title: Jin-woo

text:
Jin-woo is a Korean masculine given name. Its meaning differs based on the hanja used to write each syllable of the name.

Hanja
There are 43 hanja with the reading "jin" and 41 hanja with the reading "woo" on the South Korean government's official list of hanja which may be registered for use in given names. Ways of writing this name in hanja include:

 ( ,  ): "treasured friend"
 ( ,  ): "true friend". These characters are also used to write the Japanese given name Masatomo.
 ( ,  ): "true home"

People
People with this name include:

Political figures
Song Jin-woo (journalist) (1889–1945), Korean journalist and independence activist
O Jin-u (1917–1995), North Korean soldier and politician
Stephen Jin-Woo Kim (born 1967), South Korean-born American man imprisoned for disclosing classified information to a journalist

Sportspeople
Song Jin-woo (born 1966), South Korean left-handed baseball pitcher (Korea Professional Baseball)
Kim Jin-woo (footballer) (born 1975), South Korean football coach and former midfielder (K-League Classic)
Lee Jin-woo (footballer) (born 1982), South Korean football forward (Korea National League)
Hwang Jin-woo (born 1983), South Korean auto racing driver
Kim Jin-woo (baseball) (born 1983), South Korean right-handed baseball pitcher (Korea Professional Baseball)
Kim Jin-Woo (swimmer) (born 1983), Kenyan swimmer of Korean descent
Park Jin-woo (volleyball) (born 1990), South Korean volleyball player
Lim Jin-woo (born 1993), South Korean football defender (J2 League)

Entertainers
Jung Jin-woo (born 1938), South Korean film director
Lee Jin-woo (actor) (born 1969), South Korean actor
Jinu (born Kim Jin-woo, 1971), American rapper of Korean descent, member of music duo Jinusean
Kim Jin-woo (actor) (born 1983), South Korean actor
Park Jin-woo (born 1983), South Korean actor
Kim Jin-woo (musician) (born 1991), South Korean singer, member of boy band Winner
Park Jin-woo (born 1996), also known as Jinjin, South Korean singer, member of boy band Astro

Other
Jung Jin-woo (born 1938), South Korean film director
Nam Jin-woo (born 1960), South Korean poet
Cheon Jinwoo (born 1962), South Korean chemist

See also
List of Korean given names

References

Korean masculine given names
Masculine given names


title: Ingemar Ståhl

text:
Ingemar Ståhl (June 2, 1938 – February 6, 2014) was a Swedish economist and an economics professor from Lund University.

Life
Ståhl was born on June 2, 1938, in Stockholm, Sweden.

He graduated, with a bachelor degree, in 1958 in the University of Stockholm. He earned his Licentiate of Philosophy in 1965 at the Lund University.

Ståhl was married to Solveig Ståhl, whom he had three children: Nils Ståhl, Pernilla Ståhl, and Ingela Ståhl. He died on February 6, 2014, in Lund, Sweden at the age of 75.

Career
For 25 years, Ståhl was a member of Ragnar Söderberg Foundation, an organization dedicated to scientific researches. Ståhl has also worked as an Advisor to the Cabinet Office of the Government of Sweden and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). Since 1982, he was also a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Engineering Sciences.

Nobel Prize

Ståhl was part of the Committee for the Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel from 1969 until 1984. His committee duties included proposing laureates for the Prize.

References

Swedish economists
1938 births
2014 deaths
Academic staff of Lund University
Scientists from Stockholm
Stockholm University alumni
Members of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences


title: Santa Maria delle Grazie a Mondragone

text:
Santa Maria delle Grazie a Mondragone is a small now-deconsecrated Roman Catholic church building on Piazzeta Mondragone in central Naples, Italy.

History
In 1653, a church and an adjacent retirement home for noble widows, were commissioned here by Princess Elena Aldobrandini (1580-1663), wife of Duke of Mondragone. The buildings were damaged during the earthquake of 1688 and 1732, and various reconstructions followed, using plans by Arcangelo Guglielmelli (1648-1723), who received his commission in 1715. Guglielmelli is known for his centralized design of the church of Santa Maria del Rosario alle Pigne near Piazza Cavour in central Naples. The work was completed, including interior decoration by Giovanni Battista Nauclerio (1666-1739) after Guglielmelli's death.

The church is now part of the Fondazione Mondragone, that operates a textile and fashion museum and a school.

Interior
The stucco work was performed by Giuseppe Scarola. The silverware for the altars were completed by Felice Cioffi in 1735 - 1738. The pavement in tile and maiolica was designed by Nauclerio. In 1743, the prioress of the Hospice, Anna Sanfelice, commissioned a polychrome marble altar designed by Ferdinando Sanfelice, and completed by Giuseppe Astarita. The altarpiece of the Madonna delle Grazie was painted by Giuseppe Marullo; he also painted a Ste Rosa and a Vision of Ste Candida for the church. The tabernacle and balustrade of the presbytery were completed in 1790 by Gennaro Sammartino.

The original chapel at the site remains in part as the sacristy, with an altarpiece depicting the Triumph of Faith.

References

External links

Former churches in Naples
Baroque architecture in Naples
17th-century Roman Catholic church buildings in Italy


title: Ilimane Diop

text:
Ilimane Diop Gaye (born 4 April 1995) is a professional basketball player for Unicaja of the Spanish Liga ACB. Although he was born in Senegal, Diop officially represents Spain when being on international duty since he was a baby when his family settled in Spain. Previously, he has led their junior teams to multiple bronze medals.

Professional career
A product of Spanish powerhouse Saski Baskonia, Diop was sent out on loan to minor league team to gain playing time and experience. He made his debut for Baskonia in the Spanish top-flight Liga ACB in the course of the 2013-14 campaign.

An early entry candidate for the 2016 NBA draft, he later withdrew his name.

On July 10, 2021, he has signed with Gran Canaria of the Spanish Liga ACB.

On July 5, 2022, Gran Canaria released Diop.

On July 13, 2022, he has signed with UCAM Murcia in the Liga ACB.

On August 20, 2023, he signed with Unicaja of the Spanish Liga ACB.

International career
After achieving a bronze medal with the under-16 team and the under-18 team, on 11 July 2016, Diop made his debut with the national team in a friendly game played in Burgos against Angola. He scored four points and grabbed three rebounds to collaborate in the win by 85–61.

Player profile
Standing 6'11" with a wingspan of 7'11" feet, Diop is regarded as one of the most potent players in the Liga ACB and possibly a future NBA draft selection. Length has been an inevitable problem for his opponents, who have struggled against the pick-and-roll and rebounds. He is also noted for his raw talent that could grow into a "great basketball body." Balance, footwork, and strength have remained intangibles for the center.

Personal life
His brother Mamadou is also a basketball player who previously played in the same Spanish basketball squad as he did.

References

External links
 Ilimane Diop at acb.com
 Ilimane Diop at eurobasket.com
 Ilimane Diop at euroleague.net
 Ilimane Diop at FIBA

1995 births
Living people
Araberri BC players
Basketball players from Dakar
CB Gran Canaria players
CB Murcia players
Centers (basketball)
Liga ACB players
Naturalised citizens of Spain
Saski Baskonia players
Senegalese emigrants to Spain
Spanish men's basketball players
Spanish people of Senegalese descent


title: Enrique Claramunt

text:
Enrique Claramunt Torres (born 12 July 1948) is a Spanish former footballer who played as a forward.

Club career
Born in Puçol, Valencian Community, Claramunt emerged through local club Valencia CF's youth system. He made his senior debut with the reserves in the 1968–69 season, being relegated from Segunda División.

Claramunt was promoted to the Mestalla Stadium's main squad for 1970–71, his first appearance in La Liga occurring on 12 September 1970 in a 0–2 away loss against Real Madrid. He scored his first goal in the competition on 13 December in a 2–1 home win over CE Sabadell FC, and added a further four during the campaign to help his team win the fourth national championship in their history.

After leaving the Che in 1974, Claramunt continued to compete in his native region until his retirement, representing CD Castellón in the second tier and amateurs Villarreal CF.

Personal life
Claramunt's older brother, José, was also a footballer. He too represented Valencia and they shared teams during four seasons, being thus known as Claramunt I and Claramunt II.

Honours
Valencia
La Liga: 1970–71

References

External links

CiberChe biography and stats

1948 births
Living people
People from Puçol
Footballers from the Province of Valencia
Spanish men's footballers
Men's association football forwards
La Liga players
Segunda División players
Tercera División players
Atlético Saguntino players
Valencia CF Mestalla footballers
Valencia CF players
CD Castellón footballers
Villarreal CF players


title: 2014 Trophée Éric Bompard

text:
The 2014 Trophée Éric Bompard was the fifth event of six in the 2014–15 ISU Grand Prix of Figure Skating, a senior-level international invitational competition series. It was held at the Meriadeck Ice Rink in Bordeaux on November 21–23. Medals were awarded in the disciplines of men's singles, ladies' singles, pair skating, and ice dancing. Skaters earned points toward qualifying for the 2014–15 Grand Prix Final.

Entries

Changes to initial lineup
 On August 29, Romain Ponsart and Anais Ventard were chosen as host picks.
 On September 2, Rebeka Kim / Kirill Minov and Miriam Ziegler / Severin Kiefer were added to the roster, in place of host picks.
 On September 16, Kaetlyn Osmond withdrew due to an injury. On September 17, Veronik Mallet was announced as her replacement.
 On September 20, it was reported that Ekaterina Bobrova / Dmitri Soloviev were going to be withdrawing due to an injury to Soloviev. They were officially removed from the roster on October 13. On October 17, Charlene Guignard / Marco Fabbri were announced as their replacements.
 On November 5, Anais Ventard and Romain Ponsart withdrew from the competition. On November 11, Anna Ovcharova and Douglas Razzano were announced as replacements.
 On November 14, it was reported that Anna Cappellini / Luca Lanotte withdrew due to needing to make changes to their program. They were officially removed from the roster on November 17, and were not replaced.
 On November 17, Song Nan was removed from the roster. No reason has been given and he was not replaced.

Results

Men

Ladies

Pairs

Ice dancing

References

External links
 2014 Trophée Éric Bompard at the International Skating Union
 Starting orders and result details

Trophée Éric Bompard, 2014
Internationaux de France
Figure
Sport in Bordeaux
International figure skating competitions hosted by France
Trophée Éric Bompard, 2014


title: Aspidura brachyorrhos

text:
Aspidura brachyorrhos, commonly known as Boie's rough-sided snake and as ලේ මැඩිල්ලා  (le medilla) in Sinhala, is a colubird species endemic to Sri Lanka. Bites from this species are known to cause mild local reaction, including a slight burning sensation and swelling.

