title: Alexander II of Russia

text:
Alexander II (; 29 April 181813 March 1881) was Emperor of Russia, King of Poland and Grand Duke of Finland from 2 March 1855 until his assassination in 1881. Alexander's most significant reform as emperor was the emancipation of Russia's serfs in 1861, for which he is known as Alexander the Liberator ().

The tsar was responsible for other reforms, including reorganizing the judicial system, setting up elected local judges, abolishing corporal punishment, promoting local self-government through the zemstvo system, imposing universal military service, ending some privileges of the nobility, and promoting university education. After an assassination attempt in 1866, Alexander adopted a somewhat more conservative stance until his death.

Alexander was also notable for his foreign policy, which was mainly pacifist, supportive of the United States, and opposite of Great Britain. Alexander backed the Union during the American Civil War and sent warships to New York Harbor and San Francisco Bay ostensibly to deter attacks by the Confederate Navy and sold Alaska to the United States in 1867, fearing the remote colony would fall into British hands if there were another war. He sought peace, moved away from bellicose France when Napoleon III fell in 1871, and in 1872 joined with Germany and Austria in the League of the Three Emperors that stabilized the European situation.

Despite his otherwise pacifist foreign policy, he fought a brief war with the Ottoman Empire in 1877–78, leading to the independence of the Bulgarian, Montenegrin, Romanian and Serbian states, and pursued further expansion into the Far East, leading to the founding of Khabarovsk and Vladivostok; the Caucasus, approving plans leading to the Circassian genocide; and Turkestan. Although disappointed by the results of the Congress of Berlin in 1878, Alexander abided by that agreement. Among his greatest domestic challenges was an uprising in Poland in 1863, to which he responded by stripping that land of its separate constitution and incorporating it directly into Russia. Alexander was proposing additional parliamentary reforms to counter the rise of nascent revolutionary and anarchistic movements when he was assassinated in 1881.

Early life

Born in Moscow, Alexander Nikolayevich was the eldest son of Nicholas I of Russia and Charlotte of Prussia (eldest daughter of Frederick William III of Prussia and of Louise of Mecklenburg-Strelitz). His early life gave little indication of his ultimate potential; until the time of his accession in 1855, aged 37, few imagined that posterity would know him for implementing the most challenging reforms undertaken in Russia since the reign of Peter the Great.

His uncle Emperor Alexander I died childless. Grand Duke Konstantin, the next-younger brother of Alexander I, had previously renounced his rights to the throne of Russia.  Thus, Alexander's father, who was the third son of Paul I, became the new Emperor; he took the name Nicholas I. At that time, Alexander became Tsesarevich as his father's heir to the throne.

In the period of his life as heir apparent (1825 to 1855), the intellectual atmosphere of Saint Petersburg did not favour any kind of change: freedom of thought and all forms of private initiative were suppressed vigorously by the order of his father. Personal and official censorship was rife; criticism of the authorities was regarded as a serious offence.

The education of the tsesarevich as future emperor took place under the supervision of the liberal romantic poet and gifted translator Vasily Zhukovsky, grasping a smattering of a great many subjects and becoming familiar with the chief modern European languages. Unusually for the time, the young Alexander was taken on a six-month tour of Russia (1837), visiting 20 provinces in the country.  He also visited many prominent Western European countries in 1838 and 1839. As Tsesarevich, Alexander became the first Romanov heir to visit Siberia (1837). While touring Russia, he also befriended the then-exiled poet Alexander Herzen and pardoned him. It was through Herzen's influence that he later abolished serfdom in Russia.

In 1839, when his parents sent him on a tour of Europe, he met twenty-year-old Queen Victoria and both fell in love. Simon Sebag Montefiore speculates that a small romance emerged. Such a marriage, however, would not work, as Alexander was not a minor prince of Europe and was in line to inherit a throne himself. In 1847, Alexander donated money to Ireland during the Great Famine.

He has been described as looking like a German, somewhat of a pacifist, a heavy smoker and card player.

Reign

The death of his father gave Alexander a diplomatic headache, for his father was engaged in open warfare in the southwest of his empire. On 15 January 1856, the new tsar took Russia out of the Crimean War on the very unfavourable terms of the Treaty of Paris (1856), which included the loss of the Black Sea Fleet, and the provision that the Black Sea was to be a demilitarized zone similar to a contemporaneous region of the Baltic Sea. This gave him room to breathe and pursue an ambitious plan of domestic reforms.

Reforms

Encouraged by public opinion, Alexander began a period of radical reforms, including an attempt not to depend on landed aristocracy controlling the poor, an effort to develop Russia's natural resources, and to reform all branches of the administration.

Boris Chicherin (1828–1904) was a  political philosopher who believed that Russia needed a strong, authoritative government by Alexander to make the reforms possible. He  praised Alexander for the range of his fundamental reforms, arguing that the tsar was:

Emancipation of the serfs

Alexander II succeeded to the throne upon the death of his father in 1855. As Tsesarevich, he had been an enthusiastic supporter of his father's reactionary policies. That is, he always obeyed the autocratic ruler. But now he was the autocratic ruler himself, and fully intended to rule according to what he thought best. He rejected any moves to set up a parliamentary system that would curb his powers. He inherited a large mess that had been wrought by his father's fear of progress during his reign. Many of the other royal families of Europe had also disliked Nicholas I, which extended to distrust of the Romanov dynasty itself. Even so, there was no one more prepared to bring the country around than Alexander II. The first year of his reign was devoted to the prosecution of the Crimean War and, after the fall of Sevastopol, to negotiations for peace led by his trusted counsellor, Prince Alexander Gorchakov. The country had been exhausted and humiliated by the war. Bribe-taking, theft and corruption were rampant.

The Emancipation Reform of 1861 abolished serfdom on private estates throughout the Russian Empire. Serfs gained the full rights of free citizens, including rights to marry without having to gain consent, to own property, and to own a business. The measure was the first and most important of the liberal reforms made by Alexander II.

Polish landed proprietors of the Lithuanian provinces presented a petition hoping that their relations with the serfs might be regulated in a way more satisfactory for the proprietors. Alexander II authorized the formation of committees "for ameliorating the condition of the peasants", and laid down the principles on which the amelioration was to be effected. Without consulting his ordinary advisers, Alexander ordered the Minister of the Interior to send a circular to the provincial governors of European Russia (serfdom was rare in other parts) containing a copy of the instructions forwarded to the Governor-General of Lithuania, praising the supposed generous, patriotic intentions of the Lithuanian landed proprietors, and suggesting that perhaps the landed proprietors of other provinces might express a similar desire. The hint was taken: in all provinces where serfdom existed, emancipation committees were formed.

Emancipation was not a simple goal capable of being achieved instantaneously by imperial decree. It contained complicated problems, deeply affecting the economic, social, and political future of the nation. Alexander had to choose between the different measures recommended to him and decide, if the serfs would become agricultural laborers dependent economically and administratively on the landlords, or if the serfs would be transformed into a class of independent communal proprietors. The emperor gave his support to the latter project, and the Russian peasantry became one of the last groups of peasants in Europe to shake off serfdom. The architects of the emancipation manifesto were Alexander's brother Konstantin, Yakov Rostovtsev, and Nikolay Milyutin. On 3 March 1861, six years after his accession, the emancipation law was signed and published.

Additional reforms

A host of new reforms followed in diverse areas.  The tsar  appointed Dmitry Milyutin to carry out significant reforms in the Russian armed forces. Further important changes were made concerning industry and commerce, and the new freedom thus afforded produced a large number of limited liability companies. Plans were formed for building a great network of railways, partly to develop the natural resources of the country, and partly to increase its power for defense and attack.

