title: Revolutionary Internationalist Movement

text:
The Revolutionary Internationalist Movement (RIM) was an international communist organization founded in France in March 1984 by 17 various Maoist organisations around the world. It sought to "struggle for the formation of a Communist International of a new type, based on Marxism–Leninism–Maoism". The RIM appears to be defunct as are many of the founding organisations and many changed their names over the years, or have dropped active armed struggle.

Marxism–Leninism–Maoism
From 1993 onwards the RIM believed that the experience gained from the People's War in Peru enabled the International Communist Movement "to further deepen [their] grasp of the proletarian ideology and on that basis take a far-reaching step, the recognition of Marxism–Leninism–Maoism as the new, third and higher stage of Marxism". This formulation caused a split in the Maoist movement, with the continued adherents of Mao Zedong Thought leaving RIM and congregating around the International Conference of Marxist–Leninist Parties and Organizations.

Member organisations
Founding parties at a conference on 12 March 1984 were:
 Union of Iranian Communists (Sarbedaran)
 Ceylon Communist Party (Peking Wing) (Sri Lanka)
 Communist Collective of Agit/Prop (Italy)
 Proletarian Communist Organisation, Marxist–Leninist (Italy)
 Purba Banglar Sarbahara Party
 Communist Party of Colombia (Marxist–Leninist), Mao Tsetung Regional Committee
 Communist Party of Peru
 Communist Party of Turkey/Marxist–Leninist
 Haitian Revolutionary Internationalist Group
 Communist Party of Nepal (Masal)
 New Zealand Red Flag Group
 Revolutionary Communist Group of Colombia
 Central Reorganisation Committee, Communist Party of India (Marxist–Leninist)
 Leading Committee, Revolutionary Communist Party, India
 Revolutionary Communist Party, USA
 Revolutionary Communist Union (Dominican Republic)
 Nottingham Communist Group (Britain)
 Stockport Communist Group (Britain)
The Communist (Maoist) Party of Afghanistan later joined.

The Communist Party of Nepal (Masal) left over differences of political line, but a much larger group, the Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist Centre), is a member. Indian member organizations amalgamated into the Communist Party of India (Maoist).

Of the RIM's one-time participating member organizations, the Maoist Communist Party (Turkey) and the Shining Path are currently engaged in armed conflict. The RIM also supported the revolutionary wars led by the Communist Party of the Philippines and by the Communist Party of India (Maoist).

A World to Win magazine
A World to Win was published from 1981 to 2006 as the unofficial magazine of the Committee of RIM (CoRIM). Communist Party of India (Maoist) leader Ajith (Murali Kannampilly) was the editor of the magazine.

References

External links
 Declaration of the Revolutionary Internationalist Movement
 RIM map and Committee of the RIM (CoRIM) statements

Anti-revisionist internationals


The International Conference of Marxist–Leninist Parties and Organizations (ICMLPO) was an international grouping of political parties and organizations adhering to Mao Zedong Thought founded in 1998 by the Marxist-Leninist Party of Germany. It was organized by a Joint Coordination Group and met every two or three years. It ceased to exist in 2017.

It was known as the "International Conference of Marxist–Leninist Parties and Organizations (International Newsletter)" or as the "International Conference of Marxist-Leninist Parties and Organizations (Maoist)" to distinguish it from original International Conference of Marxist–Leninist Parties and Organizations (Unity & Struggle) that was founded in 1994 in Quito and continues to operate until today.

Participants at the 6th Conference (1999)
 Marxist-Leninist Organization of Afghanistan (Afghanistan)
 Revolutionary Communist Party (Argentina)
 Workers Party of Bangladesh (Bangladesh)
 Organization from the Congo
 Communist Party (Marxist-Leninist) (Dominican Republic)
 Marxist–Leninist Communist Organization – Proletarian Way (France)
 Marxist-Leninist Party of Germany (Germany)
 A/synechia (Greece)
 CPI (ML) Janashakti (India)
 CPI (ML) New Democracy (India)
 Japanese Communist League (Japan)
 Communist Organization of Luxemburg (Luxembourg)
 Group of Marxist–Leninists/Red Dawn (Netherlands)
 Workers Communist Party (Norway)
 Revolutionary Popular Movement Paraguay-Pyahura (Paraguay)
 Institute Amaru (Peru)
 Communist Party of the Philippines (Philippines)
 Communist Party of Turkey/Marxist-Leninist (Turkey)
 Revolutionary Communist Party (Uruguay)
 Ray O. Light Group (United States)
 Organization from South-East Asia

Participants at the 7th Conference (2001)
 Marxist–Leninist Organization of Afghanistan (Afghanistan)
 Revolutionary Communist Party (Argentina)
 Workers Party of Bangladesh (Bangladesh)
 Communist Party (Marxist-Leninist) of Bolivia (Bolivia)
 Colombian Communist Party – Maoist (Colombia)
 Revolutionary Organization from the Congo
 Communist Party (Marxist–Leninist) (Dominican Republic)
 Marxist–Leninist Communist Organization – Proletarian Way (France)
 Marxist-Leninist Party of Germany (Germany)
 A/synechia (Greece)
 CPI (ML) Janashakti (India)
 CPI (ML) New Democracy (India)
 Japanese Communist League (Japan)
 Communist Organization of Luxemburg (Luxembourg)
 Communist Party of Nepal (Mashal) (Nepal)
 Group of Marxist-Leninists/Red Dawn (Netherlands)
 Workers Communist Party (Norway)
 Communist Party (Marxist-Leninist) of Panama (Panama)
 Revolutionary Popular Movement Paraguay Pyahura (Paraguay)
 Communist Party of Peru (Marxist-Leninist) (Peru)
 Communist Party of the Philippines (Philippines)
 Communist Party of South Africa (Marxist-Leninist) (South Africa)
 Bolshevik Party (North Kurdistan – Turkey) (Turkey)
 Communist Party of Turkey/Marxist–Leninist (Turkey)
 Revolutionary Communist Party (Uruguay)
 Ray O. Light Group (United States)
 Revindo, Revolutionary organization from South-East Asia

Participants at the 8th Conference (2004)
 Marxist–Leninist Organization of Afghanistan (Afghanistan)
 Revolutionary Communist Party (Argentina)
 Workers Party of Bangladesh (Bangladesh)
 Communist Party (Marxist-Leninist) of Bolivia (Bolivia)
 Colombian Communist Party – Maoist (Colombia)
 Revolutionary Organization from the Congo
 Communist Party (Marxist-Leninist) (Dominican Republic)
 Marxist-Leninist Communist Organization – Proletarian Way (France)
 Marxist-Leninist Party of Germany (Germany)
 Communist Organization of Greece (Greece)
 CPI (ML) Janashakti (India)
 CPI (ML) Red Flag (India)
 Provisional Central Committee, CPI (ML) (India)
 Committees to Support Resistance – for Communism (Italy)
 Communist Organization of Luxemburg (Luxembourg)
 Communist Party of Nepal (Unity Centre-Masal) (Nepal)
 Group of Marxist-Leninists/Red Dawn (Netherlands)
 Workers Communist Party (Norway)
 Communist Party (Marxist–Leninist) of Panama (Panama)
 Revolutionary Popular Movement Paraguay Pyahura (Paraguay)
 Communist Party of Peru (Marxist–Leninist) (Peru)
 Communist Party of the Philippines (Philippines)
 Party of Labour (Serbia and Montenegro)
 Communist Party of South Africa (Marxist-Leninist) (South Africa)
 Bolshevik Party (North Kurdistan-Turkey) (Turkey)
 Communist Party of Turkey/Marxist–Leninist (Turkey)
 Revolutionary Communist Party (Uruguay)
 Ray O. Light Group (United States)
 Revindo, Revolutionary organization from South-East Asia

