title: General Jewish Labour Bund

text:
The General Jewish Labour Bund in Lithuania, Poland and Russia (), generally called The Bund (, cognate to , ) or the Jewish Labour Bund (), was a secular Jewish socialist party initially formed in the Russian Empire and active between 1897 and 1920. In 1917 the Bund organizations in Poland seceded from the Russian Bund and created a new Polish General Jewish Labour Bund which continued to operate in Poland in the years between the two world wars. The majority faction of the Russian Bund was dissolved in 1921 and incorporated into the Communist Party. Other remnants of the Bund endured in various countries. A member of the Bund was called a Bundist.

Founding
The "General Jewish Labour Bund in Russia and Poland" was founded in Vilna on October 7, 1897. The name was inspired by the General German Workers' Association. The Bund sought to unite all Jewish workers in the Russian Empire into a united socialist party, and also to ally itself with the wider Russian social democratic movement to achieve a democratic and socialist Russia. The Russian Empire then included Lithuania, Latvia, Belarus, Ukraine and most of present-day Poland, areas where the majority of the world's Jews then lived. They hoped to see the Jews achieve a legal minority status in Russia. Of all Jewish political parties of the time, the Bund was the most progressive regarding gender equality, with women making up more than one-third of all members.

The Bund actively campaigned against antisemitism. It defended Jewish civil and cultural rights and rejected assimilation. However, the close promotion of Jewish sectional interests and support for the concept of Jewish national unity (klal yisrael) was prevented by the Bund's socialist universalism. The Bund avoided any automatic solidarity with Jews of the middle and upper classes and generally rejected political cooperation with Jewish groups that held religious, Zionist or conservative views. Even the anthem of the Bund, known as "the oath" (Di Shvue in Yiddish), written in 1902 by S. Ansky, contained no explicit reference to Jews or Jewish suffering.

At the heart of the vision of the future of the Bund was the idea that there is no contradiction between the national aspect on the one hand and the socialist aspect on the other, as a strictly secular organization, the Bund renounced the Holy Land and the sacred language (Hebrew) and chose to speak Yiddish.

After Kremer and Kossovsky were arrested, a new party leadership emerged. A new central committee was set up under the leadership of Dovid Kats (Taras). Other key figures in the new party leadership were Leon Goldman, Pavel (Piney) Rozental and Zeldov (Nemansky). The 2nd Bund conference was held in September 1898. The 3rd Bund conference was held in Kovno in December 1899. John Mill had returned from exile to attend the conference, at which he argued that the Bund should advocate for Jewish national rights. However, Mill's line did not win support from the other conference delegates. The 3rd conference affirmed that the Bund only struggled for civil, not national, rights.

In 1901, the word "Lithuania" was added to the name of the party.

The Bund's membership grew to 900 in Łódź and 1,200 in Warsaw in the fall of 1904.

During the period of 1903–1904, the Bund was harshly affected by Czarist state repression. Between June 1903 and July 1904, 4,467 Bundists were arrested and jailed.

In its early years, the Bund had remarkable success, gaining an estimated 30,000 members in 1903 and an estimated 40,000 supporters in 1906, making it the largest socialist group in the Russian Empire.

As part of the Russian Social Democracy
Given the Bund's secular and socialist perspective, it opposed what it viewed as the reactionary nature of traditional Jewish life in Russia. Created before the Russian Social Democratic Labor Party (RSDLP), the Bund was a founding collective member at the RSDLP's first congress in Minsk in March 1898. Three out of nine delegates at the Minsk congress were from the Bund, and one of three members of the first RSDLP Central Committee was a Bundist. For the next 5 years, the Bund was recognized as the sole representative of the Jewish workers in the RSDLP, although many Russian socialists of Jewish descent, especially outside of the Pale of Settlement, joined the RSDLP directly.

At the RSDLP's second congress in Brussels and London in August 1903, the Bund's autonomous position within the RSDLP was rejected, with both the Bolsheviks and Mensheviks voting against, and the Bund's representatives left the Congress, the first of many splits in the Russian social democratic movement in the years to come. The five representatives of the Bund at this Congress were Vladimir Kossowsky, Arkadi Kremer, Mikhail Liber, Vladimir Medem and Noah Portnoy.

During this period two trade unions, the Union of Bristle-Makers (Bersther-Bund) and the Union of Tanners (Garber-Bund), were affiliated to the Bund. In its report to the 1903 Russian Social Democratic Labour Party congress, the Bund claimed to have district organizations in Vilna (Sventiany, etc.), Kovno (Ponevezh, Vilkomir, Shavli, Onikshty, Keydany, Yanovo, Shaty, Utena...), Grodno (Kartuz-Bereza, etc.), Białystok, Dvinsk (Rezhitsa ...), Minsk (Borisov, Pinsk, Mozyr, Bobruisk, Parichi ...), Vitebsk (Beshankovichy, Liozna, Lyady ...), Warsaw, Łódź, Siedlce, Płock, Suwałki, Mariampol, Gomel (Dobryanyka, Vietka ...), Mogilev (Shklow, Orsha, Bykhov, Kopys ...), Zhytomyr, Berdichev, Odessa, Nizhyn, Bila Tserkva, Podolian Governorate (Vinnitsa, Bratslav, Tulchina, Nemirov), Lutsk, Volhynian Governorate, as well as the districts of the Union of Bristle-Makers; Nevel, Kreslavka, Vilkovyshki, Kalvaria, Vladislavovo, Verzhbolovo, Vystinets, , Trostyan, Knyszyn, and the districts of the Union of Tanners; Smorgon, Oshmyany, Krynki, Zabludovo, , etc.

Per Vladimir Akimov's account of the history of social democracy 1897–1903, there were 14 local committees of Bund – Warsaw, Łódź, Belostok, Grodno, Vilna, Dvisnk, Kovno, Vitebsk, Minsk, Gomel, Mogilev, Berdichev, Zhitomir, Riga. Per Akimov's account the local committees had six types of councils; trade councils (fakhoye skhodki), revolutionary groups, propaganda councils, councils for intellectuals, discussion groups for intellectuals and agitators' councils. The Bristle-Makers Union and Tanners Union had committee status. Bund had organizations that weren't full-fledged committees in Pinsk, Sedlice, Petrokov, Płock, Brest-Litovsk, Vilkomir, Priluki, Rezhitsa, Kiev, Odessa, Bobruisk, and many smaller townships.

4th conference
The 4th Bund conference was held in Białystok in April 1901. The main topic of debate of the 4th Bund conference was the expansion of the Bund into Ukraine and building alliances with existing Jewish labour groups there. The 4th conference reversed the line of the 3rd conference and adopted a line of demanding Jewish national autonomy.

5th conference
The fifth conference of the Bund met in Zürich in June 1903. Thirty delegates took part in the proceedings, representing the major city branches of the party and the Foreign Committee. Two issues dominated the debates; the upcoming congress of the RSDLP and the national question. During the discussions, there was a division between the older guard of the Foreign Committee (Kossovsky, Kremer and John (Yosef) Mill) and the younger generation represented by Medem, Liber and Raphael Abramovitch. The younger group wanted to stress the Jewish national character of the party. No compromise could be reached, and no resolution was adopted on the national question.

1905 Revolution and its aftermath
In February 1905, by a decision of the 6th Bund conference held in Dvinsk, a Polish District Committee () was formed; gathering the local party branches in the areas of Congress Poland (covering 10 governorates, but not including the two main centres of Bundist activity in Poland: the cities of Warsaw and Łódz).

In the Polish areas of the Russian empire, the Bund was a leading force in the 1905 revolution. At that time, the organization probably reached the height of its influence. It called for an improvement in living standards, a more democratic political system and the introduction of equal rights for Jews. At least in the early stages of the first Russian Revolution, the armed groups of the "Bund" were likely the strongest revolutionary force in Western Russia. During the following years, the Bund went into a period of decay. The party tried to concentrate on labour activism around 1909–1910 and led strikes in ten cities. The strikes resulted in a deepened backlash for the party, and as of 1910 there were legal Bundist trade unions in only four cities, Białystok, Vilnius, Riga and Łódź. Total membership in Bundist unions was around 1,500. At the time of the eighth party conference only nine local branches were represented (Riga, Vilnius, Białystok, Łódź, Bobruisk, Pinsk, Warsaw, Grodno and Dvinsk) with a combined membership of 609 (out of whom 404 were active).

The Bund formally rejoined the RSDLP when all of its faction reunited at the Fourth (Unification) Congress in Stockholm in April 1906, with the support of the Mensheviks, but the RSDLP remained fractured along ideological and ethnic lines. The Bund generally sided with the party's Menshevik faction led by Julius Martov and against the Bolshevik faction led by Vladimir Lenin during the factional struggles in the run-up to the Russian Revolution of 1917.

The 7th Bund conference was held in Lemberg (Galicia) August 28 – September 8, 1906. The main topic for debate was the relation with the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party. At the time, the Bund had 33,890 members and 274 functioning local organizations.

After the RSDLP finally split in 1912, the Bund became a federated part of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (Menshevik) (by this time the Mensheviks had accepted the idea of a federated party organization).

Parliamentary representation
At the 1906 First Duma elections, the Bund made an electoral agreement with the Lithuanian Labourers' Party (Trudoviks), which resulted in the election to the Duma of two (apparently non-Bundist) candidates supported by the Bund: Dr. Shmaryahu Levin for the Vilna province and Leon Bramson for the Kovno province. In total, there were twelve Jewish deputies in the Duma, falling to three in the Second Duma (February 1907 to June 1907), two in the Third Duma (1907–1912) and again three in the fourth, elected in 1912, none of them being affiliated to the Bund.

Political outlook
The Bund eventually came to strongly oppose Zionism, arguing that emigration to Palestine was a form of escapism. The Bund did not advocate separatism. Instead, it focused on culture, rather than a state or a place, as the glue of Jewish "nationalism". In this they borrowed extensively from the Austro-Marxist school, further alienating the Bolsheviks and Lenin. The Bund also promoted the use of Yiddish as a Jewish national language and to some extent opposed the Zionist project of reviving Hebrew.

The Bund won converts mainly among Jewish artisans and workers, but also among the growing Jewish intelligentsia. It led a trade union movement of its own. It joined with the Poalei Zion (Labour Zionists) and other groups to form self-defense organisations to protect Jewish communities against pogroms and government troops. During the Russian Revolution of 1905 the Bund headed the revolutionary movement in the Jewish towns, particularly in Belarus and Ukraine.