Military reforms included universal conscription, introduced for all social classes on 1 January 1874. Prior to the new regulation, as of 1861, conscription was compulsorily enforced only for the peasantry. Conscription had been 25 years for serfs who were drafted by their landowners, which was widely considered to be a life sentence. Other military reforms included extending the reserve forces and the military district system, which split the Russian states into 15 military districts, a system still in use over a hundred years later. The building of strategic railways and an emphasis on the military education of the officer corps comprised further reforms. Corporal punishment in the military and branding of soldiers as punishment were banned. The bulk of important military reforms were enacted as a result of the poor showing in the Crimean War.

A new judicial administration (1864), based on the French model, introduced security of tenure. A new penal code and a greatly simplified system of civil and criminal procedure also came into operation.  Reorganisation of the judiciary occurred to include trial in open court, with judges appointed for life, a jury system, and the creation of justices of the peace to deal with minor offences at local level. Legal historian Sir Henry Maine credited Alexander II with the first great attempt since the time of Grotius to codify and humanise the usages of war.

Alexander's bureaucracy instituted an elaborate scheme of local self-government (zemstvo) for the rural districts (1864) and the large towns (1870), with elective assemblies possessing a restricted right of taxation, and a new rural and municipal police under the direction of the Minister of the Interior.

Under Alexander's rules Jews could not own land, and were restricted in travel. However special taxes on Jews were eliminated and those who graduated from secondary school were permitted to live outside the Pale of Settlement, and became eligible for state employment. Large numbers of educated Jews moved as soon as possible to Moscow, Saint Petersburg, and other major cities.

The Alaska colony was losing money, and would be impossible to defend in wartime against Britain, so in 1867 Russia sold Alaska to the United States for $7.2 million (equivalent to $ million in ). The Russian administrators, soldiers, settlers, and some of the priests returned home. Others stayed to minister to their native parishioners, who remain members of the Russian Orthodox Church into the 21st century.

Reaction after 1866

Alexander maintained a generally liberal course. Radicals complained he did not go far enough, and he became a target for numerous assassination plots. He survived attempts that took place in 1866, 1879, and 1880. Finally , assassins organized by the Narodnaya Volya (People's Will) party killed him with a bomb. The Emperor had earlier in the day signed the Loris-Melikov constitution, which would have created two legislative commissions made up of indirectly elected representatives, had it not been repealed by his reactionary successor Alexander III.

An attempted assassination in 1866 started a more conservative period that lasted until his death. The Tsar made a series of new appointments, replacing liberal ministers with conservatives. Under Minister of Education Dmitry Tolstoy, liberal university courses and subjects that encouraged critical thinking were replaced by a more traditional curriculum, and from 1871 onwards only students from gymnasiums could progress to university. In 1879, governor-generals were established with powers to prosecute in military courts and exile political offenders. The government also held show trials with the intention of deterring others from revolutionary activity, but after cases such as the Trial of the 193 where sympathetic juries acquitted many of the defendants, this was abandoned.

Suppression of separatist movements

After Alexander II became Emperor of Russia and King of Poland in 1855, he substantially relaxed the strict and repressive regime that had been imposed on Congress Poland after the November Uprising of 1830–1831.

However, in 1856, at the beginning of his reign, Alexander made a memorable speech to the deputies of the Polish nobility who inhabited Congress Poland, Western Ukraine, Lithuania, Livonia, and Belarus, in which he warned against further concessions with the words, "Gentlemen, let us have no dreams!" This served as a warning to  the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The territories of the former Poland-Lithuania were excluded from liberal policies introduced by Alexander. The result was the January Uprising of 1863–1864 that was suppressed after eighteen months of fighting. Hundreds of Poles were executed, and thousands were deported to Siberia. The price of suppression was Russian support for the unification of Germany.

The martial law in Lithuania, introduced in 1863, lasted for the next 40 years. Native languages, Ukrainian, and Belarusian, were completely banned from printed texts, the Ems Ukase being an example. The authorities banned use of the Latin script for writing Lithuanian. The Polish language was banned in both oral and written form from all provinces except Congress Poland, where it was allowed in private conversations only.

Nikolay Milyutin was installed as governor and he decided that the best response to the January Uprising was to make reforms regarding the peasants. He devised a program which involved the emancipation of the peasantry at the expense of the nationalist  landowners and the expulsion of Roman Catholic priests from schools. Emancipation of the Polish peasantry from their serf-like status took place in 1864, on more generous terms than the emancipation of Russian peasants in 1861.

Encouraging Finnish nationalism

In 1863, Alexander II re-convened the Diet of Finland and initiated several reforms increasing Finland's autonomy within the Russian Empire, including establishment of its own currency, the Finnish markka. Liberation of business led to increased foreign investment and industrial development. Finland also got its first railways, separately established under Finnish administration. Finally, the elevation of Finnish from a language of the common people to a national language equal to Swedish opened opportunities for a larger proportion of Finnish society. Alexander II is still regarded as "The Good Tsar" in Finland.

These reforms could be seen as results of a genuine belief that reforms were easier to test in an underpopulated, homogeneous country than in the whole of Russia. They may also be seen as a reward for the loyalty of its relatively western-oriented population during the Crimean War and during the Polish uprising. Encouraging Finnish nationalism and language can also be seen as an attempt to dilute ties with Sweden.

Foreign affairs
During the Crimean War Austria maintained a policy of hostile neutrality towards Russia, and, while not going to war, was supportive of the Anglo-French coalition. Having abandoned its alliance with Russia, Austria was diplomatically isolated following the war, which contributed to Russia's non-intervention in the 1859 Franco-Austrian War, which meant the end of Austrian influence in Italy; and in the 1866 Austro-Prussian War, with the loss of its influence in most German-speaking lands.

During the American Civil War (1861–1865), Russia supported the Union, largely due to the view that the U.S. served as a counterbalance to their geopolitical rival, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1863, the Russian Navy's Baltic and Pacific fleets wintered in the American ports of New York and San Francisco, respectively.

The Treaty of Paris of 1856 stood until 1871, when Prussia defeated France in the Franco-Prussian War. During his reign, Napoleon III, eager for the support of the United Kingdom, had opposed Russia over the Eastern Question. France abandoned its opposition to Russia after the establishment of the French Third Republic. Encouraged by the new attitude of French diplomacy and supported by the German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck, Russia renounced the Black Sea clauses of the Paris treaty agreed to in 1856. As the United Kingdom with Austria could not enforce the clauses, Russia once again established a fleet in the Black Sea. France, after the Franco-Prussian War and the loss of Alsace–Lorraine, was fervently hostile to Germany, and maintained friendly relations with Russia.

In the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878) the states of Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro gained international recognition of their independence while Bulgaria and Eastern Rumelia achieved their autonomy from direct Ottoman rule. Russia took over Southern Bessarabia, lost in 1856.

End of the Caucasian War

The Russo-Circassian War concluded as a Russian victory during Alexander II's rule. Just before the conclusion of the war the Russian Army, under the emperor's order, implemented the mass-killings and extermination of Circassian "mountaineers" in the Circassian genocide, which would be often referred to as "cleansing" and "genocide" in several historic dialogues.

In 1857, Dmitry Milyutin first published the idea of mass expulsions of Circassian natives. Milyutin argued that the goal was not to simply move them so that their land could be settled by productive farmers, but rather that "eliminating the Circassians was to be an end in itself – to cleanse the land of hostile elements". Tsar Alexander II endorsed the plans. A large portion of indigenous peoples of the region were ethnically cleansed from their homeland at the end of the Russo-Circassian War by Russia. A large deportation was launched against the remaining population before the end of the war in 1864 and it was mostly completed by 1867. Only a small percentage accepted surrender and resettlement within the Russian Empire. The remaining Circassian populations who refused to surrender were thus variously dispersed, resettled, tortured, and most of the time, killed en masse.