Participants at the 9th Conference (2007)
 Marxist-Leninist Organization of Afghanistan
 Revolutionary Communist Party of Argentina
 Workers Party of Bangladesh
 Communist Party (Marxist–Leninist–Maoist) of Bolivia
 Marxist–Leninist Party of Germany
 Marxist–Leninist Communist Organization – Proletarian Way, France
 Communist Organization of Greece
 Provisional Central Committee, Communist Party of India (Marxist–Leninist)
 Laborers’ Party of Iran
 Committee for the Support of Resistance – for Communism, Italy
 Colombian Communist Party – Maoist
 Revolutionary Organization of Congo, R.O. Congo
 Communist Organization of Luxembourg
 Group of Marxist–Leninists/Red Dawn, Netherlands
 Communist Party (Marxist–Leninist) of Panama
 Communist Party of Peru (Marxist–Leninist)
 Communist Party of the Philippines
 Party of Labour, Serbia
 Communist Party of South Africa (Marxist-Leninist)
 Communist Organization Southern Europe
 Communist Party of Turkey/Marxist–Leninist
 Bolshevik Party (North Kurdistan – Turkey)
 Revolutionary Communist Party of Uruguay
 Ray O. Light Group, USA
 Organization from South Asia

Participants at the 10th Conference (2011)
 Revolutionary Communist Party (Argentina)
 Communist Party of Bangladesh (Bangladesh)
 Communist Party (Marxist–Leninist–Maoist) of Bolivia (Bolivia)
 Revolutionary Organization from the Congo
 Communist Party (Marxist–Leninist) (Dominican Republic)
 Marxist-Leninist Communist Organization – Proletarian Way (France)
 Marxist-Leninist Party of Germany (Germany)
 Provisional Central Committee, CPI(ML) (India)
 Laborers’ Party of Iran (Iran)
 Communist Organization of Luxemburg (Luxembourg)
 Group of Marxist-Leninists/Red Dawn (Netherlands)
 Communist Party (Marxist–Leninist) of Panama (Panama)
 Communist Party of the Philippines (Philippines)
 Bolshevik Party (North Kurdistan-Turkey) (Turkey)
 Communist Party of Turkey/Marxist–Leninist (Turkey)
 Revolutionary Communist Party (Uruguay)
 Revolutionary Organization of Labor (United States)

Final Activity International Seminar on 100 Years of October Revolution
 Various Participants of the ICMLPO took part at this seminar in Gelsenkirchen/Germany organized by ICOR (International Coordination of Revolutionary Parties and Organisations) and ICMLPO.

See also
 1980 International Conference of Marxist–Leninist Parties and Organisations

References

External links
 ICMLPO

Anti-revisionist internationals
Left-wing internationals


title: 38th Manitoba Legislature

text:
The members of the 38th Manitoba Legislature were elected in the Manitoba general election held in June 2003. The legislature sat from June 23, 2003 to April 20, 2007.

The New Democratic Party led by Gary Doer formed the government.

Stuart Murray of the Progressive Conservative Party was Leader of the Opposition. Hugh McFadyen was elected party leader in 2006 after Murray resigned in November 2005.

George Hickes served as speaker for the assembly.

There were five sessions of the 38th Legislature:

Peter Liba was Lieutenant Governor of Manitoba until June 30, 2004, when John Harvard became lieutenant governor.

Members of the Assembly
The following members were elected to the assembly in 2003:

Notes:

By-elections
By-elections were held to replace members for various reasons:

Notes:

References

Terms of the Manitoba Legislature
2003 establishments in Manitoba
2007 disestablishments in Manitoba


title: Roger De Pauw

text:
Roger De Pauw (27 February 1921 – 3 August 2020) was a Belgian cyclist. He competed in the tandem event at the 1948 Summer Olympics. He rode together with Louis Van Schill and finished 5th. In August 2016, he was included in a local exhibition about historical Olympians from Wilrijk.

References

External links

1921 births
2020 deaths
Belgian male cyclists
Olympic cyclists for Belgium
Cyclists at the 1948 Summer Olympics
Cyclists from Antwerp


title: Aaron Pauley

text:
Aaron Charles Pauley (born August 4, 1988) is an American musician, best known as the lead vocalist and bassist for the rock band Of Mice & Men and the lead vocalist for Jamie's Elsewhere. He was also formerly the lead vocalist for Razing Alexandria.

Biography
Pauley grew up in Vacaville together with his parents Randy and Kellie Pauley, and younger brother, Samuel. He developed an interest in music at an early age and began playing guitar at the age of eight, and began playing bass at age 11. Pauley joined his first band, Menace to Society, at the age of 13. He graduated from Vacaville High School in 2006. Two years later, he joined the Sacramento-based Jamie's Elsewhere as a vocalist and recorded two albums with them. He joined Of Mice & Men in 2012.

Pauley currently lives in Huntington Beach with his fiancée Amanda Bouffard and his Boston Terrier, Daisy.

Discography
All credits were taken from Pauley's AllMusic credits list.
With Jamie's Elsewhere
They Said a Storm Was Coming (2010)
Reimagined (EP, 2012)
Paradise (EP, 2023)

With Of Mice & Men
 Restoring Force (2014)
 Cold World (2016)
 Defy (2018)
 Earthandsky (2019)
 Echo (2021)
 Tether (2023)

Collaborations and other songs

References

21st-century American singers
American heavy metal bass guitarists
American male bass guitarists
American heavy metal singers
Nu metal singers
1988 births
Living people
21st-century American bass guitarists
21st-century American male singers
Metalcore singers


title: Bagnolo, Santa Fiora

text:
Bagnolo () is a village in Tuscany, in central Italy. It is administratively a frazione of the comune of Santa Fiora, province of Grosseto. At the time of the 2001 census, its population amounted to 566.

Bagnolo is about 65 km from Grosseto and 3 km from Santa Fiora, and it is situated along the provincial road which links Santa Fiora to Piancastagnaio, in the southern side of Monte Amiata. The palio dei somari (donkeys) takes place every year in Bagnolo. Famous exorcist Candido Amantini was born in Bagnolo.

Main sights
 Santissimo Nome di Maria (19th century), the main parish church of the village, it was built in 1863.
 Church of Madonna del Rosario
 Seven Springs: seven water springs dislocated throughout the village - fonte Spilli, fontanile delle Piazze, fonte Baldina, il fontanino, fonte della Faggia, fonte Perino, fonte delle Monache.

References

Bibliography
 Lucio Niccolai, Santa Fiora. Invito alla scoperta del centro storico e del territorio, Effigi, Arcidosso, 2009, pp. 91–96.

Frazioni of Santa Fiora


title: Proletariat

text:
The proletariat (; ) is the social class of  wage-earners, those members of a society whose only possession of significant  economic value is their labour power (their capacity to work). A member of such a class is a proletarian or a . Marxist philosophy regards the proletariat under conditions of capitalism as an  exploited class - forced to accept meager wages in return for operating the means of production, which  belong to the class of business owners, the bourgeoisie.

Karl Marx (1818-1883) argued that this capitalist oppression gives the proletariat  common economic and political interests that transcend national boundaries,
impelling them to unite and to take over power from the capitalist class, and eventually to create a communist society free from class distinctions.

Roman Republic and Empire

The  constituted a social class of Roman citizens who owned little or no property. The name presumably originated with the census, which Roman authorities conducted every five years to produce a register of citizens and their property, which determined their military duties and voting privileges. Those who owned 11,000  (coins) or fewer fell below the lowest category for military service, and their children— (offspring)were listed instead of property; hence the name  (producer of offspring). Roman citizen-soldiers paid for their own horses and arms, and fought without payment for the commonwealth, but the only military contribution of a  was his children, the future Roman citizens who could colonize conquered territories. Officially, propertyless citizens were called  because they were "persons registered not as to their property...but simply as to their existence as living individuals, primarily as heads () of a family."

Although included in the  (Centuriate Assembly),  were the lowest class, largely deprived of voting rights. Late Roman historians such as Livy vaguely described the  as a popular assembly of early Rome composed of , voting units representing classes of citizens according to wealth. This assembly, which usually met on the  to discuss public policy, designated the military duties of Roman citizens. One of the reconstructions of the  features 18  of cavalry, and 170  of infantry divided into five classes by wealth, plus 5  of support personnel called , one of which represented the . In battle, the cavalry brought their horses and arms, the top infantry class full arms and armour, the next two classes less, the fourth class only spears, the fifth slings, while the assisting adsidui held no weapons. In voting, the cavalry and top infantry class were enough to decide an issue; as voting started at the top, issues were usually decided before the lower classes voted.

Modern use

In the early 19th century, many Western European liberal scholarswho dealt with social sciences and economicspointed out the socio-economic similarities of the modern rapidly growing industrial worker class and the classic proletarians. One of the earliest analogies can be found in the 1807 paper of French philosopher and political scientist Hugues Felicité Robert de Lamennais. Later it was translated to English with the title "Modern Slavery".