Importance of Yiddish
The Bund recognized the Yiddish language as a social identifier. To maintain its national-cultural autonomy, the Bund advocated for the Polish Jewish minority to use its own language and maintain its cultural institutions in areas where it was considered a sizable portion of the local population.

As a Germanic language, Yiddish also helped maintain the Bund's European identity. This can be compared to the anti-Yiddish campaign taking place in Palestine during the early twentieth century, where Yiddish newspapers were banned and physical attacks took place against Yiddish speakers.

The Bund had a major role in maintaining and developing Yiddish, including Yiddish literature and other secular cultural uses of the language. The Bund was the first political party to publish a Yiddish paper – Der yidisher arbeyter – in tsarist Russia in 1896.

Activities abroad
Less than a year after the founding of the party, its Foreign Committee was set up in Geneva. Also within the same timespan, Bundist groups began to constitute themselves internationally. However, the Bund did not construct any world party (as did Poalei Zion). On the contrary, the Bund argued that it was a party for action inside the Russian empire. The Bundist groups abroad were not included into the party structures. In 1902, a United Organization of Workers' Associations and Support Groups to the Bund Abroad was founded. The groups affiliated to the United Organization played an important role in raising funds for the party.

Between 1901 and 1903, the Foreign Committee was based in London.

The United Organization, the Foreign Committee as well as the Union of Russian Social Democrats Abroad were all dissolved at the time of the Russian revolution of 1917.

Separation of the Polish Bund
When Poland fell under German occupation in 1914, contact between the Bundists in Poland and the party centre in St. Petersburg became difficult. In November 1914 the Bund Central Committee appointed a separate Committee of Bund Organizations in Poland to run the party in Poland. Theoretically the Bundists in Poland and Russia were members of the same party, but in practice the Polish Bundists operated as a party of their own. In December 1917 the split was formalized, as the Polish Bundists held a clandestine meeting in Lublin and reconstituted themselves as a separate political party.

Revolutions of 1917

The Bund was the only Jewish party that worked within the soviets. Like other socialist parties in Russia, the Bund welcomed the February Revolution of 1917, but it did not support the October Revolution in which the Bolsheviks seized power. Like Mensheviks and other non-Bolshevik parties, the Bund called for the convening of the Russian Constituent Assembly long demanded by all Social Democratic factions. The Bund's key leader in Petrograd during these months was Mikhail Liber, who was to be roundly denounced by Lenin. With the Russian Civil War and the increase in anti-Semitic pogroms by nationalists and Whites, the Bund was obliged to recognise the Soviet government and its militants fought in the Red Army in large numbers.

At the time of the 1917 upheavals, Mikhail Liber was elected president of the Bund.

The 10th conference of the Bund was held in Petrograd April 14–17, 1917. It was the first Bund conference to be held openly inside Russia. 63 delegates had decisive voting rights at the conference, 20 had consultative votes. Isaiah Eisenstadt (Yudin), Arn Vaynshteyn (Rakhmiel), Mark Liber, Henrik Erlich and Moisei Rafes were the delegates of the Central Committee at the conference. The Brushworkers' Union had two delegates. The other delegates with decisive votes represented 37 cities across the country – three delegates each from Vitebsk, Minsk, Mohilev, Kiev, Kharkov, Petrograd (including Max Weinreich), Moscow (including Aleksandr Zolotarev), Yekaterinoslav, two delegates each from Odessa, Berdichev, Gomel, Kremenchuk, Nizhny Novgorod and one delegate each from Slutsk, Bobruisk, Gorodok, Nevel, Polotsk, Smolensk, Zhitomir, Mariupol, Bakhmut, Alexandrovsk, Simferopol, Rostov-on-Don, Kazan, Tambov, Samara, Baku, Tomsk/Novonikolayevsk, Saratov, Ufa, Novomoskovsk, Bogorodsk, Voronezh, and Rivne.

In May 1917, a new Central Committee of the Bund was formed, consisting of Goldman, Erlich, Medem, and Jeremiah Weinsthein. One Central Committee member, Medem, was in Poland at the time and could not travel to Saint Petersburg to meet with the rest of the committee.

Four Bund bureaus were represented as such among the 60 delegates to the May 1918 Menshevik Party conference: Moscow (Abramovich), Northern (Erlich), Western (Goldshtein, Melamed), and Occupied Lands (Aizenshtadt).

The political changes at the time of the Russian revolution resulted in splits in the Bund. In Ukraine, Bund branches in cities like Bobruisk, Ekaterinoburg and Odessa had formed 'leftwing Bund groups' in late 1918. In February 1919, these groups (representing the majority in the Bund in Ukraine) adopted the name Communist Bund (Kombund), re-constituting themselves as an independent party. Moisei Rafes, who had been a leading figure of the Bund in Ukraine, became the leader of the Ukrainian Kombund. The Communist Bund supported the Soviet side in the Russian Civil War. Other members of the Bund (representing the minority in the Bund in Ukraine) at the end of 1918 formed the Social Democratic Bund (Bund-SD). Leaders of the Ukrainian Social Democratic Bund – Sore Foks, A. Litvak, David Petrovsky (Lipets) openly opposed the Communist ideology and policy of confiscation of property, usurpation of political power, arrests and persecution of political opponents.

The Bund also had elected officials at the local level. During the 1917 October Revolution and Russian Civil War, the mayor of the predominantly Jewish Ukrainian town of Berdychiv (53,728 inhabitants, 80% of whom were Jewish at the 1897 census) was a Bundist, David Petrovsky (Lipets).

11th Bund conference
The 11th Bund conference was held in Minsk on March 16–22, 1919, with delegates from Russia, Belarus, Ukraine, Latvia and Lithuania. The conference was marked by a sharp division in the party, with a sector of the Bund being increasing in line with the Bolsheviks. There were 48 delegates with decisive voting rights and 19 with consultative vote. The delegates with decisive votes represented Minsk 5 delegates, Vilna 5, Gomel 5, Baranavichy 4, Bobruisk 2, Kiev 2, Yekaterinoslav 2, Kletsk 2, Nyasvizh 2 and one each from Kharkov, Riga, Moscow, Mohyliv, Konotop, Kurenets, Haradok, Shklow, Ufa/Samara, Smolensk, Rechytsa, Penza, Igumen, Mozyr, Pukhavichy, Ivianiec, Voronezh, Vitebsk and Dvinsk.

In Latvia
The first local Bund organizations in Latvia had been established on 1900 in Daugavpils and on 1902 in Riga. In the autumn of 1904, the Riga Committee of the Latvian Social Democratic Workers Party and the Riga Committee of the Bund signed a co-operation agreement and founded the Riga Federative Committee. The main liaisons were the engineer Jānis Ozols ("Zars") and the railwayman Samuel Klevansky ("Maksim"). Bund was active during the 1905 Russian revolution, organizing demonstrations and fighting units.

In December 1918 the Latvia District Committee of the Bund began publishing the newspaper Undzer Tsayt ('Our Time'). As Latvia declared independence, the Bund held the position that Latvian independence should only be a temporary solution and that the area should eventually become part of a democratic socialist Russia. The Bund obtained two seats in the People's Council of Latvia, represented by A. Sherman and M. Papermeister. Moreover, the party obtained four seats in the provisional city council of Riga.

In 1919, a separate Latvian Bund party was formed.

Bund and the Central Rada of Ukraine
After the issuing of the First Universal of the Central Rada (Council) of Ukraine, the Southern Bureau of the Bund issued a statement rejecting the declaration of Ukrainian autonomy. The Bund feared that minorities, such as the Jews, would suffer if a centralized Ukrainian state emerged. Rather the Bund proposed that the Russian Provisional Government convene an all-Ukrainian territorial conference with representatives of both the Rada and non-Ukrainian forces, to establish an autonomous administration.

Bund and the Belarusian People's Republic
The Bund was among the political parties that participated in the Rada (Council) of the Belarusian People's Republic, which declared independence in 1918 on territories occupied by the German Imperial Army. During the March 24–25, 1918 session of the Rada, the Bund argued against declaring independence from Russia. Bund member Mojżesz Gutman became a Minister without portfolio in the government of the newly created republic and drafted its constitution. The Bund later left the government bodies of the Belarusian People's Republic.

Gomel conference

The remainder Bund in Russia its 12th conference on April 12–19, 1920 in Gomel, where the majority adopted a Communist position and the anti Bolshevik minority reconstituted themselves as separate party (the Bund (S.D.)).

The fourteen point of the resolution "On the Present Situation and the Tasks of Our Party" of the Gomel conference stated that
Summing up the experience of the last year, the Twelfth Conference of the Bund finds:
 that the Bund, in principle, had adopted the communist platform since the Eleventh Conference,
 that the Programme of the Communist Party, which is also the programme of the Soviet government, corresponds with the fundamental platform of the Bund,
 that a ’united socialist front’ with principled opponents of Soviet power, who draw a line between the proletariat and its government, is impossible,
 that the moment has come when the Bund can relinquish its official oppositional stand and take upon itself responsibility for the Soviet government's policy.

The resolution on organisational questions stated that
The logical consequence of the political stand adopted by the Bund is the latter's entry into the [Russian Communist Party] on the same basis as the Bund's membership of the R.S.D.L.P.. The conference authorised the C.C. of the Bund to see to it, as an essential condition, that the Bund preserve within the R.C.P. the status of an autonomous organisation of the Jewish proletariat.

Dissolution of the Bund in Lithuania
In Lithuania, the majority of the Bund had become Communists and at a conference held in Kaunas April 18–19, 1921 the Bund organization in Lithuania was declared dissolved and its members encouraged to join the Communist Party of Lithuania. The anti-Communist minority of the party in Lithuania abandoned Bundist politics altogether.

Unity talks and dissolution
Esther Frumkin and Aron Isaakovich (Rakhmiel) Vainsthein were the key leaders of the Communist Bund 1920–1921. Communist Bund organs, such as Der Veker, were published irregularly in Belarus.

Following the Gomel Conference, a process of negotiations for a merger between the Communist Party and the Communist Bund took place. As noted above, the Communist Bund argued that it should be affiliated as an autonomous organization within the Communist Party on the same terms as the Bund had joined the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party in 1903. Furthermore, the Bund demanded that a commission be set up to discuss the terms of the merger. The Communist Party ceded to this request and a 7-member commission was formed (3 Communist Party representatives, 3 Bund representatives and 1 Comintern representative as arbiter). On May 6, 1920, the Politburo of the Central Committee of the Russian Communist Party (bolshevik) discussed the question of "The Conditions for the Bund's Admission to Membership of the R.C.P." and resolved "that Kamenev, Stalin and Preobrazhensky be authorised to receive the representatives of the Bund and hear their proposals". Within the Communist Party, its Jewish section (Yevsektsiya) strongly opposed the Bund and argued against allowing the Bund to form an autonomous body within the party.

