was living in Taipei, heard the news, she did not have the courage to inform Chiang Kai-shek directly, fearing the lingering enmity between the two men. Instead, she informed Wu Zhihui, who visited Chiang at 6:00 AM the next morning. Chiang sent a telegram of condolence to the family in the United States: "You were my companion in adversity and our friendly feelings were close..." Chiang presided and wrote an inscription in his own calligraphy for Zhang's memorial service: "Deep grief for losing my teacher." He arranged for the Nationalist Party in Taiwan to send money to Zhang's family for the services in New York.

Family life

Zhang was the member of an extensive family. His father, Zhang Baoshan (张宝善 1856-1926), had five children, of whom Jingjiang was the second. He married twice, first to Yao Hui 姚蕙 ( -1918). The marriage produced five daughters: Therese 蕊英 (1901?- 1950); Yvonne 芷英(1902-1975); Suzanne 芸英 (1904- 1998); Georgette (荔英 Liying; 1904-1995); Helen (菁英 Jingying 1910-2004).  Georgette in 1930 married Eugene Chen in Paris.  Helen married Robert K.S. Lim, a medical doctor from Singapore who worked with Chinese army during the war, in 1946.

In 1918, Yao Hui was killed by a falling branch in Riverside Park in New York City.  In 1920, Zhang met and married Zhu Yimin (朱逸民 1901-1991 in Shanghai. They had five daughters and two sons.

Legacy and reputation
Nelson and Laurence Chang's history of the Zhang family points out that Western histories portray Zhang Jingjiang as a "menacing figure, a malign influence in the Chinese political scene." They object to Sterling Seagrave's The Soong Dynasty, for instance, which says that Zhang's disease "crippled one of his feet and thereafter gave him the lurching gait of Shakespeare's Richard III. This sinister millionaire, whom some Westerners referred to as Curio Chang and the French in Shanghai referred to as Quasimodo, became one of Chiang Kai-shek's most important political patrons." They go on to recognize that Zhang was a revolutionary who was not afraid to use violence, but that his political rivals did much to darken his reputation.

Zhang was a successful investor and business man and one of his investments was a European style neighbourhood in Shanghai, Jing'an Villa, which still stands today. It can be found at 1025 Nanjing Xi Lu, in Shanghai's Jing'an district. Built in 1932, it once housed members of the Western and Chinese elite in Shanghai's International Settlement.  Its European-inspired architecture stands as a reminder of the interaction between Europe and China, of which Zhang was a part.

Nelson and Laurence Chang's book "The Zhangs from Nanxun" includes a family tree (page 526) which lists the East Branch of the family: descendants of Zhang Baoshan include his sons Zhang Jingjiang and Zhang Bianqun,  whose eldest son the scholar Zhang Naiyan was the first Chancellor of the University at Nanjing and Chinese Ambassador to Belgium. Zhang Naiyan's daughter Jane Chang emigrated to Lynn, Massachusetts in 1949 with her husband Arthur Yau; their eldest son is poet and critic John Yau.

References

Citations

Sources

 "Chang Jen-chieh," in

 Lloyd Eastman, "Nationalist China during the Nanking Decde," in

  Available at The Anarchist Library.

External links

Chinese anti-communists
Chinese revolutionaries
Chinese anarchists
Members of the Kuomintang
People of the Northern Expedition
Republic of China politicians from Zhejiang
Tongmenghui members
1877 births
1950 deaths
Chinese expatriates in France


title: 2007 Maldivian Second Division Football Tournament

text:
The 2007 Second Division Football Tournament was the 2nd edition of the Second Division Football Tournament in the Maldives. Club All Youth Linkage won the tournament after defeating Vyansa on penalties.

Final

References

External links
 Draw for Sikaada & BG Haveeru Online (DHIVEHI)

Maldivian Second Division Football Tournament seasons
Maldives
Maldives
2


title: Perfect Stranger (musician)

text:
Perfect Stranger is the stage name of Yuli Fershtat, an Israeli musician, producer and DJ, born in 1970 in Moscow, Russia, moving to Israel at the age of 11.