Liberation of Bulgaria

In April 1876, the Bulgarian population in the Balkans rebelled against Ottoman rule. The Ottoman authorities suppressed the April Uprising, causing a general outcry throughout Europe. Some of the most prominent intellectuals and politicians on the Continent, most notably Victor Hugo and William Gladstone, sought to raise awareness about the atrocities that the Turks imposed on the Bulgarian population. To solve this new crisis in the "Eastern question" a Constantinople Conference was convened by the Great Powers in Constantinople at the end of the year. The participants in the Conference failed to reach a final agreement.

After the failure of the Constantinople Conference, at the beginning of 1877, Emperor Alexander II started diplomatic preparations with the other Great Powers to secure their neutrality in case of a war between Russia and the Ottomans. Alexander II considered such agreements paramount in avoiding the possibility of causing his country a disaster similar to the Crimean War.

The Russian Emperor succeeded in his diplomatic endeavors. Having secured agreement as to non-involvement by the other Great Powers, on 17 April 1877 Russia declared war upon the Ottoman Empire. The Russians, helped by the Romanian Army under its supreme commander King Carol I (then Prince of Romania), who sought to obtain Romanian independence from the Ottomans as well, were successful against the Turks and the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878 ended with the signing of the preliminary peace Treaty of San Stefano on . The treaty and the subsequent Congress of Berlin (June–July 1878) secured the emergence of an independent Bulgarian state for the first time since 1396, and Bulgarian parliamentarians elected the tsar's nephew, Prince Alexander of Battenberg, as the Bulgarians' first ruler.

For his social reforms in Russia and his role in the liberation of Bulgaria, Alexander II became known in Bulgaria as the "Tsar-Liberator of Russians and Bulgarians". A monument to Alexander II was erected in 1907 in Sofia in the "National Assembly" square, opposite to the Parliament building. The monument underwent a complete reconstruction in 2012, funded by the Sofia Municipality and some Russian foundations. The inscription on the monument reads in Old-Bulgarian style: "To the Tsar-Liberator from grateful Bulgaria". There is a museum dedicated to Alexander in the Bulgarian city of Pleven.

Assassination attempts
In April 1866, there was an attempt on the emperor's life in St. Petersburg by Dmitry Karakozov. To commemorate his narrow escape from death (which he himself referred to only as "the event of 4 April 1866"), a number of churches and chapels were built in many Russian cities. Viktor Hartmann, a Russian architect, even sketched a design of a monumental gate (which was never built) to commemorate the event. Modest Mussorgsky later wrote his piano suite Pictures at an Exhibition, the last movement of which, "The Great Gate of Kiev", is based on Hartmann's sketches.

During the 1867 World's Fair in Paris, Polish immigrant Antoni Berezowski attacked the carriage containing Alexander, his two sons and Napoleon III. His self-modified double-barreled pistol misfired and struck the horse of an escorting cavalryman.

On the morning of 20 April 1879, Alexander was briskly walking towards the Square of the Guards Staff and faced Alexander Soloviev, a 33-year-old former student. Having seen a menacing revolver in his hands, the Emperor fled in a zigzag pattern. Soloviev fired five times but missed; he was sentenced to death and hanged on 28 May.

The student acted on his own, but other revolutionaries were keen to murder Alexander. In December 1879, the Narodnaya Volya (People's Will), a radical revolutionary group which hoped to ignite a social revolution, organised an explosion on the railway from Livadia to Moscow, but they missed the emperor's train.

On the evening of 5 February 1880 Stephan Khalturin, also from Narodnaya Volya, set off a timed charge under the dining room of the Winter Palace, right in the resting room of the guards a story below, killing 11 people and wounding 30 others. The New York Times (4 March 1880) reported "the dynamite used was enclosed in an iron box, and exploded by a system of clockwork used by the man Thomas in Bremen some years ago." However, dinner had been delayed by the late arrival of the tsar's nephew, the Prince of Bulgaria, so the tsar and his family were not in the dining room at the time of the explosion and were unharmed.

Assassination

After the last assassination attempt in February 1880, Count Loris-Melikov was appointed the head of the Supreme Executive Commission and given extraordinary powers to fight the revolutionaries. Loris-Melikov's proposals called for some form of parliamentary body, and the Emperor seemed to agree; these plans were never realized.

On , Alexander was assassinated in Saint Petersburg.

As he was known to do every Sunday for many years, the emperor went to the Mikhailovsky Manège for the military roll call. He travelled both to and from the Manège in a closed carriage accompanied by five Cossacks and Frank (Franciszek) Joseph Jackowski, a Polish noble, with a sixth Cossack sitting on the coachman's left. The emperor's carriage was followed by two sleighs carrying, among others, the chief of police and the chief of the emperor's guards. The route, as always, was via the Catherine Canal and over the Pevchesky Bridge.

The street was flanked by narrow pavements for the public. A young member of the Narodnaya Volya ("People's Will") movement, Nikolai Rysakov, was carrying a small white package wrapped in a handkerchief.  He later said of his attempt to kill the Tsar:

The explosion, while killing one of the Cossacks and seriously wounding the driver and people on the sidewalk, had only damaged the bulletproof carriage, a gift from Napoleon III of France. The emperor emerged shaken but unhurt. Rysakov was captured almost immediately. Police Chief Dvorzhitzky heard Rysakov shout out to someone else in the gathering crowd. Dvorzhitzky offered to drive the Tsar back to the Palace in his sleigh. The Tsar agreed, but he decided to first see the culprit, and to survey the damage. He expressed solicitude for the victims. To the anxious inquires of his entourage, Alexander replied, "Thank God, I'm untouched".

Nevertheless, a second young member of the Narodnaya Volya, Ignacy Hryniewiecki, standing by the canal fence, raised both arms and threw something at the emperor's feet. He was alleged to have shouted, "It is too early to thank God". Dvorzhitzky was later to write:

Later, it was learned there was a third bomber in the crowd. Ivan Emelyanov stood ready, clutching a briefcase containing a bomb that was to be used if the other two bombers failed.

Alexander was carried by sleigh to the Winter Palace to his study where almost the same day twenty years earlier, he had signed the Emancipation Edict freeing the serfs. Alexander was bleeding to death, with his legs torn away, his stomach ripped open, and his face mutilated. Members of the Romanov family came rushing to the scene.

The dying emperor was given Communion and Last Rites. When the attending physician, Sergey Botkin, was asked how long it would be, he replied, "Up to fifteen minutes." At 3:30 that day, the standard of Alexander II (his personal flag) was lowered for the last time.

Aftermath

Alexander II's death caused a great setback for the reform movement. One of his last acts was the approval of Mikhail Loris-Melikov's constitutional reforms. Though the reforms were conservative in practice, their significance lay in the value Alexander II attributed to them: "I have given my approval, but I do not hide from myself the fact that it is the first step towards a constitution."
In a matter of 48 hours, Alexander II planned to release these plans to the Russian people. Instead, following his succession, Alexander III, under the advice of Konstantin Pobedonostsev, chose to abandon these reforms and went on to pursue a policy of greater autocratic power.

The assassination triggered major suppression of civil liberties in Russia, and police brutality burst back in full force after experiencing some restraint under the reign of Alexander II, whose death was witnessed first-hand by his son, Alexander III, and his grandson, Nicholas II, both future emperors who vowed not to have the same fate befall them. Both of them used the Okhrana to arrest protestors and uproot suspected rebel groups, creating further suppression of personal freedom for the Russian people. A series of anti-Jewish pogroms and antisemitic legislation, the May Laws, were yet another result.

