title: Dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire

text:
The dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire occurred de facto on 6 August 1806, when the last Holy Roman Emperor, Francis II of the House of Habsburg-Lorraine, abdicated his title and released all Imperial states and officials from their oaths and obligations to the empire. Since the Middle Ages, the Holy Roman Empire had been recognized by Western Europeans as the legitimate continuation of the ancient Roman Empire due to its emperors having been proclaimed as Roman emperors by the papacy. Through this Roman legacy, the Holy Roman Emperors claimed to be universal monarchs whose jurisdiction extended beyond their empire's formal borders to all of Christian Europe and beyond. The decline of the Holy Roman Empire was a long and drawn-out process lasting centuries. The formation of the first modern sovereign territorial states in the 16th and 17th centuries, which brought with it the idea that jurisdiction corresponded to actual territory governed, threatened the universal nature of the Holy Roman Empire.

The Holy Roman Empire by the time of the 18th century was widely regarded by contemporaries, both inside and outside the empire, as a highly "irregular" monarchy and "sick", having an "unusual" form of government. The empire lacked both a central standing army and a central treasury and its monarchs, formally elective rather than hereditary, could not exercise effective central control. Even then, most contemporaries believed that the empire could be revived and modernized. The Holy Roman Empire finally began its true terminal decline during and after its involvement in the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars.

Although the empire defended itself quite well initially, war with France and Napoleon proved catastrophic. In 1804, Napoleon proclaimed himself as the Emperor of the French, which Francis II responded to by proclaiming himself the Emperor of Austria, in addition to already being the Holy Roman Emperor, an attempt at maintaining parity between France and Austria while also illustrating that the Holy Roman title outranked them both. Austria's defeat at the Battle of Austerlitz in December 1805 and the secession of a large number of Francis II's German vassals in July 1806 to form the Confederation of the Rhine, a French satellite state, effectively meant the end of the Holy Roman Empire. The abdication in August 1806, combined with a dissolution of the entire Imperial hierarchy and its institutions, was seen as necessary to prevent the possibility of Napoleon proclaiming himself as Holy Roman Emperor, something which would have reduced Francis II to Napoleon's vassal.

Reactions to the empire's dissolution ranged from indifference to despair. The populace of Vienna, capital of the Habsburg monarchy, were horrified at the loss of the empire. Many of Francis II's former subjects questioned the legality of his actions; though his abdication was agreed to be perfectly legal, the dissolution of the empire and the release of all its vassals were seen as beyond the emperor's authority. As such, many of the empire's princes and subjects refused to accept that the empire was gone, with some commoners going so far as to believe that news of its dissolution was a plot by their local authorities. In Germany, the dissolution was widely compared to the ancient and semi-legendary Fall of Troy and some associated the end of what they perceived to be the Roman Empire with the end times and the apocalypse.

Background

Ideology of the Holy Roman Empire

The defining characteristic of the Holy Roman Empire was the idea that the Holy Roman Emperor represented the leading monarch in Europe and that their empire was the one true continuation of the Roman Empire of Antiquity, through proclamation by the popes in Rome. It was the firm belief of its emperors that they were the sole genuine emperors in Europe and although they had formally recognized the sultans of Ottoman Empire as emperors in 1606 and the rulers of the Russia as emperors in 1721, these recognitions were conditional on the fact that the Holy Roman Emperor was always pre-eminent. The pre-eminence of the emperor was an expression of the idea that the Holy Roman Empire, theoretically, extended over all Christians in a universal manner. Because the empire at no point ruled over all of Christian Europe, this idea was always an ideal rather than a reality and the empire's Roman status was never accepted by the Byzantine emperors. Imperial authority rested not on the emperor's own crown lands (though there were large crown lands in the 18th and 19th centuries) but on the emperor's role as the highest secular ruler in the world and a champion and advocate of the Catholic Church. The lack of a defined capital and consistent crown lands reinforced the idea that the imperial title was universal as it was not necessarily associated with any one area.

Throughout its long existence, the Holy Roman Empire was a central element in international relations in Europe, not only because the empire itself was often one of the most powerful on the continent but also because of the emperor himself. Because the Holy Roman Emperors were the internationally recognized heirs of the old Roman emperors and the foremost Christian rulers, they claimed (and were often granted) precedence over other rulers.

Although the emperors had been formally titled as "Elected Roman Emperor" since 1508, when Emperor Maximilian I took the title without the need for a papal coronation, the universalist character of the empire was sustained through the emperor's feudal authority extending beyond just the institutions that had been developed within the formal imperial borders. Imperial territories held by rulers of other realms remained imperial vassals. For instance, the kings of both Sweden and Denmark accepted vassalage in regards to their German lands until 1806, when these lands were formally incorporated into their kingdoms. The Reformation of the 16th century had made managing the empire more difficult and made its role as "holy" questionable. Despite Lutheranism and Calvinism being tolerated from 1555 and 1648 onwards respectively, Catholicism remained the only recognized faith. Even then, the Imperial Church diminished from the 16th century onwards, with some church territories secularised or always governed by the same family. The "holy" nature of the empire became even more questionable when the possibility of permanent peace with the Ottoman Empire, widely seen as the mortal enemies of Christian Europe, was accepted through the 1699 Peace of Karlowitz.

Both the papacy and the Holy Roman Empire continued to claim their traditional rights of universal jurisdiction into the early modern period, that it was their right to exercise jurisdiction throughout the entire world, even if they did not have de facto control over particular territories. Conjointly with the papacy, the Holy Roman Empire represented the recognized centre of the Christian world, and one of the pillars upon which it rested. It was always its influence and its place in the recognized world order that gave the Holy Roman Empire its true power, rather than the actual extent of its territorial domains. The dual rule of pope and emperor was effectively ended at the Peace of Westphalia at the conclusion of the Thirty Years' War in 1648, wherein the empire was severed from the papacy for good. The papacy played no role in the negotiations and in the eyes of Pope Innocent X, the peace destroyed the connection between pope and emperor which had held Europe together since the time of Charlemagne eight centuries prior. Where international disputes between the rulers of Europe had previously been solved and mediated by the pope and/or emperor, the 17th century saw the true emergence of the modern system of international relations and diplomacy.

One of the greatest threats to the traditional (and theoretical) universal jurisdiction accorded to the Holy Roman Emperor and the pope throughout the Christian world was the emergence of modern sovereign territorial states in the 16th and 17th centuries, which meant the rise of the idea that jurisdiction was the same thing as direct control of territory. To the rulers of territorial states, both the papacy and the Holy Roman Empire represented "universal antagonists", claiming that jurisdiction over all the world was theirs by right through their connection to Ancient Rome and their role as earthly representatives of Jesus Christ. Kings who claimed their own sovereignty free from the empire did so in the role of a rex in regno suo, a ruler who could wield the legal powers of an emperor (as absolute monarch) within the borders of his own territory due to the emperors not having protected his people from foreign enemies. Ambitious emperors, such as Charles V (1519–1556) and Ferdinand II (1619–1637), who sought to combine universal jurisdiction with actual universal temporal rule and universal imperial authority, represented threats to the continued existence of the countries of Europe. Charles V was the last Holy Roman Emperor to be crowned by a pope and as such the last to be formally proclaimed as the church's  protector, a role disregarded by many of his successors.

The Holy Roman Empire in the 18th century

By the 18th century, the contemporary views of the Holy Roman Empire were far from universally positive. There was a widespread idea that the empire was "sick" in some capacity, for instance the bookseller and publisher Johann Heinrich Zedler mentions the "state illnesses of the Holy Roman Empire" in his 1745 Grosses Universal-Lexicon. This view dates back to at least the Peace of Westphalia, where the empire was explicitly defined as not being a nation state.

The 17th-century historian Samuel von Pufendorf famously described the empire as having an "unusual form of government" and derided it as a "monstrosity", lacking what was required for an effective and functional state. The lack of a standing army, a central treasury, weak central control exercised by a monarch who was elective and not hereditary all contributed to the idea that there was no unified German state. In the view of its contemporaries, the empire had regressed from a "regular" monarchy into a highly irregular one. The empire was mostly preserved through a self-balancing system involving not just the Imperial vassals themselves, but also states throughout Europe. Already in the 18th century, rulers throughout the continent had mused that a unitary German state could become the greatest power in Europe and it was in the interests of virtually everyone to keep central Europe "soft".

Although some German romantics and nationalists argued that the empire had to die for Germany to be reborn, a large number of Imperial subjects had not given up hope that the "sick" empire might be cured and revived. The first few years of the 19th century saw extensive reorganizations and changes in power within the empire, with the 1801 Peace of Lunéville with France meaning the end of imperial jurisdiction in the Netherlands and Italy, and the rise of powerful German rulers in the north, such as the Kings of Prussia, causing the consolidation of many previously separate imperial vassals and fiefs into the hands of a few rulers. The traditional political hierarchy of the empire was disrupted, but it was not obvious to contemporaries that this was to lead to the empire's downfall, the general view was that it represented a new beginning rather than the last few steps towards an ending. Furthermore, many publicists within the empire did not see its nature as an "irregular" monarchy as something negative and were unconcerned with forming a new political or social order, but rather sought to augment the already present structures to create a better future. The Peace of Westphalia had explicitly designated that the empire was to remain non-aligned and passive and that it was to work to maintain peace in Europe, an arrangement approved of by most of its inhabitants.

Over the course of the 18th century, the rulers of the Holy Roman Empire, the Habsburg dynasty, had somewhat neglected their imperial role. Though Emperor Leopold I (1658–1705) had worked on strengthening the empire and promoting its interests, among other things pursuing a much appreciated cultural policy and successfully warring against the Ottomans, his sons and successors Joseph I (1705–1711) and Charles VI (1711–1740) spent more effort on the interests of their own dynasty than on the interests of the empire at large. In 1705, diplomatic duties and responsibilities were transferred to the Court Chancellery at Vienna from the Imperial Chancellery. Upon Charles VI's death, his daughter Maria Theresa inherited most of his titles but not the Imperial crown, which could not be passed to a woman and so went to her rival Charles VII. When the Imperial title was instead bestowed on her husband, Emperor Francis I (1745–1765), she burst out in laughter when she saw him in his imperial coronation robes, regarding his coronation as "Kasperltheater" (Punch and Judy show) . Maria Theresa's and Francis I's son and successor, Joseph II (1765–1790), was even more radical in his disregard for the empire. In 1778, Joseph II pondered abdicating the imperial title and in 1784 when he hoped to exchange his lands in Belgium, the Austrian Netherlands, for the Electorate of Bavaria, he considered giving up the imperial title and granting it to the Elector of Bavaria, Charles Theodore, as part of the deal. The empire was not necessarily doomed because of Habsburg disinterest; in times where the emperors disregarded the greater empire, the more powerful imperial vassals usually took steps to strengthen German unity among the imperial princes.