Fershtat has previously released music under guise of 'BLT'. Perfect Stranger is known for his own distinctive sound, characterised by beats and patiently built compositions. His music often defies genres, bridging between progressive trance and techno with a presence of tribal and psychedelic elements. Fershtat released 8 albums, both as 'BLT' and as Perfect Stranger and a long list of 12”, EPs and compilation tracks and compiled few compilations. He is also the owner of the 'Digital Structures' label, which he bought in 2011, and since then has been releasing music by himself and others on it.

Music

Musical background and influences
Fershtat was surrounded by music since his birth coming from a family of classical pianists, and studied piano from the age of four. He stated as musical influences psychedelic progressive rock, such as King Crimson, Genesis (band), Jethro Tull (band) dipped in some hard rock, such as Led Zeppelin & Deep Purple and some Blues.

He also mentioned Jean Michel Jarre’s Oxygène as critical to his musical development and interest in electronic music. In 1992/93 he visited India and Goa and discovered Electronic Psychedelic music (which he hated till that time and greatly admired since). Another visit to Goa in 1994/95 solidified his interest in Goa Trance and Psychedelic Trance. During these years, Fershtat did not write music but was traveling the world and playing guitar, jamming with other musicians he met on the road.

Earl years - BLT
Fershtat started producing after his friends bought him a synthesizer for his 27th birthday. Intuitively he was drawn to produce psychedelic trance since he was very much involved with it at the time and felt close to the rhythms and the atmosphere that it produced, and believing that tribal music such as psychedelic trance is essential for people to unite. He chose the name BLT, which stood for a favourite sandwich of his, to show a lack of ego in music, and that the name itself and what it says are not the important thing, as a kind of antithesis to blasting names, which a lot of groups use, especially in the trance scene. The first BLT album Alchemic Anecdote was released on the Tel Aviv-based label 'Krembo Records' in 1999. His 2nd album, Presence was released on 'HOM-Mega Productions' in the following year. BLT 3rd album, God is Love, featured more down-tempo music, with groovy and more complex rhythms, and was released in 2002, also on 'HOM-Mega Productions'. During that time period Fershtat started working with Danni Makov - former drummer of Nikmat HaTraktor, an Israeli rock band, and one of the most important drummers in Israeli Rock. Together the two put on a live show, where the drummer play part of the set, that now felt more alive. Afterwards the duo extended their work and put out a 4th BLT album, Anything U Want on the label Tokyo Dance in 2004.

Perfect Stranger
In 2005 Fershtat decided to bring an end to the BLT project as he no longer citing lack of overseas bookings and his interest in Acupuncture and Chinese medicine as the main reasons. Then Michael Abel-Larsen, one of the owners of Iboga Records, suggested he produce music with slower BPM tempo. He chose the name Perfect Stranger because of a Goa track by that name by Sandman and the Deep Purple song of the same name.
The first Perfect Stranger album, Learning = Change was released in the Danish record label Iboga Records, in 2006, and a remixes/collaborations album named Changed was released the year after and featured some of the most important artists in the progressive trance world at the time, including Atmos, Vibrasphere, Ace Ventura and Antix, who remixed some of Perfect Stranger tracks, while he remixed some of theirs.
Free Cloud, the third Perfect Stranger's album, and Fershtat`s seventh album altogether, was released late in 2008, and is the album that brought him worldwide attention  that crossed genres and scenes and is considered by many to be his best album yet. The inspiration for the album title was based on David Bowie`s song, as Fershtat claimed he " felt like that Wild Eyed Boy from Free Cloud, that David Bowie used to sing about 35 years ago". Free Cloud was characterized by monotone, "technoidic feel", and cross over between genres as Fershtat used the best parts in from the genres that inspired him, mostly techno.