On June 9, 1920, the Communist faction of the Fareynikhte party merged into the Communist Bund.

Eventually the Comintern arbiter in the unity commission was convinced by the Yevsektsiya argumentation, and the Comintern ordered the Bund to dissolve itself. At an Extraordinary All-Russian Bundist Conference, held in Minsk on March 5, 1921, the delegates representing some 3,000 party members debated disbanding the Communist Bund. Vainsthein spoke in favour of disbanding the Communist Bund and merging with the Communist Party. Perel represented the minority view, arguing that the Bund should be retained as a separate party. 47 delegates voted against Perel's proposal, 23 delegates abstained from voting. In April 1921 the Communist International called on all Bundists to join the Communist Party. The Communist Bund was subsequently disbanded. In Belarus, the Communist Party of Byelorussia agreed to provide automatic party membership to any bundist that joined the party, and one bundist was included in the CP(b)B Central Bureau and two bundists in CP(b)B District Committees. Symbolically marking the merger, a ceremony was held in a theatre in Minsk on April 19, 1921, where bundists handed over their banners to the CP(b)B. Der Veker became the organ of the Yevsektsiya (Jewish section of the Communist Party) in the Byelorussian SSR. After their party was dissolved, many former members of the Communist Bund joined the RCP(b) as individuals

Legacy
Around 1923, the remnants of the Bund (S.D.) had ceased to function in Soviet Russia. Many former Bundists, like Mikhail Liber and David Petrovsky, perished during Stalin's purges in the 1930s. The Polish Bundists continued their activities until 1948. During the latter half of the 20th century the Bundist legacy was represented through the International Jewish Labor Bund, a federation of local Bundist groups around the world. A leader of the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising of 1943 was Bundist Marek Edelman.

In West Belarus, areas that came under Polish rule between the two world wars, the remnants of the Russian Bund eventually merged into the Polish Bund, while many activists chose to join the Polish Communist Party.

Former Bundists who became high level officials in the USSR
 Israel Moiseevich Leplevsky (1894–1938), Bundist in 1904–1907, Minister ("People's Commissar") of Internal Affairs of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic (1937–1938)
 Moisei Leibovits Ruhymovych (1889–1939), Bundist in 1904–1913, Minister ("People's Commissar") for military affairs of the Donetsk-Krivoy Rog Soviet Republic (1917–1918) and Minister ("People's Commissar") for Defense Industry of the USSR (1936–1937)
 David Petrovsky (1886–1937), Bundist in 1902–1919, a Chief of the General Directorate of military educational institutions (GUVUZ) of the Red Army (1920–1924), a member of the Presidium of the Executive Committee of the Communist International (1924–1929), a member of the Presidium to the Supreme Soviet of the National Economy (1929–1932), a Chief of the Department of higher and secondary technical educational institutions (GLAVVTUZ) in the Ministry (People's Commissariat) of Soviet Heavy Industry (1932–1937).

The Bundists in North America

Among the exiled Bundists who went on with Socialist politics in America was Baruch Charney Vladeck (1886–1938), elected to the New York Board of Aldermen as a Socialist in 1917, defeated in 1921 but re-elected in 1937 to the newly formed New York City Council running on the American Labor Party ticket. He was also the manager of The Jewish Daily Forward from 1918 till his death.

Moishe Lewis (1888–1950) was a Bundist leader in his Polish (now Belarusian) hometown Svislosz before he emigrated to Canada in 1922. He was the father of David Lewis (1909–1981), a leader of the New Democratic Party in Canada.

The American Labour leader David Dubinsky (1892–1982), though never formally a member of the party, had joined the bakers' union, which was controlled by the Bund, and was elected assistant secretary within the union by 1906. He made his way to the United States in 1911. He later became a member of the Socialist Party of America, helped found the American Labor Party in 1936 and was from 1932 till 1966 the leader of the International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union.

Between 1913 and 1917, working under the name Max Goldfarb, David Petrovsky (1886–1937) was a member of the Central Committee of the Jewish Socialist Federation of America, a member of the Socialist Party of America, and the labor editor of The Forward.

Sara Szweber (1875–1966) was active in the Bund émigré community and took part in Bund's fourth World Congress at the age of ninety.

See also
 Armenian Social-Democratic Workers Organization – an Armenian organization inspired by the Bund
 The Workers Circle – an American organization inspired by the Bund

References

Further reading
 Jack Jacobs (ed.), Jewish Politics in Eastern Europe: The Bund at 100. New York: New York University Press, 2001.
 Alfred Katz, "Bund: The Jewish Socialist Labor Party", The Polish Review, vol. 10, no. 3 (Summer 1965), pp. 67–74.
 Scott Ury, Barricades and Banners: The Revolution of 1905 and the Transformation of Warsaw Jewry. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2012, ch. 3.

External links

 Bund article at The YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe
 Algemeyner Yidisher Arbeyter Bund Collection at the International Institute of Social History
 Jewish Workers' Bund Archive at marxists.org

Jewish political parties
Anti-Zionism in Europe
Anti-Zionist political parties
Factions of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party
Jews and Judaism in the Russian Empire
Jewish Polish history
Jewish Ukrainian history
Socialist parties in Europe
History of socialism
Congress Poland
History of Ukraine (1795–1918)
Political parties of the Russian Revolution
Political parties of minorities in Imperial Russia
Political parties established in 1897
1897 establishments in Poland
1897 establishments in the Russian Empire
1897 establishments in Ukraine
Defunct political parties in Lithuania
Defunct political parties in Ukraine
Defunct socialist parties in Russia
Second International
Political parties in the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic


title: Gymnastics at the 2006 Asian Games – Women's balance beam

text:
The women's balance beam competition at the 2006 Asian Games in Doha, Qatar was held on 3 and 6 December 2006 at the Aspire Hall 2.

Schedule
All times are Arabia Standard Time (UTC+03:00)

Results

Qualification

Final

References

Results
Results

External links
Official website

Artistic Women balance beam


title: Knuckle tattoo

text:
A knuckle tattoo is a kind of tattoo that most commonly uses two groups of four-letter words or one eight-letter word. It is not necessarily a prison tattoo, as sometimes believed, but remains an unpopular form of tattoo—alongside hand tattoos in general—due to the difficulty of hiding it in situations such as a formal setting where it would be seen as crass. Some people also use their knuckles to tattoo drawings and images, sometimes in groups of four, such as the four symbols of a deck of playing cards to signify good luck, or astrological symbols.

Examples
Robert Mitchum's character Reverend Harry Powell wears LOVE / HATE in the 1955 film The Night of the Hunter.

In The Blues Brothers, the main characters have JAKE / ELWO/OD on their knuckles.

Musician Flea wears LOVE / LOVE. Professional wrestler CM Punk wears DRUG / FREE.

In sailor tattoo traditions, deckhands may get HOLD / FAST as a charm to support their grip on rigging.

References

External links
 The Knuckle Tattoo Project
 Dubuddha knuckle tattoos gallery

Tattooing by body part


title: Ethical socialism

text:
Ethical socialism is a political philosophy that appeals to socialism on ethical and moral grounds as opposed to consumeristic, economic, and egoistic grounds. It emphasizes the need for a morally conscious economy based upon the principles of altruism, cooperation, and social justice while opposing possessive individualism.

In contrast to socialism inspired by historical materialism, Marxist theory, neoclassical economics, and rationalism which base their appeals for socialism on grounds of economic efficiency, historical inevitability, or rationality, ethical socialism focuses on the moral and ethical reasons for advocating socialism. It became the official philosophy of several socialist parties.

Ethical socialism has some significant overlap with Christian socialism, Fabianism, guild socialism, liberal socialism, social-democratic reformism, and utopian socialism. Under the influence of politicians like Carlo Rosselli in Italy, social democrats began disassociating themselves from orthodox Marxism altogether as represented by Marxism–Leninism, embracing an ethical liberal socialism, Keynesianism, and appealing to morality rather than any consistent systematic, scientific or materialist worldview.

Social democracy made appeals to communitarian, corporatist, and sometimes nationalist sentiments while rejecting the economic and technological determinism generally characteristic of both economic liberalism and orthodox Marxism.

Overview
Ethical socialism can be traced back to the utopian socialists, especially Henri de Saint-Simon and Charles Fourier, but also anarchists such as the French socialist Pierre-Joseph Proudhon as well as Italian revolutionaries and socialists such as Giuseppe Garibaldi and Giuseppe Mazzini. Those utopian socialists, one of the first currents of modern socialist thought, presented visions and outlines for imaginary or futuristic ideal societies, characterized by the establishment of a moral economy, with positive ideals based on moral and ethical grounds being the main reason for moving society in such a direction. Before Marxists established a hegemony over definitions of socialism, the term socialism was a broad concept which referred to one or more of various theories aimed at solving the labour problem through radical changes in the capitalist economy. Descriptions of the problem, explanations of its causes and proposed solutions such as the abolition of private property or supporting cooperatives and public ownership varied among socialist philosophies.

The term ethical socialism initially originated as a pejorative by the Marxian economist Rosa Luxemburg against Marxist revisionist Eduard Bernstein and his socialist reformist supporters, who evoked neo-Kantian liberal ideals and ethical arguments in favour of socialism. Self-recognized ethical socialists soon arose in Britain such as the Christian socialist R. H. Tawney and its ideals were connected to Christian socialist, Fabian, and guild socialist ideals. Ethical socialism was an important ideology within the British Labour Party. Ethical socialism has been publicly supported by British prime ministers Ramsay MacDonald, Clement Attlee, and Tony Blair. While Blair described New Labour as a return to ethical socialism, several critics accused him of completely abandoning socialism in favour of capitalism.

Ethical socialism had a profound impact on the social democratic movement and reformism during the later half of the 20th century, particularly in Great Britain. Ethical socialism is distinct in its focus on criticism of the ethics of capitalism and not merely criticism of the economic, systemic, and material issues of capitalism. When the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) renounced orthodox Marxism during the Godesberg Program in the 1950s, ethical socialism became the official philosophy within the SPD. The decision to abandon the traditional anti-capitalist policy angered many in the SPD who had supported it. Some such as Ian Adams also argue that this was an abandonment of the classical conception of socialism as involving the replacement of the capitalist economic system and make a distinction between classical socialism and liberal socialism.