Swiss liberal economist and historian  was the first to apply the proletariat term to the working class created under capitalism, and whose writings were frequently cited by Karl Marx. Marx most likely encountered the term while studying the works of Sismondi.

Marxist theory

Marx, who studied Roman law at the Friedrich Wilhelm University of Berlin, used the term proletariat in his socio-political theory (Marxism) to describe a progressive working class untainted by private property and capable of revolutionary action to topple capitalism and abolish social classes, leading society to ever higher levels of prosperity and justice.

Marx defined the proletariat as the social class having no significant ownership of the means of production (factories, machines, land, mines, buildings, vehicles) and whose only means of subsistence is to sell their labour power for a wage or salary.

Marxist theory only vaguely defines the borders between the proletariat and adjacent social classes. In the socially superior, less progressive direction are the lower petty bourgeoisie, such as small shopkeepers, who rely primarily on self-employment at an income comparable to an ordinary wage. Intermediate positions are possible, where wage-labor for an employer combines with self-employment. In another direction, the lumpenproletariat or "rag-proletariat", which Marx considers a retrograde class, live in the informal economy outside of legal employment: the poorest outcasts of society such as beggars, tricksters, entertainers, buskers, criminals and prostitutes. Socialist parties have often argued over whether they should organize and represent all the lower classes, or only the wage-earning proletariat.

According to Marxism, capitalism is based on the exploitation of the proletariat by the bourgeoisie: the workers, who own no means of production, must use the property of others to produce goods and services and to earn their living. Workers cannot rent the means of production (e.g. a factory or department store) to produce on their own account; rather, capitalists hire workers, and the goods or services produced become the property of the capitalist, who sells them at the market.

Part of the net selling price pays the workers' wages (variable costs); a second part renews the means of production (constant costs, capital investment); while the third part is consumed by the capitalist class, split between the capitalist's personal profit and fees to other owners (rents, taxes, interest on loans, etc.). The struggle over the first part (wage rates) puts the proletariat and bourgeoisie into irreconcilable conflict, as market competition pushes wages inexorably to the minimum necessary for the workers to survive and continue working. The second part, called capitalized surplus value, is used to renew or increase the means of production (capital), either in quantity or quality. The second and third parts are known as surplus value, the difference between the wealth the proletariat produce and the wealth they consume.

Marxists argue that new wealth is created through labour applied to natural resources. The commodities that proletarians produce and capitalists sell are valued not for their usefulness, but for the amount of  labour embodied in them: for example, air is essential but requires no labour to produce, and is therefore free; while a diamond is much less useful, but requires hundreds of hours of mining and cutting, and is therefore expensive. The same goes for the workers' labour power: it is valued not for the amount of wealth it produces, but for the amount of labour necessary to keep the workers fed, housed, sufficiently trained, and able to raise children as new workers. On the other hand, capitalists earn their wealth not as a function of their personal labour, which may even be null, but by the juridical relation of their property to the means of production (e.g. owning a factory or farmland).

Marx argues that history is made by man and not destiny. The instruments of production and the working class that use the tools in order to produce are referred to as the moving forces of society. Over time, this developed into the levels of social class where the owners of resources joined to squeeze productivity out of the individuals who depended on their labor power. Marx argues that these relations between the exploiters and exploited results in different modes of production and the successive stages in history. These modes of production in which mankind gains power over nature is distinguished into 5 different systems: the Primitive Community, Slave State, Feudal State, Capitalist System, and finally the Socialist Society. The transition between these systems were all due to an increase in civil unrest among those who felt oppressed by a higher social class.

The contention with feudalism began once the merchants and guild artisans grew in numbers and power. Once they organized themselves, they began opposing the fees imposed on them by the nobles and clergy. This development led to new ideas and eventually established the Bourgeoisie class which Marx opposes. Commerce began to change the form of production and markets began to shift in order to support larger production and profits. This change led to a series of revolutions by the bourgeois which resulted in capitalism. Marx argues that this same model can and should be applied to the fight for the proletariat. Forming unions similar to how the merchants and artisans did will establish enough power to enact change. Ultimately, Marx's theory of the proletarian's struggle would eventually lead to the fall of capitalism and the emergence of a new mode of production, socialism.

Marx argued that the proletariat would inevitably displace the capitalist system with the dictatorship of the proletariat, abolishing the social relationships underpinning the class system and then developing into a communist society in which "the free development of each is the condition for the free development of all".

During the Chinese revolution, the concept of the proletariat emphasized having a proletarian class consciousness, rather than having proletarian social attributes (such as being an industrial worker). In this way of defining the proletariat, a proletarian class consciousness could be developed through a subjective standpoint with political education supplied by the Communist Party. This conception of the proletariat allowed for a Marxist theoretical framing under which the Chinese revolution could address the relative weakness of industrial working classes in China.  Exactly what constituted a proper proletarian class consciousness was subject to intellectual and political debate.

Proletarian culture
Marx argued that each social class had its characteristic culture and politics. The socialist states stemming from the Russian Revolution championed and created the official version of proletarian culture.

Some have argued that this assessment has become outdated with the advent of mass education, mass communication and globalization. According to this argument, the working-class culture of capitalist countries tend to experience "prole drift" (proletarian drift), in which everything inexorably becomes commonplace and commodified. Examples include best-seller lists, films, music made to appeal to the masses, and shopping malls.

See also

Notes

References

Further reading

 Hal Draper, Karl Marx's Theory of Revolution, Vol. 2; The Politics of Social Classes. (New York: Monthly Review Press 1978).

External links

Working class
Socialism
Marxism
Marxist theory
Measurements and definitions of poverty


title: Matej Šavol

text:
Matej Šavol (born 14 April 1984) is a Slovak football goalkeeper who currently plays for Fortuna Liga club MFK Ružomberok.

References
 MFK Ružomberok profile

External links

 Futbalnet profile
 Eurofotbal profile

1984 births
Living people
Slovak men's footballers
Men's association football goalkeepers
MFK Ružomberok players
MFK Tatran Liptovský Mikuláš players
FK Baník Most 1909 players
Slovak First Football League players
Footballers from Ružomberok
Expatriate men's footballers in the Czech Republic


title: Max Äberli

text:
Max Äberli (9 February 1927 – 2009) was a Swiss cyclist. He competed in the tandem event at the 1948 Summer Olympics.

References

External links

1927 births
2009 deaths
Swiss male cyclists
Olympic cyclists for Switzerland
Cyclists at the 1948 Summer Olympics
Cyclists from Zürich


title: False consciousness

text:
In Marxist theory, false consciousness is a term describing the ways in which material, ideological, and institutional processes are said to mislead members of the proletariat and other class actors within capitalist societies, concealing the exploitation and inequality intrinsic to the social relations between classes. According to Marxists, false consciousness legitimizes the existence of different social classes.

Origin of terminology
False consciousness is consciousness which is incorrect and misaligned from reality. In a Marxist worldview, false consciousness is a serious impediment to human progress. Thus, correcting false consciousness is a major focus of dialectical materialism.

Friedrich Engels (1820–1895) used the term "false consciousness" in an 1893 letter to Franz Mehring to address the scenario where a subordinate class willfully embodies the ideology of the ruling class. Engels dubs this consciousness "false" because the class is asserting itself towards goals that do not benefit it. In the letter, Engels uses the term false consciousness interchangeably with the term ideology.

"Consciousness", in this context, reflects a class's ability to politically identify and assert its will. The subordinate class is conscious if it plays a major role in society and can assert its will due to being sufficiently unified in ideas and action.

Although the term false consciousness was not coined until after Marx's death, the concept appears throughout the earlier writing of Marx and Engels. For example, in The Holy Family, Marx describes how communist workers are able to break out of the false consciousness prevalent under capitalism:

Later development
Marshall I. Pomer has argued that members of the proletariat disregard the true nature of class relations because of their belief in the probability or possibility of upward mobility. Such a belief or something like it is said to be required in economics with its presumption of rational agency; otherwise wage laborers would not be the conscious supporters of social relations antithetical to their own interests, violating that presumption.

Hungarian philosopher György Lukács discussed the concept of false consciousness in his 1923 book History and Class Consciousness. The concept was further developed by German philosopher Herbert Marcuse and by French philosopher Henri Lefebvre.