Despite the widespread idea that the Holy Roman Empire was "sick", the empire was not in terminal decline before its involvement in the French Revolutionary Wars from the 1790s onwards. In the 18th century, imperial institutions were experiencing something akin to a renaissance. The empire represented the safest and best guarantee for the rights of smaller states and territories in a time when Europe was beginning to be dominated by powerful imperial nation states. Because of the weak central government, the constituent territories of the empire could influence their own fates, the central Reichstag decided policy and legislation and allowed the empire to coordinate its response to the threat represented by France and the two separate imperial supreme courts and the Imperial circles represented successful venues for resolving intra-imperial conflicts. The Reichstag also worked as a place where weaker Imperial princes could work to convince their more powerful counterparts to remain at peace and resolve their differences.

Wars with France and Napoleon

Austrian war effort and responses

Although the forces of the French First Republic overran and occupied the Netherlands in 1792, the Holy Roman Empire defended itself quite well until Prussia abandoned the war effort to focus its attention on its Polish territories (overseeing the Second and Third Partitions of Poland), taking its resources and powerful army with it. Despite the empire's mounting difficulties in the face of the wars with France, there was no large-scale popular unrest within its borders. Instead, the explanation for the end of the Holy Roman Empire lies in the realm of high politics. The empire's defeat in the Revolutionary Wars was the most decisive step in the gradual undermining of the empire. The conflict between France and the Holy Roman Empire had begun with the French declaring war on the newly crowned Emperor Francis II of the Habsburg dynasty only in his capacity as the King of Hungary. The fact that much of the wider empire (including influential figures such as the King of Prussia and the Archbishop-Elector of Mainz), however unwilling, joined the conflict on the side of the Habsburgs proves that imperial ideals were still alive by the late 18th century.

The key point in which fortunes shifted was Prussia's abandonment of the war effort. Prussia had been the only true counterweight to Austria's influence in the institutions of the empire. Though the western parts of Prussia, such as Brandenburg, remained formal parts of the Holy Roman Empire and the Prussians continued to be represented in the Reichstag, Prussia ceased to compete for influence in imperial affairs. Austria stood alone as the protector of the states in southern Germany, many of which began considering making their own separate peace with France. When the Austrians learnt that Württemberg and Baden had opened formal negotiations with France, the armies sent by these two states were disbanded and disarmed in 1796, causing resentment against the emperor and, combined with losses to France, suggesting that the Habsburg emperor was no longer capable of protecting his traditional vassals in Germany.

In the wake of the wars with France, there was a substantial reorganization of Imperial territory (the so-called Reichsdeputationshauptschluss, supported by Prussia), with the Habsburg monarchy meaning to compensate those princes who had lost territory in the French wars and effectivize the empire's current semi-feudal structure. Although there were huge territorial changes, notably the almost complete abolition of any church territory and significant territorial gains for Bavaria, Baden, Württemberg, Hesse-Darmstadt and Nassau, the most important changes were in the empire's electoral college. Salzburg was added as a fourth Catholic elector, while Württemberg, Baden and Hesse-Kassel became the fourth, fifth and sixth Protestant electors, giving the Protestants a majority for the first time in history and raising doubts whether Emperor Francis II would be able to work together with his Reichstag. Although the Austrian regime spent much time and resources attempting to make the new arrangement work, the general verdict at the time was that the reorganization had essentially killed the empire.

Reaction to Napoleon's imperial coronation

The First Consul of the French republic, Napoleon, assumed the title "Emperor of the French" in 1804. Among others, one of the important figures attending the coronation was Pope Pius VII, probably fearing that Napoleon planned to conquer the Papal States. Pius VII was aware that Napoleon symbolically linked his imperial coronation with the imperial coronation of Charlemagne and would most likely have caught the similarity between Napoleon's title and Emperor of the Romans, the title used by Francis II and all Holy Roman emperors before him. Through his presence at the ceremony, Pius VII symbolically approved of the transfer of imperial power (translatio imperii) from the Romans (and thus the Franks and Germans) to the French.

Napoleon's coronation received a mixed reaction in the Holy Roman Empire. Although a return to monarchy in France was welcomed (though unfortunate in so far that the monarch was Napoleon), the imperial title (instead of a royal one) was not. In the empire, Napoleon's title raised fears that it might inspire the Russian Emperor to insist that he was equal to the Holy Roman Emperor and might encourage other monarchs, such as George III of the United Kingdom, to also proclaim themselves emperors. Relations between the Habsburgs and George III were complicated; in diplomacy, the court at Vienna had for many years refused to refer to the British king as "His Majesty" since he was only a king, not an emperor. The Habsburg diplomat Ludwig von Cobenzl, fearing the consequences of Napoleon's coronation, is quoted as having advised Holy Roman Emperor Francis II that "‘as Roman Emperor, Your Majesty has enjoyed till now precedence ahead of all European potentates, including the Russian emperor".

Though Napoleon's imperial title was viewed with distaste, Austrian officials immediately realized that if they were to refuse to accept him as an emperor, war with France would be renewed. Instead, the focus became on how to accept Napoleon as an emperor while still maintaining the pre-eminence of their own emperor and empire. France had officially accepted parity with Austria as a distinct state in 1757, 1797 and 1801 and in the same settlements accepted that the Holy Roman Empire outranked both Austria and France. Thus, it was decided that Austria would be raised to the rank of an empire in order to maintain the parity between Austria and France while still preserving the Roman imperial title as pre-eminent, outranking both.

Empire of Austria

Francis II proclaimed himself as Emperor of Austria (without the need of a new coronation, as he had already had an imperial coronation) on 11 August 1804, in addition to already being the Holy Roman Emperor. Cobenzl advised that a separate hereditary Austrian title would also allow the Habsburg to maintain parity with other rulers (since the Holy Roman title was viewed by Cobenzl as merely honorific) and ensure elections to the position of Holy Roman Emperor in the future. A myriad of reasons were used to justify the Austrian Empire's creation, including the number of subjects under the Habsburg Monarchy, the vast extent of his crown lands and the long association between the Habsburg family and the elective Holy Roman imperial title. Another important point used to justify its creation was that Francis was, in the traditional sense, the supreme Christian monarch and he was thus entitled to award himself with any dignities he wished. The title "Emperor of Austria" was meant to associate with all of Francis II's personal domains (not just Austria, but also lands such as Bohemia and Hungary), regardless of their current position within or outside the Holy Roman Empire. "Austria" in this sense referred to the dynasty (often officially called the "House of Austria" instead of the "House of Habsburg"), not the geographical location.

The title of Holy Roman Emperor remained pre-eminent to both "Emperor of the French" and "Emperor of Austria" as it embodied the traditional ideal of the universal Christian empire. Neither the Austrian nor the French title made claims to govern this universal empire and thus did not disturb the traditional and established world order. The imperial titles of Austria and France were seen as more or less royal titles (as they were hereditary) and in the minds of the Austrians, there still remained only one true empire and one true emperor in Europe. To illustrate this, Francis II's official imperial title read "elected Roman Emperor, ever Augustus, hereditary Emperor of Austria", placing the Austrian title behind the Roman title.

Though Napoleon was reluctant to tie his own imperial title to any concessions, he needed recognition from Austria to secure wider recognition and thus agreed to recognize Francis II's new title. Prior to his own coronation, he sent a personal letter of congratulations to Francis. George III of the United Kingdom recognized the new title in October and although Emperor Alexander I of Russia objected to Francis "lowering himself to the level of the usurper Napoleon", he recognized the title in November. The only significant objections to Francis II's title were raised by Sweden, which through holding Swedish Pomerania, an Imperial Estate, had a place in the Reichstag. The Swedes saw the title as a "clear breach" of the Imperial constitution and, invoking their prerogative as a guarantor of the imperial constitution, demanded a formal debate in the Reichstag, a threat that was neutralized by the other parties of the Reichstag agreeing to an extended summer recess until November. To defend the title, Imperial representatives argued that it did not infringe on the Imperial constitution as there were already other examples of dual monarchies within the empire, states such as Prussia and Sweden were not part of the empire, but their possessions within the empire were.

Peace of Pressburg

The War of the Third Coalition came too soon for Austria, which moved against France in September 1805. Defeated at the Battle of Austerlitz on 2 December 1805, Austria had to accept terms dictated by Napoleon in the Peace of Pressburg (26 December). These created deliberate ambiguities in the imperial constitution. Bavaria, Baden and Württemberg were granted plénitude de la souveraineté (full sovereignty) while remaining a part of the Conféderation Germanique (Germanic Confederation), a novel name for the Holy Roman Empire. Likewise, it was left deliberately unclear whether the Duchy of Cleves, the Duchy of Berg and the County of Mark—imperial territories transferred to Joachim Murat—were to remain imperial fiefs or become part of the French Empire. As late as March 1806, Napoleon was uncertain whether they should remain nominally within the Empire.

The Free Imperial Knights, who had survived the attack on their rights in the Rittersturm of 1803–04, were subject to a second attack and a spate of annexations by those states allied to Napoleon in November–December 1805. In response, the knights' corporation (corpus equestre) dissolved itself on 20 January 1806. With the dissolution of the Empire, the knights lost their Imperial immediacy, ceasing to be either free or Imperial and were at the mercy of the newly sovereign states.

Contemporaries saw the defeat at Austerlitz as a turning point of world-historical significance. The Peace of Pressburg, too, was perceived as radical shift. It did not affirm previous treaties in the usual way and its wording seemed to raise Bavaria, Baden and Württemberg into equals of the empire while downgrading the latter to a merely German confederation. Nevertheless, Bavaria and Württemberg reaffirmed to the Reichstag that they were subject to Imperial law. Some commentators argued that plénitude de la souveraineté was just a French translation of Landeshoheit (the quasi-sovereignty possessed by Imperial estates) and the treaty had not altered the relationship between the members and the empire.

Formation of the Confederation of the Rhine
Throughout the first half of 1806, Bavaria, Baden and Württemberg attempted to steer an independent course between the demands of the empire and Napoleon. In April 1806, Napoleon sought a treaty whereby the three states would ally themselves to France in perpetuity while forswearing participation in future Reichskriege (imperial war efforts) and submitting to a commission de méditation under his presidency to resolve their disputes. Despite all of this, they were to remain members of the empire. Württemberg ultimately refused to sign.