Finally, the tsar's assassination also inspired anarchists to advocate "'propaganda by deed'—the use of a spectacular act of violence to incite revolution."

In 1881, the Alexander Church, designed by Theodor Decker and named after Alexander II, was completed in Tampere. Also, with construction starting in 1883, the Church of the Savior on Blood was built on the site of Alexander's assassination and dedicated in his memory.

Marriages and children

First marriage

In 1838–39, the young bachelor, Alexander made the Grand Tour of Europe which was standard for young men of his class at that time. One of the purposes of the tour was to select a suitable bride for himself. His father Nicholas I of Russia suggested Princess Alexandrine of Baden as a suitable choice, but he was prepared to allow Alexander to choose his own bride, as long as she was not Roman Catholic or a commoner. Alexander stayed for three days with the maiden Queen Victoria. The two got along well, but there was no question of marriage between two major monarchs.

In Germany, Alexander made an unplanned stop in Darmstadt. He was reluctant to spend "a possibly dull evening" with their host Louis II, Grand Duke of Hesse and by Rhine, but he agreed to do so because Vasily Zhukovsky insisted that his entourage was exhausted and needed a rest. During dinner, he met and was charmed by Princess Marie, the 14-year-old daughter of Louis II, Grand Duke of Hesse. He was so smitten that he declared that he would rather abandon the succession than not marry her. He wrote to his father: "I liked her terribly at first sight. If you permit it, dear father, I will come back to Darmstadt after England." When he left Darmstadt, she gave him a locket that contained a piece of her hair.

Alexander's parents initially did not support his decision to marry Princess Marie of Hesse. There were troubling rumors about her paternity. Although she was the legal daughter of Ludwig II, Grand Duke of Hesse and by Rhine, there were rumors that Marie was the biological daughter of her mother's lover, Baron August von Senarclens de Grancy. Alexander's parents worried that Marie could have inherited her mother's consumption. Alexander's mother considered the Hesse family grossly inferior to the Hohenzollerns and Romanovs.

In April 1840, Alexander's engagement to Princess Marie was officially announced. In August, the 16-year-old Marie left Darmstadt for Russia. In December, she was received into the Orthodox Church and received the names Maria Alexandrovna.

On 16 April 1841, aged 23, Tsesarevitch Alexander married Marie in St. Petersburg.

The marriage produced six sons and two daughters:
Grand Duchess Alexandra Alexandrovna of Russia (30 August 1842 – 10 July 1849), nicknamed Lina, died of infant meningitis in St. Petersburg at the age of six
Nicholas Alexandrovich, Tsesarevich of Russia (20 September 1843 – 24 April 1865), engaged to Princess Dagmar of Denmark
Emperor Alexander III (10 March 1845 – 1 November 1894) he married Princess Dagmar of Denmark on 9 November 1866. They had six children.
Grand Duke Vladimir Alexandrovich of Russia (22 April 1847 – 17 February 1909) he married Duchess Marie of Mecklenburg-Schwerin  on 28 August 1874. They had five children.
Grand Duke Alexei Alexandrovich (14 January 1850 – 14 November 1908) he married Alexandra Zhukovskaya in 1870. They had one son.
Grand Duchess Maria Alexandrovna of Russia (17 October 1853 – 24 October 1920) she married Alfred, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha on 23 January 1874. They had six children.
Grand Duke Sergei Alexandrovich of Russia (11 May 1857 – 17 February 1905) he married Princess Elisabeth of Hesse and by Rhine on 15 June 1884. They had no children.
Grand Duke Paul Alexandrovich of Russia (3 October 1860 – 24 January 1919) he married Princess Alexandra of Greece and Denmark on 17 June 1889. They had two children. He remarried Olga Karnovich on 10 October 1902. They had three children.

Alexander particularly placed hope in his eldest son, Tsesarevich Nicholas. In 1864, Alexander II found Nicholas a bride, Princess Dagmar of Denmark, second daughter of King Christian IX of Denmark and younger sister to Alexandra, Princess of Wales and King George I of Greece. In 1865, Nicholas died of cerebrospinal meningitis. Alexander was devastated by Nicholas' death, and his nephew Grand Duke Alexander Mikhailovich of Russia reflected that "his shoulders were bent, and he walked so slowly that we all felt as though his loss had robbed him of all his strength."

Alexander's second son, Grand Duke Alexander became tsesarevich and married the late Tsesarevich Nicholas's fiancée. The couple married in November 1866, with Dagmar converting to Orthodoxy and taking the name Maria Feodorovna.

Alexander grew estranged from his second son, Grand Duke Alexander.

Alexander's favorite child was his daughter, Grand Duchess Marie Alexandrovna. He reflected that his daughter had "never caused us anything but joy. We lost our eldest girl and we had so ardently wished for another – her birth was a joy and a delight, not to be described, and her whole life has been a continuation." In 1873, a quarrel broke out between the courts of Queen Victoria and Alexander II, when Victoria's second son, Prince Alfred, made it known that he wished to marry the Grand Duchess. The tsar objected to the queen's request to have his daughter come to England in order to meet her, and after the January 1874 wedding in St. Petersburg, the tsar insisted that his daughter be granted precedence over the Princess of Wales, which the queen rebuffed. Later that year, after attending the engagement ceremonies of his second surviving son, Vladimir, to Marie of Mecklenburg-Schwerin in Berlin, Alexander II, with his third son, Alexei, accompanying him, made a visit to England. While not a state visit, but simply a trip to see his daughter, he nevertheless partook in receptions at Buckingham Palace and Marlborough House, inspected the artillery at the Royal Arsenal in Woolwich, reviewed troops at Aldershot and met both Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli and the leader of the opposition, William Gladstone. Disraeli observed of the tsar that "his mien and manners are gracious and graceful, but the expression of his countenance, which I could now very closely examine, is sad. Whether it is satiety, or the loneliness of despotism, or fear of a violent death, I know not, but it was a visage of, I should think, habitual mournfulness."

In 1866, Alexander II took a mistress, Catherine Dolgorukova, with whom he would father three surviving children. In 1880, he moved his mistress and their children into the Winter Palace. Alexander's affair alienated all his children except Alexei and Marie Alexandrovna. Courtiers spread stories that the dying Empress Marie was forced to hear the noise of Catherine's children moving about overhead, but their respective rooms were actually far. In May 1880, Grand Duchess Marie Alexandrovna visited Russia to see her dying mother. She was horrified to learn that Catherine lived in the Palace and she confronted him. Shocked by the loss of support from his daughter, he quietly retreated to Gatchina Palace for military reviews. The quarrel, however, evidently, jolted his conscience enough to lead him to return to St. Petersburg each morning to ask after his wife's health.

Empress Marie Alexandrovna suffered from tuberculosis. She succumbed to it on 3 June 1880.

Second marriage

On , Alexander II married his mistress Catherine Dolgorukova morganatically in a secret ceremony at Tsarskoye Selo. The action scandalized both his family and the court. It violated Orthodox custom which required a minimum period of 40 days mourning between the death of a spouse and the remarriage of a surviving spouse, eliciting criticism in foreign courts. Alexander bestowed on Catherine the title of Princess Yurievskaya and legitimized their children.