Distribution
A small burrowing snake from midhills of central Sri Lanka. Localities recorded are Namunukula, Gampola, Weligala, Peradeniya, Gammaduwa, Dambulla, [
Kegalle] and Kandy.

Description
Head indistinct from neck, body is cylindrical. Dorsally rich orange-brown, mottled, discontinuous mid-dorsal stripes distinct. 2 rows of lateral spots. Head dark brown.

Scalation
Midbody scale rows 17. Pre-oculars present. 2 Post-oculars contact with parietal. Ventrals 134–159. Subcaudals 25–39.

Ecology
Little is known. It occurs at elevations between 610-1100m. This species is known from tea plantations and vegetable gardens, and has also been dug up from riverbanks.

Reproduction
Between 2-6 measuring 8 × 28mm are produced.

References

 http://reptile-database.reptarium.cz/species?genus=Aspidura&species=brachyorrhos
 http://www.wildreach.com/reptile/Serpentes/Aspidura%20branchyorrhos.php
 http://eol.org/pages/1057089/names
 https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=700770

Aspidura
Reptiles described in 1827
Reptiles of Sri Lanka
Taxa named by Friedrich Boie


title: Knobloch syndrome

text:
Knobloch syndrome is a rare genetic disorder presenting severe eyesight problems and often a  defect in the skull. It was named after the ophthalmologist William Hunter Knobloch (1926–2005), who first described the syndrome in 1971. A usual occurrence is a degeneration of the vitreous humour and the retina, two components of the eye. This breakdown often results in the separation of the retina (the light-sensitive tissue at the back of the eye) from the eye, called retinal detachment, which can be recurrent. Extreme myopia (near-sightedness) is a common feature. The limited evidence available from electroretinography suggests that a cone-rod pattern of dysfunction is also a feature.

Knobloch syndrome is caused by mutations in an autosomal recessive inherited gene. These mutations have been found in the COL18A1 gene that instructs for the formation of a protein that builds collagen XVIII. This type of collagen is found in the basement membranes of various body tissues. Its deficiency in the eye is thought to be responsible for affecting normal eye development. There are two types of Knobloch syndrome and the case has been made for a third.
When caused by mutations in the COL18A1 gene it is called Knobloch syndrome type 1. The genes causing types II and III have yet to be identified.

Knobloch syndrome is also characterised by cataracts, dislocated lens with skull defects such as occipital encephalocele and occipital aplasia. Encephalocele is a neural tube defect where the skull has not completely closed and sac-like protrusions of the brain can push through the skull; (it can also result from other causes).
In Knobloch's syndrome this is usually seen in the occipital region, and aplasia is the underdevelopment of tissue again in this reference in the occipital area.

References

Congenital disorders of nervous system
Syndromes affecting the eye
Rare syndromes
Diseases named for discoverer


title: Leo Rowlands

text:
Leo Rowlands, O.F.M. Cap. (1891–1967) was a Welsh Catholic priest and musical composer, associated with Rhode Island.

Early life
Rowlands was born to Welsh parents (his father was a Congregationalist missionary) in Madagascar on 17 September 1891 and spent the first seven years of his life there before returning to be educated in schools in London and Wales. In 1912 he graduated in music from the University of Wales, Cardiff, going on to the Royal Academy of Music where he studied the piano, composition and singing with Frederick Corder and York Bowen and took his doctorate in music in 1914. In the same year he was received into the Roman Catholic Church and joined the army, serving as a cyclist and gunner in Italy and Flanders. He was captured in Neuve Chapelle in March 1918 and remained a prisoner until the end of the war.

Musical career
After a period as a music teacher at the Seaford School in Seaford on the south coast of England, Rowlands joined the Order of Friars Minor Capuchin in 1920 and was ordained a priest in 1926. He spent the 1930s-1940s at the Friary of St Francis, Providence, Rhode Island, as part of a mission of the British Capuchin Province to the United States. There he established the Gregorian School of Music and the Catholic Choral Society of Providence in 1935 as well as a reputation as a lecturer and recitalist.

Rowlands returned to Great Britain in 1952 where he was introduced to the poet Olive Fraser, some of whose verse he is said to have set to music for voice and piano. He died at the Franciscan House in Crawley, West Sussex, in 1967.

Compositions
Canticle to the Sun (cantata)
Symphony of Narragansett Bay (orchestra)
Elevation (sacred song, setting of a poem by C Martindale) Burns, Oates & Washbourne, London (1933)
Bon Soir (song) 1958
Dansa Brasileira (piano) Axelrod, Providence, Rhode Island (1945)
O Jesu Christe (J van Berchem) arranged by Leo Rowlands, McLaughlin & Reilly Co, Boston (1940)
Missa Kyrie Fons Bonitatis (STB and organ) McLaughlin & Reilly Co, Boston (1948)
In convertendo Dominus (When God the Lord) Psalm 125 (SATB and organ) McLaughlin & Reilly Co, Boston (1951)
St Francis of Assisi (hymn)
Entrata (organ solo) L'Organista D'Oggi (date unknown)
Canzonica (organ solo) L'Organista D'Oggi ((May–June 1962)
Finale (organ solo, L'Organista D'Oggi (May–June 1965)
Various hymns for the Notre Dame Hymnal

Books
The Holy Sacrifice (1941)
Guide Book for Catholic Church Choirmasters (1938)

References

 The Caecilia, June/July 1936 page 255
The Caecilia January 1937 page 553
Biographical Dictionary of the Organ.

1891 births
1967 deaths
Alumni of the Royal Academy of Music
British Army personnel of World War I
World War I prisoners of war held by Germany
20th-century composers
Capuchins
Welsh Roman Catholic priests
20th-century British Roman Catholic priests
American male composers
Alumni of the University of Wales
20th-century British composers
20th-century Welsh musicians
20th-century American composers
20th-century American male musicians


title: Willibaldsburg

text:
The Willibaldsburg is a spur castle, built around the year 1353, in Eichstätt in Upper Bavaria. Until the middle of the 18th century, it was the representative castle and seat of Eichstätt's prince-bishops.

Location

This fortified palace lies west of the Old Town on an elongated hill ridge, the Willibaldsberg at an elevation of 464 m above sea level, overlooking the Altmühl valley, the eastern portion being referred to as the Frauenberg. To the east across the valley lies the cathedral city of Eichstätt, and on the western side of the valley loop, Marienstein. Its total length is about 420 metres and it is naturally well protected thanks to this location. The Altmühl river here forms a sharp bend which, due to the resulting ridge was an ideal spot for the medieval castle and later fortress. It derives its name from the first bishop Willibald von Eichstätt (c. 700 – c.787). The castle and city lie within the Altmühl Valley Nature Park in the cultural region of Franconia.

History

Beginnings

The first fortifications on the castle hill are mentioned as early as 1070. Under Bishop Berthold von Nürnburg, also known as Berthold von Zollern (1355-1365), expansion into a fortified residence for the bishops of Eichstätt began around 1355, the old bishopric being in the city next to the cathedral. This High Medieval edifice, which lay on the western spur of the hill was probably a large stone house, a tower and a chapel, protected by surrounding curtain walls and moats. After the Counts of Hirschberg died out in 1305, the bishops had to organize the military security of the diocese themselves. The cathedral chapter initially opposed the expansion plans because of the high costs, but the bishop was able to prevail.

Bishop Frederick IV of Oettingen (1383-1415) strengthened the fortifications by building a Zwinger kennel and had an "aestuarium magnum aestivale" built. This is likely to have been a hall building, a summer house, as seen in other castles of this time.

Middle Ages and Renaissance

Under the bishops Albrecht II von Hohenrechberg (1429-1445) and Martin von Schaumberg (1560-1590), the castle vestment was expanded and strengthened. Within 50 years, the Willibaldsburg underwent a major transformation from a late mediaeval castle through a stately fortified Counter-Reformation edifice under Schaumberg, to a late Renaissance summer palace under Bishop Johann Konrad von Gemmingen (1595–1612). Schaumberg made major changes to the front of the eastern side, creating an extensive structure (the Schaumbergbau) with three wings out of the old curtain wall, which was now closed to the exterior. This prestigious residential building shaped the appearance of the castle, together with the expansion of the late Renaissance, up to the 19th century, although weapons continued to be stored in the basement.

Gemmingenbau

After the short reign of Bishop Caspar von Seckendorff (1590–1595), Gemmingen added, among other things, a famous botanical garden, the Eichstätter Garten. The florilegium commissioned by the bishop describing the plants in this garden, the Hortus Eystettensis produced by the garden's curator, Basilius Besler in 1613 is considered one of the most important works of its type.

Also under Gemmingen, from 1609, the construction of a representative Renaissance castle based on the Italian model began. The old central building on the western spur was thus transformed. The Augsburg master builder Elias Holl provided the plans for this. The new south wing (1611) towered high over the mountainous crags. Together with Holl's Augsburg town hall, even in its reduced form, the palace is one of the most important works of the German Renaissance, described as "the perfct picture of one of the most beautiful princely residences in Germany at that time, as well as being an important fortress". Gemmingen's vision consisted of a lavishly furnished castle, with treasure vaults below decorated with illustrations of plants and figures bedecked with plants, which with the gardens created a summer residence in the Italian style, not known in Germany at that time.

With the death of Gemmingen in 1612, the cathedral chapter authorised his successor to continue the work. Bishop Johann Christoph von Westerstetten (1612-1636) arranged for completion of the new building (Gemmingenbau), which was still piecemeal, and initiated further conversions. The two-tower facade was created from 1629 with the participation of Hans Alberthal and his successor Martin Barbieri. The fortifications were reinforced by five modern bastions and the spacious outer bailey was created. The completed buildings can be seen in contemporary illustrations, such as those of Wolfgang Kilian (1628) and Matthäus Merian (1648). Kilian also provided some of the engravings for the Hortus Eystettensis.

During the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648), a Swedish army under the command of Bernhard von Sachsen-Weimar was able to take the castle fortress in the spring of 1633. At the end of October 1633, a Bavarian army under the command of Colonel Johann von Werth recaptured the fortress and successfully defended it, even though the Swedish army was in the immediate vicinity. Bernhard von Sachsen-Weimar had the Swedish fortress commander Anton Klaudius von Rasch executed on December 9, 1633 for prematurely abandoning the fortress in Regensburg. Bishop Marquard II Schenk von Castell (1636-1685) then ordered the repair of the damage and installed gun casemates in the bastions.