In June 1806, Napoleon began pressuring Bavaria, Baden and Württemberg for the creation of confédération de la haute Allemagne (Upper German confederation) outside the empire. On 12 July 1806, these three states and thirteen other minor German princes formed the Confederation of the Rhine, effectively a French satellite state. On 1 August, the Reichstag was informed by a French envoy that Napoleon no longer recognized the existence of the Holy Roman Empire and on the same day, nine of the princes who had formed the Confederation of the Rhine issued a proclamation in which they justified their actions by claiming that the Holy Roman Empire had already collapsed and ceased to function due to the defeat in the Battle of Austerlitz.

Abdication of Francis II

In the face of Napoleon's assumption of the title "Emperor of the French" in 1804 and the Austrian defeat at the Battle of Austerlitz in 1805, the Habsburg monarchy began contemplating whether the imperial title and the empire as a whole were worth defending. Many of the states nominally serving the Holy Roman Emperor, such as Baden, Württemberg and Bavaria, had openly defied Imperial authority and sided with Napoleon. Even then, the significance of the empire was not based on actual control of resources, but on prestige.

The main idea behind Francis II's actions in 1806 was to lay the groundwork needed to avoid additional future wars with Napoleon and France. One concern held by the Habsburg monarchy was that Napoleon might aspire to claim the title of Holy Roman Emperor. Napoleon was attracted to Charlemagne's legacy; replicas of Charlemagne's crown and sword had been made for (but not used during) Napoleon's coronation as Emperor of the French and he consciously revived Roman imperial symbols and aspired to create a new order in Europe, something akin to the universal dominion implicit in the title of Emperor of the Romans. Napoleon's vision of Charlemagne was completely different from the German vision of the old emperor, however. Instead of seeing Charlemagne as a German king, Napoleon viewed him as a Frankish conqueror who had extended French rule across Central Europe and Italy, something Napoleon aspired to accomplish as well.

Austria was slow to respond to the fast pace of events. Already on the 17 June, Francis had taken the decision to abdicate at the moment that seemed best for Austria. Klemens von Metternich was sent on a mission to Paris to discern Napoleon's intentions. On 22 July, Napoleon made them clear in an ultimatum demanding that Francis abdicate by 10 August. Still, as late as 2 August, Joseph Haas, the head of the principal commission's secretariat, hoped that the end of the Holy Roman Empire might yet be averted. The general opinion among the Austrian government was however that abdication was inevitable and that it should be combined with a dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire through relieving the vassals of the emperor of their duties and obligations. A formal dissolution of the empire was perceived as necessary, as it would prevent Napoleon from acquiring the imperial title. During an interregnum, the two imperial vicars Saxony and Bavaria would be entitled to exercise imperial authority and, since both were aligned with Napoleon, such an arrangement could cause an abdicated Francis (as only Emperor of Austria) to become a vassal of Napoleon (as Holy Roman Emperor). Though there is no concrete evidence that Napoleon actually aspired to become Holy Roman Emperor, it is possible that he entertained the idea, especially after he had formed the Confederation of the Rhine and beaten back Austria in early 1806. Perhaps Napoleon did not think that the title could be combined with "Emperor of the French" (even though Francis II was emperor of both the Holy Roman Empire and Austria) and because of this he might have abandoned any potential Roman aspirations since he did not wish to relinquish his other imperial title. The ephemeral Roman aspirations can also be gathered from Napoleon's correspondence with the papacy; in early 1806, he warned Pope Pius VII that "Your Holiness is sovereign in Rome but I am its Emperor".

More crucially than fearing Napoleon potentially usurping the title, the abdication was also intended to buy time for Austria to recover from its losses as it was assumed that France would meet it with some concessions. Although the Roman title and the tradition of a universal Christian monarchy were still considered prestigious and a worthy heritage, they were now also considered things of the past. With the Holy Roman Empire dissolved, Francis II could focus his attention on the continued rise and prosperity of his new hereditary empire, as Emperor Francis I of Austria.

On the morning of 6 August 1806, the Imperial herald of the Holy Roman Empire rode from the Hofburg to the Church of the Nine Choirs of Angels (both being located in Vienna, the capital of the Habsburg monarchy), where he delivered Francis II's official proclamation from a balcony overlooking a large square. Written copies of the proclamation were dispatched to the diplomats of the Habsburg monarchy on 11 August alongside a note which informed former princes of the empire that Austria would compensate those who had been paid from the Imperial treasury. The abdication did not acknowledge the French ultimatum, but stressed that the interpretation of the Peace of Pressburg by the imperial estates made it impossible for Francis to fulfill the obligations he had undertaken in his electoral capitulation.

Holy Roman Emperors had abdicated before—the most notable example being the abdication of Charles V in 1558—but Francis II's abdication was unique. While previous abdications had returned the Imperial crown to the electors so that they might proclaim a new emperor, Francis II's abdication simultaneously dissolved the empire itself so that there were no more electors.

Aftermath

Reactions

Popular reactions
The Holy Roman Empire, an institution which had lasted for just over a thousand years, did not pass unnoticed or unlamented. The dissolution of the empire sent shockwaves through Germany, with most of the reactions within the former imperial boundaries being rage, grief or shame. Even the signatories of the Confederation of the Rhine were outraged; the Bavarian emissary to the Imperial diet, Rechberg, stated that he was "furious" due to having "put his signature to the destruction of the German name", referring to his state's involvement in the confederation, which had effectively doomed the empire. From a legal standpoint, Francis II's abdication was controversial. Contemporary legal commentators agreed that the abdication itself was perfectly legal but that the emperor did not have the authority to dissolve the empire. As such, several of the empire's vassals refused to recognize that the empire had ended. As late as October 1806, farmers in Thuringia refused to accept the end of the empire, believing its dissolution to be a plot by the local authorities. For many of the people within the former empire, its collapse made them uncertain and fearful of their future, and the future of Germany itself. Contemporary reports from Vienna describe the dissolution of the empire as "incomprehensible" and the general public's reaction as one of horror.

In contrast to the fears of the general public, many contemporary intellectuals and artists saw Napoleon as a herald of a new age, rather than a destroyer of an old order. The popular idea forwarded by German nationalists was that the final collapse of the Holy Roman Empire freed Germany from the somewhat anachronistic ideas rooted in a fading ideal of universal Christianity and paved the way for the country's unification as the German Empire, a nation state, 65 years later. German historian Helmut Rössler has argued that Francis II and the Austrians fought to save the largely ungrateful Germany from the forces of Napoleon, only withdrawing and abandoning the empire when most of Germany betrayed them and joined Napoleon. Indeed, the assumption of a separate Austrian imperial title in 1804 did not mean that Francis II had any intentions to abdicate his prestigious position as the Roman emperor, the idea only began to be considered as circumstances beyond Habsburg control forced decisive actions to be taken.

Compounded with fears of what now guaranteed the safety of many of the smaller German states, the poet Christoph Martin Wieland lamented that Germany had now fallen into an "apocalyptic time" and stating "Who can bear this disgrace, which weighs down upon a nation which was once so glorious?—may God improve things, if it is still possible to improve them!". To some, the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire was seen as the final end of the ancient Roman Empire. In the words of Christian Gottlob von Voigt, a minister in Weimar, "if poetry can go hand in hand with politics, then the abdication of the imperial dignity offers a wealth of material. The Roman Empire now takes its place in the sequence of vanquished empires". In the words of the English historian James Bryce, 1st Viscount Bryce in his 1864 work on the Holy Roman Empire, the empire was the "oldest political institution in the world" and the same institution as the one founded by Augustus in 27 BC. Writing of the empire, Bryce stated that "nothing else so directly linked the old world to the new—nothing else displayed so many strange contrasts of the present and the past, and summed up in those contrasts so much of European history". When confronted by the fall and collapse of their empire, many contemporaries employed the catastrophic fall of ancient Troy as a metaphor, due to its association with the notion of total destruction and the end of a culture. The image of the apocalypse was also frequently used, associating the collapse of the Holy Roman Empire with an impending end of the world (echoing medieval legends of a Last Roman Emperor, a figure prophesied to be active during the end times).

Criticism and protests against the empire's dissolution were typically censored, especially in the French-administered Confederation of the Rhine. Among the aspects most criticized by the general populace was the removal or replacement of the traditional intercessions for the empire and emperor in the daily church prayers throughout former imperial territory. Suppression from France, combined with examples of excessive retribution against pro-empire advocates, ensured that these protests soon died down.

Official and international reactions

In an official capacity, Prussia's response was only formulaic expressions of regret owing to the "termination of an honourable bond hallowed by time". Prussia's representative to the Reichstag, Baron Görtz, reacted with sadness, mixed with gratitude and affection for the House of Habsburg and their former role as emperors. Görtz had taken part as an electoral emissary of the Electorate of Brandenburg (Prussia's territory within the formal imperial borders) in 1792, at the election of Francis II as Holy Roman Emperor, and exclaimed that "So the emperor whom I helped elect was the last emperor!—This step was no doubt to be expected, but that does not make its reality any less moving and crushing. It cuts off the last thread of hope to which one tried to cling". Baron von Wiessenberg, the Austrian envoy to the Electorate of Hesse-Kassel, reported that the local elector, William I, had teared up and expressed lament at the loss of "a constitution to which Germany had for so long owed its happiness and freedom".

Internationally, the empire's demise was met with mixed or indifferent reactions. Alexander I of Russia offered no response and Christian VII of Denmark formally incorporated his German lands into his kingdoms a few months after the empire's dissolution. Gustav IV Adolf of Sweden (who notably hadn't recognized the separate imperial title of Austria yet) issued a somewhat provocative proclamation to the denizens of his German lands (Swedish Pomerania and Bremen-Verden) on 22 August 1806, stating that the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire "would not destroy the German nation" and expressed hopes that the empire might be revived.

Possibility of restoration
The dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire was constituted by Francis II's own personal abdication of the title and the release of all vassals and imperial states from their obligations and duties to the emperor. The title of Holy Roman Emperor (theoretically the same title as Roman emperor) and the Holy Roman Empire itself as an idea and institution (the theoretically universally sovereign imperium) were never technically abolished. The continued existence of a universal empire, though without defined territory and lacking an emperor, was sometimes referenced in the titles of other later monarchs. For instance, the Savoyard Kings of Italy continued to claim the title "Prince and Perpetual Vicar of the Holy Roman Empire (in Italy)" (a title originating from a 14th-century imperial grant from Emperor Charles IV to their ancestor Amadeus VI, Count of Savoy) until the abolition of the Italian monarchy in 1946.