Since the late 20th century, the term false consciousness has been used in a non-Marxian context, specifically in relation to oppression based on sexual orientation, gender, race and ethnicity.

Cultural hegemony
The Italian Marxist theorist Antonio Gramsci developed the concept of cultural hegemony, the process within capitalist societies by which the ruling classes create particular norms, values, and stigmas, amounting to a culture in which their continued dominance is considered beneficial.

Structuralism
During the late 1960s and 1970s, the philosophical and anthropological school of structuralism began to gain popularity among academics and public intellectuals, focusing on interpreting human culture in terms of underlying structures such as symbolic, linguistic, and ideological perspectives. Marxist philosopher Louis Althusser popularized his structuralist interpretation of false consciousness, the Ideological State Apparatus. Structuralism influenced Althusser's interpretation of false consciousness, which focuses on the institutions of the capitalist state—particularly those of public education—which enforce an ideological system favoring obedience, conformity and submissiveness.

See also

 Capitalist realism
 Character mask
 Class consciousness
 Cognitive dissonance
 Consciousness raising
 Cultural hegemony
 Culture industry
 Dominant ideology
 "Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses"
 Introspection illusion
 Karl Marx's theory of alienation
 Political consciousness
 Propaganda model
 Spectacle
 System justification
 Turkeys voting for Christmas
 Hermeneutics of suspicion

References

External links
 Joseph McCarney (2005). Ideology and False Consciousness.

Marxist theory
Error


title: Historical determinism

text:
Historical determinism is the belief that events in history are entirely determined or constrained by various prior forces and, therefore, in a certain sense, inevitable. It is philosophical view of determinism applied to the process or direction by which history unfolds. Historical determinism places the cause of the event behind it.

The concept of Determinism appeared in the 19th century. The main idea is that certain factors determine the existence of humans and therefore limit the scope of their free will. In history, this is an approach that holds that history is intrinsically meaningful. Used as a pejorative, it is normally meant to designate a rigid finalist or mechanist conception of historical unfolding that makes the future appear as an inevitable and predetermined result of the past.

Development
Hegel

In 1822, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel's Lectures on the Philosophy of History were published posthumously. In this text, Hegel establishes the idea that history is guided and, therefore, determined by reason.

Marx, Engels, and historical materialism

The dialectical method of the movement of history (Historical materialism) is a triad of Thesis-antithesis-synthesis whereby each movement (thesis) gives rise to its contradiction (antithesis) and through the dialectic, a synthesis is reached. According to Marx and Engels, original primitive communism was succeeded by the antithesis of private ownership of the means of production, from which the class struggle and the entire history of the economy and society derives. This antithesis will finally give way to the synthesis of a classless society. Rational knowledge, by dominating the entire process, makes it possible to finally resolve social contradictions.

See also

 Determinism
 Dialectical materialism
 Economic determinism
 Free will
 Geographic determinism
 Hegelianism
Historical Materialism
 Marxism
 Myth of progress
 Technological determinism

Bibliography

External links

Determinism
Marxism
Political theories
Theories of history


title: Council of People's Commissars

text:
The Council of People's Commissars (CPC) (), commonly known as the Sovnarkom (Совнарком), were the highest executive authorities of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR), the Soviet Union (USSR), and the Soviet republics from 1917 to 1946.

The Sovnarkom of the RSFSR was founded in the Russian Republic soon after the October Revolution in 1917 and its role was formalized in the 1918 Constitution of the RSFSR to be responsible to the Congress of Soviets of the RSFSR for the "general administration of the affairs of the state". Unlike its predecessor the Russian Provisional Government which had representatives of various political parties, and except for the brief two-party cabinet with the Left Socialist-Revolutionaries from December 1917 to March 1918, the Sovnarkom was a government of a single party, the Bolsheviks. The Sovnarkom of the USSR and Congress of Soviets of the USSR founded in 1922 were modelled on the RSFSR system, and identical Sovnarkom bodies were founded in the Soviet republics and autonomous republics. The Sovnarkom evolved into the main executive of the government of the Soviet Union with its head, the Premier of the USSR, serving as head of government. The Sovnarkom issued decrees having the force of law when the Congress was not in session, and if these decrees were not approved at the Congress's next session, they were considered revoked.

The Sovnarkom was dissolved and transformed into the Council of Ministers in 1946.

Original People's Commissars
The first council elected by the Second All-Russian Congress of Soviets was composed as follows. Many early commisars later opposed the party majority organized by Stalin and allegedly conspired with the Trotskyist opposition or some other opposition group, which resulted in their expulsion from the party or being arrested. The party had banned factional opposition groups at the Eleventh Party Congress during 1921. Still the original People's Comissariat included Left-Communists, Trotskyists and  other ex-oppositionists. Most alleged conspirators were executed for treason during the Great Purge, some had sentences reduced to imprisonment.

All-Union Sovnarkom
Upon the creation of the USSR in 1922, the Soviet Union's government was modelled after the first Sovnarkom. The Soviet republics retained their own governments which dealt with domestic matters.

Sovmin
In 1946, the Sovnarkoms were transformed into the Council of Ministers (Sovmin) at both all-Union and Union Republic level.

Councils by administrative division
 Council of People's Commissars of the Soviet Union

Soviet republics

 Council of People's Commissars of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic
 Council of People's Commissars (Ukraine) (Temporary government of Workers and Peasants of Ukraine)
 Council of People's Commissars of Belarus, including LitBel
 Council of People's Commissars of Azerbaijan
 Council of People's Commissars (Armenia)
 Council of People's Commissars (Bukhara)
 Council of People's Commissars (Khorezm)
 Council of People's Commissars (Georgia)
 Council of People's Commissars (Turkestan)
 Council of People's Commissars (Transcaucasia)
 Council of People's Commissars (Kazakhstan), including as autonomous Kyrgyz (before 1925)
 Council of People's Commissars (Turkmenistan)
 Council of People's Commissars (Kyrgyzstan), including as autonomous Kyrgyz (after 1925)
 Council of People's Commissars (Uzbekistan)
 Council of People's Commissars (Tajikistan), including as autonomous
 Council of People's Commissars (Karelia-Finland), including as autonomous Karelia
 Council of People's Commissars (Moldova), including as autonomous
 Council of People's Commissars of the Lithuanian SSR
 Council of People's Commissars (Latvia)
 Council of People's Commissars (Estonia)

Autonomous republics
 Council of People's Commissars (Adjara)
 Council of People's Commissars (Volga German)
 Council of People's Commissars (Bashkorstan)
 Council of People's Commissars (Buryat-Mongolia)
 Council of People's Commissars (Mountainous)
 Council of People's Commissars (Dagestan)
 Council of People's Commissars (Kabardin-Balkaria), including Kabardin (1944-1957)
 Council of People's Commissars (Cossack)
 Council of People's Commissars (Kalmykia)
 Council of People's Commissars (Karakalpakistan)
 Council of People's Commissars (Komi)
 Council of People's Commissars (Crimea)
 Council of People's Commissars (Mari)
 Council of People's Commissars (Mordva)
 Council of People's Commissars (Nakhichevan)
 Council of People's Commissars (North Osetia)
 Council of People's Commissars (Tatarstan)
 Council of People's Commissars (Tuva)
 Council of People's Commissars (Udmurtia)
 Council of People's Commissars (Chechnia-Ingushetia)
 Council of People's Commissars (Chuvashia)
 Council of People's Commissars (Yakutia)
 Council of People's Commissars (Abkhazia), including as autonomous

Short-lived early soviet republics
 Council of People's Commissars (Donetsk-Krivoi Rog)
 Council of People's Commissars (Odessa), initially as Rumcherod
 Council of People's Commissars (Poland)
 Council of People's Commissars (Galicia)
 Council of People's Commissars (Far East)
 Council of People's Secretaries (Soviet Ukraine)

See also
 26 Baku Commissars
 Government of the Soviet Union
 Deputy Premier of the Soviet Union
 First Deputy Premier of the Soviet Union
 Executive Officer of the Soviet Union
 Council of Ministers
 Cabinet of Ministers

References

External links
 Governments of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics from 1917–1964 and 1964–1991
 Lenin as Head of Government, an English-language Soviet book on Lenin's activities as Chairman of the Council of People's Commissars

Government of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic
1917 establishments in Russia
1946 disestablishments in the Soviet Union
Government agencies established in 1917
Government agencies disestablished in 1946


title: Billy Stagg

text:
William Stagg (born 17 October 1957) is an English retired footballer who played as a left winger in the Football League for Brentford. He also played in Sweden and the United States. Stagg's  height ties him with Hughie Reed for the record of shortest Brentford player.