Perfect Stranger’s fourth album, Leap of Faith came out in 2012, also on Iboga Records. The album consists of 3 CDs. The 1st containing new compositions including collaborations with Eat Static, Liquid Soul & Loud; the 2nd consists of new versions and live edits to already released tracks and the 3rd is a recording of a live set at the Indigo Festival, at the Sea of Galilee, Israel, in May 2012.
Throughout the years Perfect Stranger has performed live and as a DJ in many leading electronic music festivals worldwide. Thus, Perfect Stranger played Glade Festival UK in 2008 and 2009, Symbiosis Gathering in California at 2009, 2012, 2013. Perfect Stranger played most of Europe`s trance festivals including Boom Festival in Portugal where he played in every edition since 2010, Antaris Project in 2010 and 2012, Ozora Festival in 2012, and many more. Perfect stranger is also very popular in Australia, playing there at the Rainbow Serpent Festival in 2009, 2011 and 2015, as well as in Maitreya Festival in 2010 and 2014, Strawberry Fields Festival 2011 and 2012, Subsonic Festival in 2011 & 2013  and the Eclipse Festival in 2012. He also performed extensively in big festivals in Central and South America including Universo Paralello Festival in Brazil 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2013, as well as in festivals in South Africa, New Zealand, Canada and many more.

Perfect Stranger has released four full-length albums between 2006 and 2012, and twenty one singles and EPs in the same period. His tracks have been released on a number of record labels including Iboga Records, Flow Records, Tribal Vision, Echoes, Digital Structures and more.

Discography - BLT

Albums
 Alchemic Anecdote (1999), Krembo Records
 Presence (2000), HOM-Mega Productions
 God is Love (2002), HOM-Mega Productions
 Anything U Want [w/ Danni Makov] (2004), Tokyo Dance

Singles & EPs
 This Is Not / Gingischana / Pulp Fiction (1999), Krembo Records
 Gravy For The Brain (2000), Balloonia Ltd.
 God is Love (2002), Iboga Records
 News (2004), Iboga Records
 Patterns Of (Remixes) [w/ Danni Makov] (2008), Iboga Records

Appearances
 Soul Sacrifice (1997),  Various - The Forum
 Lemon (1999),  D.J Zoo-B - Psychedelic Krembo Selected Tunes Part 4
 Beat Manifesto (2000), Various - UFS (Unidentified Forms Of Sound) Chapter # Two: Psychological Disorder
 Clear Vision (2000), Various - IsrAliens 2, Bizzaro, Various - Psychedelic Trance 2001 Volume 1
 Human Cube Factory (2000), Xerox - In My Brain
 Clear of Vision (2001), Various - Virtual Trance Vol. 2
 White Lotus [feat. Gidi Hovek Olam] (2001), Various - Rolling Synthochords
 Rat In My Kitchen [w/ Future Prophecy] (B.L.T. Rmx) (2001), Various - Full On Volume 5
 Bass Tah (2001), Various - IsrAliens 3: Conflict
 Cruise Control (2002), Various - Goa Volume 2
 Froggy Business (2002), Various - Ectoplasma
 The Calling (2002), Various - U.F.S 3 - Unidentified Forms Of Sound
 If You Call It, It Will Come [w/ Digital Manta] (2002), Various - Under Construction 2 - Re:Construct
 Purple Lotus [feat. Gidi Hovek Olam] (2002), Gidi Hovek Olam - New Frontiers
 BLT (2002),Various - Generations
 Screwdriver (2002), Various - Amalgamated Amalgamation
 The Door Part I [feat. DJ Nadi] (2002) - Various - Travelocity
 Cruise Control (2002), Sesto Sento - B.P.M - Bionic Pulse Method
 Tale Of A Snail [w/ Morax] (2003), Various - Frequent Flyers
 The Rain Song [w/ Danni Makov] (2004), Various - Goa Volume 9
 Subway [w/ Elysium] (2004), Various - Urban Legends
 Clear Vision (PsyCraft Remix) (2004), Various - Goa 2004 Vol. 2 & Various - Mental Case
 The Slapper (2004),  Mapusa Mapusa & Laureth - Irresistible Meltdown 3
 Implant [w/ Morax] (Perfect Stranger Remix) (2005), Various - Globalize
 Anything U Want [w/ Danni Makov] (Zen Mechanics Remix) (2005), Ganje, Duniya & Rush
 Maze (2005), Various - dtect Volume 2
 Space Boogie [feat. DJ Nadi] (2006), Various - Goa 2006 Vol. 3
 Space Boogie [feat. DJ Nadi] (Aerospace Remix) (2006), DJ Huda-G - G-Spot & Various - Hexagon Experience Chapter
 SPO [w/ 40%] (2007), Various - Goa-Head Volume
 Six Feet Under (Perfect Stranger Rmx) (2007), Various - Global Goa Trance Network
 Patterns Of [w/ Danni Makov] (A Balter Extended Version) (2008), Emok & Banel - Set:8 - Electronic Ballroom & DJ Mikadho - Goa Beach Volume 8
 Suspended Animation (2009), DJ Edoardo - Neurology Volume:3
 Patterns Of [w/ Danni Makov] (A Balter & Eitan Reiter Remix) (2011), Emok - Best Of My Sets vol 02
 Six Feet Under (Perfect Stranger Live Mix) (2011), Banel - Best Of My Sets
 Monkey & The Rabbit (Egorythmia Remix) (2011), Vaishiyas - Progressive Psytrance Picks Vol. 07
 Monkey + The Rabbit Shoulder (2011), DJ Microstar - Special Blend Vol.01