In the aftermath of Napoleon's defeats in 1814 and 1815, there was a widespread sentiment in Germany and elsewhere which called for the revival of the Holy Roman Empire under the leadership of Francis I of Austria. At the time, there were several factors which prevented the restoration of the empire as it had been in the 18th century, notably the rise of larger, more consolidated kingdoms in Germany, such as Bavaria, Saxony and Württemberg, as well as Prussia's interest in becoming a great power in Europe (rather than continue being a vassal to the Habsburgs). Even then, the restoration of the Holy Roman Empire, with a modernized internal political structure, had not been out of reach at the 1814–1815 Congress of Vienna (which decided Europe's borders in the aftermath of Napoleon's defeat). However, Emperor Francis had come to the conclusion before the congress that the Holy Roman Empire's political structure would not have been superior to the new order in Europe and that restoring it was not in the interest of the Habsburg monarchy. In an official capacity, the papacy considered the fact that the Holy Roman Empire was not restored at the Congress of Vienna (alongside other decisions made during the negotiations) to be "detrimental to the interests of the Catholic religion and the rights of the church".

In the Holy Roman Empire's place, the Congress of Vienna created the German Confederation, which was led by the Austrian emperors as "Bundespräsidium" and would prove to be ineffective. The Confederation was weakened by the German revolutions of 1848–1849, whereafter the Frankfurt Parliament, elected by the people of the Confederation, attempted to proclaim a German Empire and designate Frederick William IV of Prussia as their emperor. Frederick William IV himself did not approve of the idea, instead favoring a restoration of the Holy Roman Empire under the Habsburgs of Austria, though neither the Habsburgs themselves nor the German revolutionaries, still active at the time, would have approved of that idea.

Successor empires and legacy

In the Austrian Empire, the Habsburg dynasty continued to act as a substitute for nationality, though the Austrian imperial title was not (unlike for instance the French or Russian imperial titles) associated with any nationality in particular. Though the German vassals of the Holy Roman Empire had been released from their obligations, Francis II and his successors continued to rule a large German-speaking population and the Holy Roman Imperial Regalia continued to be kept within their domains (and are to this day stored and displayed at the Imperial Treasury at the Hofburg in Vienna). The dynasty retained its prominent status among the royal families of Europe and were in the eyes of many of their subjects still the only true imperial family. Although the new Austrian Empire lacked many of the key elements of the Holy Roman Empire, it remained close in practice and ideals to the pre-1806 empire. In many respects, the Austrian emperors continued to act as protectors of the Catholic Church, just as the Holy Roman emperors had before them, continuing to claim the right of the Jus exclusivae. During his 1809–1814 imprisonment in France and after his subsequent release, Pope Pius VII looked to Emperor Francis as the protector of the church, for instance petitioning the emperor to help him in re-establishing the Papal States.

In the aftermath of Francis II's abdication, the new Austrian Empire took steps to distance itself from the older empire. The symbols and formal titles of the Austrian monarchy were altered to stress Austria as a distinct entity. Because the term Kaiserthum Österreich (Empire of Austria) had entered everyday speech, the monarchy soon dropped the original prefix "hereditary", which had been used from 1804 to 1806 to stress the difference between Austria and the Holy Roman Empire.

In addition to the Austrian Empire (and France under Napoleon), the most prominent potential claimant to the Holy Roman Empire's legacy (in the sense of ruling Germany) in the wake of its collapse and dissolution was the Kingdom of Prussia, ruled by the House of Hohenzollern. Alongside the growing crown lands of the Habsburgs, Prussia represented the sole major power in Central Europe during the last century or so of Holy Roman imperial rule. It was frequently rumored that the Prussians had imperial ambitions, and Frederick II of Prussia was a rumored candidate to the position of Holy Roman Emperor in 1740. Frederick II, and other Prussian kings, dismissed these ideas while they remained under Imperial rule, arguing that additional territory and power would be more beneficial than the Imperial title. In 1795 and again in 1803 and 1804, French representatives suggested that Prussia might convert its northern German territories into an empire, but the Hohenzollerns were not interested in going through with such a plan. Though the Prussian rulers and their officials expressed sorrow at the collapsing state of the Holy Roman Empire from 1792 onwards, they were also critical of nostalgia for Germany's history under imperial rule. The Prussians viewed the survival chances of the Holy Roman Empire as very low and saw the French as the true successors of the ancient Carolingians, an enemy which they believed could not be defeated by normal military means.

The reluctance of the Hohenzollerns to assume an imperial title shifted in 1806 as they feared that, with the formation of the Confederation of the Rhine and the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire, Napoleon might aspire to claim the hypothetical position of "Emperor of Germany". Though preparations were made to create an "imperial union" in northern Germany, with an emperor of the Hohenzollern dynasty, these plans were dropped in September 1806 after they found little support, and Emperor Alexander I of Russia objected to them. Because the Hohenzollerns lacked imperial ancestry they did not see themselves as an imperial dynasty and, even after Napoleon's ultimate defeats in 1813 and 1815, their position changed little. Although Germany was united into the German Empire in 1871 under the Hohenzollern emperor Wilhelm I, the proclamation of the new empire was ideologically problematic and the Hohenzollerns found themselves mostly ill-at-ease with its implications. Attempts were made to associate the German Empire with the institutions of the Holy Roman Empire, but its emperors continued to enumerate themselves after the Kings of Prussia; Emperor Frederick III (1888) was enumerated after his predecessor as king, Frederick II, not after the previous Imperial Frederick (Emperor Frederick III of the 15th century, the new Frederick would then have been Frederick IV).

Both the German Empire and Austria-Hungary, the Habsburg-ruled Dual Monarchy, fell in 1918 in the aftermath of the First World War. Over the course of the centuries, the many states of the Holy Roman Empire would evolve into the 16 modern states of Germany. As partly sovereign polities, the German states, especially in more or less independently administered areas such as culture and education, harken back to the old empire. Historians Norman Stone and Johannes Burkhardt have compared the Holy Roman Empire, especially in regards to its locally administered component states, to the modern Federal Republic of Germany, with Burkhardt writing that "I can state unequivocally that the Old Reich was the true predecessor of the Federal Republic of Germany" and Stone writing, in regards to the modern republic's foundation, that "This time it [has been] a Germany minus Prussia and Austria. It was a return to the old Holy Roman Empire, to a Germany where true civilisation existed on a very local level, that of the prince-bishopric".

Despite the Holy Roman Empire ultimately failing to prevent war with France, the late empire's nominal role in working for peace and forming a loose sort of hegemony and partnership offered an alternative to both the universal absolute monarchy of Napoleon's French Empire and the universal republic advocated by Revolutionary France and it served as a model for the constitutions of international bodies and organizations of the future.

References

Citations

Bibliography

External links
 Abdication of Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor on Wikisource

Holy Roman Empire
Napoleonic Wars
August 1806 events
Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor


title: Nikolai Snessarev

text:
Nikolai Vasilyevich Snessarev (Николай Васильевич Снессарев, (January 26, 1856, Saint Petersburg, Russian Empire, — December 7, 1928, Berlin, Germany) was a Russian Empire journalist, writer, literary critic (known also as N.S. and N.Snegov) and politician, in 1910s a member the Saint Petersburg City Duma. A prominent Novoye Vremya contributor and official (in 1887-1913), and later, in emigration, a supporter of Grand Duke Kirill Vladimirovich (he was the co-author, with Count Vladimir Bobrinsky, of the 1924 Manifest proclaiming Kirill an heir to the Russian throne), Snessarev's two major books, "The New Times Mirage" (1914) and "Kirill I, the Koburg Emperor" (1925), were satirizing both Novoye Vremya and the Grand Duke of Russia, whom he by now has got totally disillusioned with.

References

1856 births
1928 deaths
Writers from the Russian Empire
Journalists from the Russian Empire
Immigrants to the Weimar Republic


title: Jack Cattell

text:
The Ven. Jack Cattell was Archdeacon of Bermuda from 1961 until 1982.

He was educated at Durham University and Salisbury Theological College;  and ordained in 1940. He was President of the Durham Union for Epiphany term of 1938. After  a curacy in Royston he was a Chaplain to the British Armed Forces from 1942 to 1946. He was also a teacher: serving at Dauntsey's School, Richmond School and Wanstead High School. He was Head teacher of Whitney Institute from 1953 until his appointment as Archdeacon.

References

Alumni of Salisbury Theological College
British military chaplains
20th-century English Anglican priests
Archdeacons of Bermuda
1915 births
Year of death missing
Presidents of the Durham Union
Alumni of University College, Durham


title: Web Mercator projection

text:
Web Mercator, Google Web Mercator, Spherical Mercator, WGS 84 Web Mercator or WGS 84/Pseudo-Mercator is a variant of the Mercator map projection and is the de facto standard for Web mapping applications. It rose to prominence when Google Maps adopted it in 2005. It is used by virtually all major online map providers, including Google Maps, CARTO, Mapbox, Bing Maps, OpenStreetMap, Mapquest, Esri, and many others. Its official EPSG identifier is EPSG:3857, although others have been used historically.

Properties
Web Mercator is a slight variant of the Mercator projection, one used primarily in Web-based mapping programs. It uses the same formulas as the standard Mercator as used for small-scale maps. However, the Web Mercator uses the spherical formulas at all scales whereas large-scale Mercator maps normally use the ellipsoidal form of the projection. The discrepancy is imperceptible at the global scale but causes maps of local areas to deviate slightly from true ellipsoidal Mercator maps at the same scale. This deviation becomes more pronounced further from the equator, and can reach as much as 40 km on the ground.

While the Web Mercator's formulas are for the spherical form of the Mercator, geographical coordinates are required to be in the WGS 84 ellipsoidal datum. This discrepancy causes the projection to be slightly non-conformal. General lack of understanding that the Web Mercator differs from standard Mercator usage has caused considerable confusion and misuse. For all these reasons, the United States Department of Defense through the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency has declared this map projection to be unacceptable for any official use.

Unlike most map projections for the sphere, the Web Mercator uses the equatorial radius of the WGS 84 spheroid, rather than some compromise between the equatorial and polar radii. This results in a slightly larger map compared to the map's stated (nominal) scale than for most maps.

Formulas
Formulas for the Web Mercator are fundamentally the same as for the standard spherical Mercator, but before applying zoom, the "world coordinates" are adjusted such that the upper left corner is  and the lower right corner is :

where  is the longitude in radians and   is geodetic latitude in radians.

Because the Mercator projects the poles at infinity, a map using the Web Mercator projection cannot show the poles. Services such as Google Maps cut off coverage at 85.051129° north and south. This is not a limitation for street maps, which is the primary purpose for such services. The value 85.051129° is the latitude at which the full projected map becomes a square, and is computed as  given :

Spherical and ellipsoidal mix
The projection is neither strictly ellipsoidal nor strictly spherical. EPSG's definition says the projection "uses spherical development of ellipsoidal coordinates". The underlying geographic coordinates are defined using the WGS84 ellipsoidal model of the Earth's surface, but are projected as if defined on a sphere. This practice is uncontroversial for small-scale maps (such as of the entire world), but has little precedent in large-scale maps (such as of a city or province).