Modern history

In 1725, the bishop moved the residence to the new city palace (Residenz Eichstätt) by the cathedral. The Willibaldsburg became the seat of several offices and later a hospital and prison. After the Eichstätt Bishopric was secularized in 1806, the Bavarian State sold the facility to private owners. All usable furnishings were dispersed and a partial demolition reduced the building fabric.

In 1829, Bavaria repurchased the half-ruined buildings and made provisional repairs to the fortifications. During this time, the onion towers were demolished by a floor and a half and crenellated. The huge complex later served as barracks for the Bavarian Army (3. Königlich Bayerisches Jägerbataillon - 3rd Royal Bavarian Infantry Battalion).

The town of Eichstätt purchased the property in 1880, but it then reverted to the Bavarian State in 1900, who had owned the castle since 1880. In 1900, it was acquired by the Bavarian state and made a cultural monument and began measures to conserve the structure.

Between 1926 and 1934, the Congregation of Oblates of St. Francis de Sales occupied part of the Willibaldsburg, and from 1945 to 1955, the castle housed refugees from eastern regions of Germany including East Prussia, Silesia and Pomerania. In 1962, the Bavarian Administration of State-Owned Palaces, Gardens and Lakes took over the administration and extensive renovations were commenced. In 1976, the Jura Museum was opened in the Gemmingenbai and in 1980 the Museum of Prehistory and Early History was opened to the public. In 1998, the reconstructed bastion garden was inaugurated and after 2000, a circular path was created around the entire complex and the rubble removed in front of the two main bastions, so that the fortification concept can be fully experienced.

Description

The modern Burgweg, approaches Willibaldsburg from the East, rising towards the outer bailey. There, the simple portal surmounted with a statue of St. Willibald is secured by two bastions from 1612, which guard the entrance with artillery. The drawbridge is long gone. The path from there leads through a 63 m gate hall to the inner castle courtyard. The barrel vault is 9 m high. In the north, the stables adjoin the gate building, followed by the single-storey wings of the former hospital and penitentiary with the rotunda of the penitentiary chapel. However, the eastern area of the outer bailey is not open to the public.

The spacious courtyard was created by demolitions in the 19th century and is now used as a parking lot. Only the remains of the Schaumbergbau in the north have survived from the former development. The Gothic Dirnitz, a five-bay, cross-vaulted courtyard room, whose square main hall rests on a round central pillar is here. Below the Dirnitz lies the two-aisled cellar with its barrel vault. Further cellar rooms are located under the courtyard area.

Otherwise, apart from the shield wall in front of the "Gemmingenbau", there is nothing left of the "Schaumbergbau" above ground, the main hall of which, according to the court chamber protocol of 1765, had twenty-nine windows and was spanned by a magnificent wooden ceiling. The other furnishings must also have been of great artistic importance, as the preserved Dirnitz shows.

Due to the demolition of the "Schaumbergbau", the impressive shield wall of the medieval castle is now visible. Formerly, two towers flanked the five meter thick defensive wall. Behind it are the three wings of the "Gemmingenbau". This so-called New Castle encloses a late Renaissance inner courtyard, which, however, could only be partially completed according to Holl's plans. For example, the north wing was to be moved north by two window axes. The portal of the west building is therefore on the north corner, the ground floor arcades of the south wing lack their northern counterparts. In addition, the upper floors in the south and west were demolished in 1826 after the roof had already been covered after secularisation.

Nevertheless, the monumental west building, with its two square corner towers and the bastion fortifications, is considered the city's landmark. From the outside, the "Gemmingenbau" appears to be four stories (formerly five stories), the towers protrude powerfully and are closed off by octagons with crenellated parapets, formed from half windows.

The western bastions were built under Marquard II Schenk von Castell (1637-1685) to replace older bastions. As early as 1658, the “Half Moon” bastion was placed in front of the western front as a ravelin or lunette.

Usage

The castle houses the Jura Museum, a natural history museum. It possesses numerous fossils, including the famous Eichstätt Archaeopteryx. The museum is based on the extensive natural science collections of the Episcopal Seminary in Eichstätt and is managed by the General Directorate of the Staatliche Naturwissenschaftliche Sammlungen Bayerns (Bavarian State Natural Science Collection). There are regular special exhibitions, guided tours and lectures organized by the “Freunde des Jura-Museums Eichstätt e. V.”  The museum was closed at the end of 2018 due to the uncertain financial situation. In July 2019, the Catholic University of Eichstätt took over the sponsorship, and the museum reopened in May 2020.

Also at Willibaldsburg is the Museum für Ur- und Frühgeschichte auf der Willibaldsburg (Museum of Prehistory and Early History) owned by the Eichstätt Historical Society. The museum displays the history of the region from the Stone Age to the early Middle Ages. The focus is on Ice Age animal skeletons of mammoths, reindeer and hyenas. There is also a section with extensive Roman archaeological finds and a model of the Roman fort in Pfünz with over 400 painted pewter figures. In the last room of the museum there is a late Merovingian tomb. Part of the castle is also used by the Bavarian State for archive purposes.

Awards

The 1977 Bund Deutscher Architekten (BDA) Bayern architecture prize was awarded to Willibaldsburg for the construction of the Jura Museum.

See also
 List of bishops of Eichstätt

Notes

References

Bibliography

Books and articles

Websites

External links

 History of the castle
 Jura Museum
 Pre- and Proto-History Museum
 Bastion Garden
 Eichstätt History Society: History of the Willibaldsburg

Buildings and structures completed in 1353
Forts in Germany
Castles in Bavaria
Heritage sites in Bavaria
Museums in Bavaria
Buildings and structures in Eichstätt (district)
Eichstätt


title: Barmera railway line

text:
The Barmera railway line was the second railway built to develop the Murray Mallee region of South Australia, in 1913. It followed the success of the Pinnaroo railway line in 1906. Both lines branched east from Tailem Bend to the north of the main Melbourne–Adelaide railway. The Brown's Well line was the more northerly, and extended into country which had not been developed much before the railway, partly due to the absence of any viable transport route for produce. The original terminus of the Brown's Well railway was at Meribah, not far from the Victorian border.

Such was the optimism about this region, that three lines from the Brown's Well line to the Murray River, and an additional line between it and the Pinnaroo line, were approved even before it was completed. It was extended further to Renmark and Barmera in the 1920s, along with construction of another spur from Wanbi to near Moorook in 1925.

Route
The initial sidings and mileages from Adelaide were:—Tailem Bend, 75¼ miles; Naturi, 84½; Kulde, 89½; Wynarka, 95¼; Karoonda, 105¼; Lowalde, 111½; Borrika, 115½; Halidon, 128¼; Wanbi, 139¼; Alawoona, 151¾; Paruna, 164¾; Meribah, 172.
As the locomotives were powered by steam, reliable water supplies were required as well. There are no significant rivers or lakes in the Mallee, so government bores and tanks were required. The following bores were available on the Brown's Well railway: Yalwarra bore, at 14½ miles (bad water, not suitable for railway use); Wynarka, 20 miles; Karoonda, 29 miles 66 chains; Borrika, 40 miles; Sandalwood, 47 miles 43 chains; Halidon, 55 miles 19 chains; Crecy, 58 miles 20 chains; Wanbi, 64 miles 60 chains; Cobera, 71 miles; Alawoona, 76 miles, 22 chains; Wolowa, 84 miles; Meribah, 96 miles 64 chains. The bores were situated at an average distance of 7 miles apart.

Part of the Brown's Well railway line plus most of the Loxton railway line spur from Alawoona were converted to standard gauge and remained as the Loxton railway line, used to carry part of the seasonal grain harvest. The rest of the line and branches were closed. The Loxton line closed on 20 July 2015, with all grain traffic now taken by road.

Extensions
Almost as soon as the railway to the Brown's Well district had been completed to Meribah (May 1913), it was extended  north to the Murray River at Paringa. The extension was approved before the original length had been completed, with an additional cost estimate of £135,750 to serve an additional . The official opening to Paringa was on 2 October 1913. The intervention of World War I delayed the construction of the Paringa Bridge to extend the railway to Renmark until 1927. It later was also extended to Barmera with the first passenger service running on 1 August 1928.

In the 1960s, a branch line was built which joined the main line south of Paringa, near the Wonuarra siding. It was  long, and went northeast to Murtho to the south bank of the Murray River. It was built to support construction of the proposed Chowilla Dam. The dam construction was cancelled in 1967 and never built. The railway line was removed without ever being used.

See also
Rail transport in South Australia#Branches from the Melbourne line

References

Closed railway lines in South Australia


title: Urbain Wallet

text:
Urbain Edmond Alfred Charles Wallet (3 July 1899 – 9 December 1973) was a French footballer who played as a defender.

Biography
Born in Montdidier, Somme, he spent his entire club career from 1916 to 1932 at Amiens SC.

Wallet earned 21 caps for the France national football team. His debut came on 22 March 1925 in a 7–0 friendly defeat to Italy in Turin. All of his caps were in friendlies apart from the 18th on 29 May 1928, in a 4–3 defeat to Italy at the Olympics in Amsterdam. He died in Belloy-sur-Somme.

References

1899 births
1973 deaths
People from Montdidier, Somme
Men's association football defenders
French men's footballers
France men's international footballers
Olympic footballers for France
Footballers at the 1928 Summer Olympics
Amiens SC players
Footballers from Somme (department)


title: Kentucky Route 85

text:
Kentucky Route 85 (KY 85) is a  state highway in Kentucky that runs from Kentucky Route 70 east of Madisonville to U.S. Route 62 northeast of Rockport via Sacramento and Centertown.

Route Description
KY 85 begins at KY 70 near Anton which then entering to that town. After leaving it, it makes the southern terminus of KY 2082 it then passes into KY 862. While then it passes into the Mclean County and into a small river named Pond River. Then, It then passes into the town of Sacramento. Where it makes concurrency and also making the eastern terminus of KY 254. It then leaves the concurrency to making two southern terminus of KY 2383 and KY 2109. Next, it makes another terminus at KY 2226 it then enters the town of Island and making junctions with KY 85 Bus. and US 431 and also, Makes a concurrency with KY 1412. Finally it passes into the Ohio County.
After it passes into that county, it goes near a power plant. It then enters the town of Centertown making a concurrency with KY 69. After that it turns into a rural secondary highway and also making the northern terminus of KY 1903. Also, it finally ends at US 62.