Themes

R. H. Tawney denounced self-seeking amoral and immoral behaviour that he claimed is supported by capitalism. Tawney opposed what he called the "acquisitive society" that causes private property to be used to transfer surplus profit to "functionless owners", i.e. capitalist rentiers. However, he did not denounce managers as a whole, believing that management and employees could join in a political alliance for reform. Tawney supported the pooling of surplus profit through means of progressive taxation to redistribute these funds to provide social welfare (including public health care, public education, and public housing) and the nationalization of strategic industries and services. He supported worker participation in the business of management in the economy as well as consumer, employee, employer and state cooperation in regulating the economy.

Although Tawney supported a substantial role for public enterprise in the economy, he stated that where private enterprise provided a service that was commensurate with its rewards that was functioning private property, then a business could be usefully and legitimately be left in private hands. Thomas Hill Green supported the right of equal opportunity for all individuals to be able freely appropriate property, but claimed that acquisition of wealth did not imply that an individual could do whatever they wanted to once that wealth was in their possession. Green opposed "property rights of the few" that were preventing the ownership of property by the many.

Ethical socialism was advocated and promoted by former British prime minister Tony Blair, who has been influenced by John Macmurray, himself influenced by Green. Blair has defined ethical socialism with similar notions promoted by earlier ethical socialists such as emphasis on the common good, rights, and responsibilities, and support of an organic society in which individuals flourish through cooperation. According to Blair, the Labour Party ran into problems in the 1960s and 1970s when it abandoned ethical socialism and believes that the party's recovery required a return to the ethical socialist values last promoted by the Attlee government. However, Blair's critics (both inside and outside Labour) have accused him of completely abandoning socialism in favour of capitalism.

See also

 Communitarianism
 Democratic socialism
 Gaitskellism
 Holistic community
 Human dignity
 Idealism
 Liberal socialism
 Moral economy
 Neo-Kantianism
 Post-war consensus
 Social corporatism
 Social democracy
 Social liberalism
 Social market economy
 Social mobility
 Third Way
 Types of socialism
 Utopian socialism
 Women's health
 Workers' rights

References

Footnotes

Bibliography

Further reading

Democratic socialism
Normative ethics
Liberal socialism
Political culture
Political ideologies
Social democracy
Social philosophy
Socialism
Types of socialism
Utopian socialism


title: Reformism

text:
Reformism is a political doctrine advocating the reform of an existing system or institution instead of its abolition and replacement via revolution.

Within the socialist movement, reformism is the view that gradual changes through existing institutions can eventually lead to fundamental changes in a society's political and economic systems. Reformism as a political tendency and hypothesis of social change grew out of opposition to revolutionary socialism, which contends that revolutionary upheaval is a necessary precondition for the structural changes necessary to transform a capitalist system to a qualitatively different socialist system. Responding to a pejorative conception of reformism as non-transformational, non-reformist reform was conceived to prioritize human needs over capitalist needs.

As a doctrine, centre-left reformism is distinguished from centre-right or pragmatic reform, which instead aims to safeguard and permeate the status quo by preventing fundamental structural changes to it, whereas leftist reformism posits that an accumulation of reforms can eventually lead to the emergence of entirely different economic and political systems than those of present-day capitalism and bureaucracy.

Overview
There are two types of reformism. One has no intention of bringing about socialism or fundamental economic change to society and is used to oppose such structural changes. The other is based on the assumption that while reforms are not socialist in themselves, they can help rally supporters to the cause of revolution by popularizing the cause of socialism to the working class.

The debate on the ability of social democratic reformism to lead to a socialist transformation of society is over a century old. Reformism is criticized for being paradoxical as it seeks to overcome the existing economic system of capitalism while trying to improve the conditions of capitalism, thereby making it appear more tolerable to society. According to Rosa Luxemburg, capitalism is not overthrown, "but is on the contrary strengthened by the development of social reforms". In a similar vein, Stan Parker of the Socialist Party of Great Britain argues that reforms are a diversion of energy for socialists and are limited because they must adhere to the logic of capitalism.

French social theorist Andre Gorz criticized reformism by advocating a third alternative to reformism and social revolution that he called "non-reformist reforms", specifically focused on structural changes to capitalism as opposed to reforms to improve living conditions within capitalism or to prop it up through economic interventions.

In modern times, some reformists are seen as centre-right. For example, the historical Reform Party of Canada advocated structural changes to government to counter what they believed was the disenfranchisement of Western Canadians. Some social democratic parties such as the aforementioned Social Democratic Party of Germany and the Canadian New Democratic Party are still considered to be reformist and are seen as centre-left.

Socialism

None of the initial figures that founded modern socialism in the early 19th century, such as the utopian socialists Henri de Saint-Simon, Charles Fourier, and Robert Owen were revolutionary. Instead these thinkers believed they could convince the governments and ruling classes in England and France to adopt their schemes through persuasion.
In 1875, the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) adopted a Gotha Program that proposed "every lawful means" on a way to a "socialist society" and was criticized by Karl Marx, who considered the communist revolution a required step. One of the delegates to the SPD congress was Eduard Bernstein, who later expanded on the concept, proposing what he termed "evolutionary socialism". Bernstein was a leading social democrat in Germany. His "revisionism" was quickly targeted by revolutionary socialists, with Rosa Luxemburg condemning Bernstein's evolutionary socialism in her 1900 essay Social Reform or Revolution? and by orthodox Marxists such as Karl Kautsky, who condemned its theories in his 1909 work Road to Power.

While Luxemburg died in the German Revolution, the reformists soon found themselves contending with the Bolsheviks and their satellite communist parties for the support of intellectuals and the working class. In 1959, the Godesberg Program (signed at a party convention in Bad Godesberg in the West German capital of Bonn) marked the shift of the SPD from an orthodox Marxist program espousing an end to the capitalist system to a reformist one focused on social reform.

After Joseph Stalin consolidated power in the Soviet Union, the Comintern launched a campaign against the reformist movement by denouncing them as social fascists. According to The God that Failed by Arthur Koestler, a former member of the Communist Party of Germany, the largest communist party in Western Europe in the interwar period, communists aligned with the Soviet Union continued to consider the SPD to be the real enemy in Germany even after the Nazi Party had gotten into power.

The term was applied to elements within the British Labour Party in the 1950s and subsequently on the party's liberal-wing. Anthony Crosland wrote The Future of Socialism (1956) as a personal manifesto arguing for a reformulation of the term. For Crosland, the relevance of nationalization, or public ownership, for socialists was much reduced as a consequence of contemporary full employment, Keynesian management of the economy and reduced capitalist exploitation. After the third successive defeat of his party in the 1959 general election, Hugh Gaitskell attempted to reformulate the original wording of Clause IV in the party's constitution, but proved unsuccessful. Some of the younger followers of Gaitskell, principally Roy Jenkins, Bill Rodgers and Shirley Williams, left the Labour Party in 1981 to found the Social Democratic Party, but the central objective of the Gaitskellites was eventually achieved by Tony Blair in his successful attempt to rewrite Clause IV in 1995. The use of the term is distinguished from the gradualism associated with Fabianism (the ideology of the Fabian Society) which itself should not be seen as being in parallel with the Marxist reformism associated with Bernstein and the SPD as initially the Fabians had explicitly rejected orthodox Marxism.

See also

 Centrist Marxism
 Communalism (Bookchin)
 Democratic socialism
 Ethical socialism
 Fabian Society
 Impossibilism
 Incrementalism
 Iranian Reformists
 Libertarian possibilism
 Opportunism
 Passive revolution
 Radicalism
 Possibilism (politics)
 Post-capitalism
 Reform movement
 Revolutionary socialism
 Revisionism
 Social change
 Social democracy
 Social liberalism

References

External links
 Luxemburg, Rosa (1900). Reform or Revolution?

Progressive conservatism
Democratic socialism
Liberalism
Liberal socialism
Marxism
Marxist theory
Reform
Social democracy
Reformism


title: Adverse outcome pathway

text:
An adverse outcome pathway (AOP) is structured representation of biological events leading to adverse effects  and is considered relevant to risk assessment. The AOP links in a linear way existing knowledge along one or more series of causally connected key events (KE) between two points — a molecular initiating event (MIE) and an adverse outcome (AO) that occur at a level of biological organization relevant to risk assessment. The linkage between the events is described by key event relationships (KER) that describe the causal relationships between the key events.

AOPs are important for expanding the use of mechanistic toxicological data for risk assessment and regulatory applications with recent applications in further disciplines such as climate science.

Background

In 2012, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) launched a new programme on the development of adverse outcome pathways. A guidance document describes in detail how AOPs are to be developed, reviewed, agreed and published at the OECD level. The AOP development and reviewing workflow is intended to take place via a web-based IT management tool: the Adverse Outcome Pathway Knowledge Base (AOP-KB) which  is currently still under development. It is the wiki-based, user-friendly tool providing open-source interface for collaborative sharing of established AOPs and building new AOPs.
The AOP-KB gives the scientific community the possibility to enter, share and discuss their AOP-related knowledge at one central point of information.
The AOP-KB allows for building AOPs by entering and then linking information about MIEs, KEs, AOs and  Chemical Initiators.
Knowing that pathway elements are not necessarily unique to a single AOP, value is added to existing knowledge by facilitating the re-use of MIE, KE and AO information in multiple AOPs, which prevents redundancy and make the collective knowledge about those entities available in all AOPs in which they appear.

The AOP-KB is a combination of individually developed applications, synchronised and orchestrated in a way that gives users the possibility to capture, review, browse and comment on AOPs shared by the AOP stakeholder community.

The AOP-KB project is an Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development  initiative, which is executed as close collaboration between the Joint Research Centre of European Commission, the United States Environmental Protection Agency and the  Engineer Research and Development Center of United States Army Corps of Engineers for the purpose of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development's programme on the development of AOPs

The AOP has also been recently applied to better understand the effects of climate related stressors, further expanding the potential of AOPs to other scientific disciplines

More recent developments have focused on the analysis of AOP networks and the quantification of KERs with a view to developing mathematical models of AOPs, sometimes referred to as quantitative AOPs.