Advantages and disadvantages
Web Mercator is a spherical Mercator projection, and so it has the same properties as a spherical Mercator: north is up everywhere, meridians are equally spaced vertical lines, angles are locally correct (assuming spherical coordinates), and areas inflate with distance from the equator such that the polar regions are grossly exaggerated. The ellipsoidal Mercator has these same properties, but models the earth as an ellipsoid.

Unlike the ellipsoidal Mercator, however, the Web Mercator is not quite conformal. This means that angles between lines on the surface will not be drawn to the same angles in the map, although they will not deviate enough to be noticeable by eye. Lines deviate because Web Mercator specifies that coordinates be given as surveyed on the WGS 84 ellipsoidal model. By projecting coordinates surveyed against the ellipsoid as if they were surveyed on a sphere, angular relationships change slightly. This is standard practice on the standard spherical Mercator projection, but unlike Web Mercator, the spherical Mercator is not normally used for maps of local areas, such as street maps, and so the accuracy of positions needed for plotting is typically less than the angular deviation caused by using spherical formulas. The benefit the Web Mercator gains is that the spherical form is much simpler to calculate than the ellipsoidal form, and so requires only a fraction of the computing resources.

Identifiers
Due to slow adoption by the EPSG registry, the Web Mercator is represented by several different names and spatial reference system identifiers (SRIDs), including EPSG:900913, EPSG:3785 and EPSG:3857, the latter being the official EPSG identifier since 2009.

EPSG:900913
The projected coordinate reference system originally lacked an official spatial reference identifier (SRID), and the Geodesy subcommittee of the OGP's Geomatics committee (also known as EPSG) refused to provide it with one, declaring "We have reviewed the coordinate reference system used by Microsoft, Google, etc. and believe that it is technically flawed. We will not devalue the EPSG dataset by including such inappropriate geodesy and cartography." The unofficial code "EPSG:900913" (GOOGLE transliterated to numbers) came to be used. It was originally defined by Christopher Schmidt in his Technical Ramblings blog and became codified in OpenLayers 2, which, technically, would make OpenLayers the SRID authority.

EPSG:3785
In 2008, EPSG provided the official identifier EPSG:3785 with the official name "Popular Visualisation CRS / Mercator", but noted "It is not an official geodetic system". This definition used a spherical (rather than ellipsoidal) model of the Earth.

EPSG:3857
Later that year, EPSG provided an updated identifier, EPSG:3857 with the official name "WGS 84 / Pseudo-Mercator". The definition switched to using the WGS84 ellipsoid (EPSG:4326), rather than the sphere.

Although the projection is closely associated with Google, Microsoft is listed as the "information source" in EPSG's standards.

Other identifiers
Other identifiers that have been used include ESRI:102113, ESRI:102100, and OSGEO:41001.

ESRI:102113 corresponds to EPSG:3785 while ESRI:102100 corresponds to EPSG:3857.

WKT definition
The projection covers the Earth from −180° to 180° longitude, and 85.05° north and south. Using well-known text representation of coordinate reference systems (WKT), EPSG:3857 is defined as follows:
PROJCRS["WGS 84 / Pseudo-Mercator",
    BASEGEOGCRS["WGS 84",
        ENSEMBLE["World Geodetic System 1984 ensemble",
            MEMBER["World Geodetic System 1984 (Transit)", ID["EPSG",1166]],
            MEMBER["World Geodetic System 1984 (G730)",    ID["EPSG",1152]],
            MEMBER["World Geodetic System 1984 (G873)",    ID["EPSG",1153]],
            MEMBER["World Geodetic System 1984 (G1150)",   ID["EPSG",1154]],
            MEMBER["World Geodetic System 1984 (G1674)",   ID["EPSG",1155]],
            MEMBER["World Geodetic System 1984 (G1762)",   ID["EPSG",1156]],
            MEMBER["World Geodetic System 1984 (G2139)",   ID["EPSG",1309]],
            ELLIPSOID["WGS 84", 6378137, 298.257223563, LENGTHUNIT["metre", 1, ID["EPSG",9001]], ID["EPSG",7030]],
            ENSEMBLEACCURACY[2], ID["EPSG",6326]],
        ID["EPSG",4326]],
    CONVERSION["Popular Visualisation Pseudo-Mercator",
        METHOD["Popular Visualisation Pseudo Mercator", ID["EPSG",1024]],
        PARAMETER["Latitude of natural origin",  0, ANGLEUNIT["degree", 0.0174532925199433, ID["EPSG",9102]], ID["EPSG",8801]],
        PARAMETER["Longitude of natural origin", 0, ANGLEUNIT["degree", 0.0174532925199433, ID["EPSG",9102]], ID["EPSG",8802]],
        PARAMETER["False easting",               0, LENGTHUNIT["metre", 1,                  ID["EPSG",9001]], ID["EPSG",8806]],
        PARAMETER["False northing",              0, LENGTHUNIT["metre", 1,                  ID["EPSG",9001]], ID["EPSG",8807]],
        ID["EPSG",3856]],
    CS[Cartesian, 2, ID["EPSG",4499]],
    AXIS["Easting (X)", east],
    AXIS["Northing (Y)", north],
    LENGTHUNIT["metre", 1, ID["EPSG",9001]],
    ID["EPSG",3857]]

References

Geographic coordinate systems
Web mapping
Google Maps
Map projections
Conformal projections


title: Beer in Armenia

text:
Beer has been produced in Armenia since ancient times. In the 5th century BCE, after arriving at a village in Ancient Armenia, Xenophon wrote in the Anabasis that "There were stored wheat, barley, vegetables, and barley wine in the craters (clay pots). In upper level of  vessels with the edges  in the wine floated barley, and there was stuck a reed, large and small sizes and who wanted to drink, had to take a reed in his mouth and pull it through the wine.  Not mixed with water, the wine was very strong, but for local people it was a very pleasant drink".

Beer festival

The Yerevan Beer Fest is held annually during August. It was first organized in 2014. The Swan lake located in the park near the Yerevan Opera Theatre is the regular home of the festival. More than 10,000 visitors attended the 5th edition of the Yerevan Beer Fest in August 2018, which featured all the breweries and microbreweries in Armenia.

Breweries

The first brewery in modern history of Armenia was opened in  1892 in Yerevan. Known as Zanga Brewery, the plant was located in the Hrazdan River gorge. The brewery's products were branded as Bok-Beer. However, the plant was closed during the 1920s.

As of 2023, the following seven brewing companies are operating in Armenia:
Beer of Yerevan Brewery: operating since 1952 in Yerevan, and currently producing beer under the brands Kilikia (flagship brand), Yerevan, Hayer, Městské Pivo and 12.06.
Dargett Craft Beer: operating since 2016 in Yerevan, and currently serving Dargett craft beer.
Dilijan Brewery: operating since 2016 in Dilijan, Tavush Province, and currently producing beer under the brand Dilijan.
Gyumri Beer Brewery: operating since 1970 in Gyumri, Shirak Province, and currently producing beer under the brands Gyumri (flagship brand), Ararat and Aleksandrapol.
Hayasy Group: operating since 2007 in Voskevaz village, Aragatsotn Province, and currently producing beer under the brand Hayasy.
Kotayk Brewery: operating since 1974 in Abovyan, Kotayk Province, and currently producing beer under the brands Kotayk (flagship brand), Erebuni and Urartu.
Lihnitis Sevan Brewery: operating since 2007 in Sevan, Gegharkunik Province, and currently producing beer under the brand Kellers.

Microbreweries/Brewpubs
As of 2023, there are nine microbreweries/brewpubs that produce and serve draught/unfiltered beer in Armenia:
379 Brewing Company: Abovyan-based brewery operating since 2022.
Alaverdi Draft Beer: operating since 1947 in Alaverdi, Lori Province, and currently serving Alaverdi unfiltered beer.
AM Group: operating since 1998 in Tairov village, Armavir Province, and currently serving Jäger unfiltered beer and Roskvas kvass.
Art Beer 1680: operating since 2017 in Kakavadzor village of Aragatsotn Province, and currently serving Art beer (light and dark).
Blonder Beer House and Brewery: operating since 2000 in Yerevan, and currently serving Blonder Slovak pilsner unfiltered beer.
Beer Academy Yerevan: operating since 2012 in Yerevan, and currently serving Academia unfiltered beer.
Dors Brewpub: Yerevan-based brewpub.
Tovmas Craft Beer: operating since 2016 in Yerevan, and currently serving Tovmas unfiltered beer.
Vladimir Hakobyan Microbrewery: operating since 2017 in Dovegh village, Tavush Province, and currently serving Dovegh's unfiltered beer.

Republic of Artsakh

The Republic of Artsakh had a single brewery – Central Brewpub in the capital Stepanakert.

See also
List of breweries in Armenia
Armenian wine
Beer and breweries by region

References


title: Joe Crozier (footballer, born 1914)

text:
Joseph Crozier (2 December 1914 – 27 July 1985) was a Scottish professional footballer who made 200 appearances in the Football League for Brentford as a goalkeeper. Crozier has been described as Brentford's best-ever goalkeeper and he is a member of the club's Hall of Fame. He represented Scotland in wartime international matches.

Playing career
Crozier began his career at junior team Strathclyde and moved to Scottish League Second Division club East Fife in 1934. He made 100 appearances for the club and earned a £1,000 move to English First Division club Brentford in May 1937. Either side of the Second World War, Crozier made 224 appearances for the Bees. As a testament to his longevity, Crozier made 114 of his 200 league appearances consecutively and as of August 2023, his 25 top-flight clean sheets is the club record. During the war, Crozier played as a guest at Hibernian and Airdrieonians. He departed Brentford in 1949 and ended his career with spells at non-League clubs Chelmsford City, Kidderminster Harriers and Ashford Town.

International career
Crozier won three unofficial caps for Scotland in three wartime internationals versus England in 1943 and 1944. He conceded 16 goals in three defeats. The final match at Hampden Park in April 1944 was witnessed by a wartime record 133,000 crowd.

Personal life
Crozier served in the Royal Air Force during the Second World War. After retiring from football, he became managing director of Cory Lighterage and a Freeman of the City of London.