Discography - Perfect Stranger

Albums
 Learning = Change (2006), Iboga Records
 Changed (2007), Iboga Records
 Free Cloud (2008), Iboga Records
 Leap of Faith (2012), Iboga Records

Compilations
 Set/4 - Essentials by Yuli Fershtat (2005), Iboga Records
 Hibernation by Yuli Fershtat (2006), Iboga Records

Singles & EPs
 Ode Ao Sol Remixes (2008), Beef Records
 Clear Vision 07' EP (2008), Iboga Records
 Stardust EP (2009), Iboga Records
 Forty Two (2010), Digital Structures
 Engines On (2010), Digital Structures
 Clear Vision 07-Remixes (2010), Echoes Records
 Lizard (2010), Echoes Records
 Prata Da Casa EP (2010), Flow Vinyl
 The Bite (2011), Digital Structures
 Slope (2011), Digital Structures
 OUCH! (2011), Digital Structures
 Koltun Remixes (2012), Digital Structures
 Twist In Hell (2012), Iboga Records
 Leap Of Faith EP (2013), Iboga Records
 Sad Paradise Remixing Perfect Stranger (2013), Iboga Records
 Pick N' Roll (2013), Digital Structures
 Perfect Stranger Remixes (2013), Iboga Records
 Slope 2014 (2014), Digital Structures
 Perfect Stranger Remixes (2014), Iboga Records
 Been There Done That (2014), Digital Structures
 Himmelrich (2014), Iboga Records