Major intersections

Hopkins County + KY 81 Overlap + McLean County = 21.858

References

0085
Transportation in Hopkins County, Kentucky
Transportation in McLean County, Kentucky
Transportation in Ohio County, Kentucky


title: Alexandru Maftei

text:
Alexandru Maftei is a Romanian film director. He graduated from the Caragiale Academy of Theatrical Arts and Cinematography in 1994. His first feature film was Fii cu ochii pe fericire from 1999. After that he worked in advertisement and television for several years before he made his second feature film, the romantic comedy Hello! How Are You? from 2011. His film Miss Christina was the third most successful domestic film in Romania in 2013.

Filmography
 În fiecare zi e noapte (1995) - short film
 Fii cu ochii pe fericire (1999)
 Lombarzilor 8 (2006) - TV series, 7 episodes
 Cu un pas înainte (2007) - TV series, 3 episodes
 Hello! How Are You? (Bună, ce faci?) (2011)
 Miss Christina (Domnișoara Christina) (2013)

References

Living people
Romanian film directors
Romanian screenwriters
Year of birth missing (living people)
Place of birth missing (living people)
Caragiale National University of Theatre and Film alumni


title: Helm of Cannae

text:
The Helm of Cannae is an artefact in the antiquities collection of Franz, Count of Erbach-Erbach, at Erbach Palace in Erbach im Odenwald. It is, reputedly, one of the few surviving helmets from the field of the Battle between the Roman Republic and the Carthaginians under Hannibal in 216 BC. It is most famous for a legend about its acquisition by the count.

Legend has it that the helm was stolen from the Vatican Museum by a member of Count Franz I's staff at his direction during his second tour of Italy in 1791. The story of the preparation and commission of this theft was dealt with repeatedly and partially dramatised in nineteenth century literature. The earliest surviving written source is an account by Otto Müller, which was produced before 1868.

The servant who is said to have committed the theft was Friedrich Louis (1759–1846), who later became a forester and great-grandfather of the author Ludwig Ganghofer. He had other descendants too, including Elly Heuss-Knapp, wife of Theodor Heuss, the first President of Germany.

In serious literature about Count Franz, on the other hand, nothing is said about this event and how he acquired the famous helm is not mentioned at all. It is assumed therefore that the story is a Jägerlatein (a cock and bull story), which was recorded by Otto Müller and handed down as local tradition, perhaps based on an actual story told by Forester Friedrich Louis. The story of the Adlerstein of Würzberg is probably also derived from Louis.

Bibliography
Ernst Franz. Forstrat Louis. 2nd Edition. 1959.
Otto Müller. Der Helm von Cannä.

References

3rd-century BC artifacts
1791 archaeological discoveries
Ancient Roman helmets
German folklore
Individual helmets


title: Seán O'Meara (Offaly hurler)

text:
Seán O'Meara is an Irish retired hurler who played as a midfielder for the Offaly senior team.

Born in Shinrone, County Offaly, O'Meara first played competitive hurling in his youth. He made his senior debut with Offaly during the 1980-81 National League and immediately became a regular member of the team. During his career O'Meara won a set of All-Ireland and Leinster medals as a non-playing substitute.

At club level O'Meara played with Shinrone.

His retirement came following the conclusion of the 1981 championship.

Honours

Team

Offaly
All-Ireland Senior Hurling Championship (1): 1981 (sub)
Leinster Senior Hurling Championship (5): 1981 (sub)

References

Living people
Offaly inter-county hurlers
Shinrone hurlers
Year of birth missing (living people)


title: Alcohol (drug)

text:
Alcohol, sometimes referred to by the chemical name ethanol, is a depressant drug that is the active ingredient in fermented drinks such as beer, wine, and distilled spirits (hard liquor). It is one of the oldest and most commonly consumed recreational drugs, causing the characteristic effects of alcohol intoxication ("drunkenness"). Among other effects, alcohol produces happiness and euphoria, decreased anxiety, increased sociability, sedation, impairment of cognitive, memory, motor, and sensory function, and generalized depression of central nervous system (CNS) function.

Ethanol is only one of several types of alcohol; other alcohols such as methanol and isopropyl alcohol are significantly more toxic. A mild, brief exposure to isopropyl alcohol (which is only moderately more toxic than ethanol) is unlikely to cause any serious harm, but methanol is lethal even in small quantities, as little as 10–15 milliliters (2–3 teaspoons). However, several analogues that naturally occur as psychoactive alcohols in alcoholic drinks are less toxic than ethanol. Unlike primary alcohols like ethanol, tertiary alcohols cannot be oxidized into aldehyde or carboxylic acid metabolites, which are often toxic. For example, the tertiary alcohol 2M2B is 20 times more potent than ethanol, and has been used recreationally.

Alcohol has a variety of short-term and long-term adverse effects. Short-term adverse effects include generalized impairment of neurocognitive function, dizziness, nausea, vomiting, and hangover-like symptoms. Alcohol is addictive to humans, and can result in alcohol use disorder, dependence and withdrawal. It can have a variety of long-term adverse effects on health, such as liver and brain damage, and its consumption can cause cancer. The adverse effects of alcohol on health are most important when it is used in excessive quantities or with heavy frequency. However, some of them, such as increased risk of certain cancers, may occur even with light or moderate alcohol consumption. In high amounts, alcohol may cause loss of consciousness or, in severe cases, death.

Alcohol works in the brain primarily by increasing the effects of γ-Aminobutyric acid (GABA), the major inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain; by facilitating GABA's actions, alcohol suppresses the activity of the CNS. The substance also directly affects a number of other neurotransmitter systems including those of glutamate, glycine, acetylcholine, and serotonin. The pleasurable effects of alcohol ingestion are the result of increased levels of dopamine and endogenous opioids in the reward pathways of the brain. Alcohol also has toxic and unpleasant actions in the body, many of which are mediated by its byproduct acetaldehyde.

Alcohol consumption recommendations

The recommended maximum intake (or ) of alcohol varies from no intake, to daily, weekly, or daily/weekly guidelines provided by health agencies of governments. The World Health Organization published a statement in The Lancet Public Health in April 2023 that "there is no safe amount that does not affect health".

Social effects

Alcohol causes a plethora of detrimental effects in society. Many emergency room visits involve alcohol use. As many as 15% of employees show problematic alcohol-related behaviors in the workplace, such as drinking before going to work or even drinking on the job. Drunk dialing refers to an intoxicated person making phone calls that they would not likely make if sober. Alcohol availability and consumption rates and alcohol rates are positively associated with nuisance, loitering, panhandling, and disorderly conduct in open spaces.

Alcohol use is stereotypically associated with crime, both violent and non-violent. Some crimes are uniquely tied to alcohol, such as public intoxication or underage drinking, while others are simply more likely to occur together with alcohol consumption. Crime perpetrators are much more likely to be intoxicated than crime victims. Many alcohol laws have been passed to criminalize various alcohol-related activities. Underage drinking and drunk driving are the most prevalent alcohol‐specific offenses in the United States and a major problem in many, if not most, countries worldwide. About one-third of arrests in the United States involve alcohol misuse, and arrests for alcohol-related crimes constitute a high proportion of all arrests made by police in the U.S. and elsewhere. In general, programs aimed at reducing society's consumption of alcohol, including education in schools, are seen as an effective long-term solution. Strategies aiming to reduce alcohol consumption among adult offenders have various estimates of effectiveness. Policing alcohol‐related street disorder and enforcing compliance checks of alcohol‐dispensing businesses has proven successful in reducing public perception of and fear of criminal activities.

In the early 2000s, the monetary cost of alcohol-related crime in the United States alone has been estimated at over $205 billion, twice the economic cost of all other drug-related crimes. In a similar period in the United Kingdom, the cost of crime and its antisocial effects was estimated at £7.3 billion. Another estimate for the UK for yearly cost of alcohol-related crime suggested double that estimate, at between £8 and 13 billion. Risky patterns of drinking are particularly problematic in and around Russia, Mexico and some parts of Africa. Alcohol is more commonly associated with both violent and non-violent crime than are drugs like marijuana.

Alcohol-related crimes

Violent crime

The World Health Organization has noted that out of social problems created by the harmful use of alcohol, "crime and violence related to alcohol consumption" are likely the most significant issue. In the United States, 15% of robberies, 63% of intimate partner violence incidents, 37% of sexual assaults, 45–46% of physical assaults and 40–45% of homicides (murders) involved use of alcohol. A 1983 study for the United States found that 54% of violent crime perpetrators, arrested in that country, had been consuming alcohol before their offenses. In 2002, it was estimated that 1 million violent crimes in the U.S. were related to alcohol use. More than 43% of violent encounters with police involve alcohol. Alcohol is implicated in more than two-thirds of cases of intimate partner violence. Studies also suggest there may be links between alcohol abuse and child abuse. In the United Kingdom, in 2015/2016, 39% of those involved in violent crimes were under alcohol influence. International studies are similar, with an estimate that 63% of violent crimes worldwide involves the use of alcohol.

The relation between alcohol and violence is not yet fully understood, as its impact on different individuals varies. Studies and theories of alcohol abuse suggest, among others, that use of alcohol likely reduces the offender's perception and awareness of consequences of their actions. Heavy drinking is associated with vulnerability to injury, marital discord, and domestic violence. Moderate drinkers are more frequently engaged in intimate violence than are light drinkers and abstainers, however generally it is heavy and/or binge drinkers who are involved in the most chronic and serious forms of aggression. Research found that factors that increase the likelihood of alcohol‐related violence include difficult temperament, hyperactivity, hostile beliefs, history of family violence, poor school performance, delinquent peers, criminogenic beliefs about alcohol's effects, impulsivity, and antisocial personality disorder. The odds, frequency, and severity of physical attacks are all positively correlated with alcohol use. In turn, violence decreases after behavioral marital alcoholism treatment.

Automobile accidents

A 2002 study found 41% of people fatally injured in traffic accidents were in alcohol-related crashes. Misuse of alcohol is associated with more than 40% of deaths that occur in automobile accidents every year. The risk of a fatal car accident increases exponentially with the level of alcohol in the driver's blood.

Most countries have passed laws prohibiting driving a motor vehicle while impaired by alcohol. In the U.S., these crimes are generally referred to as Driving under the influence (DUI), although there are many naming variations among jurisdictions, such as driving while intoxicated (DWI). With alcohol consumption, a drunk driver's level of intoxication is typically determined by a measurement of blood alcohol content or BAC; but this can also be expressed as a breath test measurement, often referred to as a BrAC. A BAC or BrAC measurement in excess of the specific threshold level, such as 0.08% in the U.S., defines the criminal offense with no need to prove impairment. In some jurisdictions, there is an aggravated category of the offense at a higher BAC level, such as 0.12%, 0.15% or 0.25%. In many jurisdictions, police officers can conduct field tests of suspects to look for signs of intoxication.