Before their marriage, Alexander and Catherine had four children:
Prince George Alexandrovich Yuryevsky (12 May 1872 – 13 September 1913) he married Countess Alexandra von Zarnekau on 11 February 1900 and they were divorced in 1908. They had one son.
Princess Olga Alexandrovna Yurievskaya (7 November 1873 – 10 August 1925) she married Count Georg of Merenberg on 12 May 1895. They had three children.
Prince Boris Alexandrovich Yurievsky (23 February – 11 April 1876)
Princess Catherine Alexandrovna Yurievskaya (9 September 1878 – 22 December 1959) she married Prince Alexander Vladimirovich Baryatinsky (1870–1910) on 18 October 1901. They had two sons. She remarried Prince Sergei Platonovich Obolensky on 6 October 1916 and they were divorced in 1924.

In fiction
Alexander II appears prominently in the opening two chapters of Jules Verne's Michael Strogoff (published in 1876 during Alexander's own lifetime). The Emperor sets the book's plot in motion and sends its eponymous protagonist on the dangerous and vital mission which would occupy the rest of the book. Verne presents Alexander II in a highly positive light, as an enlightened yet firm monarch, dealing confidently and decisively with a rebellion. Alexander's liberalism shows in a dialogue with the chief of police, who says "There was a time, sire, when NONE returned from Siberia", to be immediately rebuked by the Emperor who answers:
"Well, whilst I live, Siberia is and shall be a country whence men CAN return."

The films Katia (1938) and Magnificent Sinner (1959) depict a highly fictionalized account of the Tsar's romance with the woman who became his second wife.

In The Tiger in the Well, Philip Pullman refers to the assassination – though he never names Alexander – and to the pogroms that followed. The anti-Jewish attacks play an important role in the novel's plot. Andrew Williams's historical thriller, To Kill A Tsar, tells the story of The People's Will revolutionaries and the assassination through the eyes of an Anglo-Russian doctor living in St Petersburg.

Oscar Wilde's first play Vera; or, The Nihilists, written in 1880Alexander II's last yearfeatures Russian revolutionaries who seek to assassinate a reform-minded Emperor (and who, in the play, ultimately fail in their plot). Though Wilde's fictional Emperor differs from the actual Alexander, contemporary events in Russia – as published in the British press of the time – clearly influenced Wilde.

Alexander II's reasons to sell Alaska to the United States in 1867 are fictionized in the epilogue of the novel Forty-Ninth by Boris Pronsky and Craig Britton, in a form of a letter to Catherine Dolgorukova. Prior to that, the book explores the events immediately after the first assassination attempt on the Tsar in 1866, as well as the relationship with his brother, Grand Duke Konstantin Nikolayevich.

In nonfiction
Mark Twain describes a short visit with Alexander II in Chapter 37 of The Innocents Abroad, describing him as "very tall and spare, and a determined-looking man, though a very pleasant-looking one nevertheless. It is easy to see that he is kind and affectionate. There is something very noble in his expression when his cap is off."

Ancestors

Honours
Domestic orders and decorations
 Knight of St. Andrew, 29 April 1818
 Knight of St. Alexander Nevsky, 29 April 1818
 Knight of St. Anna, 1st Class, 29 April 1818
 Knight of St. Vladimir, 1st Class, 1 January 1846
 Knight of St. George, 4th Class, 10 November 1850; 1st Class, 26 November 1869
 Knight of St. Stanislaus, 1st Class, 11 June 1865
 Golden Sword "For Bravery", 28 November 1877
  Poland: Knight of the White Eagle, 12 July 1829

Foreign orders and decorations

Arms

Gallery

See also
 Third Section of His Imperial Majesty's Own Chancellery
 Tsars of Russia family tree

Notes

References

Sources

Further reading

 Lincoln, W. Bruce. The Romanovs: Autocrats of All the Russias (1983)  excerpt and text search
 Lincoln, W. Bruce.  The Great Reforms: Autocracy, Bureaucracy, and the Politics of Change in Imperial Russia (1990)
 Moss, Walter G., Alexander II and His Times: A Narrative History of Russia in the Age of Alexander II, Tolstoy, and Dostoevsky. London: Anthem Press, 2002. online
 Mosse, W. E. Alexander II and the Modernization of Russia (1958) online
 Pereira, N.G.O.,Tsar Emancipator: Alexander II of Russia, 1818–1881, Newtonville, Mass: Oriental Research Partners, 1983.

 Radzinsky, Edvard, Alexander II: The Last Great Tsar. New York: The Free Press, 2005.

 Watts, Carl Peter. "Alexander II's Reforms: Causes and Consequences" History Review (1998): 6–15. Online

External links

 The Emperor Alexander II. Photos with dates.
 The Assassination of Tsar Alexander II from In Our Time (BBC Radio 4)
  Alexander II – the Liberator. Russian-speaking forum.

|-

1818 births
1881 deaths
1881 murders in Europe
19th-century Russian monarchs
19th-century Polish monarchs
19th-century murdered monarchs
Burials at Saints Peter and Paul Cathedral, Saint Petersburg
Assassinated politicians of the Russian Empire
Children of Nicholas I of Russia
Circassian genocide perpetrators
Deaths by suicide bomber
Deaths from bleeding
Eastern Orthodox monarchs
Extra Knights Companion of the Garter
Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour
Grand Crosses of the Order of Aviz
Grand Crosses of the Order of Christ (Portugal)
Grand Crosses of the Order of Saint-Charles
Grand Crosses of the Order of Saint James of the Sword
Grand Crosses of the Order of Saint Stephen of Hungary
House of Holstein-Gottorp-Romanov
Knights Cross of the Military Order of Maria Theresa
Knights Grand Cross of the Military Order of William
Knights of the Golden Fleece of Spain
Male murder victims
Murdered Russian monarchs
Royalty from Moscow
People from Moscow Governorate
People murdered in Russia
People of the Caucasian War
Recipients of the Order of St. Anna, 1st class
Recipients of the Order of St. George of the First Degree
Recipients of the Order of the Netherlands Lion
Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (military class)
Heads of state of Finland
Emperors of Russia
Grand dukes of Russia
Russian people of the Crimean War
Russian people of the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)
Russian terrorism victims
Sons of emperors
Assassinated heads of state in Europe
Assassinated Russian politicians
1880s assassinated politicians


title: List of Tractor S.C. managers

text:
Ever since its foundation, Tractor has had 30 managers, which 4 were interim and 6 held the job on more than one time. The first one was Mohammad Bayati and the current manager is Faraz Kamalvand.

Managerial history
Below is a list of Tractor coaches from 1970 until the present day.

Table headers
 Nationality – The coach's nationality is given as his country of birth.
 From – The date the coach began working for Tractor.
 To – The date the coach last worked for Tractor.
 Honours – The trophies won while coaching Tractor.

Notes

References

Managers
Tractor


title: Rhizogoniales

text:
Rhizogoniales is an order of mosses in the Bryopsida.

Description
Most of the taxa within the order are basal-branching pleurocarps.

Taxonomy
Three families are included in the order. These are the Rhizogoniaceae, Orthodontiaceae, and Aulacomniaceae.

References

Bryanae
Moss orders


title: Samuel Richards (priest)

text:
Samuel (L) Bruce Richards was the first Dean of Trinidad.
He worked at Saint Philip, Barbados before coming to Trinidad where he set up a school for the children of church goers.

References

1955 births
Deans of Trinidad
Living people


title: Matt Marcorelle

text:
Matthew Marcorelle (born July 26, 1987) is a former American football defensive end. He was signed by the Houston Texans as an undrafted free agent in 2011. He played college football at University of Delaware.

References

External links
Arena Football League bio

1987 births
Living people
American football defensive ends
Delaware Fightin' Blue Hens football players
Georgia Force players
Jacksonville Sharks players
Orlando Predators players
People from Fort Pierce, Florida


title: Follow Your Star

text:
Follow Your Star is a 1938 British musical film directed by Sinclair Hill and starring Arthur Tracy, Belle Chrystall and Mark Daly. It was made at Pinewood Studios.