Career
A graduate of the Brentford youth team, Stagg made four appearances for the club during the 1974–75 Fourth Division season at the age of 16 and dropped into non-League football upon his release at the end of the campaign. Between 1975 and 1990 he played for Wealdstone (two spells), Staines Town, Aylesbury United, Hazells, Tonbridge Angels, Northwood (three spells), Hendon and St Albans City. He also had short spells with American Soccer League and Swedish Division 2 clubs Pennsylvania Stoners and GAIS respectively.

Career statistics

References

1957 births
Living people
Footballers from Ealing
English men's footballers
Brentford F.C. players
English Football League players
Isthmian League players
Men's association football wingers
Wealdstone F.C. players
Aylesbury United F.C. players
Tonbridge Angels F.C. players
GAIS players
Northwood F.C. players
Hendon F.C. players
St Albans City F.C. players
National League (English football) players
Southern Football League players
English expatriate men's footballers
English expatriate sportspeople in Sweden
English expatriate sportspeople in the United States
Staines Town F.C. players
Pennsylvania Stoners players
American Soccer League (1933–1983) players
Expatriate men's footballers in Sweden
Expatriate men's soccer players in the United States


title: Okram Roshini Devi

text:
Okram Roshini Devi (born 8 February 1994 in Manipur) is an Indian women footballer who currently plays as a goalkeeper for the India women's national football team.

Playing career
Devi represented India at the 2010, and 2014 SAFF Women's Championship tournaments.

Honours

India
 SAFF Women's Championship: 2010, 2014
 South Asian Games Gold medal: 2016

Manipur
 Senior Women's National Football Championship: 2019–20, 2021–22

References

External links
 Eurosport player profile

1994 births
21st-century Indian women
21st-century Indian people
Asian Games competitors for India
Footballers at the 2014 Asian Games
Footballers from Manipur
India women's international footballers
Indian women's footballers
Living people
Sportswomen from Manipur
Women's association football goalkeepers
South Asian Games gold medalists for India
South Asian Games medalists in football


title: Ajami, Jaffa

text:
Ajami (, ) is a predominantly Arab neighborhood in Tel Aviv-Yafo, Israel, situated south of Old Jaffa and north of the Jabaliyya neighborhood on the Mediterranean Sea.

It developed in the late 19th century following the demolition of the city walls of Jaffa, and by the 1920s was a densely populated urban area.

Etymology
The neighborhood was named after the maqam of Ibrahim al-Ajami, one of prophet Muhammad's companions. According to a tradition, he was buried in the shrine south of the neighborhood. A later mosque constructed at the site in 1895, al-Ajami, is named for him.

History

Ottoman and British eras

Ajami was founded during Ottoman rule over Palestine at the end of the 19th century, as a small Maronite Christian settlement. The neighborhood's streets were laid parallel to the coast, with ample houses and small stairway-alleys leading down to the shore. A Maronite monastery and church founded in 1855, stood in the nearby harbor. In 1895, Father Antonios Shbeir Ghostaoui, a monk from the Lebanese Maronite Order, built a new church and a monastery on an area of 1,600 square meters. Later on, between 1901 and 1920, the church was demolished and replaced by a bigger and more attractive one, the first stone of which was laid during a grand ceremony on February 28, 1904. This Maronite church still stands today, and it is located in the south tip of Dolphin Street, in the middle of Ajami neighborhood.

The neighborhood’s houses were built from limestone surrounded by large courtyards, reflecting the economic ability of its Maronite residents. Being an affluent residential area of the upper middle-class, Ajami had been the first neighborhood of Jaffa – in fact in the whole of Palestine - to be swiftly and fully connected to the new electric grid which had been built by the Jaffa Electric Company in 1923

1947–1948 war
Ajami played a significant role in the history of Jaffa including the 1947–1949 Palestine war and the events of the Nakba. Following the decision by the British Government to end the Mandate for Palestine, violence erupted between the Jewish paramilitary groups (Haganah and Irgun) and Palestinian Arab irregulars.  Jaffa witnessed some of the most violent of these encounters. On May 13, 1948, the day before the declaration of the Israeli state, Jaffa surrendered; the remaining Arab residents were forced to move into Ajami, where they were subject to martial law. By the end of the war, it is estimated that over 90% of Jaffa's Palestinian Arab residents fled. Some 3,000 remained in Jaffa.

State of Israel

After the establishment of the State of Israel, the Israeli government tried to separate Jews and Palestinians of Jaffa: “It will be best to have special areas for the Jews and areas for the Arabs,” said the military governor Meir Laniado. Palestinians were moved to Ajami, which was surrounded on all sides by Jewish quarters. Moshe Erem from the Israeli Ministry for Minority Affairs protested to Minister Bechor-Shalom Sheetrit: “Ajami is about to be closed off with a barbed-wire fence that will rigorously separate the Arab neighborhood and the Jewish section. That arrangement will immediately render Ajami a sealed-off ghetto. It is hard to accept this idea, which stirs in us associations of excessive horror. … And once more we are thereby sowing a toxic seed … in the heart of the Arabs. A ghetto in barbed wire, a ghetto, cut off from access to the sea. Shall this be our political approach?” Palestinians needed special permits “to exit the barbed wire.”

Over the years, Ajami became run-down and neglected, and was reported to be the lowest-income neighborhood in Tel Aviv-Yafo despite being known for its palatial villas and unique architectural styles prior to 1948. The neighborhood suffers from a severe housing crisis and drug use.

Gentrification projects

Despite these socio-economic problems and the neighborhood's severe housing crisis, the  Tel Aviv-Yafo municipality drew up plans to develop the neighborhood, which subsequently increased housing prices and led to the exodus of a growing number of Palestinian residents. Many of Ajami's Arab residents feel that they have come to suffer under Tel Aviv-Yafo's Municipality's plans to 'develop' the neighborhood. Since the start of the gentrification process, many wealthy Jewish Israelis have moved into the neighborhood.

In addition, some 497 eviction and demolition orders have been served by the Amidar, Israel's government-operated public housing company, targeting Ajami and Jabaliyya residents. Ajami residents claim that this is a result of discriminatory policies which date back to the establishment of the Israeli state, but the Amidar company says  they are illegal squatters.

The housing crisis developed political overtones when one of the housing projects, B'emuna, said its apartments would be sold only to members of the religious-Zionist community. In February 2010, the Tel Aviv District Court dismissed a stop work petition presented by 27 Ajami residents, which argued that the stipulation that housing in the project be available only to religious Jews discriminated against the neighborhood’s Arab residents. In November 2010, the Supreme Court of Israel rejected the appeal and upheld the continuation of the project.

Landmarks

The Maronite Church

First established in 1895, by Father Antonios Shbeir Ghostaoui, a monk from the Lebanese Maronite Order, this Church replaced an even older church and monastery founded in 1855 and formerly located in the nearby harbor. The Maronite Church of Ajami is located in the south tip of Dolphin Street, in the middle the neighborhood.

Al-Ajami Mosque

The Ajami Mosque was established by Haj Yousef-Al-Manawi in 1895 on the shrine of Sheikh Ibrahim-Al-Ajami. It is located in the northern part of Ajami next to the  Hassan Arafeh public school. Under British rule, Ajami Mosque was the only mosque open for daily prayers. The mosque and the adjoining school were previously owned by the Islamic Waqf, until the Israeli authorities annulled their status as Waqf property under Israel's Absentee's Property Law.

Arab-Jewish community center

Ajami is the location of the Jaffa AJCC, a municipal community center in Tel Aviv-Yafo catering to Jewish, Christian, and Muslim populations in the city. The center was established in 1993, bringing together conflicting populations and educating towards reconciliation, recognition and cooperation. Both facilitated and unmediated encounters take place at the center between members of Jaffa’s diverse ethnic and age groups, including children from Jewish and Arab kindergartens, elementary and high school students, and adults.

Peres Center for Peace

The Peres Center for Peace, located in the southern tip of Ajami, opened in December 2009 after 10 years of planning  and construction. The building (2,500 sq.m.), a distinctive architectural landmark on the Jaffa coast, was designed by Italian architect Massimiliano Fuksas.