Criminologist Hung‐En Sung has concluded in 2016 that with regards to reducing drunk driving, law enforcement has not generally proven to be effective. Worldwide, the majority of those driving under the influence do not end up arrested. At least two thirds of alcohol‐involved fatalities involve repeat drinking drivers. Sung, commenting on measures for controlling drunk driving and alcohol‐related accidents, noted that the ones that have proven effective include "lowering legal blood alcohol concentrations, controlling liquor outlets, nighttime driving curfews for minors, educational treatment programs combined with license suspension for offenders, and court monitoring of high‐risk offenders."

Sexual assault

Alcohol abuse increases the risk of individuals either experiencing or perpetrating sexual violence and risky, casual sex. Caffeinated alcoholic drinks are particularly implicated.

Often, a victim becomes incapacitated due to having consumed alcohol, which then facilitates sexual assault or rape, a crime known as drug-facilitated sexual assault. Over 50% of reported rapes involve alcohol. Alcohol remains the most commonly used predator drug, and is said to be used in the majority of sexual assaults. Many assailants use alcohol because their victims often willingly imbibe it, and can be encouraged to drink enough to lose inhibitions or consciousness. Sex with an unconscious victim is considered rape in most if not all jurisdictions, and some assailants have committed "rapes of convenience" whereby they have assaulted a victim after he or she had become unconscious from drinking too much.

Public drunkenness

Public drunkenness or intoxication is a common problem in many jurisdictions. Public intoxication laws vary widely by jurisdiction, but include public nuisance laws, open-container laws, and prohibitions on drinking alcohol in public or certain areas. The offenders are often lower class individuals and this crime has a very high recidivism rate, with numerous instances of repeated instances of the arrest, jail, release without treatment cycle. The high number of arrests for public drunkenness often reflects rearrests of the same offenders.

Methanol-laced alcohol

Methanol is not produced in toxic amounts by fermentation of sugars from grain starches. However, outbreaks of methanol poisoning have occurred when methanol is used to lace moonshine (bootleg liquor). This is commonly done to bulk up the original product to gain profit. Because of its similarities in both appearance and odor to ethanol (the alcohol in beverages), it is difficult to differentiate between the two.

Methanol has a high toxicity in humans. If as little as 10 mL of pure methanol is ingested, for example, it can break down into formic acid, which can cause permanent blindness by destruction of the optic nerve, and 30 mL is potentially fatal, although the median lethal dose is typically 100 mL (3.4 fl oz) (i.e. 1–2 mL/kg body weight of pure methanol). Reference dose for methanol is 0.5 mg/kg/day. Toxic effects take hours to start, and effective antidotes can often prevent permanent damage.

Social benefits
Research on the societal benefits of alcohol is rare, but studies suggests there are benefits. Alcohol consumption while socializing increases occurrences of Duchenne smiling, talking, and social bonding, even when participants are unaware of their alcohol consumption or lack thereof. In a study of the UK, regular drinking was correlated with happiness, feeling that life was worthwhile, and satisfaction with life. According to a causal path analysis, alcohol consumption was not the cause, but rather satisfaction with life resulted in greater happiness and an inclination to visit pubs and develop a regular drinking venue. City centre bars were distinguished by their focus on maximizing alcohol sales. Community pubs had less variation in visible group sizes and longer, more focused conversations than those in city centre bars. Drinking regularly at a community pub led to higher trust in others and better networking with the local community, compared to non-drinkers and city centre bar drinkers.

Health effects

Alcohol has a variety of short-term and long-term adverse effects. It also has reinforcement-related adverse effects, including addiction, dependence, and withdrawal. Alcohol use is directly related to considerable morbidity and mortality, for instance due to overdose and alcohol-related health problems. The World Health Organization advises that there is no safe level of alcohol consumption.

Short-term effects

The amount of ethanol in the body is typically quantified by blood alcohol content (BAC); weight of ethanol per unit volume of blood. Small doses of ethanol, in general, are stimulant-like and produce euphoria and relaxation; people experiencing these symptoms tend to become talkative and less inhibited, and may exhibit poor judgement. At higher dosages (BAC > 1 gram/liter), ethanol acts as a central nervous system (CNS) depressant, producing at progressively higher dosages, impaired sensory and motor function, slowed cognition, stupefaction, unconsciousness, and possible death. Ethanol is commonly consumed as a recreational substance, especially while socializing, due to its psychoactive effects.

Central nervous system impairment
Alcohol causes generalized CNS depression, is a positive allosteric GABAA modulator and is associated and related with cognitive, memory, motor, and sensory impairment. It slows and impairs cognition and reaction time and the cognitive skills, impairs judgement, interferes with motor function resulting in motor incoordination, loss of balance, confusion, sedation, numbness and slurred speech, impairs memory formation, and causes sensory impairment. At high concentrations, it can induce amnesia, analgesia, spins, stupor, and unconsciousness as result of high levels of ethanol in blood.

At very high concentrations, alcohol can cause anterograde amnesia, markedly decreased heart rate, pulmonary aspiration, positional alcohol nystagmus, respiratory depression, shock, coma and death can result due to profound suppression of CNS function alcohol overdose and can finish in consequent dysautonomia.

Gastrointestinal effects

Alcohol can cause nausea and vomiting in sufficiently high amounts (varying by person).

Alcohol stimulates gastric juice production, even when food is not present, and as a result, its consumption stimulates acidic secretions normally intended to digest protein molecules. Consequently, the excess acidity may harm the inner lining of the stomach. The stomach lining is normally protected by a mucosal layer that prevents the stomach from, essentially, digesting itself. However, in patients who have a peptic ulcer disease (PUD), this mucosal layer is broken down. PUD is commonly associated with the bacteria Helicobacter pylori, which secretes a toxin that weakens the mucosal wall, allowing acid and protein enzymes to penetrate the weakened barrier. Because alcohol stimulates the stomach to secrete acid, a person with PUD should avoid drinking alcohol on an empty stomach. Drinking alcohol causes more acid release, which further damages the already-weakened stomach wall. Complications of this disease could include a burning pain in the abdomen, bloating and in severe cases, the presence of dark black stools indicate internal bleeding. A person who drinks alcohol regularly is strongly advised to reduce their intake to prevent PUD aggravation.

Ingestion of alcohol can initiate systemic pro-inflammatory changes through two intestinal routes: (1) altering intestinal microbiota composition (dysbiosis), which increases lipopolysaccharide (LPS) release, and (2) degrading intestinal mucosal barrier integrity – thus allowing LPS to enter the circulatory system. The major portion of the blood supply to the liver is provided by the portal vein. Therefore, while the liver is continuously fed nutrients from the intestine, it is also exposed to any bacteria and/or bacterial derivatives that breach the intestinal mucosal barrier. Consequently, LPS levels increase in the portal vein, liver and systemic circulation after alcohol intake. Immune cells in the liver respond to LPS with the production of reactive oxygen species, leukotrienes, chemokines and cytokines. These factors promote tissue inflammation and contribute to organ pathology.

Allergic-like reactions

Ethanol-containing beverages can cause alcohol flush reactions, exacerbations of rhinitis and, more seriously and commonly, bronchoconstriction in patients with a history of asthma, and in some cases, urticarial skin eruptions, and systemic dermatitis.  Such reactions can occur within 1–60 minutes of ethanol ingestion, and may be caused by:
 genetic abnormalities in the metabolism of ethanol, which can cause the ethanol metabolite, acetaldehyde, to accumulate in tissues and trigger the release of histamine, or
 true allergy reactions to allergens occurring naturally in, or contaminating, alcoholic beverages (particularly wine and beer), and
 other unknown causes.

Overdose

Symptoms of ethanol overdose may include nausea, vomiting, CNS depression, coma, acute respiratory failure, or death. Levels of even less than 0.1% can cause intoxication, with unconsciousness often occurring at 0.3–0.4%. Death from ethanol consumption is possible when blood alcohol levels reach 0.4%. A blood level of 0.5% or more is commonly fatal. The oral median lethal dose (LD50) of ethanol in rats is 5,628 mg/kg. Directly translated to human beings, this would mean that if a person who weighs  drank a  glass of pure ethanol, they would theoretically have a 50% risk of dying.

Long-term effects

Prolonged heavy consumption of alcohol can cause significant permanent damage to the brain and other organs, resulting in dysfunction or death.

Brain damage

Alcohol can cause brain damage, Wernicke's encephalopathy and Alcoholic Korsakoff syndrome which frequently occur simultaneously, known as Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome. Lesions, or brain abnormalities, are typically located in the diencephalon which result in anterograde and retrograde amnesia, or memory loss.

Liver damage

During the metabolism of alcohol via the respective dehydrogenases, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) is converted into reduced NAD. Normally, NAD is used to metabolize fats in the liver, and as such alcohol competes with these fats for the use of NAD. Prolonged exposure to alcohol means that fats accumulate in the liver, leading to the term 'fatty liver'. Continued consumption (such as in alcohol use disorder) then leads to cell death in the hepatocytes as the fat stores reduce the function of the cell to the point of death. These cells are then replaced with scar tissue, leading to the condition called cirrhosis.

Birth defects

Ethanol is classified as a teratogen. According to the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), alcohol consumption by women who are not using birth control increases the risk of fetal alcohol syndrome. The CDC currently recommends complete abstinence from alcoholic beverages for women of child-bearing age who are pregnant, trying to become pregnant, or are sexually active and not using birth control.

Cancer

The International Agency for Research on Cancer lists ethanol in alcoholic beverages as a Group 1 carcinogen in humans and argues that "There is sufficient evidence and research showing the carcinogenicity of acetaldehyde (the major metabolite of ethanol) which is excreted by the liver enzyme when one drinks alcohol." In 2020, alcohol was estimated to cause 750,000 cases of cancer worldwide, particularly esophagus, liver, and breast cancer.

Other effects
Frequent drinking of alcoholic beverages is a major contributing factor in cases of elevated blood levels of triglycerides.

Alcoholism

Alcoholism or its medical diagnosis alcohol use disorder refers to alcohol addiction, alcohol dependence, dipsomania, and/or alcohol abuse. It is a major problem and many health problems as well as death can result from excessive alcohol use. Alcohol dependence is linked to a lifespan that is reduced by about 12 years relative to the average person. In 2004, it was estimated that 4% of deaths worldwide were attributable to alcohol use. Deaths from alcohol are split about evenly between acute causes (e.g., overdose, accidents) and chronic conditions. The leading chronic alcohol-related condition associated with death is alcoholic liver disease. Alcohol dependence is also associated with cognitive impairment and organic brain damage. Some researchers have found that even one alcoholic drink a day increases an individual's risk of health problems by 0.4%.