Scientific workshops held for advancing the concept of AOP:

 2013
January 23–25, Baltimore, USA  Building Shared Experience to Advance Practical Application of Pathway-Based Toxicology:Liver Toxicity Mode-of-Action

 2014
March 2–7, Somma Lombardo, Italy Advancing Adverse Outcome Pathways (AOP) for Integrated Toxicology and Regulatory Applications
August 24, Prague, Czech Republic AOPs 101: The How and Why of Development and Use
September 3–5, Bethesda, USA Adverse Outcome Pathways: From Research to Regulation workshop held by NTP Interagency Center for the Evaluation of Alternative Toxicological Methods (NICEATM) and the Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine. Materials from the workshop, including links to the plenary session videocasts and summaries of the breakout group discussions, are available on the NTP website

References

External links
AOP KB Homepage
OECD Adverse Outcome Pathways, Molecular Screening and Toxicogenomics Programme on the development of AOPs
 European Commission's Joint Research Centre
 Adverse Outcome Pathways: From Research to Regulation
 NTP Interagency Center for the Evaluation of Alternative Toxicological Methods

Toxicology
Chemical safety
Medical terminology


title: 1989 Davis Cup World Group

text:
The World Group was the highest level of Davis Cup competition in 1989. The first-round losers went into the Davis Cup World Group qualifying round, and the winners progressed to the quarterfinals and were guaranteed a World Group spot for 1990.

West Germany won the title for a second consecutive year, defeating Sweden in the final, 3–2. The final was held at the Schleyer-Halle in Stuttgart, West Germany, on 15–17 December. It was the West Germany team's 2nd Davis Cup title overall.

Participating teams

Draw

First round

Sweden vs. Italy

Austria vs. Australia

Yugoslavia vs. Denmark

Spain vs. Mexico

United States vs. Paraguay

Israel vs. France

Czechoslovakia vs. Soviet Union

West Germany vs. Indonesia

Quarterfinals

Austria vs. Sweden

Yugoslavia vs. Spain

United States vs. France

Czechoslovakia vs. West Germany

Semifinals

Sweden vs. Yugoslavia

West Germany vs. United States

Final

West Germany vs. Sweden

References

External links
Davis Cup official website

World Group
Davis Cup World Group
Davis Cup
German


title: Silluvia

text:
Silluvia is a genus of beetle in family Scarabaeidae. It belongs to subfamily Aegialiinae. Silluvia typically occur at high altitudes in the Himalaya and Sino-Tibetan mountains.

Species
Species belonging to this genus are as follows:
 Silluvia elongata
 Silluvia gansuensis
 Silluvia gogona
 Silluvia gosainkundae
 Silluvia himalayanus
 Silluvia igori
 Silluvia kabaki
 Silluvia petrovitzi
 Silluvia shashi
 Silluvia simbuae
 Silluvia sinica
 Silluvia wassuensis
 Silluvia wittmeri
 Silluvia yunnanica

References

Scarabaeidae genera
Scarabaeidae


title: Lydia, Minnesota

text:
Lydia is an unincorporated community in Spring Lake Township, Scott County, Minnesota, United States.

The community is located south-southwest of the city of Prior Lake near the junction of Langford Avenue (Highway 13) and Scott County Road 10. Author Cora Sutton Castle (1880-1966) was born at Lydia.

Nearby places include Jordan and Prior Lake.

References

Unincorporated communities in Minnesota
Unincorporated communities in Scott County, Minnesota


title: The Breton Sound

text:
The Breton Sound is an American rock band based in New Orleans, Louisiana, United States.

Founded in 2011, the Breton Sound began as a collaboration of longtime friends Jonathan Pretus (ex-Cowboy Mouth)and Stephen Turner. Together they produced the EP, Eudaemonia, which combined their varied musical influences and was produced by Tom Drummond of Better than Ezra. Within the year, Pretus's brother Brian (Pears) was brought in for bass and backing vocals. 2013 brought their new EP, Maps, and a new drummer, John Bourgeois (Fatter Than Albert, Dead Legends), followed by his brother, bassist Joe Bourgeois (MyNameIsJohnMichael).

In 2015, the band released the EP Don't Be Afraid of Rock and Roll, Vol. 1, with Tom Drummond remaining at the helm as producer. The EP was recorded at Ardent Studios in Memphis, Southern Ground Studios in Atlanta, and The Music Shed in New Orleans. The project was designed to take the band to various historical studios around the South in an effort to capture the vibe and history of the rooms.

In 2015, the band were nominated by Gambit Weekly for Best Emerging Artist, and in October 2015 the band won the Louisiana Music Prize.

The Breton Sound EP, released in July 2018, was recorded in New Orleans at 1920s church-turned-recording facility, Esplanade Studios (Eric Clapton, Elvis Costello, Mary J. Blige, The Roots) by the well-known and highly regarded producer and mixer, Jeff Glixman (Black Sabbath, Bob Marley and the Wailers, Kansas).  Prior to recording, the band and Glixman were approached by PreSonus Audio Electronics and offered the chance to test-drive their new studio recording software, StudioOne4. Working with the Baton Rouge-based company seemed a natural fit (Pretus and Turner met while students at Louisiana State University). PreSonus was looking to put their Studio One platform in direct competition with the likes of industry-standard Pro Tools, and The Breton Sound was looking to make a record that put them on the same playing field as the rock acts that populate today's radio dials and streaming playlists.

In 2020, with John Bourgeois moving away from New Orleans, the band went on indefinite hiatus. Pretus, Turner, and Joe Bourgeois, along with drummer Kyle Melancon (Imagination Movers/ex-Dash Rip Rock) perform regionally as 90s coverband Big in the 90s, and nod to the comment The Breton Sound received from several record labels and management that they "would've been big in the 90s."

Discography
 Eudaemonia (2011)
 Maps (2013)
 "Wonderful Christmastime" single (Paul McCartney cover) (2014)
 Don't Be Afraid of Rock and Roll, Vol. 1 (2015)
 The Breton Sound (2018)

References

The Breton Sound
Channeling Weezer comes easy to members of New Orleans rock band The Breton Sound
The Breton Sound: Sounding It Out
The Breton Sound is looking to dominate
The winner of Louisiana Music Prize is...

External links

Rock music groups from Louisiana
Musical groups established in 2011
Musical groups from New Orleans
2011 establishments in Louisiana


title: River Kemp

text:
The River Kemp is a tributary of the River Clun which flows through Shropshire, England.

Course
The river is formed from two small unnamed streams that drain the area around Bishops Castle, the stream on the western side of the town rises near Bishops Moat and flows south-easterly in a well defined valley. The stream to the east rises on Lydham Heath near Lea and flows in a south-westerly direction to converge with the western stream to the east of Colebatch. The River Kemp begins at the confluence of these two streams.

From this point the river then flows south, to reach the hamlet of Brockton, where it turns in a south-easterly direction to pass through the grounds on Walcot Hall, near Lydbury North. Here the river feeds the large lake known as Walcot Pool, which was allegedly constructed by French prisoners of war from the Napoleonic War.

To the south of Walcot Park, it is crossed by the Shropshire Way and then passes through the village of Kempton, where there is a ford and footbridge. The river continues due south, until it reaches the Clun valley near Clunbury. It joins the larger river to the east of the village at Oaker near Aston on Clun.

The total length of the Kemp is . The drainage basin for the river, which lies between that of the River Unk to the west, and that of the River Onny to the north, has a catchment area of .

Ecology
The River Kemp was classed as having moderate ecological quality under the Water Framework Directive in 2009, but this regressed to poor in 2016. Chemical quality remained good throughout the monitoring period. The five part framework scale ranges from high, good, and moderate, through to poor and finally bad.

See also
List of rivers of England

References

External links

Rivers of Shropshire
2Kemp


title: Pedro Ribeiro (footballer, born 1995)

text:
Pedro Filipe Ventura Ribeiro (born 1 July 1995) is a Portuguese footballer who plays for Atlético as a midfielder.

Football career
On 27 July 2014, Ribeiro made his professional debut with Atlético in a 2014–15 Taça da Liga match against Aves.

References

External links

Stats and profile at LPFP

1995 births
Living people
Portuguese men's footballers
Men's association football midfielders
Liga Portugal 2 players
Footballers from Lisbon
Atlético Clube de Portugal players


title: Warren D'Oyly

text:
Vice-Admiral Warren Hastings D'Oyly (3 August 1867 – 22 March 1950) was a British officer of the Royal Navy who saw service in the First World War.

Early life and family

Warren Hastings D'Oyly was born on 3 August 1867, the third son of Warren Hastings D'Oyly, later tenth Baronet, who worked in the Bengal Civil Service, and his wife Henrietta Mary Halliday, a daughter of Sir Frederick James Halliday, Lieutenant-Governor of Bengal. He was baptised at Bhagalpur, Bengal on 24 November 1867.

In 1912, D'Oyly married Sylvia Agnes Alicia Hart, daughter of General Sir Reginald Clare Hart. They had one son: Lieutenant Reginald Clare Hastings D'Oyly (1918–1941), who served in the Royal Navy during the Second World War and died on 31 March 1941, while stationed on HMS Bonaventure, which was sunk south of Crete.

Naval career

D'Oyly was educated at Eastman's Royal Naval Academys and enrolled in the Royal Navy on 15 January 1881. He was promoted to lieutenant in 1891. He served in the South African War 1899–1902, in command of the composite gunboat HMS Thrush. In early 1902 he took her to help a British force in Nigeria re-open trade routes on the Lower Niger (River Niger Expedition), closed by piracy of the locals during the Aro-Anglo war. For his service he was mentioned in despatches by the commander of the British force during the war, and by the High Commissioner of other Nigeria. Promoted to commander on 26 June 1902, he was back in the United Kingdom when he was on 8 October 1902 appointed in command of HMS Wildfire, shore establishment at Sheerness, for duties with the Commander-in-Chief, The Nore.

He later took part in the Anglo-French expedition in 1905, and was promoted to captain in 1908. By 1913, D'Oyly was the captain of HMS Lancaster, an armoured cruiser. He was present at the Haitian insurrection of 1914, before serving in the First World War. By 1917, he was the captain of HMS Donegal, another armoured cruiser. After the conclusion of the First World War, D'Oyly was listed in the London Gazette as being one of the "Officers and Men ... brought to the notice of the Admiralty for valuable services in the prosecution of the War". He was promoted to rear-admiral in 1919 and vice-admiral in 1925.

D'Oyly died at Clare Mount in Broadstone, Dorset, on 22 March 1950. He left an estate worth over £2,000.

Ancestry

References

Citations

Bibliography
 B. Burke (1865), Genealogical and Heraldic Dictionary of the Peerage and Baronetage.
 A.P. Burke (1931), Genealogical and Heraldic Dictionary of the Peerage and Baronetage.
 A.C. Fox-Davies (1929), Armorial Families, 7th ed., volume 1. London: Hurst & Blackett Ltd.
 Marquess de Ruvigny (1907), The Plantagenet Roll of the Blood Royal, "Essex" Volume

1867 births
1950 deaths
Royal Navy vice admirals
Royal Navy officers of World War I


title: Jordan Chiles

text:
Jordan Lucella Elizabeth Chiles (born April 15, 2001)  is an American artistic gymnast. She represented the United States at the 2020 Summer Olympics and won a silver medal in the team event. She was a member of the team that won gold at the 2022 World Championships. Individually, she is the 2022 World vault silver medalist and floor silver medalist. She has been a member of the United States women's national gymnastics team since 2013.