Tourism and recreation
"The Old Man and the Sea" is a popular Arab seafood restaurant in the southern part of Ajami. Abu Hassan is a small hummus restaurant located on the northern tip of Ajami. It was opened in 1959 by Ali Karawan and now has two additional branches in Jaffa.

Notable residents
Fakhry Geday, born in the Ajami neighborhood in 1926, is a pharmacist, owner of the Al-Kamal Pharmacy that has been in the same location from the time of the British Mandate. To neighborhood residents, it is a city landmark. Geday is writing a history of the neighborhood.

Omar Siksik, also born in Ajami, owns a local hardware store. He is the founder and chair of the Committee for the Arabs of Jaffa, and was recently elected to represent Jaffa in Tel Aviv–Yafo Municipality's city council.

Film
The 2009 Israeli film Ajami directed by Scandar Copti and Yaron Shani was nominated as a foreign language film for the 2010 Academy Awards. Many characters in the film were played by non-professional actors who live in Ajami.

Gallery

References

External links

 The Peres Center for Peace
 Arab Jewish Community Center's Official Website
 Remembering Yafa`s al-Ajami Neighborhood,   08/2007, Zochrot

Neighborhoods of Tel Aviv
Arab localities in Israel


title: Unnao Assembly constituency

text:
Unnao is a constituency of the Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly covering the city of Unnao in the Unnao district of Uttar Pradesh, India.

Unnao is one of six assembly constituencies in the Unnao Lok Sabha constituency. Since 2008, this assembly constituency is numbered 165 amongst 403 constituencies.

Members of Legislative Assembly

Election results

2022
Bharatiya Janata Party candidate Pankaj Gupta won in 2022 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Elections defeating Samajwadi Party candidate Anubhav Kumar by a margin of 31,128 votes.

2017
Bharatiya Janata Party candidate Pankaj Gupta won in 2017 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Elections defeating Samajwadi Party candidate Manisha Deepak by a margin of 46,072 votes.

References

http://eciresults.nic.in/AC/ConstituencywiseS24165.htm?ac=165
http://www.elections.in/uttar-pradesh/assembly-constituencies/unnao.html

External links

Unnao
Assembly constituencies of Uttar Pradesh


title: Canberra Indian Myna Action Group

text:
The Canberra Indian Myna Action Group (CIMAG) is a voluntary public action group started in Canberra in 2006 to combat the invasive Indian myna that since its introduction to Canberra in 1968 had become the third most prevalent bird species, competing with and crowding out native birds. In November 2013 the action group won the 2014 Keep Australia Beautiful Award for 'Environmental Innovation and Protection'. As of July 2014, the action group has captured and humanely disposed an estimated 49,000 Indian mynas. The prevalence of the Indian myna in Canberra has been reduced to the sixteenth most prevalent species, with anecdotal evidence of increased observations and nesting by native bird species. The action group has been associated with scientific research in Canberra into the effect of Indian mynas on native bird species and whether controlling Indian myna populations affects the prevalence of native bird species.

References

Invasive species in Australia


title: Orthodox Marxism

text:
Orthodox Marxism is the body of Marxist thought which emerged after the death of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels in the late 19th century, expressed in its primary form by Karl Kautsky. Kautsky's views of Marxism dominated the European Marxist movement for two decades, and orthodox Marxism was the official philosophy of the majority of the socialist movement as represented in the Second International until the First World War in 1914, whose outbreak caused Kautsky's influence to wane and brought to prominence the orthodoxy of Vladimir Lenin. Orthodox Marxism aimed to simplify, codify and systematize Marxist method and theory by clarifying perceived ambiguities and contradictions in classical Marxism.

Orthodox Marxism maintained that Marx's historical materialism was a science which revealed the laws of history and proved that the collapse of capitalism and its replacement by socialism was inevitable. The implications of this deterministic view were that history could not be "hurried" and that politically workers and workers' parties must wait for the material economic conditions to be met before the revolutionary transformation of society could take place. For example, this idea saw the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) adopt a gradualist approach, taking advantage of bourgeois parliamentary democracy to improve the lives of workers until capitalism was brought down by its objective internal contradictions.

The use of "orthodox" to refer to Kautsky's line is primarily to distinguish it from the reformism of Eduard Bernstein. Such "revisionists" were reviled by the orthodox Marxists for breaking with Marx's thought.

Theory

The emergence of orthodox Marxism is associated with the latter works of Friedrich Engels, such as the Dialectics of Nature and Socialism: Utopian and Scientific, which were efforts to popularise the work of Karl Marx, render it systematic and apply it to the fundamental questions of philosophy. Daniel De Leon, an early American socialist leader, contributed much to the thought during the final years of the 19th century and the early 20th century. Orthodox Marxism was further developed during the Second International by thinkers such as Georgi Plekhanov and Karl Kautsky in Erfurt Program and The Class Struggle (Erfurt Program).

The characteristics of orthodox Marxism are:
 A strong version of the theory that the economic base (material conditions) determines the cultural and political superstructure of society. In its most extensive form, this view is called economic determinism, economism and vulgar materialism. A related variation is that of technological determinism.
 The view that capitalism cannot be reformed through policy and that any attempt to do so would only exacerbate its contradictions or distort the efficiency of the market economy (in contrast to reformism). Orthodox Marxism holds that the only viable and lasting solution to the contradictions of capitalism is for the establishment of a post-capitalist socialist economy.
 The centrality of class as a process and the view that existing policymakers and government is largely and structurally beholden to the interests of the ruling class. This view is called instrumental Marxism.
 The claim that Marxist methodology is a science.
 The attempt to make Marxism a total system, adapting it to changes within the realm of current events and knowledge.
 An understanding of ideology in terms of false consciousness.
 That every open class struggle is a political struggle.
 A pre-crisis emphasis on organizing an independent, mass workers' movement (in the form of welfare, recreational, educational and cultural organizations) and especially its political party, combining reform struggles and mass strikes without overreliance on either.
 The socialist revolution is necessarily the act of the majority (contrasted with Marxism–Leninism's view of the vanguard party and democratic centralism).

Orthodox Marxism is contrasted with revisionist Marxism as developed in post-First World War Social Democratic parties. Some writers also contrast it with Marxism–Leninism as it developed in the Soviet Union, while others describe the latter as firmly within orthodoxy: Orthodox Marxism rested on and grew out of the European working class movement that emerged in the final quarter of the 19th century and continued in that form until the middle years of the twentieth century. Its two institutional expressions were the 2nd and 3rd Internationals, which despite the great schism in 1919, were marked by a shared conception of capital and labour. Their fortunes therefore rose and fell together. Trotskyism and Left communism were equally orthodox in their thinking and approach, and therefore must be considered left-variants of this tradition.

Two variants of orthodox Marxism are impossibilism and anti-revisionism. Impossibilism is a form of orthodox Marxism that both rejects the reformism of revisionist Marxism and opposes the Leninist theories of imperialism, vanguardism and democratic centralism (which argue that socialism can be constructed in underdeveloped, quasi-feudal countries through revolutionary action as opposed to being an emergent result of advances in material development). An extreme form of this position is held by the Socialist Party of Great Britain. In contrast, the anti-revisionist tradition criticised official Communist parties from the opposite perspective as having abandoned the orthodox Marxism of the founders.

Variants
A number of theoretical perspectives and political movements emerged that were firmly rooted in orthodox Marxist analysis, as contrasted with later interpretations and alternative developments in Marxist theory and practice such as Marxism–Leninism, revisionism and reformism.

Impossibilism

Impossibilism stresses the limited value of economic, social, cultural and political reforms under capitalism and posits that socialists and Marxists should solely focus on efforts to propagate and establish socialism, disregarding any other cause that has no connection to the goal of the realization of socialism.

Impossibilism posits that reforms to capitalism are counterproductive because they strengthen support for capitalism by the working class by making its conditions more tolerable while creating further contradictions of their own, while removing the socialist character of the parties championing and implementing said reforms. Because reforms cannot solve the systemic contradictions of capitalism, impossibilism opposes reformism, revisionism and ethical socialism.

Impossibilism also opposes the idea of a vanguard-led revolution and the centralization of political power in any elite group of people as espoused by Leninism and Marxism–Leninism.