Two or more consecutive alcohol-free days a week have been recommended to improve health and break dependence.

Alcohol withdrawal syndrome

Discontinuation of alcohol after extended heavy use and associated tolerance development (resulting in dependence) can result in withdrawal. Alcohol withdrawal can cause confusion, paranoia, anxiety, insomnia, agitation, tremors, fever, nausea, vomiting, autonomic dysfunction, seizures, and hallucinations. In severe cases, death can result. Delirium tremens is a condition that requires people with a long history of heavy drinking to undertake an alcohol detoxification regimen.

Interactions

Alcohol can intensify the sedation caused by other CNS depressants such as barbiturates, benzodiazepines, opioids, nonbenzodiazepines/Z-drugs (such as zolpidem and zopiclone), antipsychotics, sedative antihistamines, and certain antidepressants. It interacts with cocaine in vivo to produce cocaethylene, another psychoactive substance which may be substantially more cardiotoxic than either cocaine or alcohol by themselves.  Ethanol enhances the bioavailability of methylphenidate (elevated plasma dexmethylphenidate). In combination with cannabis, ethanol increases plasma tetrahydrocannabinol levels, which suggests that ethanol may increase the absorption of tetrahydrocannabinol.

Disulfiram-like drugs

Disulfiram
Disulfiram inhibits the enzyme acetaldehyde dehydrogenase, which in turn results in buildup of acetaldehyde, a toxic metabolite of ethanol with unpleasant effects. The medication or drug is commonly used to treat alcohol use disorder, and results in immediate hangover-like symptoms upon consumption of alcohol, this effect is widely known as disulfiram effect.

Metronidazole

Metronidazole is an antibacterial agent that kills bacteria by damaging cellular DNA and hence cellular function. Metronidazole is usually given to people who have diarrhea caused by Clostridium difficile bacteria. Patients who are taking metronidazole are sometimes advised to avoid alcohol, even after 1 hour following the last dose. Although older data suggested a possible disulfiram-like effect of metronidazole, newer data has challenged this and suggests it does not actually have this effect.

Alcohol induced dose dumping (AIDD)

This dose dumping effect is an unintended rapid release of large amounts of a given drug, when administered through a modified-release dosage while co-ingesting ethanol. This is considered a pharmaceutical disadvantage due to the high risk of causing drug-induced toxicity by increasing the absorption and serum concentration above the therapeutic window of the drug. The best way to prevent this interaction is by avoiding the co-ingestion of both substances or using specific controlled-release formulations that are resistant to AIDD.

Methanol and ethylene glycol

The rate-limiting steps for the elimination of ethanol are in common with certain other substances. As a result, the blood alcohol concentration can be used to modify the rate of metabolism of methanol and ethylene glycol. Methanol itself is not highly toxic, but its metabolites formaldehyde and formic acid are; therefore, to reduce the rate of production and concentration of these harmful metabolites, ethanol can be ingested. Ethylene glycol poisoning can be treated in the same way.

Pharmacology

Dynamics

The principal mechanism of action for ethanol has proven elusive and remains not fully understood. Identifying molecular targets for ethanol has proven unusually difficult, in large part due to its unique biochemical properties. Specifically, ethanol is a very low molecular weight compound and is of exceptionally low potency in its actions, causing effects only at very high (millimolar mM) concentrations. For these reasons, unlike with most drugs, it has not yet been possible to employ traditional biochemical techniques to directly assess the binding of ethanol to receptors or ion channels. Instead, researchers have had to rely on functional studies to elucidate the actions of ethanol. Moreover, although it has been established that ethanol modulates ion channels to mediate its effects, ion channels are complex proteins, and their interactions and functions are complicated by diverse subunit compositions and regulation by conserved cellular signals (e.g. signaling lipids).

Much progress has been made in understanding the pharmacodynamics of ethanol over the last few decades. While no binding sites have been identified and established unambiguously for ethanol at present, it appears that it affects ion channels, in particular ligand-gated ion channels, to mediate its effects in the CNS. Ethanol has specifically been found in functional assays to enhance or inhibit the activity of a variety of ion channels, including the GABAA receptor, the ionotropic glutamate AMPA, kainate, and NMDA receptors, the glycine receptor, the nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, the serotonin 5-HT3 receptor, voltage-gated calcium channels, and BK channels, among others. However, many of these actions have been found to occur only at very high concentrations that may not be pharmacologically significant at recreational doses of ethanol, and it is unclear how or to what extent each of the individual actions is involved in the effects of ethanol. In any case, ethanol has long shown a similarity in its effects to positive allosteric modulators of the GABAA receptor like benzodiazepines, barbiturates, and various general anesthetics. Indeed, ethanol has been found to enhance GABAA receptor-mediated currents in functional assays. In accordance, it is theorized and widely believed that the primary mechanism of action is as a GABAA receptor positive allosteric modulator. However, the diverse actions of ethanol on other ion channels may be and indeed likely are involved in its effects as well.

In 2007, it was discovered that ethanol potentiates extrasynaptic δ subunit-containing GABAA receptors at behaviorally relevant (as low as 3 mM) concentrations. This is in contrast to previous functional assays of ethanol on γ subunit-containing GABAA receptors, which it enhances only at far higher concentrations (> 100 mM) that are in excess of recreational concentrations (up to 50 mM). Ro15-4513, a close analogue of the benzodiazepine antagonist flumazenil (Ro15-1788), has been found to bind to the same site as ethanol and to competitively displace it in a saturable manner. In addition, Ro15-4513 blocked the enhancement of δ subunit-containing GABAA receptor currents by ethanol in vitro. In accordance, the drug has been found to reverse many of the behavioral effects of low-to-moderate doses of ethanol in rodents, including its effects on anxiety, memory, motor behavior, and self-administration. Taken together, these findings suggest a binding site for ethanol on subpopulations of the GABAA receptor with specific subunit compositions via which it interacts with and potentiates the receptor.

A 2019 study showed the accumulation of an unnatural lipid phosphatidylethanol (PEth) competes with PIP2 agonist sites on lipid-gated ion channels. This presents a novel indirect mechanism and suggests that a metabolite, not the ethanol itself, can affect the primary targets of ethanol intoxication. Many of the primary targets of ethanol are known to bind PIP2 including GABAA receptors, but the role of PEth will need to be investigated for each of the primary targets.

Rewarding and reinforcing actions
The reinforcing effects of alcohol consumption are mediated by acetaldehyde generated by catalase and other oxidizing enzymes such as cytochrome P-4502E1 in the brain. Although acetaldehyde has been associated with some of the adverse and toxic effects of ethanol, it appears to play a central role in the activation of the mesolimbic dopamine system.

Ethanol's rewarding and reinforcing (i.e., addictive) properties are mediated through its effects on dopamine neurons in the mesolimbic reward pathway, which connects the ventral tegmental area to the nucleus accumbens (NAcc). One of ethanol's primary effects is the allosteric inhibition of NMDA receptors and facilitation of GABAA receptors (e.g., enhanced GABAA receptor-mediated chloride flux through allosteric regulation of the receptor). At high doses, ethanol inhibits most ligand-gated ion channels and voltage-gated ion channels in neurons as well.

With acute alcohol consumption, dopamine is released in the synapses of the mesolimbic pathway, in turn heightening activation of postsynaptic D1 receptors. The activation of these receptors triggers postsynaptic internal signaling events through protein kinase A, which ultimately phosphorylate cAMP response element binding protein (CREB), inducing CREB-mediated changes in gene expression.

With chronic alcohol intake, consumption of ethanol similarly induces CREB phosphorylation through the D1 receptor pathway, but it also alters NMDA receptor function through phosphorylation mechanisms; an adaptive downregulation of the D1 receptor pathway and CREB function occurs as well. Chronic consumption is also associated with an effect on CREB phosphorylation and function via postsynaptic NMDA receptor signaling cascades through a MAPK/ERK pathway and CAMK-mediated pathway. These modifications to CREB function in the mesolimbic pathway induce expression (i.e., increase gene expression) of ΔFosB in the , where ΔFosB is the "master control protein" that, when overexpressed in the NAcc, is necessary and sufficient for the development and maintenance of an addictive state (i.e., its overexpression in the nucleus accumbens produces and then directly modulates compulsive alcohol consumption).

Relationship between concentrations and effects

Recreational concentrations of ethanol are typically in the range of 1 to 50 mM. Very low concentrations of 1 to 2 mM ethanol produce zero or undetectable effects except in alcohol-naive individuals. Slightly higher levels of 5 to 10 mM, which are associated with light social drinking, produce measurable effects including changes in visual acuity, decreased anxiety, and modest behavioral disinhibition. Further higher levels of 15 to 20 mM result in a degree of sedation and motor incoordination that is contraindicated with the operation of motor vehicles. In jurisdictions in the U.S., maximum blood alcohol levels for legal driving are about 17 to 22 mM. In the upper range of recreational ethanol concentrations of 20 to 50 mM, depression of the central nervous system is more marked, with effects including complete drunkenness, profound sedation, amnesia, emesis, hypnosis, and eventually unconsciousness. Levels of ethanol above 50 mM are not typically experienced by normal individuals and hence are not usually physiologically relevant; however, such levels – ranging from 50 to 100 mM – may be experienced by alcoholics with high tolerance to ethanol. Concentrations above this range, specifically in the range of 100 to 200 mM, would cause death in all people except alcoholics.

List of known actions in the central nervous system
Ethanol has been reported to possess the following actions in functional assays at varying concentrations:

 GABAA receptor positive allosteric modulator (primarily of δ subunit-containing receptors)
 NMDA receptor negative allosteric modulator
 Decreased levels of nitric oxide in brain medulla
 Increased levels of dopamine and endogenous opioids in the mesolimbic pathway, secondary to other actions
 AMPA receptor negative allosteric modulator
 Kainate receptor negative allosteric modulator
 Glycine receptor positive allosteric modulator
 Serotonin receptor positive allosteric modulator
 Opioid receptor endogenous positive allosteric modulator
 Muscarinic acetylcholine receptor positive allosteric modulator.
 Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor positive allosteric modulator
 5-HT3 receptor positive allosteric modulator
 Glycine reuptake inhibitor
 Adenosine reuptake inhibitor
 Dopamine reuptake inhibitor
 L-type calcium channel blocker
 GIRK channel opener

Some of the actions of ethanol on ligand-gated ion channels, specifically the nicotinic acetylcholine receptors and the glycine receptor, are dose-dependent, with potentiation or inhibition occurring dependent on ethanol concentration. This seems to be because the effects of ethanol on these channels are a summation of positive and negative allosteric modulatory actions.