Early and personal life
Chiles was born in Tualatin, Oregon, on April 15, 2001, to Timothy and Gina Chiles. She was named after American basketball player Michael Jordan. She is one of five children, her siblings being Jazmin, Jade, Tajmen, and Tyrus. She grew up in Vancouver, Washington, but moved to Spring, Texas in 2019 to train alongside American gymnast and Olympic medalist Simone Biles at the World Champions Centre.

Gymnastics career

Junior career

2013–14
Chiles made her elite debut at the 2013 American Classic where she won the bronze medal in the all-around behind Ariana Agrapides and Laurie Hernandez and the silver medal on vault behind Felicia Hano. At the 2013 P&G National Championships, Chiles finished eleventh in the all-around with a total score of 108.050, and she also finished sixth on vault. She was selected to be a member of the Junior National Team.

Chiles made her international debut at the 2014 City of Jesolo Trophy. She won a gold medal with the team and finished sixth in the all-around. In the event finals, Chiles placed second on vault behind her teammate Bailie Key. At the 2014 Secret U.S. Classic, Chiles won the all-around competition with a score of 57.350. She then competed at the 2014 U.S. National Championships where she finished fourth in the all-around. She won the bronze medals on both the vault and the floor exercise. She was once again named to the Junior National Team.

2015–16
After a tough competition, Chiles placed eighth in the all-around at the 2015 U.S. Classic. She tied with Jazmyn Foberg for the bronze medal on the uneven bars. She finished fourth in the all-around and won the gold medal on the vault at the 2015 U.S. National Championships and was once again selected for the junior national team.

Chiles competed at the 2016 International Gymnix in Montreal alongside Emma Malabuyo, Gabby Perea, and Deanne Soza, and they won the gold medal in the junior team competition. Chiles then won the gold medal in the vault event final. She then won the junior all-around title at the 2016 City of Jesolo Trophy. In the event finals, she won the gold medal on vault, tied with Emma Malabuyo for the silver medal on the uneven bars, finished fifth on the balance beam, and eighth on the floor exercise. At the 2016 U.S. Classic, she finished fourth in the all-around and won the gold medal on vault.

Senior career

2017
Chiles made her senior debut at the American Classic where she only competed on the uneven bars and the balance beam and finished fourth and fifth, respectively. At the U.S. Classic, she finished fifth in the all-around. In August, Chiles competed at the U.S. National Championships where she placed second in the all-around behind Ragan Smith, in addition to a fourth-place finish on the balance beam. During her balance beam performance she flubbed a wolf turn but saved it by connecting it to an unplanned triple turn. In September, Chiles was selected as the non-traveling alternate for the World Championships.

2018
On March 18, Chiles made her senior international debut at the Stuttgart World Cup where she placed third behind Jin Zhang of China and Elisabeth Seitz of Germany, posting the highest scores of the competition on vault and floor. On April 8, Chiles was named to the team to compete at the Pacific Rim Championships. There she won team gold as well as gold on vault and floor exercise and bronze on the balance beam.

In August, Chiles competed at the National Championships where she placed eleventh in the all-around and second on vault behind Simone Biles. She also placed tenth on uneven bars, fourteenth on balance beam, and twenty-first on floor exercise. She was not named to the senior national team. She received media recognition for competing in a Wonder Woman inspired leotard. In October, Chiles participated in the Worlds Team Selection Camp. During the competition, she placed third on vault behind Biles and Shilese Jones, seventh in the all-around and on balance beam, and sixth on uneven bars and floor exercise. While she did not make the world team, she was added to the 2018-2019 national team.

In November, Chiles signed her National Letter of Intent with UCLA, deferring until after the 2020 Olympics and initially planning to start in the 2020–2021 school year.

2019–20
In June, it was revealed that Chiles had switched gyms, leaving Naydenov Gymnastics in her hometown of Vancouver, Washington and moving to Spring, Texas to train at World Champions Centre, the same gym at which Simone Biles trains.

Chiles was expected to compete at the American Classic. However, days before the competition, she withdrew. At the 2019 U.S. Classic in July, Chiles finished eleventh in the all-around with a score of 54.650. She also tied for eighth on the uneven bars with Leanne Wong, placed twelfth on the balance beam, and tied for sixteenth on the floor exercise with Sloane Blakely. At the 2019 U.S. National Championships in August, Chiles performed all eight of her routines without a fall to place sixth in the all-around. She also finished seventh on uneven bars, tied with Riley McCusker, placed twelfth on balance beam, and seventh on floor exercise. As a result, she was named to the national team.

In September, Chiles competed at the 2019 World team selection camp and placed eleventh with a score of 53.400 after falling on her Amanar vault and on floor exercise, and she was not named to the World Championships team. Chiles did not compete at all during the 2020 season due to the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States.

2021
In February, Chiles became the first ever women's all-around Winter Cup champion. She also finished first on vault and floor exercise, second on balance beam, and fourth on uneven bars. In May, Chiles placed second in the all-around at the U.S. Classic behind teammate Simone Biles. She also finished second on uneven bars, fourth on balance beam, and second on floor exercise. In June, Chiles placed third in the all-around at the U.S. National Gymnastics Championships behind Simone Biles and Sunisa Lee. She also finished third on vault. As a result she was named to the national team and selected to compete at the Olympic Trials.

At the Olympic Trials, Chiles finished third, once again behind Biles and Lee, and was named to the Olympic team alongside Biles, Lee, and Grace McCallum.  Chiles was the only US team member to hit every routine she competed during the season leading up to the Olympics; out of 24 total routines, she did not fall once.

At the Olympic Games Chiles performed the all-around during qualifications. She finished 40th after struggles on multiple events: on uneven bars she brushed her feet on the ground during a transition between the bars, incurring a deduction equivalent to that of a fall; on balance beam she fell on her acrobatic series and put her hands down on her dismount. Her performance helped qualify the USA team to the team final in second place behind the Russian Olympic Committee.

During the team final Chiles was initially set to compete only on vault and floor exercise. However, Simone Biles withdrew from the competition after the first rotation and Chiles replaced her on uneven bars and balance beam.  She hit both of those routines despite not having warmed up on either, but fell on her third pass on floor exercise. The United States won the silver medal, finishing second behind the Russian Olympic Committee.

2022
In August Chiles competed at the National Championships.  She finished third in the all-around behind Konnor McClain and Shilese Jones.  In September Chiles competed at the Paris World Challenge Cup; she only competed on vault, uneven bars, and floor exercise.  She qualified to all three event finals.  During event finals she won gold on floor exercise, silver on vault behind teammate Jade Carey, and placed fifth on uneven bars.

In October Chiles was selected to compete at the 2022 World Championships alongside Skye Blakely, Jade Carey, Shilese Jones, and Leanne Wong.  During the qualification round Chiles helped the USA qualify to the team final in first place.  Individually she qualified to the vault and floor exercise finals.  Although she recorded the twelfth highest all-around score, she did not advance to the final due to teammates Jones and Carey scoring higher.  During the team final Chiles contributed scores on all four apparatuses, helping the USA win their sixth consecutive team gold medal.  On the first day of apparatus finals Chiles won silver on vault behind compatriot Carey.  On the final day of competition she won silver on floor exercise behind Jessica Gadirova.

2023
In September Chiles was named to the team to compete at the 2023 Pan American Games alongside Kayla DiCello, Kaliya Lincoln, Zoe Miller, and Tiana Sumanasekera.

NCAA career

2021–22 season
During the fall of 2021 Chiles joined Simone Biles' Gold Over America Tour alongside Bruin alum Katelyn Ohashi.  She joined the Bruins gymnastics team in December.  Chiles made her NCAA debut on January 17, 2022 in a meet against Iowa and Minnesota.  She only competed on the uneven bars and vault.  On February 4, in a meet against Utah, Chiles earned her first collegiate perfect ten on floor exercise.  She also won the all-around with a score of 39.700.  As a result Chiles was named Pac-12 freshman of the week.

Career perfect 10.0

Regular season ranking

Competitive history

Filmography

References

External links

2001 births
African-American female gymnasts
American female artistic gymnasts
Living people
People from Tualatin, Oregon
Sportspeople from Vancouver, Washington
U.S. women's national team gymnasts
Gymnasts at the 2020 Summer Olympics
Olympic gymnasts for the United States
Olympic silver medalists for the United States in gymnastics
Medalists at the World Artistic Gymnastics Championships
Medalists at the 2020 Summer Olympics
21st-century African-American sportspeople
21st-century African-American women
UCLA Bruins women's gymnasts
Gymnasts at the 2023 Pan American Games
Pan American Games gold medalists for the United States
Pan American Games silver medalists for the United States
Pan American Games bronze medalists for the United States
Pan American Games medalists in gymnastics
Medalists at the 2023 Pan American Games


title: Jwaundace Candece

text:
Jwaundace Candece (born January 13, 1978) is an American actress, stunt woman and semi-retired professional wrestler.

Career

Professional wrestling
Candece began her professional wrestling career with Women of Wrestling from 2000 to 2001, using the ring name Delta Lotta Pain. She was part of the tag team Caged Heat, alongside Loca. On January 20, 2001, they became the WOW Tag Team Champions, and remained so until the promotion ceased television production that March. Upon the promotion's relaunch in 2013, Caged Heat returned as champions, but dropped the title to The All American Girls (Amber O'Neal and Santana Garrett). In a 2014 interview, Candece stated that she was still affiliated with WOW, but combining professional wrestling with her stunt work was time consuming, so she chose to continue the latter.

Stunt career
She is the first black American woman to reach over 100 film, television and commercial credits performing stunts as herself but mainly for some of Hollywood's top actresses. She has performed stunts for Viola Davis, Regina King, Queen Latifah, Oprah Winfrey, Taraji P. Henson, Jennifer Hudson, Gabrielle Union, Whoopi Goldberg, Mo'Nique, Tyra Banks, Retta, Brandy Norwood and Hayley Marie Norman, to name a few. Her stunts have included fight scenes, stair falls, ratchets, high speed stunt driving, car crashes, car hits, riding motorcycles, fire burns and many more. She has worked with some of the top stunt coordinators in the industry.