This perspective is maintained by the World Socialist Movement, De Leonism, and to some extent followers of Karl Kautsky and pre-reformist social democracy.

Leninism

Kautsky and to a lesser extent Plekhanov were in turn major influences on Vladimir Lenin, whose version of Marxism was known as Leninism by its contemporaries. The official thought of the Third International was based in orthodox Marxism combined with Leninist views on revolutionary organization initially. The terms dialectical materialism and historical materialism are associated with this phase of orthodox Marxism. Rosa Luxemburg, Hal Draper and Rudolf Hilferding are prominent thinkers in the orthodox Marxist tradition.

Orthodox Marxism is contrasted with later variations of Marxism, notably revisionism and Stalinism. In contrast to Stalin's idea of the socialism in a single backward country, orthodox Marxists said that Imperial Russia was too backwards for the development of socialism and would first have to undergo a capitalist (bourgeois) phase of development even if a Marxist party would head its government. Lenin urged a socialist revolution in Russia to inspire a socialist revolution in Germany and in the majority of the developed countries. His and Bukharin's New Economic Policy was to develop capitalism in Russia initially.

Luxemburgism
Luxemburgism is an informal designation for a current of Marxist thought and practice that originates from the ideas and work of Rosa Luxemburg. In particular, it stresses the importance for spontaneous revolution which can only emerge in response to mounting contradictions between the productive forces and social relations of society and therefore rejects Leninism and Bolshevism for its insistence on a "hands-on" approach to revolution. Luxemburgism is also highly critical of the reformist Marxism that emerged from the work of Eduard Bernstein's informal faction of the Social Democratic Party of Germany. According to Rosa Luxemburg, under reformism "[capitalism] is not overthrown, but is on the contrary strengthened by the development of social reforms".

Trotskyism

The tradition founded by Leon Trotsky purports that the USSR was a "degenerated workers' state" on the basis that, although maintaining that it held onto some aspects of a revolutionary workers' state (such as state control of foreign trade or the expropriation of the bourgeoisie), it lacked key aspects it used to have, namely soviet democracy and freedom of organization for workers, which only benefitted a bureaucracy led by Joseph Stalin. In his book The Revolution Betrayed, Trotsky supports a multi-party democratic model of revolutionary organizations and proposes a solution for the USSR's bureaucratic caste, that of a political revolution that reinstates those aspects the bureaucrats erased. Trotskyists maintain that the countries of the Eastern bloc, China, North Korea, Vietnam, Cuba and others were "deformed workers' states" which needed political revolutions while critically defending these countries from imperialist aggressions.

Anti-revisionism

Anti-revisionists (which includes radical Marxist–Leninist factions, Hoxhaists and Maoists) criticize the rule of the communist states by claiming that they were state capitalist states ruled by revisionists. Though the periods and countries defined as state capitalist or revisionist varies among different ideologies and parties, all of them accept that the Soviet Union was socialist during Stalin's time. Maoists view the Soviet Union and most of its satellites as "state capitalist" as a result of de-Stalinization; some of them also view modern China in this light, believing that the People's Republic of China became state capitalist after Mao's death. Hoxhaists believe that the People's Republic of China was always state capitalist and uphold Socialist Albania as the only socialist state after the Soviet Union under Stalin.

Anti-Stalinist Left

Menshevism

Menshevism refers to the political positions taken by the Menshevik faction of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party prior to the October Revolution of 1917. The Mensheviks believed that socialism could not be realized in Russia due to its backwards economic conditions and that Russia would first have to experience a bourgeois revolution and go through a capitalist stage of development before socialism became technically possible and before the working class could develop the class consciousness for a socialist revolution. The Mensheviks were thus opposed to the Bolshevik idea of a vanguard party and their pursuit of socialist revolution in semi-feudal Russia.

Karl Kautsky and "Kautskyism"

Karl Kautsky is recognized as the most authoritative promulgator of orthodox Marxism following the death of Friedrich Engels in 1895. As an advisor to August Bebel, leader of the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) until Bebel's death in 1913 and as editor of Die Neue Zeit from 1883 till 1917, he was known as the "Pope of Marxism". He was removed as editor by the leadership of the SPD when the Independent Social Democratic Party of Germany (USPD) split away from the SPD. Kautsky was an outspoken critic of Bolshevism and Leninism, seeing the Bolsheviks (or Communists as they had renamed themselves after 1917) as an organization that had gained power by a coup and initiated revolutionary changes for which there was no economic rationale in Russia. Kautsky was also opposed to Eduard Bernstein's reformist politics in the period 1896–1901.

Instrumental Marxism

Instrumental Marxism is a theory derived from classical Marxism which reasons that policy makers in government and positions of power tend to "share a common business or class background, and that their decisions will reflect their business or class interests".

Criticism

There have been a number of criticisms of orthodox Marxism from within the socialist movement. From the 1890s during the Second International, Eduard Bernstein and others developed a position known as revisionism, which sought to revise Marx's views based on the idea that the progressive development of capitalism and the extension of democracy meant that gradual, parliamentary reform could achieve socialism. But Bernstein himself was a revolutionary and joined the Independent Social Democratic Party in Germany which advocated for a socialist republic in 1918. This view was contested by orthodox Marxists such as Kautsky as well as by the young György Lukács, who in 1919 clarified the definition of orthodox Marxism as thus: [O]rthodoxy refers exclusively to method. It is the scientific conviction that dialectical materialism is the road to truth and that its methods can be developed, expanded and deepened only along the lines laid down by its founders. It is the conviction, moreover, that all attempts to surpass or 'improve' it have led and must lead to over-simplification, triviality and eclecticism.

Western Marxism, the intellectual Marxism which developed in Western Europe from the 1920s onwards, sought to make Marxism more "sophisticated", open and flexible by examining issues like culture that were outside the field of orthodox Marxism. Western Marxists, such as György Lukács, Karl Korsch, Antonio Gramsci and the Frankfurt School, have tended to be open to influences orthodox Marxists consider bourgeois, such as psychoanalysis and the sociology of Max Weber. Marco Torres illustrates the shift away from orthodox Marxism in the Frankfurt School: In the early 1920s, the original members of the Frankfurt Institute—half forgotten names such as Carl Grünberg, Henryk Grossman and Karl August Wittfogel, were social scientists of an orthodox Marxist conviction. They understood their task as an advancement of the sciences that would prove useful in solving the problems of a Europe-wide transition into socialism, which they saw, if not as inevitable, at least as highly likely. But as fascism reared its head in Germany and throughout Europe, the younger members of the Institute saw the necessity for a different kind of Marxist Scholarship. Beyond accumulating knowledge relevant to an orthodox Marxist line, they felt the need to take the more critical and negative approach that is required for the maintenance of an integral and penetrating understanding of society during a moment of reaction. This could be described as the politically necessary transition from Marxist positive science to Critical Theory.

In parallel to this, Cedric Robinson has identified a Black Marxist tradition, including people like C.L.R. James and W. E. B. Du Bois, who have opened Marxism to the study of race.

In the postwar period, the New Left and new social movements gave rise to intellectual and political currents which again challenged orthodox Marxism. These include Italian autonomism, French Situationism, the Yugoslavian Praxis School, British cultural studies, Marxist feminism, Marxist humanism, analytical Marxism and critical realism.

See also

 Classical Marxism
 Impossibilism
 Instrumental Marxism
 Luxemburgism
 Real socialism
 Materialist conception of history
 Marxian economics
 Marxism–Leninism
 Marxist revisionism
 Menshevik
 Scientific socialism
 Technological determinism
 Left communism

References

External links

 Lukács What is Orthodox Marxism (1919)

Economic ideologies
Eponymous political ideologies
Marxist schools of thought

Sociological theories
Types of socialism


title: Khandpara State

text:
Khandpara State was one of the princely states of India during the period of the British Raj. It was located in present-day Nayagarh district, Odisha.

The state was bounded in the north by the Mahanadi River. The main town was Kantilo, but the capital was at Khandpara (Khandapada).

History
Khandpara State is said to be founded by Jadunath Singh Mangaraj, the youngest son of Raja Raghunath Singh of Nayagarh, who retained possession of four Garhs or forts, as his share, viz. Kadua, Ghuntasahi, Saradhapur, and Khedapada, which are located in Nayagarh region. Jadunath Singh is also said to have received the title Mangaraj from the Gajapati Maharaja. In the reign of Raja Narayan Singh Mangraj, Khandpara extended on the east up to Banki, on the west to Balaramprasad in Daspalla, on the north to Kantilo, and on the south up to Jogiapali.