Kinetics

Absorption
Ethanol can be taken orally, by inhalation, rectally, or by injection (e.g., intravenous), though it is typically ingested simply via oral administration. The oral bioavailability of ethanol is around 80% or more. In fasting volunteers, blood levels of ethanol increase proportionally with the dose of ethanol administered. Blood alcohol concentrations may be estimated by dividing the amount of ethanol ingested by the body weight of the individual and correcting for water dilution.

Onset
Peak circulating levels of ethanol are usually reached within a range of 30 to 90 minutes of ingestion, with an average of 45 to 60 minutes. People who have fasted overnight have been found to reach peak ethanol concentrations more rapidly, at within 30 minutes of ingestion.

The onset varies depends on the type of alcoholic drink:
 Vodka/tonic: 36 ± 10 minutes
 Wine: 54 ± 14 minutes
 Beer: 62 ± 23 minutes

Also, carbonated alcoholic drinks seem to have a shorter onset compare to flat drinks in the same volume. One theory is that carbon dioxide in the bubbles somehow speeds the flow of alcohol into the intestines.

Food in the gastrointestinal system and hence gastric emptying is the most important factor that influences the absorption of orally ingested ethanol. The absorption of ethanol is much more rapid on an empty stomach than with a full one. The delay in ethanol absorption caused by food is similar regardless of whether food is consumed just before, at the same time, or just after ingestion of ethanol. The type of food, whether fat, carbohydrates, or protein, also is of little importance. Not only does food slow the absorption of ethanol, but it also reduces the bioavailability of ethanol, resulting in lower circulating concentrations.

Distribution
Upon ingestion, ethanol is rapidly distributed throughout the body. It is distributed most rapidly to tissues with the greatest blood supply. As such, ethanol primarily affects the brain, liver, and kidneys. Other tissues with lower circulation, such as bone, require more time for ethanol to distribute into. Ethanol crosses biological membranes and the blood–brain barrier easily, through a simple process of passive diffusion. The volume of distribution of ethanol is around . It is only weakly or not at all plasma protein bound.

Metabolism

Approximately 90% of the metabolism of ethanol occurs in the liver. This occurs predominantly via the enzyme alcohol dehydrogenase, which transforms ethanol into its metabolite acetaldehyde (ethanal). Acetaldehyde is subsequently metabolized by the enzyme aldehyde dehydrogenase into acetate (ethanoate), which in turn is broken down into carbon dioxide and water. Acetate also combines with coenzyme A to form acetyl-CoA, and hence may participate in metabolic pathways. Alcohol dehydrogenase and aldehyde dehydrogenase are present at their highest concentrations in the liver, but are widely expressed throughout the body, and alcohol dehydrogenase may also be present in the stomach and small intestine. Aside from alcohol dehydrogenase, the microsomal ethanol-oxidizing system (MEOS), specifically mediated by the cytochrome P450 enzyme CYP2E1, is the other major route of ethanol metabolism. CYP2E1 is inducible by ethanol, so while alcohol dehydrogenase handles acute or low concentrations of ethanol, MEOS is predominant with higher concentrations or with repeated/chronic use. A small amount of ethanol undergoes conjugation to form ethyl glucuronide and ethyl sulfate. There may also be another metabolic pathway that metabolizes as much as 25 to 35% of ethanol at typical concentrations.

At even low physiological concentrations, ethanol completely saturates alcohol dehydrogenase. This is because ethanol has high affinity for the enzyme and very high concentrations of ethanol occur when it is used as a recreational substance. For this reason, the metabolism of ethanol follows zero-order kinetics at typical physiological concentrations. That is, ethanol does not have an elimination half-life (i.e., is not metabolized at an exponential rate), and instead, is eliminated from the circulation at a constant rate. The mean elimination rates for ethanol are 15 mg/dL per hour for men and 18 mg/dL per hour for women, with a range of 10 to 34 mg/dL per hour. At very high concentrations, such as in overdose, it has been found that the rate of elimination of ethanol is increased. In addition, ethanol metabolism follows first-order kinetics at very high concentrations, with an elimination half-life of about 4 or 4.5 hours (which implies a clearance rate of approximately 6 L/hour/70 kg). This seems to be because other processes, such as the MEOS/CYP2E1, also become involved in the metabolism of ethanol at higher concentrations. However, the MEOS/CYP2E1 alone does not appear sufficient to fully explain the increase in ethanol metabolism rate.

Some individuals have less effective forms of one or both of the metabolizing enzymes of ethanol, and can experience more marked symptoms from ethanol consumption than others. However, those having acquired alcohol tolerance have a greater quantity of these enzymes, and metabolize ethanol more rapidly.

Elimination
Ethanol is mainly eliminated from the body via metabolism into carbon dioxide and water. Around 5 to 10% of ethanol that is ingested is eliminated unchanged in urine, breath, and sweat. Transdermal alcohol that diffuses through the skin as insensible perspiration or is exuded as sweat (sensible perspiration) can be detected using wearable sensor technology such as SCRAM ankle bracelet or the more discreet ION Wearable. Ethanol or its metabolites may be detectable in urine for up to 96 hours (3–5 days) after ingestion.

Chemistry

Ethanol is also known chemically as alcohol, ethyl alcohol, or drinking alcohol. It is a simple alcohol with a molecular formula of C2H6O and a molecular weight of 46.0684 g/mol. The molecular formula of ethanol may also be written as CH3−CH2−OH or as C2H5−OH. The latter can also be thought of as an ethyl group linked to a hydroxyl (alcohol) group and can be abbreviated as EtOH. Ethanol is a volatile, flammable, colorless liquid with a slight characteristic odor. Aside from its use as a psychoactive and recreational substance, ethanol is also commonly used as an antiseptic and disinfectant, a chemical and medicinal solvent, and a fuel.

Production
Ethanol is produced naturally as a byproduct of the metabolic processes of yeast and hence is present in any yeast habitat, including even endogenously in humans, but it does not cause raised blood alcohol content as seen in the rare medical condition auto-brewery syndrome (ABS). It is manufactured through hydration of ethylene or by brewing via fermentation of sugars with yeast (most commonly Saccharomyces cerevisiae). The sugars are commonly obtained from sources like steeped cereal grains (e.g., barley), grape juice, and sugarcane products (e.g., molasses, sugarcane juice). Ethanol–water mixture which can be further purified via distillation.

Analogues

Ethanol has a variety of analogues, many of which have similar actions and effects. Methanol (methyl alcohol) and isopropyl alcohol (also called rubbing alcohol) are both toxic, and thus unsafe for human consumption. Methanol is the most toxic alcohol; the toxicity of isopropyl alcohol lies between that of ethanol and methanol, and is about twice that of ethanol. In general, higher alcohols are less toxic. n-Butanol is reported to produce similar effects to those of ethanol and relatively low toxicity (one-sixth of that of ethanol in one rat study). However, its vapors can produce eye irritation and inhalation can cause pulmonary edema. Acetone (propanone) is a ketone rather than an alcohol, and is reported to produce similar toxic effects; it can be extremely damaging to the cornea.

The tertiary alcohol tert-amyl alcohol (TAA), also known as 2-methylbutan-2-ol (2M2B), has a history of use as a hypnotic and anesthetic, as do other tertiary alcohols such as methylpentynol, ethchlorvynol, and chloralodol. Unlike primary alcohols like ethanol, these tertiary alcohols cannot be oxidized into aldehyde or carboxylic acid metabolites, which are often toxic, and for this reason, these compounds are safer in comparison. Other relatives of ethanol with similar effects include chloral hydrate, paraldehyde, and many volatile and inhalational anesthetics (e.g., chloroform, diethyl ether, and isoflurane).

History

Alcohol was brewed as early as 7,000 to 6,650 BCE in northern China. The earliest evidence of winemaking was dated at 6,000 to 5,800 BCE in Georgia in the South Caucasus. Beer was likely brewed from barley as early as the 13,000 years ago in the Middle East. Pliny the Elder wrote about the golden age of winemaking in Rome, the 2nd century BCE (200–100 BCE), when vineyards were planted.

Society and culture

Ethanol is typically consumed as a recreational substance by mouth in the form of alcoholic beverages such as beer, wine, and spirits. It is commonly used in social settings due to its capacity to enhance sociability.

Drinking alcohol is generally socially acceptable and is legal in most countries, unlike with many other recreational substances. However, there are often restrictions on alcohol sale and use, for instance a minimum age for drinking and laws against public drinking and drinking and driving. Alcohol has considerable societal and cultural significance and has important social roles in much of the world. Drinking establishments, such as bars and nightclubs, revolve primarily around the sale and consumption of alcoholic beverages, and parties, festivals, and social gatherings commonly involve alcohol consumption. Alcohol is related to various societal problems, including drunk driving, accidental injuries, sexual assaults, domestic abuse, and violent crime. Alcohol remains illegal for sale and consumption in a number of countries, mainly in the Middle East. While some religions, including Islam, prohibit alcohol consumption, other religions, such as Christianity and Shinto, utilize alcohol in sacrament and libation.

Legal status

Alcohol consumption is fully legal and available in most countries of the world. Home made alcoholic beverages with low alcohol content like wine, and beer is also legal in most countries, but distilling moonshine outside of a registered distillery remains illegal in most of them.

Some majority-Muslim countries, such as Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Pakistan, Iran and Libya prohibit the production, sale, and consumption of alcoholic beverages because they are forbidden by Islam. Also, laws banning alcohol consumption are found in some Indian states as well as some Native American reservations in the U.S.

In addition, there are regulations on alcohol sales and use in many countries throughout the world. For instance, the majority of countries have a minimum legal drinking age to purchase or consume alcoholic beverages, although there are often exceptions such as underage consumption of small amounts of alcohol with parental supervision. Also, some countries have bans on public intoxication. Drinking while driving or intoxicated driving is frequently outlawed and it may be illegal to have an open container of alcohol or liquor bottle in an automobile, bus or aircraft.

Standard drink

A standard drink is a measure of alcohol consumption representing a fixed amount of pure ethanol, used in relation to recommendations about alcohol consumption and its relative risks to health. The size of a standard drink varies from 8g to 20g across countries, but 10g alcohol (12.7 millilitres) is used in the World Health Organization (WHO) Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT)'s questionnaire form example, and has been adopted by more countries than any other amount.