Acting
Candece is currently an actress, and can be seen as Shaundra in the Netflix film Naked, which premiered on August 11, 2017. The film stars Marlon Wayans and Regina Hall. She is formerly known for her recurring role in ABC's Resurrection as Mrs. Camille Thompson, a "return" and mother to Agent J. Martin Bellamy (Omar Epps). Her "return" family includes daughter Jenny Thompson (Nadej Bailey) and husband, Mr. Wallace Thompson (Shawn Shepard).

She can also be seen in 20th Century Fox's Let's Be Cops as JaQuandae, a comedy starring Jake Johnson and Damon Wayans Jr. Her line "That's what you get" became a major marketing tool when they began promoting the movie trailer.

Candece has also made guest and supporting appearances on CBS' CSI: Crime Scene Investigation, Cinemax's Banshee, Fox's Mad TV, BET's Let's Stay Together and IFC's Stan Against Evil. In 2016, she had a minor appearance in Barbershop: The Next Cut. In 2017, she played a nurse in Vengeance: A Love Story. The same year, she appeared in the award winning I, Tonya as the boxer who knocks out Tonya Harding (Margot Robbie). She has a supporting role in Paradise Highway in the role of "Tesia" opposite Juliette Binoche and Morgan Freeman.

She has a master's degree in Psychology and a credential to teach reading.

Championships and accomplishments
Women of Wrestling
WOW Tag Team Championship (2 times) – with Loca
WOW Tag Team Championship Tournament (2001) – with Loca

References

External links

1978 births
American film actresses
African-American actresses
Living people
Actresses from Birmingham, Alabama
Professional wrestlers from Alabama
21st-century African-American people
21st-century African-American women
20th-century African-American people
20th-century African-American women
21st-century female professional wrestlers


title: Nilpenia

text:
Nilpenia rossi is an Ediacaran sediment feeder.
With a 30 cm diameter, it is considered to represent the largest (by area) Ediacaran organism.

See also
List of Ediacaran genera

References

Ediacaran life
Precambrian fossils
Fossil taxa described in 2014


title: Hao123

text:
Hao123 is a Chinese online listings portal by Baidu. It also has versions in other languages, such as in Portuguese (for Brazil) and in Thai (for Thailand).

Hao123 has been accused of being a malicious browser hijacker, as it often installs itself without user's consent after being installed by another application, and once installed it is difficult to remove. Hao123 has been accused of using Windows service, registry and browser parameters to modify the browser's default setting and prevent being removed or uninstalled by adding itself back through Windows service. It also sniffs user's internet traffic illegally and forces users to visit its website to improve its website traffic ranking. For this reason, Hao123 is considered as malware by many anti-virus programs.

Since September 2011, foreign language versions such as Thai have been launched. However, because Baidu antivirus software will force hao123 to be the IE homepage, it was boycotted by Thai netizens.

Browser home page modification
Use the pirated software downloader and pirated Windows activation software in chinese website advertisement of maybe modification the browser home page to the hao123 website.

References

External links

Brazilian version
Thai version
Japanese version

Baidu
Chinese brands
Chinese websites
Web portals

Windows adware


title: Greenpark Racecourse

text:
Greenpark Racecourse was a horse racing venue in Limerick, Ireland.

In 1963 the venue was used by Limerick mayor Frances Condell to host a reception for U.S. President John Fitzgerald Kennedy on his visit to Ireland.  At the venue in 1979, Irish runner John Treacy won gold at the IAAF World Cross Country Championships and a stage of Pope John Paul II's visit to Ireland was held here.

Due to flooding problems, increasing traffic congestion and a limited fixture list it was decided in the mid-1990s to find a new venue for horse racing in Limerick.  A suitable location was identified at Greenmount near Patrickswell and the land was purchased in 1996.  The course at Greenpark closed in 1999 after 130 years of racing.  The last race meeting at the venue took place on Sunday 21 March 1999.  The final ever horse race run at the Greenpark Racecourse was the Finucane Electrical I.N.H. Flat Race (a bumper) over two miles. It was won by the Arthur Moore trained 'Well Ridden' on his racecourse debut.  This horse was owned by well known judge Frank Clarke and went on to win five further races in his career including the prestigious Arkle Perpetual Challenge Cup at Leopardstown.

11 acres of the racecourse site were sold to the Irish Greyhound Board (IGB) in 2008 to build the new Limerick Greyhound Stadium which opened in October 2010.  There have been numerous attempts to develop the site for residential purposes but none have been realised  In June 2017 a plan for 26 houses was rejected by An Bord Pleanála.  In 2019 the 116.5 acre site was sold to a group of local businessmen for €8m.  As of June 2021 development of the site is still at the planning stage with a large housing development under consideration.  In April 2022 a property development company received permission to build 371 housing units on the site.

References

External links
 OSI map of Greenpark Racecourse:555954,655386,11,9
 Satellite view of Greenpark Racecourse on Google Maps

Former horse racing venues in the Republic of Ireland
Sports venues completed in 1869
Horse racing venues in the Republic of Ireland
Sports venues in County Limerick
Sports venues in Limerick (city)
1869 establishments in Ireland
1999 disestablishments in Ireland
Cross country running venues


title: Tom McGuinness (artist)

text:
Tom McGuinness  (1926–2006) was a British coal miner and artist. At 18 he was conscripted as a Bevin Boy during World War II, and later studied at the Darlington School of Art, and was one of the artists at the Spennymoor Settlement, where his contemporaries included Norman Cornish, Herbert Dees and Robert Heslop.

In 2018 Frances O'Grady, General Secretary of the Trades Union Congress, exhibited his painting of Murton colliery in County Durham in her office. This is the same county as the other places mentioned (above) in his career.

References

1926 births
2006 deaths
English miners
Pitman painters
Bevin Boys


title: Five Hours

text:
"Five Hours" is a 2014 single by Mexican-American DJ Deorro and has appeared in a great number of dance compilations in 2014. The song charted in a number of countries and notably reached number 8 on SNEP official French Singles Chart. In the United States, the single reached number one on Billboards Dance/Mix Show Airplay chart in its 6 September 2014 issue, giving Deorro his first number-one single and his debuted single in his home country. The American version that was first released featured vocals by DyCy and charted as "Five Hours (Don't Hold Me Back)". Later, a third vocal version entitled "Five More Hours" was released and was successful in the charts.

Track listing

Charts and certifications

Weekly charts

Year-end charts

Certifications

Five More Hours

Deorro released a third version of "Five Hours" and vocals from American singer Chris Brown titled "Five More Hours". It was released as a digital download in the United States on 3 March 2015.

Music video
On 30 April 2015, an official music video for the third version was released. It was directed by Andrew Sandler and was filmed in California. The video also features rapper Travi$ Scott. The video shows Brown and Scott on their way to Coachella to premiere Brown's vocal mix of Deorro's Five Hours. Brown's car breaks down in the desert and he holds a party in a school bus, driven by Deorro, on his way to the concert.

Track listing

Charts and certifications

Weekly charts

Year-end charts

Certifications

Release history

References

2014 songs
2014 singles
2015 singles
Deorro songs
Chris Brown songs
Number-one singles in Scotland
Songs written by Chris Brown
Songs written by Julian Bunetta
Songs written by John Ryan (musician)
Electronic dance music songs


title: Argentines in France

text:
Argentine immigration to France refers to Argentine citizens living in the European country.

Argentina is considered a country of immigrants, especially during the 20th century, but as a result of political, social and economic problems that hit the country in recent decades, many Argentines chose to emigrate, mainly to other countries in the Americas or countries where their parents and/or grandparents came from (mainly Spain and Italy).

History

Background
The ancestral origins of the Argentine nation show recent ancestors of generations predominantly as Italians and Spanish, but with strong German, British, French, Native American, Slavic and Semitic components, making most Argentinians able to join the European Union. However, they faced very different legal circumstances that Spain and Italy had long before they joined the EU migration policy, thousands of people a day come to the consulates of Spain to process the new nationality or obtain a visa.

Demographics
The 2011 census recorded 3,868 Argentine-born people.

The 2012 census recorded 11,899 Argentine-born people.

Notable people

See also
 Argentina–France relations
 French Argentine
 Immigration to France
 Uruguayans in France

References

France


title: Kaala Samrajya

text:
Kaala Samrajya is a 1999 Hindi language Indian film directed by Deepak Bahry, and starring Sunil Shetty, Monica Bedi and Amrish Puri.

Plot
Mob boss Kaalkeshwar Singh (Amrish Puri) has an issue with a fellow mobster who wants to expand his own sphere of influence.  During a confrontation, Albert (Deepak Shirke) attempts to shoot Kaalkeshwar, but due to the intervention of Arjun (Sunil Shetty), Albert is himself killed. Appreciative, Kaalkeshwar asks Arjun to spend some time on his estate out of town.  He learns that Arjun's girlfriend, Maria (Mahru Sheikh), had then killed herself out of shame after having been molested by Albert. Her death has been now avenged. Kaalkeshwar introduces Ajun to his  subdued and submissive wife, Monica (Monica Bedi).  Unknown to Ajun, Kaalkeshwar is extremely jealous, and had even killed a man for simply shaking her hand and complimenting her.  His anger is unimaginable when he learned that his house guest Ajun and his wife Monica have begun an affair.

Cast
 Sunil Shetty as Arjun
 Monica Bedi as Monica Singh
 Amrish Puri as Kaalkeshwar Singh
 Deepak Shirke as Albert
 Jaspal Bhatti as Johnny Guide
 Tej Sapru as Kaalkeshwar's Employee
 Shiva Rindani as Kaalkeshwar's Employee
 Jack Gaud as Kaalkeshwar's Employee
 Mushtaq Khan as Seth Mayawala
 Brijesh Tiwari as Nagpal
 Raja Duggal as Mathur
 Sheeba as Chandni
 Mahru Sheikh as Maria
 Arun Bakshi
 Harish Patel
 Gavin Packard
 Ritu Shivpuri as Hot item number in “Aao Na”

Music

"Aaj Peene De Sharabi" - Bela Sulakhe, Bali Brahmbhatt
"Koi Hai Diwana Dil Me Kisi Ke Dil Me Hai Masti" - Arun Bakshi, Suneeta Rao
"Aao Na Aag Se Bhuja Lo" (The Sexiest Song) - Jaspinder Narula
"O My Love" - Parvez, Hema Sardesai
"Parda Hata De" - Kavita Krishnamurthy
"Tum Kaali Ho" - Abhijeet

References

External links

1999 films
1990s Hindi-language films
Films scored by Anand–Milind
Films directed by Deepak Bahry


title: Tiago Duque

text:
Tiago Miguel Pereira Duque (born 25 June 1994) is a Portuguese footballer who plays as a centre-back for Vitória FC.