The last ruler signed the instrument of accession to the Indian Union on 1 January 1948, merging his state into Odisha forming a part of the Nayagarh district.

Rulers
The rulers of Khandpara State bore the title of Raja. The emblem of the Khandpara royal family was the head of a tiger; state symbols were identical in neighboring Nayagarh State.

Jadunath Singh Mangaraj (1599 – 1675)
Narayan Singh Mangaraj (1675 – 1709)
Balunkeshwar Singh Mangaraj (1709 – 1723)
Banamali Singh Mardaraj Bhramarbar Rai (1723 – 1732)
Bairagi Singh Mardaraj Bhramarbar Rai (1734 – 1770)
Niladri Singh Mardaraj Bhramarbar Rai (1770 – 1794)
Narasimha Singh Mardaraj Bhramarbar Rai (1794 – 1815)
Purushottam Mardaraj Bhramarbar Rai (1815 – 1821)
Krushna Chandra Singh Bhramarbar Rai (1821 – 1842)
Kunja Bihari Singh Bhramarbar Rai (1842 – 28 February 1867)
Natabar Mardaraj Bhramarbar Rai (28 February 1867 – 1905)
Ram Chandra Singh Mardaraj Bhramarbar Rai (1905 – 26 December 1922)
Harihar Singh Mardaraj Bhramarbar Rai (26 December 1922 – 1 January 1948)

Titular
Harihar Singh Mardaraj Bhramarbar Rai (1 January 1948 – 1977)
Bibhuti Bhusan Singh Mardaraj Bhramarbar Rai (1977 – current)

See also
 Eastern States Agency
 Political integration of India

References

Princely states of Odisha
History of Odisha
Nayagarh district
1599 establishments in India
1948 disestablishments in India


title: Tomáš Gerát

text:
Tomáš Gerát (born 15 June 1993) is a Slovak football player who currently plays for MFK Tatran Liptovský Mikuláš as a midfielder.

Career

MFK Ružomberok
He made his professional debut for Ružomberok against ViOn Zlaté Moravce on 19 July 2014.

References

External links

 Futbalnet profile
 MFK Ružomberok profile
 Eurofotbal profile

1993 births
Living people
Slovak men's footballers
Men's association football midfielders
MFK Ružomberok players
FC DAC 1904 Dunajská Streda players
MŠK Rimavská Sobota players
FK Železiarne Podbrezová players
MFK Tatran Liptovský Mikuláš players
Slovak First Football League players
2. Liga (Slovakia) players


title: Advanced Renamer

text:
Advanced Renamer is a batch renamer program that can rename multiple files and folders at once. It is developed for Microsoft Windows and released as freeware.

Features
 Real-time preview
 Thumbnail view for pictures
 Multi-panel design
 Renaming methods such as: remove pattern, renumber, replace, add, list, trim, new name and case, attributes and timestamp.

Language support
Advanced Renamer supports 26 languages: English, Arabic, Bulgarian, Catalan, Chinese (Simplified), Chinese (Traditional), Czech, Danish, German, Finnish, French, Greek, Indonesian, Italian, Japanese, Korean, Dutch, Polish, Portuguese (Brazil), Romanian, Russian, Swedish, Slovak, Slovenian, Turkish, Ukrainian.

Popularity
As of July 2014, the program has been downloaded over 26,000 times from CNET alone.

Reception
In a 2010 review, CNET called Advanced Renamer a "great tool" and mentioned "It's hard to imagine what the average user would need in the way of a renamer that it doesn't have." CNET gave the software 4.5 out of 5 stars, with an average user rating of 4 out of 5 stars.

Amber Sass from Softonic praised the flexibility, by calling it "Very flexible in renaming options". She also noted the preview feature as a pro, but criticized the usability for new users  by calling it "Complicated to figure out at first". Overall, Advanced Renamer was given a rating of 9/10.

External links
 Homepage

References

file managers


title: World Riichi Championship

text:
The World Riichi Championship (WRC) is a worldwide competition of Japanese Mahjong (also known as riichi) held every 3 years since 2014. The competition is nominally open to people of all ages, men and women alike. Participants generally consist of Japanese professional Mahjong players and foreign amateur players selected by national organizations from Europe, North America, and elsewhere around the world.

History
The first edition of WRC was organized by two brothers, Quentin and Valérian Thomas, founders of Tri Nitro Tiles (TNT), a French Riichi Mahjong Club in 2014.

On July 16–20, 2014, the 1st Championship was held in the Mairie de Puteaux (city hall), in the Paris, France region.

The second edition was organized by the United States Professional Mahjong League (USPML) in 2017. On October 4–8, 2017, the WRC was held at the Palms Casino Resort in Las Vegas, Nevada, USA.

The third edition will be hosted in Vienna, Austria.  The original date was in August, but concerns over the coronavirus pandemic prompted planners with postponement. The third edition was finally held at the Intercontinental Hotel Vienna in Vienna, Austria on August 25-28, 2022.

The fourth edition will be hosted in Tokyo, Japan in 2025 to be organized by the Japan Mahjong Professional League.

Qualification
General qualification varies by country and association.  Players from various nations refer to their national organization for qualification.

List of World Riichi Championships

See also
European Riichi Championship
European Mahjong Association (EMA)

References

External links
WRC Official Site

Mahjong world championships


title: Madison College (Pennsylvania)

text:
Madison College was an educational institution in Uniontown, Pennsylvania, operated by the Methodist Episcopal Church.  The college was chartered by the Pennsylvania legislature in 1827, and it was operated by the Methodist Episcopal Church until 1832, after which it became associated with the Cumberland Presbyterian Church.  Andrew Stewart was instrumental in its physical construction.

Henry Bidleman Bascom was the first president, 1827–29, and Charles Elliott (languages) and John H. Fielding (mathematics) were the first professors.  After Bascom left, Fielding then served as president between 1829 and 1831, and John Clark took over Fielding's math professorship.  Among the students of the late 1820s were William Hunter and Rice G. Hopwood.  Waitman T. Willey was the first graduate of the college, and the second graduating class contained six students: James H. McMechen, Alfred Sturgis, James A. Van Dyke, Philip Ross, Samuel Austin, and William Austin.  Bishop Matthew Simpson, who gave the funeral speech at Abraham Lincoln's funeral, was an alumnus.  Thomas Brownfield Searight, William H. Barclay, and James F. Dayton also attended the college, and Wilton B. Goff was a professor of mathematics and natural science.

Richard H. Ball was inaugurated as president of Madison College on Sept. 1, 1851, at which time the college was under the auspices of the Methodist Protestant Church.  Faculty members during the 1850s included J.F. Crocker (mathematics), W.J.T. Carroll (languages), J. Dawson (chemistry), J.B. Howell (law), Augustus Mot (modern languages), and G.B. McElroy (preparatory department).  Francis Waters was selected as president in summer 1853 but left later that fall because of family illness; Samuel K. Cox became the interim president and then was named president in summer 1854.  For the fall 1855 session, George Brown was president of the college, and the faculty consisted of P.S. Bancroft (mathematics and science), M.B. Goff (languages), and George B. McElroy (English and preparatory department).  The college's final session occurred in fall 1857, with George Brown serving as president and John Deford (an alumnus of the college), William Campbell, and Amos Hutton serving as faculty for the several dozen students enrolled.  The growing division between north and south over the issue of slavery, plus the establishment of some additional religiously affiliated colleges in the southern states that attracted southern money and students, contributed significantly to the demise of Madison College.

The facility was used as a school for orphans of soldiers after the Civil War.  In the late 1880s the buildings were used by the Gilbert Collegiate Institute, which was run by C.A. Gilbert.

References

Defunct private universities and colleges in Pennsylvania
Universities and colleges in Fayette County, Pennsylvania


title: Usha Rani Das

text:
Usha Rani Das (born 5 November 1991 in Kolkata) is an Indian women footballer who plays as a goalkeeper for India women's national football team.

International
Das was part of the Indian National Team that played Bahrain in 2011.

References

1991 births
Living people
Sportswomen from Kolkata
Footballers from Kolkata
Indian women's footballers
India women's international footballers
Women's association football goalkeepers