Appearances
 It’s All About (2005), Tony Comanti - Grand Avenue
 What's The Lineup (2005), Banel & Emok - Set/5 - Summer Collection
 Nobody's Perfect (2005), Yuli Fershtat - Set/4 - Essentials
 Diamond In The Rough [w/ Behind Blue Eyes] (2006), Various - Goa 2006 Vol. 4
 Truth [w/ Emok] (2006), DJ Bim - Goa 2006 Vol.5
 Starter (2006), Various - Digital Age
 Consequences (2006), Various - Tantra Trance Vol. 2 & Various - Progressive Movement & Various - Progressive Beats
 Perfect Ace [w/ Ace Ventura] (2006), Various - Think Different & Various - Goa Love Vol. 1
 Breeze (2006), Various - :In:Deep:An:Dance: 2006 & Various - Goabeats
 Diamond In The Rough [w/ Behind Blue Eyes] (Perfect Stranger Edit) (2006), Various - Daily Basis
 Diamond In The Rough [w/ Behind Blue Eyes] (BBE Mix) (2006), Emok & Banel - Dawn Summer Collection Vol. 2
 Bliss (2006), Various - Goa Girl Volume 3 & Yuli Fershtat - Hibernation
 Eyes Wide Open [w/ Sunseek] (2007), Various - Progressive Goa Trance Volume 6 & Vedant & Odiseo - Switch
 Perfect Ace [w/ Ace Ventura] (Atmos Remix) (2007), Emok & Banel - Progressive Goa Trance Volume 5 & Various - Diamonds
 Eyes Wide Open [w/ Sunseek] & Hyperdrive (Behind Blue Eyes Rmx) (2007), Various - Yellow Sunshine Explosion New Releases !!! & Behind Blue Eyes - CPH
 The Medicine (2007), DJ Zombi - Drums And Roses
 Mountain High [w/ Morax] (2007), Various - Trancendental Journey Volume 1 & DJ Bim - Goa 2008 Vol.1
 Ode Ao Sol [feat. Pena] (2007), Citizen aka Zen Mechanics - Uncharted
 Clear Vision 07 (Fiord Remix) (2007), Treavor Moontribe - Set:9 Desert Selections
 Morning Blues (Ace Ventura Remix) (2008), Ace Ventura - Re:Boot
 Morning Blues (Ace Ventura Remix) (2008), DJ Tulla & Der Bus - Goa Beach Volume 10
 Stardust (Felguk Remix) (2009), Emok & Lenny Ibizarre - Set 10 - CPH-IBZ
 Bliss (Life Style Remix) (2009), Life Style - RMX
 Wild Cave [w/ Liquid Soul] (2009), Liquid Soul - Cocktails & DJ Martin - Freak The Tune Vol. 2 & Various - Progressive Psytrance Pieces Volume 3
 The Medicine (Khainz Rmx) (2009), Koszki - Blue Addiction - The Koszki Dose
 Easy (2009), Various - Top Picks
 Ode Ao Sol [feat. Pena] (Stephan Hinz Remix) (2009), Various - Budenzauber Volume Eight - 25 Minimal Techno Tracks
 Stardust  (Moonbeam Remix) (2009), Emok & Chris-A-Nova - Progressive Goa Trance Volume 9
 Dr. Feelgood (Blackout Remix) (2009), Blackout - New Perspective Vol. 2
 Living In The Past (Magitman Remix Part 2) (2010), Various - Vanguard 3 & Various - Haiti Appeal Project
 Free Cloud (Perfect Stranger & A Balter Remix) (2010), Various - Hot Picks II
 Free Cloud (Sensient Rmx) (2010), Woodsman - Expansion Pack
 Prata Da Casa (2010), Pena & Nano-Mechanic - Uncharted Vol.2
 Easy (Moosfiebr Remix) (2011), Various - Kinky Beats - Zürich Night Edition Vol. 3
 Perfect Hook [feat. Captain Hook] 2011, Captain Hook - Human Design & Various - Set: 12 - Iboga Trance Classics
 A Musquito Bit My Leg (Manuel De La Mare Remix) (2011), Emok & Banel* - Reconstruction
 Koltun (2011), Emok - Best Of My Sets vol 02
 A Mosquito Bit My Leg (2011), Dj Mizoo - Timegate 2012
 Lizard [w/ Eitan Reiter] (2011), Treavor Moontribe - Between Worlds
 Easy (Ruls & Navarro Remix) (2011), Banel - Best Of My Sets
 Slope (Hedflux Remix) (2012), Various - At The Crossroads Vol.2
 Slope (2012), Various - At The Crossroads Vol.01
 Sweet Water Dolphin (Motion Drive Remix) (2012), Cubixx & Jensson - Selection 2012 & DJ Prozak - Goa Volume 50
 Razorblade [w/ Ritmo] (2012), Nitrodrop - Flexible
 Sweet Water Dolphin (Motion Drive Remix) (2012), Cubixx - Carrots & Stick Vol. 2
 Ode Ao Sol [feat. Pena] (Liquid Soul Remix) (2012), Liquid Soul - Groove Attack
 Free Cloud (2012 Baby Grand Mix) & Carnalisimo (2013), Various - Set: 14 - Iboga Records Classics
 No. 1 (Mr. What? Remix) (2013), Various - Set: 18 - Iboga Trance Classics
 Leap Of Faith (Human Element Remix) (2013), Various - Set: 17 - Iboga Trance Classics
 Leap Of Faith (2013), Various - Set: 15 - Iboga Trance Classics
 Razorblade [w/ Ritmo] (2013), Captain Hook - Best Of My Sets vol 09
 Perfect Hook [w/ Captain Hook] (Riktam & Bansi Remix) (2013), Captain Hook - Akashic Library
 Sweet Water (N.A.S.A. Remix) (2013), N.A.S.A. - Remixes
 Twist In Hell [w/ Yotopia] (Talpa Remix) (2014), Yotopia & Talpa - B2B & Mr. What? - Best Of My Sets Vol 13
 Stardust ( Eitan Reiter Remix) (2014), Various - At The Crossroads Vol. 03
 Perfect Hook (Joujouka Remix) (2014), Various - S.U.N. Festival - Interconnected
 Time Warp (Joujouka Remix) (2014), Gaudium - Best Of My Sets Vol 10
 Our Time [w/ Liquid Soul] (2014), Various - Set: 20 - Iboga Trance Classics
 Himmelrich [w/ Human Element] (2015), Ace Ventura - Goa Session