Career statistics

Honours

 Brentford Hall of Fame

References

1914 births
Footballers from Coatbridge
Scottish men's footballers
Brentford F.C. players
English Football League players
East Fife F.C. players
Airdrieonians F.C. (1878) wartime guest players
Hibernian F.C. wartime guest players
Chelmsford City F.C. players
Southern Football League players
Men's association football goalkeepers
Scottish Football League players
Scotland men's wartime international footballers
1985 deaths
Kidderminster Harriers F.C. players
Ashford United F.C. players
Strathclyde F.C. players
Scottish Junior Football Association players
Royal Air Force personnel of World War II
Kent Football League (1894–1959) players


title: Noel Holmes

text:
Major General Sir Noel Galway Holmes KBE CB MC (25 December 1891 – 24 December 1982) was a senior British Army officer during the Second World War and Davis Cup tennis player for Ireland.

Biography
Born in Galway, Ireland, on 25 December 1891, Noel Holmes attended and was educated at Bedford School. He joined the Royal Irish Regiment in 1912 and served in India between 1912 and 1914. During the First World War he served in France.

He served in Upper Silesia between 1921 and 1922. In 1922 he joined the East Yorkshire Regiment and, after attending the Staff College, Camberley from 1926 to 1927, served in India between 1933 and 1937.

During the Second World War he was Director of Movements at the War Office, between 1939 and 1943. He attended the conferences of allied war leaders in Casablanca, Washington, D.C., Quebec City, Cairo, Tehran, Yalta and Potsdam. He was Deputy Quartermaster General at the War Office between 1943 and 1946 and, briefly, General Officer Commanding Aldershot Command from September 1946 to November 1946.

Major General Sir Noel Holmes was invested as a Companion of the Order of the British Empire in 1940, as a Companion of the Order of the Bath in 1943, and as a Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire in 1946. He married Mary Clifford, daughter of Sir Hugh Clifford, on 19 June 1920 and they had two children.  He retired from the British Army in 1946 and died on 24 December 1982.

References

Bibliography

External links
Generals of World War II

1891 births
1982 deaths
Military personnel from County Galway
Irish officers in the British Army
People educated at Bedford School
British Army personnel of World War I
British Army generals of World War II
Recipients of the Military Cross
Companions of the Order of the Bath
Knights Commander of the Order of the British Empire
Royal Irish Regiment (1684–1922) officers
East Yorkshire Regiment officers
Graduates of the Staff College, Camberley
People from Galway (city)
British Army major generals
War Office personnel in World War II
Irish male tennis players


title: Eggplant jam

text:
Eggplant jam (, ) is a whole-fruit jam from the Azerbaijani and Turkish cuisines. In Turkey, it is especially popular in Antalya, Iğdır and Kağızman. The Governorate of Iğdır Province is making efforts to obtain a geographical indication for the name "patlıcan reçeli".

See also
 List of spreads

References

Jams and jellies
Azerbaijani cuisine
Turkish cuisine
Eggplant dishes


title: Antonio Ferreira Batalha Silva-Netto

text:
Antonio Ferreira Batalha Silva-Netto (2 April 1876 – 15 December 1962) was a Hong Kong Macanese businessman and member of the Legislative Council of Hong Kong.

A. F. B. Silva-Netto was born on 2 April 1876. He was the son of Jose Silva-Netto and Honorina de Sousa of Macau. His father was born Jose Pedro Nolasco da Silva but changed his name to Jose Pedro Silva-Netto for commercial reasons.

He was appointed to the Legislative Council of Hong Kong in 1930 and 1936 during the absence of Jose Pedro Braga. He was also the President of Club Lusitano, a Portuguese elite club in Hong Kong.

He married Maria Celeste Jorge on 9 January 1902 in Hong Kong.

References

1876 births
1962 deaths
Nolasco da Silva family
Macau emigrants to Hong Kong
Hong Kong businesspeople
Hong Kong people of Macanese descent
Members of the Legislative Council of Hong Kong


title: Thomas Prentiss

text:
Thomas Brigham Prentiss (August 29, 1809 – April 26, 1895) was an American-born merchant and politician in Quebec. He was mayor of Aylmer from 1878 to 1879.

He was born in Chelsea, Orange County, Vermont, the son of Robert Prentiss, a blacksmith, and Susanna Wright, and was educated in Jericho, Vermont. Prentiss worked at a linen factory in Jericho and then came to Chelsea, Lower Canada in 1833. There he rented and repaired an old carding mill, which he operated for a time and also taught school. Prentiss then became a general merchant at Chelsea and also was the first postmaster there and served as a magistrate. He married Salome Brigham in 1835. In 1855, he moved to Aylmer, where he also served as magistrate. He later married Hannah Folsom Weymouth after his first wife died in 1837 while giving birth. Prentiss served several terms on Aylmer city council both before and after serving as mayor. He was a founding member of the Aylmer Academy.

References

1809 births
1895 deaths
People from Chelsea, Vermont
American emigrants to pre-Confederation Quebec
Mayors of places in Quebec
Immigrants to Lower Canada
Anglophone Quebec people


title: Thomas Dyson

text:
The Ven. Thomas Dyson was Archdeacon of Bermuda from 1982 until 1994.

Dyson was educated at the University of Manchester and ordained in 1940. After a curacy at St Anselm's, Kennington he was a Chaplain in the RNVR from 1943 to 1947. He was Vicar of St Peter-in-the-East, Oxford from 1947 to 1955; and Rector of St Bartholemew, Colne, Lancashire from 1955 to 1957 when he became the incumbent in Warwick, Bermuda.

References

20th-century Anglican priests
Archdeacons of Bermuda


title: 2014–15 in Swiss football

text:
The following is a summary of the 2014–15 season of competitive football in Switzerland.

Men's national team
The home team is on the left column; the away team is on the right column.

UEFA Euro 2016 qualification

Friendly matches

Non-official Games

Women's national team
The home team is on the left column; the away team is on the right column.

World Cup 2015 qualifying

2015 FIFA Women's World Cup

2015 Algarve Cup

Friendly matches

League standings

Raiffeisen Super League

Brack.ch Challenge League

Seasons in Swiss football
2014 in Swiss sport
2015 in Swiss sport


title: Vorup

text:
Vorup is a southwestern suburb of Randers, in Randers Municipality of Denmark, located southwest of Gudenåen and west of the district of Kristrup.

The district's football team, Vorup FB, was founded here in May 1930, and played for a short period in the second half of the 1990s in the 2nd division.

The district is known for its rivalry with Kristrup. The woodland of Henriettelund borders the southwestern part of Vorup.

Notable people
 Ib Christensen (born 1930 in Vorup, died in 2023), a Danish parlamentarian
 Johnny de Lima (born 1964 in Vorup), a Danish boxer, competed at the 1988 Summer Olympics

References

Randers Municipality


title: Aquadoctan

text:
Aquadoctan was one of the largest known Native American villages in what is now the U.S. state of New Hampshire. In an area commonly known today as The Weirs (for the semi-permanent fishing weirs the natives had built on the river), the village lay on the north bank of the Winnipesaukee River at the outlet of Lake Winnipesaukee in the Lakes Region of New Hampshire. The site is now in Weirs Beach, a summer resort and village of the city of Laconia. The Native American village, whose archaeological remains extend for a half mile along the river and a quarter mile along the lake, has been documented through archaeological investigation to have evidence of settlement from 9,000 BCE to the late seventeenth century. Colonial reports document that the site was abandoned substantially in 1696, when most of New Hampshire's remaining native population withdrew to join the Pequawket at present-day Fryeburg, Maine.

Due to documentation of its use for human settlements, the area has long been of archaeological interest. Portions of the area were investigated formally during 1976 through 1979 by a team from the University of New Hampshire, and in 1977 by Howard Sargent, long a leading figure in New Hampshire archaeology, who is noted for his identification of the Hunter Archeological Site that also is in New Hampshire.

Finds at the Aquadoctan site yield evidence of habitation back to the Paleo-Indian period (c. 7600 BCE). These finds were located under Middle Archaic remains, indicating a long period of occupation. The site was one of the first in northern New England to yield evidence of human activity in that prehistoric time period.

A  section of the village site was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1975.

See also
Endicott Rock, a state park in the area
Beaver Meadow Brook Archeological Site
National Register of Historic Places listings in Belknap County, New Hampshire

References

Pre-historic cities in the United States
Geography of Belknap County, New Hampshire
Archaeological sites on the National Register of Historic Places in New Hampshire
Buildings and structures in Laconia, New Hampshire
National Register of Historic Places in Belknap County, New Hampshire
Native American history of New Hampshire


title: Chris McLennan

text:
Chris McLennan (born 18 January 1964) is an international travel photographer who achieved worldwide recognition following the release of his "Car-L meets the lions" video. The video became a viral hit with over 7 million YouTube views and was featured in national publications and on TV news stations around the globe. (Including CNN & Huffington Post in the US, Metro.co.uk in the United Kingdom, German T Online in Germany, Global News in Canada, FotoOutlet in Hungary, Information Telegraph Agency in Russia, Expressen TV in Sweden, RTVE Breakfast TV in Spain, Argentina TV, Belgium TV, Zoomin Italian TV and News agency in Italy and African Geographic in Africa, as well as live interviews on TV3's Campbell Live and TV1's Seven Sharp news programs in McLennan's home country of New Zealand).

Early life

Chris McLennan was born on January 18, 1964 in Gore, New Zealand. He grew up in the small farming community of Riversdale in the South Island and attended Gore High School.  He had an early interest in photography and through his teenage years took regular photos of his father's classic car racing.

Career

The middle of five children, McLennan originally trained and worked as a butcher before taking up photography as a serious profession in 1988 when he purchased an existing wedding and portrait studio operating out of Invercargill.  He re-branded the company as "Chris McLennan Photography Ltd" and moved to Queenstown where he worked as a freelance photographer.  He focused on the adventure tourism industry and by the early to mid-1990s was established as a self-employed professional photographer working for clients both in New Zealand and also offshore.

McLennan first gained critical international acclaim when he was recognised with a  PDN National Geographic Traveler award in 2009 for his image "Lost World".  This was followed by the same award the following year for his image "Freestyle Moto-X", where he mounted a DSLR camera to the handlebars of well-known stunt rider Levi Sherwood's bike.
He became an "EOS Master Photographer" for camera brand Canon in 2010 before changing to Nikon in late 2012.  He is currently an Ambassador for Nikon and also holds international endorsement relationships with industry brands Lowepro and Lexar

His reputation for colour accuracy resulted in the formation of a formal relationship with computing brand Hewlett-Packard for whom he is an international Ambassador - in particular representing their colour accurate DreamColor products

Photographic Work

McLennan's body of photographic work predominantly covers travel imagery from around the world, encompassing wildlife, culture, landscapes, seascapes and cityscapes.  He has worked on commercial assignments in over 45 different countries and is known for his technical excellence, unusual angles and the colour and clarity of his photos.