See also
 Binge drinking
 Holiday heart syndrome
 Alcohol myopia
 Rum-running
 GABAergics
 GABRD (δ subunit-containing receptors)
 List of countries by alcohol consumption per capita
 Pigovian taxes, which are to pay for the damage to society caused by these goods.
 Sin taxes are used to increase the price in an effort to lower their use, or failing that, to increase and find new sources of revenue.

References

Further reading
 The National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism maintains a database of alcohol-related health effects. ETOH Archival Database (1972–2003) Alcohol and Alcohol Problems Science Database.

External links
 ChEBI – biology related
 Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes signal transduction pathway: KEGG – human alcohol addiction

5-HT3 agonists
AMPA receptor antagonists
Adenosine reuptake inhibitors
Alcohol dehydrogenase inhibitors
Alcohol
Alcohol abuse
Alcohol and health
Alcohol law
Alcohols
Analgesics
Anxiolytics
Calcium channel blockers
Drinking culture
Drug culture
Drugs acting on the nervous system
Ethanol
Euphoriants
GABAA receptor positive allosteric modulators
General anesthetics
Glycine reuptake inhibitors
Hepatotoxins
Hypnotics
IARC Group 1 carcinogens
Kainate receptor antagonists
NMDA receptor antagonists
Neurotoxins
Nicotinic agonists
Psychoactive drugs
Sedatives
Teratogens
Drugs with unknown mechanisms of action


Colchester United Football Club is an English professional football club based in Colchester, Essex, that was founded in 1937. From the 1937–38 season, the club played in the Southern Football League until 1950, when they were elected to the Football League. After playing in the Third Division South for eight seasons, Colchester remained in the Third Division when the league was re-organised by finishing 12th in 1958. The club were relegated to the Fourth Division in 1961, but made an immediate return to the Third Division after finishing the 1961–62 season in second position, one point behind Millwall. They bounced between the Third and Fourth divisions until 1990, when the club were relegated from the Football League for the first time in 40 years. After two seasons in the Football Conference, the U's were promoted back to the Football League after winning the Conference title on goal difference over Wycombe Wanderers in 1992. Colchester played in the Third Division between 1992 and 1998, when they won promotion to the Second Division after a play-off final win against Torquay United at Wembley. The club remained in the third tier until 2006, as they were promoted to the Championship, the second tier of English football, for the first time in their history, ending the season as runners up in League One to Southend United. The U's spent two seasons in the Championship, earning their highest-ever league finish of 10th position in the second tier before being relegated back to League One in 2008. Following relegation to League Two at the end of the 2015–16 season, Colchester made a return to the fourth tier of English football for the first time in 18-years.

Colchester United's first team have competed in leagues in five different tiers of English football, and their record against each club faced in those competitions is summarised below. Colchester's first ever league game was contested on 28 August 1937 in the Southern League against Yeovil & Petters United. Their first Football League encounter came against Gillingham on 19 August 1950 in the Third Division South. The club met their 150th different league rivals in the 2020–21 season, when they faced Harrogate Town in League Two. Colchester have met Swindon Town 81 times in the Football League and Southern League, more than any other team. They have also recorded more league victories against Swindon, beating them 31 times, while the greatest number of draws have come against Gillingham, with 24 matches drawn in 76 meetings. Exeter City and Peterborough United have defeated Colchester more times than any other teams, recording 31 victories in 78 and 70 encounters respectively. Colchester United hold a 100% win record against four different clubs; Boston United, Folkestone Town, Gateshead and Slough Town. Only Accrington Stanley (reformed), Burton Albion, Manchester City and Middlesbrough have a 100% win record against the U's.

Key
  Clubs with this background and symbol in the "Opponent" column are Colchester United's divisional rivals in the 2018–19 season.
  Clubs with this background and symbol in the "Opponent" column are defunct.
The table includes results of matches played by Colchester United in the Southern Football League, Football League and the Football Conference. Play-off and wartime competition matches are excluded.
The name used for each opponent is the name they used when Colchester United most recently played a league match against them. Results against each opponent include results against that club under any former name. For example, results against Yeovil Town include matches played against Yeovil & Petters United.
P = matches played; W = matches won; D = matches drawn; L = matches lost; Win% = percentage of total matches won
The columns headed "First" and "Last" contain the first and most recent seasons in which Colchester United played league matches against each opponent.

All-time league record
Statistics are correct as of the match played on 26 November 2021.

Footnotes

References
General

Specific

League record by opponent
Colchester United F.C. league record by opponent


title: Aspidura copei

text:
Aspidura copei, commonly known as Cope's rough-sided snake or කලු මැඩිල්ලා  (kalu medilla) in Sinhalese, is a species of snake in the family Colubridae. The species is endemic to Sri Lanka.

Etymology
The specific name, copei, is in honor of American herpetologist and paleontologist Edward Drinker Cope.

Geographic range
A. copei is a found in the mountains of central Sri Lanka. Localities recorded are Dimbulla, Dickoya, Hopewell estate of Balangoda, Avissawella, and Pundaluoya.

Description
The head of A. copei is indistinct from the neck, and the body is cylindrical. The dorsum is brown, with a brownish-olive mid-dorsal band, 2-3 scales wide, flanked on each side by a series of 23-26 dark blotches. The flanks have dark markings occupying 2-4 scales that reach the ventrals. The forehead is olive-brown, and the lips are light yellow, edged with black. A narrow dark band descends diagonally from the temporals, past the angle of mouth, to the edge of the ventrals. The venter is mottled green, with a series of solid blotches along the ventral mid-line.

Adults may attain a total length (including tail) of 63.5 cm (2 feet, 1 inch).

Behaviour
A. copei is a burrowing snake.

Scalation
In A. copei the dorsal scales are in 17 rows at midbody. Preoculars are absent. There are 2 postoculars in contact with the parietal. The ventrals number 123-137; and the subcaudals number 15-35.

Reproduction
Details of the reproduction of A. copei are generally unknown. Only one female with 21 "remarkably round" eggs was found.

References

External links
https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/176348/7223228
http://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=700771
http://www.wildreach.com/reptile/Serpentes/Aspidura%20copei.php

Further reading
Boulenger GA (1893). Catalogue of the Snakes in the British Museum (Natural History). Volume I., Containing the Families ... Colubridæ Aglyphæ .... London: Trustees of the British Museum (Natural History). (Taylor and Francis, printers). xiii + 448 pp. + Plates I-XXVIII. (Aspidura copii, pp. 311–312).
Günther ACLG (1864). The Reptiles of British India. London: The Ray Society. (Taylor and Francis, printers). xxvii + 452 pp. + Plates I-XXVI. (Aspidura copii, new species, p. 203 + Plate XVIII, figure E).
Smith MA (1943). The Fauna of British India, Ceylon and Burma, Including the Whole of the Indo-Chinese Sub-region. Reptilia and Amphibia, Vol. III.—Serpentes. London: Secretary of State for India. (Taylor and Francis, printers). xii + 583 pp. (Aspidura copii, pp. 336–337).
Wall F (1921). Ophidia Taprobanica or the Snakes of Ceylon. Colombo, Ceylon [Sri Lanka]: Colombo Museum. (H.R. Cottle, Government Printer). xxii + 581 pp. (Aspidura copei, pp. 207–208).

Aspidura
Reptiles described in 1864
Reptiles of Sri Lanka
Taxa named by Albert Günther


title: Kentucky Route 86

text:
Kentucky Route 86 (KY 86) is a  state highway in Kentucky that runs from KY 144 in the unincorporated community of Union Star to U.S. Route 62 (US 62) southeast of Cecilia.

Major intersections

References

0086
Transportation in Breckinridge County, Kentucky
Transportation in Hardin County, Kentucky


title: Anthony Kelly (martial artist)

text:
Anthony Kelly (born 1964) is an Australian martial artist and world record holder. Often called the "Arrow Catcher", and referred to as a ninja, Kelly is renowned for his fast reflexes, in particular his ability to catch fast moving items. He has made numerous television appearances.

Training
Kelly became interested in martial arts as a child after watching fights by Bruce Lee and Muhammad Ali. He started training in martial arts in 1978, and states he has black belts in 21 different styles. Kelly started catching arrows at his annual martial arts night in 2000, getting the idea from watching the feat performed in the film The Last Dragon.

Guinness world records
By 2009, Kelly was Australia's most successful Guinness World Records holder, with 18 titles including the record for the most arrows caught in 2 minutes which he obtained in 2001, catching 10 whilst standing 13 metres from the archer, and the record for the most paintballs caught in 2 minutes whilst blindfolded which he obtained in 2003, catching 11. In 2010, Kelly broke the world record for the most tennis balls caught in one minute live on the Guinness World Records television series, Australia Smashes Guinness World Records, catching 43. That year he also broke the record for most tennis balls caught in one minute whilst blindfolded, catching 11.

By February 2012, Kelly had obtained 29 world records, and had 3 still pending approval. On 'Guinness World Records Day' in November 2012 he obtained the record for the most targets hit by a blowgun in 60 seconds, hitting 23.

In 2014, Kelly obtained the record for the most coach qualifications across multiple sports, being a qualified coach in bagua, association football, kung fu, mixed martial arts, ninjutsu, qigong, rugby union, rugby league, tai chi and tai chi dao. By November 2021, he had increased his record to 24 coaching qualifications.

Appearances
Kelly appeared in "Ninjas 2", a 2008 episode of the television series MythBusters, in order to test whether an arrow could be caught in mid-air, whether a ninja can deflect an arrow with a sword and kill the archer before they can reload, and whether a one-inch punch could render somebody unconscious. While Kelly is able to catch arrows, he could not do so under full-combat conditions, so the MythBusters declared that myth "busted". Kelly was able to deflect an arrow with a sword and "kill" Adam Savage before he could reload, thereby confirming that myth. Given the amount of force Kelly could generate with his one-inch punch, the MythBusters team declared it is plausible that someone could be knocked out with the punch.

Kelly was the first person to perform live on Guinness World Records television series in both India and China. He has appeared on episodes of Ripley's Believe It or Not!, Stan Lee's Superhumans and Time Warp.

Personal life
Kelly was born and raised in Armidale, New South Wales. He went to school at O'Connor Catholic College. He states he only eats meat and potatoes, and has never eaten fruit or other vegetables in his life. Kelly attributes his fast reflexes to a combination of genetics and his unusual diet. Kelly previously taught kung fu classes at Duval High School.

References

Living people
Australian male martial artists
1964 births
People from Armidale
Sportsmen from New South Wales