Remixes
 BLT & Morax - Implant (Perfect Stranger Remix) (2005), Globalize (Flow Records)
 Ace Ventura – R.I.S.E (Perfect Stranger Remix) (2006), Nuance (Iboga Records)
 Zen Mechanics – Ground Control (Perfect Stranger Remix) (2007), Uncharted (Flow Records)
 Vibrasphere – Sweet September (Perfect Stranger Remix) (2007), Archipelago Remixed (Digital Structures)
 Behind Blue Eyes – The Epitome (Perfect Stranger Remix) (2007), Copenhagen (Iboga Records)
 Maelstrom – Chapster (Perfect Stranger Remix) (2007), The Bomb (Iboga Records)
 Atmos – KNS (Perfect Stranger Remix) (2007), Progressive Goa Trance Vol. 6 (Yellow Sunshine Explosion)
 Ace Ventura – R.I.S.E (Perfect Stranger Remix) (2007), Psypod Volume 1 (Yellow Sunshine Explosion)
 BLT – Six Feet Under (Perfect Stranger Remix) (2007), Global Goa Trance Network (Yellow Sunshine Explosion)
 Morax – Out Of The Blue (Perfect Stranger Remix) (2008), Bakkelit 2.1 (Spiral Trax)
 Morax – Out Of The Blue (Perfect Stranger Remix) (2008), Goa Beach Volume 9 (Yellow Sunshine Explosion)
 LOUD – Subynia (Perfect Stranger Remix) (2008), Chacruna (Echoes Records)
 Liquid Ace – Psychic Experience (Perfect Stranger Remix) (2008), Re:Boot (Iboga Records)
 RPO – Industry Part 2 (Perfect Stranger Remix) (2008), Industry Part 2 EP (Tribal Vision Records)
 Felguk – Guess What (Perfect Stranger Remix) (2009), Guess What (Dongle Records)
 RPO – Industry Part 2 (Perfect Stranger Remix) (2009), VuuV Festival Vol. 2 (Planet BEN Records)
 RPO – Industry Part 2 (Perfect Stranger Remix) (2009), Chronicles IX (Tribal Vision Records)
 Eitan Reiter – Ups & Downs (Perfect Stranger Re-Edit) (2009), Ups & Downs (Iboga Records)
 Liquid Soul – The Reason (Perfect Stranger Remix) (2009), Liquid Soul EP (Iboga Records)
 Liquid Soul – The Reason (Perfect Stranger Remix) (2009), Cocktails (Iboga Records)
 RPO – Industry Part 2 (Perfect Stranger Remix) (2009), Muschitanz Vol. 2 (Planet BEN Records)
 Decoy – Push Button Pony (Perfect Stranger Remix) (2010), Beat Wins (Dance n Dust)
 MUTe – Sensimellia (Perfect Stranger Welcome Sunshine Remix) (2010), Sensimellia (Tribal Vision Records)
 Tristan – Bombscare (Perfect Stranger Small Vagator Mix) (2010), Sonica Compilation Volume II (Sonica Recordings)
 4D – Stargen (Perfect Stranger Remix) (2010), Stargen EP (4DigitalAudio)
 Eitan Reiter – Ups & Downs (Perfect Stranger Re-Edit) (2010), Emok - Best Of My Sets (Iboga Records)
 Eitan Reiter – Smile (Perfect Stranger Remix) (2010), Smile Dance Remixes (Aleph Zero Records)
 Gai Barone – Astronave (Perfect Stranger Remix) (2010), Astronave (Afterglow)
 A. Balter – Frank (Perfect Stranger Remix) (2010), Frank (Digital Structures)
 LOUD – Engines On (Perfect Stranger Remix) (2010), Engines On (Digital Structures)
 Nyquist – Otagu (Perfect Stranger Remix) (2010), Otagu (Iboga Records)
 Nyquist – Otagu (Perfect Stranger Remix) (2011),	Banel - Best Of My Sets (Iboga Records)
 BLT – Six Feet Under (Perfect Stranger Live Mix) (2011), Banel - Best Of My Sets (Iboga Records)
 Eitan Reiter – Smile (Perfect Stranger Remix) (2011), Smile EP (Aleph Zero Records)
 Flippers & Slater – King Of The Night (Perfect Stranger Remix) (2011), King Of The Night EP (Tribal Vision Records)
 Antix – Box Of Birds (Perfect Stranger Remix) (2011), Antix – Best Of Our Sets (Iboga Records)