Cast
 Arthur Tracy as Arthur Tee
 Belle Chrystall as Mary
 Mark Daly as Shorty
 Horace Hodges as Mr. Wilmot
 Nina Boucicault as Mrs. Tee
 James Harcourt as Mr. Tee
 Dick Tubb as Freddy
 Finlay Currie as Maxie

References

Bibliography
 Low, Rachael. Filmmaking in 1930s Britain. George Allen & Unwin, 1985.
 Wood, Linda. British Films, 1927-1939. British Film Institute, 1986.

External links

1938 films
British musical films
British black-and-white films
1938 musical films
Films directed by Sinclair Hill
Films shot at Pinewood Studios
1930s English-language films
1930s British films


title: Peter Frankenberg

text:
Peter Frankenberg (born 1947 in Bad Honnef, North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany) is a German researcher, professor and politician (CDU). Prof. Dr. Peter Frankenberg was Minister of Science, Research and the Arts of the state of Baden-Württemberg (Ministerium für Wissenschaft, Forschung und Kunst Baden-Württemberg) from 2001 to 2011. Previously he was chaired professor and President (rector) at the University of Mannheim from 1994 until 2001.

Education
He studied history, geography and geology at the University of Bonn, afterwards botanics. He achieved his Ph.D in 1976 and attained his title of professor in 1982.

Academics and Career
In 1983, he was appointed professor of physical geography at the Catholic University of Eichstätt-Ingolstadt. In 1986, Frankenberg received the lectureship for physical geography and regional studies at the Geographic Institute of the University of Mannheim. From 1989 until 1991, Peter Frankenberg was dean and pro-dean respectively at the faculty of history and geography and from 1991 until 1994, pro-rector of research at the University of Mannheim. From October 1994 to summer 2001 he was President (rector) of the University of Mannheim. From June 2001 to 2011 he served as Minister of Science, Research and the Arts of the State of Baden-Württemberg.

Personal life
Frankenberg is married and has three children.

References

External links
 List of Frankenberg's publications

See also
 Baden-Württemberg
 List of University of Mannheim people

1947 births
People from Bad Honnef
Living people
Academic staff of the University of Mannheim
Political office-holders in Baden-Württemberg


title: 2014 Asian Junior Badminton Championships – Mixed doubles

text:
The Mixed Doubles tournament of the 2014 Asian Junior Badminton Championships was held from February 19–23 in Taipei, Taiwan. The defending champion of the last edition were the South Korean pair Choi Sol-kyu and Chae Yoo-jung. Last year bronze medalist, and standing in the top seeds Huang Kaixiang and Chen Qingchen of China emerge as the champion after beat the second seeded from South Korea Kim Jung-ho and Kong Hee-yong in the finals with the score 21–14, 21–13.

Seeded

  Huang Kaixiang / Chen Qingchen (champion)
  Kim Jung-ho / Kong Hee-yong (final)
  Dechapol Puavaranukroh / Chanisa Teachavorasinskun (third round)
  Chua Khek Wei / Peck Yen Wei (second round)
  Ryan Ng Zin Rei / Elaine Chua Yi Ling (third round)
  Hashiru Shimono / Wakana Nagahara (quarter-final)
  Po Li-wei / Chang Ching-hui (third round)
  Lee Chia-han / Lee Chia-hsin (quarter-final)

Draw

Finals

Top Half

Section 1

Section 2

Section 3

Section 4

Bottom Half

Section 5

Section 6

Section 7

Section 8

References

External links
Main Draw

Mixed
Asia Junior


title: List of mills in South Yorkshire

text:
400px

This is a list of the wool, cotton and other textile mills in South Yorkshire, England.

Ardsley (Barnsley)

Barnsley

Barugh (Darton; Barnsley)

Cudworth

Dodworth

Oxspring

Thurlstone (Penistone)

References

Footnotes

The National Monument Record is a legacy numbering system maintained
by English Heritage. Further details on each mill may be obtained from this url. http://yorkshire.u08.eu/

Notes

Bibliography

External links

South Yorkshire

South Yorkshire
Lists of buildings and structures in South Yorkshire
South Yorkshire
History of the textile industry
Industrial Revolution in England


title: Calomnion

text:
Calomnion is a genus of mosses in the family Rhizogoniaceae. They have been reported from Australia, New Zealand, Polynesia, Melanesia, New Guinea, and eastern Indonesia.

Classification
The genus was originally placed within its own family, the Calomniaceae, with the genus Nadeaudia. Nadeudia contained one species, Nadeaudia schistostegiella, which is now considered a synonym for Calomnion schistostegiellum.

Species included in the genus are:
Calomnion brownseyi Vitt & H.A. Mill.
Calomnion ceramense Vitt
Calomnion complanatum (Hook. f. & Wilson) Lindb. (type species)
Calomnion denticulatum Mitt.
Calomnion iwatsukii Vitt
Calomnion lillianiae Vitt & H.A. Mill.
Calomnion melanesicum H.A. Mill.
Calomnion milleri Vitt
Calomnion schistostegiellum (Besch.) Wijk & Margad.

References

Moss genera
Rhizogoniaceae
Taxa named by Joseph Dalton Hooker


title: Rishika Singh

text:
Rishika Singh (born Rohini Singh) is an Indian actor who appears in Kannada-language films. She is the daughter of film director Rajendra Singh Babu and granddaughter of Mysore-based film producer Shankar Singh and former Kannada actress Pratima Devi. Her brother Aditya also appears in Kannada films.

Early life
Rishika Singh was born as Rohini Singh to film director Rajendra Singh Babu in Bengaluru. She was born to a family of film personalities with her grandfather Shankar Singh being a film producer and grandmother Pratima Devi, a Kannada film actress. She is the niece of Sangram Singh and actors Vijayalakshmi Singh and Jai Jagadish.

She completed her graduation from Mount Carmel College, Bangalore, in the year 2008.

Career
Rishika Singh made her debut in films in the 2011 Kannada-language film Kanteerava. She then appeared in the multi-starrer comedy film Kalla Malla Sulla in the same year. In 2012, Singh hosted a talk show titled Ragale with Rishika that aired on Zee Kannada. In 2013, she got into a controversy after her morphed obscene video clip was uploaded on a social website by the actor-director S. K. Basheed of her film Benki Birugali, against whom she filed a case. She was one of the contestants in the reality TV show Bigg Boss in its first season. She appeared in an item song for Maanikya (2014).

Personal life
Rishika Singh was engaged to Sandeep, a businessman from Bangalore in December 2012. However, the wedding was called off, following which Singh was hospitalized due to a nervous breakdown.

Filmography

Television

References

External links

21st-century Indian actresses
Actresses in Kannada cinema
Indian film actresses
Living people
Actresses from Bangalore
Year of birth missing (living people)
Bigg Boss Kannada contestants
Mount Carmel College, Bangalore alumni


title: István Szőnyi

text:
István Szőnyi (1894-1960) was a Hungarian painter and printmaker noted for works such as The Bend of the Danube and Zebegény. He and his family rescued Jews during the Holocaust. Hence they were declared Righteous Among the Nations on October 2, 1984. István Szőnyi was one of the most gifted members of the Nagybánya group.

Szőnyi started his art studies at the independent school of the Hungarian Academy of Fine Arts from 1911, and then enrolled in the art-teachers training school for 1913 and 1914. Also in 1914, he became the pupil of his first master Károly Ferenczy in both the independent school of Nagybánya and in the Hungarian Academy of Fine Arts. In the summer of 1914, Ferenczy brought his students - including Szőnyi - to the Artists’ Colony of Nagybánya.