Past Exhibitions
 Colours of our World Exhibition, Napier July 2013
 A Year in the Wild Life of Chris McLennan, Auckland June 2013
 (Auckland Festival of Photograph) Kumeu Art Centre Exhibition, Auckland July 2012
 (Auckland Festival of Photography) Apix Exhibition, Auckland July 2011
 Jack's Point Exhibition, Queenstown August 2010

International Awards List

 2014 Photography Masters Cup International Color Awards - 7 nominations
 2013 International Black and White Spider Awards - 10 nominations, 2 Honors awards
 2013 Photography Masters Cup International Color Awards - 8 nominations, 1 Honors award
 2012  World Open of Photography - 2 finalist images
 2012 Travel Photographer of the Year - 2 portfolio and 3 individual image finalists, best single image in a portfolio
 2012 International Black and White Spider Awards - 3 nominations, 1 Honors award
 2012 Photography Masters Cup International Color Awards - 3 nominations, 1 Honors award
 2012 World Open of Photography, 2 finalist images
 2012 PDN International Photography Awards - Category winner "Scenics of the Natural World"
 2011 Travel Photographer of the Year Awards - Highly Commended portfolio and 5 individual image finalists
 2011 International Black and White Spider Awards - 2 nominations
 2011 Photography Masters Cup International Color Awards - 5 nominations, 1 Honors award
 2011 Victoria Print Awards of Australia, Gold
 2011 PDN National Geographic Traveler - Finalist
 2010 PDN National Geographic Traveler - Winner Outdoor Sports Image of the Year, People's Choice award and finalist award
 2010 International Black and White Spider Awards - 1 Honors Award
 2010 Photography Masters Cup International Color Awards - 5 nominations
 2009 PDN National Geographic Traveler - Winner Outdoor Sports Image of the year

In the media

In New Zealand McLennan has featured in the NZ Herald national newspaper, Canvas Magazine (cover story), D-Photo Magazine, Southland Times newspaper (cover story), Rodney Times newspaper (cover story) and NorWest News (cover story), as well as live interviews live on TV3's Campbell Live, TV1's Seven Sharp news programs and a featurette on the Natural History channel.  He is author of the regular "On Location" column in  D-Photo Magazine, a bi-monthly photographic publication in New Zealand.

Internationally McLennan has been interviewed live on Sky Sports Radio in Australia as well as numerous mentions in international media as a result of his "Car-L meets the lions" YouTube viral video.

External links

 "My Happy Place" New Zealand Herald article
 Seven Sharp News channel live interview with Chris McLennan
 Campbell Live TV3 News channel live interview with Chris McLennan
 Chris McLennan & Nikon on Shooting Wildlife in Africa (video)
 Car-L meets the lions (video)
 Southland Times article on Chris McLennan and the Car-L video

References

1964 births
Living people
New Zealand photographers
People from Gore, New Zealand


title: Trub Abbey

text:
Trub Abbey is a former Benedictine monastery in the municipality of Trub in Bern Switzerland

History

In 1125 Thüring von Lützelflüh donated land around modern Trub to St. Blaise Abbey in the Black Forest to establish a monk's cell.  A few years later, between 1128 and 1130, he was able to separate Trub from St. Blaise and raise it to an independent Abbey.  At that time it was dedicated to the Holy Cross.  The Abbey's lands and rights, at that time it was recorded as monasterium de Trouba, were confirmed by Pope Innocent II and King Conrad III in 1139.  Around 1224 it was known as the convent von Truob.

The secular and military rights over the monastery lands remained with the Lützelflüh family and their descendants, the Freiherren von Brandis until 1455.  The rights were then sold to Kaspar von Scharnachtal who held them until his death in 1473, after which they transferred to the city of Bern.  During the 13th century, the Abbey forged political ties with Bern and in 1286 its residents became citizens of the city.

The confirmation document of 1139 listed 40 properties that the Abbey owned, including 28 in the Emmental region and 7 in Oberaargau.  The remaining five were more distant properties, two vineyards between Cressier and La Neuveville and farm houses in Därligen on Lake Thun, in Entlebuch, Canton of Lucerne and Otelfingen in Zürich.  The Abbey buildings grew rapidly over the following years and a Romanesque church was built.  Over the following centuries, the Abbey continued to receive or purchase property throughout western Switzerland.  Several houses and places in these communities still bear the name Trub from when they were owned by the Abbey.

The village of Trub grew up around the Abbey and was under the low court of the Abbey.  However, the high court was under the secular Kyburgs.  The Abbey provided chaplains and lay priests to many communities within the Emmental, which they recruited from the local farmers.  A total of 24 abbots are known to have presided over the Abbey.  In the early years of the Abbey, these abbots came from the minor nobility or the Ministerialis (unfree knights in the service of a feudal overlord) class.  After 1400, this changed and the abbots were now former farmers or livestock herders.

In 1414 the mostly wooden Abbey was almost totally destroyed in a fire.  It was rebuilt in stone, but in 1501 large parts were destroyed again in a fire.  In 1528 Bern accepted the new faith of the Protestant Reformation and secularized all the monasteries in their territory.  Most of the Abbey library and its treasures did not survive the two fires and the Reformation.  The last abbot of Trub, Heinrich Ruoff, and the remaining nine members residents received a stipend from the Canton to leave the Abbey.  The church was converted into a Swiss Reformed parish church.  The east and west wings of the Abbey gradually fell into disrepair and were demolished.  The south wing was bought by a local farmer and converted into a farm house.  The coat of arms of the Abbey became the coat of arms for the municipality of Trub.

See also
List of Christian monasteries in Switzerland

References

Benedictine monasteries in Switzerland
Christian monasteries established in the 12th century
Buildings and structures in the canton of Bern


title: Proplacenticeras

text:
Proplacenticeras is a discoidal ammonite from the lower part of the Upper Cretaceous and precursor of the overall similar Placenticeras.

The shell is compressed, with flat or slightly convex sides and narrow flat venter, with or without slightly conical umbilical  tubercles, ventrolateral clavi and crescentic ribs on outer part of sides. Sutures are with fewer auxiliary elements than on latter Placenticeras.

Species in sequential order, starting with the oldest, include P. sutherlandbrowni, P. stantoni, P. pseudoplacenta, P. fritschi and P. kaffrarium;  sometimes identified as Placenticeras.

Proplacenticeras has a fairly wide distribution and is known from the western United States and Canada, Mexico, France, Spain, Angola, Israel, Madagascar, India and NE Central Asia.

References
 W.J. Arkell, et al., 1957.  Mesozoic Ammonoidea, Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology Pat L Mollusca 4. Geological Society of America and University of Kansas Press.
William A Cobban & Stephen C. Hook. 1979. Collignoniceras woollgari woollgari (Mantell) ammonite fauna from Upper Cretaceous of Western Interior, United States.  Memoir 37. New Mexico Bureau of Mines & Mineral Resources.
  Proplacenticeras in Fossilworks.

Ammonitida genera
Placenticeratidae
Cretaceous ammonites
Ammonites of Europe


title: Ram Kumar Chaudhary

text:
Ram Kumar Chaudhary is an Indian politician belonging to Indian National Congress. He is a member of Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly.

References

Living people
Himachal Pradesh politicians
1969 births


title: Darryl Suasua

text:
Darryl Bill Suasua  (born 1966) is the current head coach of Counties Manukau in the Mitre 10 Cup, and a former coach of the New Zealand women's national rugby union team. He coached the Black Ferns for seven years in which they won both the 1998 and 2002 Women's Rugby World Cups. They also won the 1996 and 2000 Canada Cups.

Suasua also coached the New Zealand women's sevens side for the 2009 Rugby World Cup Sevens in Dubai. They lost to Australia in the finals 10–15.

Suasua was also a Backs Assistant Coach for  under Head Coach Stephen Betham.

In the 2018 Queen's Birthday Honours, Suasua was appointed a Member of the New Zealand Order of Merit, for services to rugby.

References

1965 births
Living people
New Zealand rugby union coaches
New Zealand national rugby sevens team coaches
Members of the New Zealand Order of Merit
Place of birth missing (living people)
New Zealand women's national rugby union team coaches


title: Nicosia cinema bombing

text:
The Nicosia Cinema Bombing took place on 24 May 1955. A cinema in Nicosia was bombed by the EOKA as part of an unsuccessful attempt to assassinate British governor Sir Robert Armitage. The bomb went off a few yards from where Armitage had been sitting a few minutes earlier; however by the time of the explosion most of the cinema had been vacated. The cinema had been screening the movie Forbidden Cargo on Empire Day as a fundraiser for the British Legion Fund.

References

1955 in film
Explosions in 1955
Attacks on cinemas
Wars involving the United Kingdom
Cyprus Emergency
Conflicts in 1955
History of Nicosia
1955 in Cyprus
20th century in Nicosia
May 1955 events in Europe
Failed assassination attempts in Europe
Building bombings in Europe


title: Elspeth McLachlan

text:
Elspeth McLachlan  (born 22 July 1942), an Australian neuroscientist, is a world authority on neural pathways within the autonomic nervous system. Her work has included detailed analyses of transmission in autonomic ganglia to studies of the organisation of autonomic nervous pathways and their disorder in pathological states, particularly injuries to peripheral nerves and the spinal cord.

McLachlan was born in Bowral, New South Wales, Australia.

Education
McLachlan was educated at the University of Sydney, from which institution she received Bachelor of Science degree in 1962, and a PhD in 1973, and a Doctor of Science degree in 1994.

Career

1985–1993 – Visiting Professor, Christian-Albrechts-Universität zu Kiel, Germany
1987–1988 – National Health and Medical Research Council Principal Research Fellow and Associate Professor, School of Physiology and Pharmacology, University of New South Wales, Australia
1988–1993 – Professor and Head, Department of Physiology & Pharmacology, University of Queensland, Australia
1993–2011 – Senior Principal Research Fellow, Prince of Wales Medical Research Institute, Randwick, Australia
1999–2001 – Executive Head, Centre for Research Management, National Health & Medical Research Council, Canberra, Australia
2000–2003 – Investigador Asociado, Instituto de Neurociencias, Universidad Miguel Hernández, Alicante, Spain
2001–2006 – Pro-Vice Chancellor (Research) and Research Professor, University of New South Wales, Australia
2007–present – Emeritus Professor, University of New South Wales, Australia

Honours and awards

2009: Honorary Member, Australasian Neuroscience Society
2009: Honorary Member, Australian Physiological Society
2006: Distinguished Achievement Award, Australasian Neuroscience Society
2003: Centenary Medal for contribution to the Australian community and science in medical research
1998: Ramaciotti Medal for Excellence in Biomedical Research
1997: Elected Fellow, Australian Academy of Science
1996, 1999: Invitation Fellowship, Japan Society for the Promotion of Science
1995 Orbeli Medal, Armenian Academy of Neuroscience
1993: Max-Planck-Research Prize (Max-Planck-Forschungspreis) for international collaborative research (with W. Jänig)
The Australasian Neuroscience Society announced the establishment of an annual Elspeth McLachlan Plenary Lecture in 2017.