 RPO – Industry Part II (Perfect Stranger Remix) (2011), Deluxe III Compiled By Don Vitalo (Plusquam)
 LOUD – Sundance (Perfect Stranger Remix) (2011), The Remixes (Nano Records)
 Juno Reactor – Rotorblade (Perfect Stranger Remix) (2011), Inside The Reactor (Metropolis Records)
 Juno Reactor – Rotorblade (Perfect Stranger Remix) (2011), Inside The Reactor (Wakyo Records)
 Antix – Box Of Birds (Perfect Stranger Remix) (2011), Reconstruction (Iboga Records)
 Dayan & John – Stone Cold (Perfect Stranger Remix) (2011), Stone Cold EP (Sounds Of Earth)
 Flippers & Slater – King Of The Night (Perfect Stranger Remix) (2012),	Chronicles XI, Part 2: Winter (Tribal Vision Records)
 Max Freegrant – Swing (Perfect Stranger Remix) (2012), Swing EP (Freshin)
 Tristan – Bombscare (Perfect Stranger Small Vagator Mix) (2012), Sonica VA Vol.2 Compiled By Gino (Sonica Recordings)
 Sphera & Rocky – The Darkness (Perfect Stranger Remix) (2012), The Darkness EP (Echoes Records)
 ElMute – Atmostrange (Perfect Stranger Remix) (2012), Atmostrange EP (ODN Records)
 ElMute – Atmostrange (Perfect Stranger Remix) (2013), Brain Mapping Vol.1 (ODN Records)
 Felguk – Guess What (Perfect Stranger 2.4 Ghz Remix) (2013), Set:14 (Iboga Records)
 Perfect Stranger – Free Cloud (2012 Baby Grand Mix) (2013), Set:14 (Iboga Records)
 Ritmo – Follow Me (Perfect Stranger Remix) (2013), Phase – B (Iono Music)
 Piatto – Not Satisfied (Perfect Stranger Remix) (2013), Not Satisfied EP (IAMT)
 LOUD – Sundance (Perfect Stranger Remix) (2013), Set:17 (Iboga Trance)
 Dayan & John – Stone Cold (Perfect Stranger Remix) (2013),	Secret Weapons (Sounds Of Earth)
 Sun Control Species & Behind Blue Eyes – 2nd Sunrise (Perfect Stranger Remix) (2013), Banel 25 Years Anniversary (Iboga Records)
 LOUD – Dustortion (Perfect Stranger Remix) (2013), Banel 25 Years Anniversary (Iboga Records)
 Roy RosenfelD – My Bubble (Perfect Stranger Remix) (2013), Set:16 (Iboga Records)
 Sakorka – All I Wanna Do (Perfect Stranger Remix) (2013), All I Wanna Do EP (Digital Structures)
 Diamandy – Belief System (Perfect Stranger Remix) (2013), Belief System EP (Digital Structures)
 Sleek – Something (Perfect Stranger Remix) (2013), Something EP (Flow Records)
 Captain Hook – Vertebra L2 (Perfect Stranger Remix) (2013), Akashic Library (Iboga Records)
 Ritmo – Follow Me (Perfect Stranger Remix) (2013), Rush Hour – Best Of 2013 (Pharmacy Music)
 Sun Control Species & Behind Blue Eyes – 2nd Sunrise (Perfect Stranger Remix) (2013), Raja Ram’s Pipedreams Vol.2 (TIP Records)
 Sensient – Galaxians (Perfect Stranger Remix) (2013), Galaxians Remixes (Zenon Records)
 Behind Blue Eyes & Sun Control Species - Second Sunrise (Perfect Stranger Remix) (2014), Set:19 (Iboga Records)
 Art Of Trance - Humans (Perfect Stranger Remix) (2014), Humans (Platypus Records)
 Ritmo - Follow Me (Perfect Stranger Remix) (2014), Package (Iono)
 Critical Choice - Roots (Perfect Stranger Remix) (2015), Critical Choice Remixes Pt.1 (Iboga Records)
 Art Of Trance - Humans (Perfect Stranger Remix) (2015), Floating Trance Hymns (House On Wheels)
 Art Of Trance - Humans (Perfect Stranger Remix) (2015), Trance Rapid Vol.12 (Drizzly Records)
 Space Cat & Lish - Dark Horizon (Perfect Stranger Remix) (2015), MVMB - Continuity Vol.1 (Iboga Records)