Club career
On 27 July 2014, Duque made his professional debut with Atlético in a 2014–15 Taça da Liga match against Aves.

References

External links

Stats and profile at LPFP

1994 births
People from Seixal
Footballers from Setúbal District
Living people
Portuguese men's footballers
Portugal men's youth international footballers
Men's association football defenders
C.F. Os Belenenses players
S.U. Sintrense players
Atlético Clube de Portugal players
S.C. Olhanense players
Académica de Coimbra (football) players
Union Titus Pétange players
Amora F.C. players
S.C. Praiense players
U.D. Oliveirense players
Campeonato de Portugal (league) players
Liga Portugal 2 players
Luxembourg National Division players
Portuguese expatriate men's footballers
Expatriate men's footballers in Luxembourg
Portuguese expatriate sportspeople in Luxembourg


title: IndiaMART

text:
IndiaMART InterMESH Ltd is an Indian e-commerce company headquartered in Noida. It provides B2B and customer to customer sales services via its web portal. The company began in 1996 when Dinesh Agarwal and Brijesh Agrawal founded the website IndiaMART.com, a business-to-business portal to connect Indian manufacturers with buyers.

History
IndiaMART was launched in 1996 as a directory of the websites for customers in the Delhi-NCR region by two cousins Dinesh Agarwal and Brijesh Agrawal. At that time India had only 15,000 internet users. By 1999, the directory had more than 1,000 listings.

After overcoming the dot-com bust, in 2008–09 when the recession hit the US, the company decided to pivot the focus from export oriented business to India-focused B2B market and raised $10 million in Series A round funding from Intel Capital, a part of which was invested in IndiaMART, One97 Communications and Global Talent Track.

In November 2014, IndiaMART started promotional campaigns featuring Indian film actor Irrfan Khan as its brand ambassador.

In March 2016, it raised Series C Funding from Amadeus Capital Partners and Quona Capital to scale up the activities of IndiaMART and Tolexo.

In 2016 and 2019, IndiaMART invested in ProcMart and Vyapar.

In June 2018, IndiaMART filled draft papers with SEBI to raise ₹600 crore through IPO and list on NSE and BSE. In July 4th 2019, IndiaMART went public via an IPO of ₹474 crore. The issue was oversubscribed by 36 times by the end of the final day of the bidding. IndiaMART became the first online B2B marketplace to go public in India, and the first company to launch its IPO in the second tenure of Modi government.

As of 2019, IndiaMART was the largest Indian e-commerce platform for businesses with about 60% market share, according to KPMG.

Financials
IndiaMart's revenue registered a 29% CAGR over FY19 to ₹507 crore while it reported a net profit of ₹20 crore in FY19, according to a note from Angel Broking. It has zero debt and sizeable cash balance. As of 31 March 2019, the company had 8.27 crore (82.70 million) registered buyers and had 55.5 lakh (5.55 million) supplier storefronts in India and expect to maintain a compounded annual growth rate (CAGR) of 29 per cent for the next two years.

It handles 97,000 product categories — ranging from machine parts, medical equipment and textile products to cranes, from thousands of towns and cities of India. Agfa HealthCare India, Case New Holland Construction Equipment (India), Hilti India, JCB India and Nobel Hygiene are a few big suppliers on the company's marketplace.

IndiaMART had an aggregate of 32.5 crore (325.8 million), 55.2 crore (552.6 million) and 72.3 crore (723.5 million) visits in fiscals 2017, 2018 and 2019, respectively, of which  20.4 crore (204.8 million), 39.6 crore (396.9 million) and 55 crore (550.3 million) were mobile traffic, which is 63%, 72% and 76% of total traffic, respectively. The IndiaMART app has more than 1 crore (10 million) downloads with a 4.7 App rating on Android.

Legal issues
In November 2020, IndiaMART filed a copyright infringement lawsuit against Justdial before the Delhi High Court on allegations of copying website compilations for the proposed JD Mart business-to-business marketplace.

In August 2021, IndiaMART suffered a data breach where 38 million user records were exposed, including more than 20 million email addresses, names, phone numbers and physical addresses.

IndiaMART has been listed as a "notorious market" since 2018 by the USTR for selling counterfeit products and illegal pharmaceuticals.

References

External links

Online companies of India
Internet properties established in 1996
Indian brands
Online marketplaces of India
Companies listed on the National Stock Exchange of India
Companies listed on the Bombay Stock Exchange
Notorious markets


title: Yee (disambiguation)

text:
Yee is a surname.

Yee or YEE may also refer to:

"Yee" (song), a 2013 single by American DJ/producer Deorro
Yee Nunataks, a geological feature in Palmer Land, Antarctica
Yee Hope FC, a former Hong Kong football club

See also

Ye (disambiguation)
Yeehaw (disambiguation)
 YYE


title: Maximization (psychology)

text:
Maximization is a style of decision-making characterized by seeking the best option through an exhaustive search through alternatives. It is contrasted with satisficing, in which individuals evaluate options until they find one that is "good enough".

Definition
The distinction between "maximizing" and "satisficing" was first made by Herbert A. Simon in 1956. Simon noted that although fields like economics posited maximization or "optimizing" as the rational method of making decisions, humans often lack the cognitive resources or the environmental affordances to maximize. Simon instead formulated an approach known as bounded rationality, which he also referred to as satisficing. This approach was taken to be adaptive and, indeed, necessary, given our cognitive limitations. Thus, satisficing was taken to be a universal of human cognition.

Although Simon's work on bounded rationality was influential and can be seen as the origin of behavioral economics, the distinction between maximizing and satisficing gained new life 40 years later in psychology. Schwartz, Ward, Monterosso, Lyubomirsky, White, and Lehman (2002) defined maximization as an individual difference, arguing that some people were more likely than others to engage in a comprehensive search for the best option. Thus, instead of conceptualizing satisficing as a universal principle of human cognitive abilities, Schwartz et al. demonstrated that some individuals were more likely than others to display this style of decision-making.

Based on the work of Schwartz et al. (2002), much of the literature on maximization has defined maximization as comprising three major components:
 High standards (wanting the best option)
 Alternative search (engaging in a process of examining all the options)
 Decision difficulty (frustration with making choices)

Since these components were identified, the majority of the research on maximization has focused on which of these components are relevant (or most relevant) to the definition of maximizing. Researchers have variously argued that decision difficulty is irrelevant to defining maximizing, that high standards is the only relevant component, and that high standards is the only irrelevant component. Many of these attempts to define maximizing have resulted in the creation of new psychological scales to measure the trait.

Recently, in a theoretical paper Cheek and Schwartz (2016) proposed a two-component model of maximization, defining maximization as the goal of choosing the best option, pursued by the strategy of searching exhaustively through alternatives. Along similar lines, Hughes and Scholer (2017) proposed that researchers could differentiate between the goals and strategies of maximizers. However, they argued that the high standards goal is central to the definition of maximizing, but that some maximizers engage in adaptive or maladaptive strategies in order to pursue that goal. They showed that individuals with high standards could be distinguished by the use of the alternative search strategy, and that this strategy in particular predicted more negative emotions on a decision task.

Outcomes
Initial research on maximizing showed uniformly negative outcomes associated with chronic maximizing tendencies. Such tendencies were associated with lower happiness, self-esteem, and life satisfaction; with greater depression and regret; with lower satisfaction with choices; with greater perfectionism; and with greater decision-making confusion, commitment anxiety, and rumination. One study by Iyengar, Wells, and Schwartz (2006) tracked job seekers and found that although maximizers were able to find jobs with starting salaries 20% higher than satisficers, they were less satisfied with both the job search process and the job they were about to start. Thus, although maximizers were able to find objectively better options, they ended up subjectively worse off as a result.

However, as disagreement over the definition of maximizing grew, research began to show diverging effects: some negative, some neutral, and some positive. Diab, Gillespie, and Highhouse (2008), for example, contested that maximizing actually was not related to lower life satisfaction, and was not related to indecisiveness, avoidance, or neuroticism. Other studies showed maximizing to be associated with higher self-efficacy, optimism, and intrinsic motivation; and with higher life satisfaction and positive affect.

Much of this disagreement can ultimately be ascribed to the different scales that were created to measure maximizing. But research on the three components mentioned above (high standards, alternative search, and decision difficulty) found that these components themselves predicted differing outcomes. High standards has generally shown little association with negative outcomes, and evidence of association with positive outcomes. In contrast, alternative search and decision difficulty have shown much stronger associations with the negative outcomes listed above. Thus, the question of whether maximizing is adaptive or maladaptive may ultimately depend on which of these components one sees as essential to the definition of maximizing itself.

Related psychological constructs
Limited research exists on other psychological constructs to which maximizing is related. However, several studies have shown maximizing to be associated with perfectionism, and Nenkov et al. (2008) qualified this relationship as being true primarily for the high standards component. Some research has also linked maximizing to high need for cognition, again primarily with the high standards component. Finally, research examining the association between maximizing and personality dimensions of the Big Five personality model have found high standards to be associated with high conscientiousness and decision difficulty with low conscientiousness. Alternative search has also been associated with high neuroticism, and high standards has been associated with high openness to experience.

Scales used to measure
Given the disagreement over the definition of maximizing, as well as attempts to increase the reliability of existing measures, several scales have been created to measure maximization. The list below identifies the name of the scale, as well as the components it measures:
 Maximization Scale (MS): High standards, alternative search, decision difficulty
 Maximizing Tendencies Scale (MTS): Unidimensional, but primarily correlated with high standards and alternative search
 Lai's maximizing scale: High standards and alternative search
 Maximizing Inventory (MI): Alternative search, decision difficulty, as well as a separate subscale measuring satisficing
 Revised MS and MTS: Same components as the original scales above

Cheek and Schwartz (2016) reviewed the literature on the measurement of maximization and proposed that researchers interested in studying individual differences in maximization should measure two constructs: the maximization goal and the maximization strategy. They recommended that researchers use the 7-item Maximizing Tendency Scale published by Dalal et al. (2015) to measure the maximization goal. They also tentatively recommended that researchers use the alternative search subscale of the Maximization Inventory, but noted that future research should continue to refine the measurement of the maximization strategy given psychometric concerns.

See also

 Decision-making
 Decision theory
 Homo economicus
 Overchoice
 Perfect is the enemy of good
 Principle of good enough
 Rational agent
 Satisficing
 Utility maximization problem

References

Psychological theories
Rational choice theory
Heuristics
Organizational behavior
Decision theory