Selected publications

Tripovic, D., Pianova, S., McLachlan, E.M. and Brock, J.A. (2011) Slow and incomplete sympathetic reinnervation of rat tail artery restores the amplitude of nerve-evoked contractions provided a perivascular plexus is present.  AJP Heart and Circulatory Physiology 300, H541-554

References

External links
 Transcript of interview with Professor David Hirst (2000)

Living people
1942 births
Australian neuroscientists
University of Sydney alumni
Academic staff of the University of New South Wales
Academic staff of the University of Queensland
Australian women neuroscientists
Fellows of the Australian Academy of Science
People from Bowral


title: Crimsonland

text:
Crimsonland is a top-down dual stick arena shooter video game with role-playing elements. It was developed by Finnish studio 10tons Entertainment and published by Reflexive Entertainment in 2003. In 2014 a re-release through digital distribution followed.

Gameplay
The player is placed in the middle of the map while enemies gradually enter and make their way towards the player. The player has to eliminate the enemies before their health reaches zero. With each death of an enemy the player will gain experience points. Each level the player gains, the player can select special perks that range anywhere from faster reload times, faster shooting speed, faster movement, to status effects like radiation (creating an area of affect around the player that damages all enemies within its range), poison bullets, and many others. Randomly, when an enemy is killed they will drop a bonus that may be extra points, temporary invulnerability, fire bullets, slowing of time, and many others.

The game also offers local multiplayer for two players on the original and up to 4 on the re-release. In a multiplayer game, all players share the same experience and perks but are free to pick up any weapon or bonuses that may appear.

Game modes
The game features four game modes. There is a secret bonus mode (puzzle mode), developers never said if completing the puzzle led to something.

Quest mode
The player has to complete 50 levels each with their own starting weapons and enemy layouts. As the player completes each quest they unlock weapons and perks.

Survival mode
The player tries to survive as long as they can as waves of enemies come after them. All perks and weapons that have been unlocked are available.

Rush mode
The player is equipped with the AK47 and has to survive as long as they can without any perks or bonuses.

Typ’o’Shooter
The player remains stationary in the middle of the map and is equipped with a shotgun. As the enemies make their way towards the player there is a word hovering over them. In order to shoot at the specific enemy the player needs to type out the word and press Enter. The longer the player survives the longer the words that appear over the enemies.

2014 re-release game modes
With the re-release of Crimsonland in 2014, new game modes were added.

Quest
The player has to complete 60 levels each with their own specific goals and weapons. While the main goal is to eliminate all the enemies, how that goal is accomplished is different. Many quests do not give the player the option of picking up alternate weapons. Also, perks can be disabled in the game's options screen to add even more difficulty. There are three levels of difficulty that the player can select from and if the player completes a quest with full health, a star will be marked on the quest in the quest selection screen.
The quest mode is where the player unlocks most of the game's weapons and perks.

Survival
The player has to survive as long as they can while wave after wave of enemies appear at an increasing rate. All perks, weapons, and bonuses that have been unlocked are available in this game mode.

Rush
The player is equipped with the AK47 rifle as monsters and spiders make their way towards the player from the left and right sides of the screen respectively. This mode does not have perks or bonuses.

Nukefism
The player does not have a weapon in this game mode. Instead, the player needs to pick up bonuses to eliminate the enemies. This mode does not have perks or any point-based bonuses.

Weapon Picker
The player only has the bullets found in the weapon they picks up, there are no reloads. Weapons are randomly dropped throughout the map.

Blitz
Like survival mode but everything is increased. The monster count is increased to make the play time much shorter than in Survival mode. All perks, weapons, and bonuses that have been unlocked are available in this game mode.

Gembine
Gembine is a hidden game within Crimsonland. The game is very similar to the puzzle game 2048. The player is presented with a 4x4 grid and using the arrow keys, the goal is the combine the gems to create larger gems. With each combination of a gem, the player receives points. To play the game, the credits from the main menu have to be selected and typed as "gembine" with the keyboard, or if using a controller press on the right d-pad up up up left left left up. (For PlayStation controllers press "triangle" (three times) then "square" (three times) and finally "triangle" once.) (For an Xbox controller press "Y" (three times) then "X" (three times) and finally "Y" once.)

Development
Originally developed by 10tons Entertainment and released as freeware/demo version, in 2003 a commercial shareware version with publisher Reflexive Entertainment followed. The game was re-released and self-published through digital distribution in 2014 with updates to graphics, perks, weapons, enemies, and game modes. In 2015 it was released for the Xbox One. On November 24, 2017, the game was released on Nintendo Switch.

Reception
The general reception has been fairly positive. On Steam, the user reviews have Crimsonland rated as "Very Positive" and a 4.5 out of 5 from TouchArcade. IGN gave Crimsonland a 7.5 out of 10. Meanwhile, Metacritic has Crimsonland at 68 for PC and 64 on the PlayStation 4 and PlayStation Vita.

References

External links

2003 video games
10tons Entertainment games
Android (operating system) games
Cooperative video games
Linux games
MacOS games
Multiplayer and single-player video games
Nintendo Switch games
PlayStation 3 games
PlayStation 4 games
PlayStation 5 games
PlayStation Vita games
Reflexive Entertainment games
Shoot 'em ups
Steam Greenlight games
Top-down video games
Video games developed in Finland
Windows games
Windows Phone games
Xbox One games


title: Katrin Garfoot

text:
Katrin Garfoot (born 8 October 1981) is a German-born Australian former cyclist who won a bronze medal at the 2014 Commonwealth Games in the road time trial. She started cycle racing in 2011, three years after moving to Australia, having previously competed in athletics up to junior level. In addition to this, Katrin was a teacher at Southport State High School on the Gold Coast.

At the 2016 UCI Road World Championships she won the bronze medal in the women's time trial, 8 seconds behind the winner Amber Neben. In the 2017 road world championships, Garfoot became the second Australian after Anna Wilson to achieve two individual medals at the same road world championships, with a bronze in the individual time trial and a silver in the road race. She completed the three-peat in the 2018 national time trial championships, two and a half minutes clear of second place over the 29.5 km course.

After three and a half years signed with the Orica–AIS UCI women's team, Garfoot confirmed that she would not re-sign with the Orica in 2018, choosing to focus on family life in Australia while keeping her local Commonwealth Games on the Gold Coast as a focus. In 2018, Katrin will represent the Queensland Academy of Sport on the road and in the velodrome, and was selected as a part of the Cycling Australia national team to race at UCI international road races in Australia.

On 12 July 2018, Garfoot announced her retirement from professional cycling.

Major results

2012
 2nd Overall Canberra Women's Tour
 6th Overall Battle on the Border
 7th Overall Santos North Western Tour
 8th Noosa GP
2013
 Oceania Road Cycling Championships
1st  Road race
4th Time trial
 1st Overall Tour of the Murray River
1st Stages 2 (ITT), 4 & 5
 1st Overall Sam Miranda Tour of the King Valley
1st Stage 1
 1st Overall Mersey Valley Tour
 1st Noosa GP
 2nd Overall Santos North West Tour
1st Stage 2
 2nd Overall National Capital Tour
 4th Overall Battle on the Border
 6th Overall Tour of the Goldfields
1st Stages 1, 2 & 4
 6th Overall Shipwreck Coast Classic
1st Stage 1 (ITT)
 6th Overall Jarvis Subaru Adelaide Tour
2014
 2nd Overall Gracia–Orlová
 3rd  Time trial, Commonwealth Games
 National Road Championships
3rd Road race
4th Time trial
 3rd Chrono Champenois
 Oceania Road Cycling Championships
4th Time trial
5th Road race
 4th Overall Tour of Zhoushan Island
1st Mountains classification
 8th Giro del Trentino Alto Adige-Südtirol
2015
 Oceania Road Cycling Championships
1st  Time trial
3rd  Road race
 UCI Road World Championships
4th Time trial
7th Team time trial
 4th Overall Festival Luxembourgeois du Cyclisme Féminin Elsy Jacobs
 4th Giro del Trentino Alto Adige-Südtirol
 5th Overall Emakumeen Euskal Bira
 5th Durango-Durango Emakumeen Saria
 6th Overall Women's Tour of New Zealand
1st Stage 3
 7th Holland Hills Classic
 8th Crescent Women World Cup Vårgårda TTT
2016
 Oceania Road Cycling Championships
1st  Time trial
4th Road race
 National Road Championships
1st  Time trial
4th Road race
 1st  Overall Women's Tour Down Under
1st Stage 1
 1st Chrono Champenois
 1st Launceston Cycling Classic
 2nd Overall Grand Prix Elsy Jacobs
 2nd Noosa GP
 3rd  Time trial, UCI Road World Championships
 4th Overall Ladies Tour of Qatar
1st Stage 2
 4th Overall Auensteiner–Radsporttage
 4th Dwars door de Westhoek
 6th Giro dell'Emilia Internazionale Donne Elite
 8th GP de Plouay – Bretagne
 8th La Flèche Wallonne Féminine
 8th Holland Hills Classic
 8th Time trial, Omloop van Borsele
 9th Time trial, Olympic Games
2017
 National Road Championships
1st  Time trial
1st  Road race
 UCI Road World Championships
2nd  Road race
3rd  Time trial
 3rd Overall Emakumeen Euskal Bira
1st Stage 3
 4th Overall Ladies Tour of Norway
 4th Durango-Durango Emakumeen Saria
 7th Overall Women's Tour Down Under
 7th Strade Bianche
 9th La Flèche Wallonne Féminine
2018
 1st  Time trial, Commonwealth Games
 National Road Championships
1st  Time trial
5th Road race
 2nd Team pursuit, National Track Championships
 3rd Overall Women's Tour Down Under
1st  Sprints classification
1st Stage 2
 4th Overall Women's Herald Sun Tour

See also
 2014 Orica–AIS season

References

External links

1981 births
Living people
Australian female cyclists
Olympic cyclists for Australia
Cyclists at the 2016 Summer Olympics
Commonwealth Games medallists in cycling
Commonwealth Games gold medallists for Australia
Commonwealth Games bronze medallists for Australia
Cyclists at the 2014 Commonwealth Games
Cyclists at the 2018 Commonwealth Games
Medallists at the 2014 Commonwealth Games
Medallists at the 2018 Commonwealth Games
People from Eggenfelden