Festivals
 Glade Festival in UK 2008 and in 2009
 Symbiosis Gathering in California at 2009, 2012 and 2013
 Antaris Project in Germany 2010 and 2012
 Ozora Festival in Hungary 2012
 Boom Festival in Portugal where he played in every edition since 2010
 Rainbow Serpent Festival in Australia 2009, 2011 and 2015
 Maitreya Festival in Victoria, Australia 2010 and 2014
 Strawberry Fields Festival in Victoria, Australia 2011 and 2012
 Subsonic Festival in NSW, Australia 2011 and 2013
 Eclipse Festival in Queensland, Australia 2012
 Sunburn Festival in Goa, India 2011
 Universo Paralello Festival in Brazil 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2013
 Time & Space Festival in Mexico 2012 alongside electronic musician and producer Ellen Allien
Luminate Festival in New Zealand 2011 and 2015

References

Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people
Israeli electronic musicians


title: Giulio Paradisi

text:
Giulio Paradisi (born 21 March 1934) is an Italian film director, actor and screenwriter.

Life and career
Born in Rome, Paradisi enrolled the Centro Sperimentale di Cinematografia and immediately after the graduation he made his acting debut with a small role in Alessandro Blasetti's Too Bad She's Bad.

After playing several other character roles with notable directors including Federico Fellini and Francesco Maselli, he began working as an assistant director in 1963, later directing a few fairly successful films on his own between 1970 and 1982.  Paradisi was also active as a stage director and as a director of commercials.

Filmography

Director
Terzo Canale - Avventura a Montecarlo (1970)
Ragazzo di borgata (1976)
The Visitor (1979)
Tesoromio (1979)
Spaghetti House (1982)

References

External links

1934 births
Italian screenwriters
Italian male screenwriters
Writers from Rome
Film directors from Rome
Italian male film actors
Centro Sperimentale di Cinematografia alumni
Living people