While on leave from military duty, Szőnyi also spent the summers of 1917 and 1918 at Nagybánya. He became one of the most gifted members of the Nagybánya group.

Following discharge from the military, in 1918 he returned to the Academy. This time he studied as István Réti’s pupil. In 1921, Ernst Museum featured Szőnyi in his first one-man show.

Szőnyi expanded his exposure to the arts during trips around Europe. Visiting Vienna and Berlin acquainted him with the great classical masters.

However Szőnyi's involvement in political advocacy led to his expulsion from the Academy in 1920.

As a significant member of the “etching generation”, he contributed to the development of Hungarian graphic art at the beginning of the 1920s.

Szőnyi moved to Zebegény in 1924, participated in the first exhibition of the newly formed KUT, and taught at the Independent School of the City Centre. In 1928 he received the state grant to Rome, when it had just been established.

In 1937 Szőnyi was appointed to a professor of the Academy of Fine Arts, and taught for more than two decades. Despite being the leading professor of the mural department, he only received a few monumental commissions.

During the 1930s, Szőnyi was active in artistic life as a member of the Gresham circle. His accomplishments included a number of monumental commissions, and publishing a treatise on drawing and painting techniques.

During Szőnyi's last years he was often ill. He spent almost all his time in Zebegény.

The Szőnyi István Memorial Museum was established in Zebegény and opened in 1967. The museum features both the flat and studio where the artist worked. The goal is "to preserve and show as much as possible of both Szőnyi's works and the milieu where these works were created."

References

External links
 Szőnyi István Memorial Museum
https://www.kieselbach.hu/artist/szonyi_-istvan_1068
https://emuseum.delart.org/people/1908/istvan-szonyi
http://www.szonyimuzeum.hu
http://www.museum.hu/museum/563/Istvan_Szonyi_Memorial_Museum

Hungarian Righteous Among the Nations
1894 births
1960 deaths
20th-century Hungarian painters
Hungarian male painters
20th-century Hungarian male artists


title: Mid-South (region)

text:
The Mid-South is an informally-defined region of the United States, usually thought to be anchored by the Memphis metropolitan area and consisting of West Tennessee, North Mississippi, Southern Missouri,  Western Kentucky, Central, Northeast, and Eastern Arkansas, Northwest Alabama and even Eastern Oklahoma. Southern Illinois (especially Cairo, shown on the map) and Southwestern Indiana are sometimes included in this region.

Although the region has no formally established boundaries, the designation has been used by various businesses and institutions generally operating in the region. In 1920, journalist C.P.J. Mooney equated the region with the Mississippi River Valley, centered in Memphis, and described by advocates as "the richest agricultural region in the world". Mooney delineated the region as "covering West Kentucky, West Tennessee, part of the Tennessee River Valley in Alabama, the northern half of Mississippi, the Eastern half of Arkansas and southeast Missouri".

Victory University, located in Memphis, was originally named the Mid-South Bible Center when it was incorporated in 1944, and was thereafter renamed to the Mid-South Bible Institute in 1948, and to the Mid-South Bible College in 1960. From 1981 to 1987, a Mid-South Business Journal was also in publication. The Mid-South Conference is an NAIA sports conference with member schools in the region.

References

Regions of the Southern United States


title: Bayou Caddy

text:
Bayou Caddy is a stream in Hancock County, Mississippi, United States.  It is a tributary of the Mississippi Sound.

See also
List of rivers of Mississippi

References

Bayou Caddy
Landforms of Hancock County, Mississippi


title: Design School Kolding

text:
Design School Kolding (Danish: Designskolen Kolding) is a design school located in Kolding, Denmark. It delivers undergraduate and postgraduate degrees in the areas of fashion, textiles, communication design, industrial design, accessory design, and design for people, design for planet and design for play (people, planet and play are offered only as part of the MA programme). It was founded in 1967, and received university status in 2010.

History

Design School Kolding was founded in 1967 as Kolding School of Arts & Crafts with a focus on textile and advertising design.  The school expanded into further subjects over the years. In 2010, the school was awarded university status as a design and research institution. It is part of Cumulus (International Association of Universities and Colleges of Art, Design and Media).
The school was listed by Domus Magazine as among the 50 best European design schools in 2014-2017. It is among the global design schools that participate in H&M Design Award.

Programmes

The school offers undergraduate and postgraduate degrees, including PhD programmes in the areas of fashion, textiles, accessory design, communication design, industrial design and design for people, design for planet, design for play (people, planet and play are offered only as part of the MA programme). It also offers an MA in design management in conjunction with University of Southern Denmark.

Notable alumni

 Finn Nygaard (b. 1955), graphic designer
 Louise Hindsgavl (b. 1973), sculptor

References

External links
Design School Kolding

Universities in Denmark
Kolding
Educational institutions established in 1967
1967 establishments in Denmark
Design schools
Fashion schools
Graphic design schools
Danish fashion


The 2009 Polynesian Championships in Athletics took place between August 4–8, 2009. The event was held at the Griffith University in Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia, jointly with the OAA Grand Prix Series, and the OAA sub-regional Melanesian and Micronesian Championships.  Many athletes utilised the competitions preparing for the upcoming IAAF World Championships in Berlin, Germany.  Detailed reports were given for the OAA.

A total of 32 events were contested, 18 by men and 14 by women.

Medal summary
Complete results can be found on the Oceania Athletics Association webpage, and at sportfieber.pytalhost.com.

In 100 metres, long jump and triple jump, as well as in shot put, discus throw, and javelin throw, there were separate open competitions for the Polynesian championships and the OAA Grand Prix Series held on different days.

Men

Women

Medal table (unofficial)

Participation
According to an unofficial count, 53 athletes from 8 countries participated.

 (1)
 (10)
 (10)
 (7)
 (4)
 (5)
 (12)
 (4)

References

Polynesian Championships in Athletics
International athletics competitions hosted by Australia
Polynesian Championships in Athletics
Polynesian Championships in Athletics
August 2009 sports events in Australia


title: Calomnion milleri

text:
Calomnion milleri is a species of moss known only from Lord Howe Island in the Tasman Sea between Australia and New Zealand. It grows on the aerial adventitious roots of tree-ferns at elevations of 450–875 m.

Calomnion milleri is a small, dioecious, yellow-green plant rarely more than 10 mm tall. It has two types of leaves, both subulate (with a long, narrow tip). Setae are 0.8–1.0 mm long; cylindrical capsules 1.2–1.4 mm long. It is distinguished from other species in the genus by its thickened leaf margins, its capsules shorter than the setae, and the long, slender subulate leaves.

References

Rhizogoniaceae
Endemic flora of Lord Howe Island


title: Nikephoros II (disambiguation)

text:
Nikephoros II or Nicephorus II may refer to:

 Nikephoros II Phokas (ca. 912–969), Byzantine emperor in 963–969
 Nikephoros II of Constantinople (died 1261), Metropolitan of Ephesus, Patriarch of Constantinople in 1260–1261
 Nikephoros II Orsini (1328–1359), Despot of Epirus in 1335–1340 and 1356–1359


title: James Ruffin (American football)

text:
James Ruffin (born February 6, 1987) is a former American football defensive end. He played college football at University of Northern Iowa.

Professional career

Tampa Bay Buccaneers
Ruffin was signed by the Tampa Bay Buccaneers as an undrafted free agent in 2010. He was released by the Buccaneers on September 4, 2010.

Cincinnati Bengals
Ruffin signed with the Cincinnati Bengals on October 17, 2010. He was released by the Bengals on September 3, 2011.

Spokane Shock
Ruffin played with the Spokane Shock from 2012 to 2014. In 2014, Ruffin set the Spokane Shock record for sacks in a season, and is the Shock's career sack leader. Ruffin's play in 2014 earned him the AFL's Defensive Lineman of the Year Award. On November 24, 2014, Ruffin was again assigned to the Shock.

Tampa Bay Buccaneers
Ruffin was signed by the Tampa Bay Buccaneers on August 5, 2014. Ruffin was waived by the Buccaneers on August 21, 2014.

Spokane Shock (second stint)
On November 24, 2014, Ruffin was again assigned to the Shock.

Personal life
Married November 4, 2017 to Amber Cardinal

References

External links
Arena Football League bio

1987 births
Living people
American football defensive ends
Northern Iowa Panthers football players
Spokane Shock players
Tampa Bay Buccaneers players
Cincinnati Bengals players
Players of American football from Newark, New Jersey


title: Ricky Bhui

text:
Ricky Bhui (born 29 September 1996) is an Indian professional cricketer. He is a right-handed batsman and occasional leg spinner. Bhui scored an unbeaten hundred on his List A debut and also scored an unbeaten hundred on his Twenty20 debut. He is also a member of the Sunrisers Hyderabad franchise in the IPL. In December 2015 he was named in India's squad for the 2016 Under-19 Cricket World Cup and is the youngest player to feature in the tournament so far. Bhui has also captained the India u17 side for a Triangular series. In January 2018, he was bought by the Sunrisers Hyderabad in the 2018 IPL auction. He studied at Visakha Valley School in Visakhapatnam after graduation in 2020.  The only player from the Andhra Pradesh Ranji team to make the cut for IPL 2018.

He was the leading run-scorer for Andhra in the 2018–19 Ranji Trophy, with 775 runs in eight matches. In August 2019, he was named in the India Blue team's squad for the 2019–20 Duleep Trophy. He was released by the Sunrisers Hyderabad ahead of the 2020 IPL auction.

References

1996 births
Living people
Indian cricketers
Andhra cricketers
Cricketers from Bhopal
Sunrisers Hyderabad cricketers


title: Cabinet of Alphonse Henri d'Hautpoul

text:
The cabinet of Alphonse Henri d'Hautpoul was formed by President Louis Napoleon Bonaparte after he had dismissed the second cabinet of Odilon Barrot on 31 October  1849. The Hautpoul cabinet was made up of friends of the president rather than members of the assembly, and was led by Alphonse Henri d'Hautpoul.

On 24 January 1851, the cabinet was replaced by the Petit ministère of 1851.

Ministers
The ministers were:

Changes
 On 17 November 1849, Jean-Ernest Ducos de La Hitte substituted Alphonse de Rayneval as Foreign Affairs Minister.
 On 15 March 1850, Pierre Jules Baroche substituted Ferdinand Barrot as Interior Minister.
 On 22 October 1850, Jean-Paul de Schramm substituted Alphonse Henri d'Hautpoul as War Minister.

Upon 9 January 1851, the ministry was totally reshuffled with those who were aligned with President Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte. The ministers were:

References

Sources

French governments
1849 establishments in France
1851 disestablishments in France
Cabinets established in 1849
Cabinets disestablished in 1851


title: Nicephorus II of Constantinople

text:
Nikephoros II or Nicephorus II (Greek: Νικηφόρος Β'; died 25 July 1261) was a Byzantine cleric and Patriarch of Constantinople in exile at the Empire of Nicaea.

Originally serving as Metropolitan of Ephesus, he was elected to the patriarchate after the resignation of Arsenios Autoreianos in 1260. He died after a few months, in early 1261, and was buried at Nymphaion. A period of vacancy followed his death, but after the reconquest of Constantinople in July, Arsenios was recalled from his retirement and restored to the patriarchal throne.

Sources
 Brief biography at the website of the Ecumenical Patriarchate

1261 deaths
13th-century patriarchs of Constantinople
Bishops of Ephesus
People from the Empire of Nicaea
Year of birth unknown


title: Benjamin Bellot

text:
Benjamin Bellot (born 30 July 1990) is a German footballer who plays as a goalkeeper for BSG Chemie Leipzig of the Regionalliga Nordost.

Career

Youth
As a youth, he played for VfB Leipzig and FC Sachsen Leipzig before moving to RB Leipzig.

RB Leipzig
Bellot was with RB Leipzig from when the club was founded in 2009. After RB Leipzig reached promotion to Bundesliga and signed goalkeeper Marius Müller, Bellot joined the reserve team for the 2016-17 season.

Brøndby
In June 2017, Bellot signed a two-year contract with Danish Superliga side Brøndby IF. He was released by the club at the end of the 2018–19 season after serving as a backup for Frederik Rønnow and Marvin Schwäbe, respectively, in his two seasons there.

BSG Chemie Leipzig
On 6 July 2019, Bellot signed with Regionalliga Nordost club BSG Chemie Leipzig on a one-year deal. He made his debut on 27 July in a 0–0 draw against FSV Wacker 90 Nordhausen.

Honours
RB Leipzig
 NOFV-Oberliga Süd: 2010
 Saxony Cup: 2011, 2013
 Regionalliga Nordost: 2013

Brøndby
Danish Cup: 2017-18

References

External links

1990 births
Living people
German men's footballers
Footballers from Leipzig
Men's association football goalkeepers
2. Bundesliga players
3. Liga players
Regionalliga players
Danish Superliga players
FC Sachsen Leipzig players
RB Leipzig players
Brøndby IF players
BSG Chemie Leipzig (1997) players
German expatriate men's footballers
German expatriate sportspeople in Denmark
Expatriate men's footballers in Denmark


title: WGZO

text:
WGZO may refer to:

 WGZO-LP, a low-power radio station (98.7 FM) licensed to serve Bloomfield, Connecticut, United States
 WVSC (FM), a radio station (103.1 FM) licensed to serve Parris Island, South Carolina, United States, which held the call sign WGZO from 1997 to 2014


title: Boxing at the 2015 European Games

text:
Boxing competitions at the 2015 European Games were held from 16 to 27 June 2015 at the Crystal Hall 3 venue in the main Games cluster in Baku. The competition consisted of ten weight events for men, and five for women, and was contested, as at the Olympic Games, under rules and formats set out by the AIBA.

Baku served as the first of two European qualification events for the AIBA World Boxing Championships, itself the largest qualification event for the 2016 Summer Olympics. The finalists, and the bronze medalist defeated by the eventual champion achieve one quota place for their country at the World Championships.

Qualification

Nations are limited to one entry per weight division. Azerbaijan will have host nation positions available in each weight category

Qualification systems have not been finalised for the men's events, but should use the same format that has been adopted by the IOC, according to organisers.

In the women's events, the EUBC 2014 Women's European Amateur Boxing Championships in Bucharest, Romania will be the official qualification event after which European ranking will be established by 30 June 2014. If an NOC has more than one athlete in the top 14, the next best ranked NOC will get the allocation. 2 other place per weight category are reserved for 'universality' and host nominations.

Medal summary

Men

Women

Medal table

References

Sports at the 2015 European Games
2015 in boxing
Euro
2015 in women's boxing
2015


title: Tom Stuart-Smith

text:
Thomas Richard Stephen Peregrine Stuart-Smith  (born 14 February 1960) is an English landscape architect, garden designer and writer. He specialises in making gardens that combine naturalism and modernity.

Early life and education
The son of Appeal Court judge Sir Murray Stuart-Smith, he was brought up in Hertfordshire on the Serge Hill estate in Bedmond. Four generations of his family have lived at Serge Hill since his grandfather bought the estate in 1927. After earning a degree in Zoology at the University of Cambridge he went on to study at Manchester University in 1982 to develop his research interests in landscape architecture and design. In 1986 Tom renovated a dilapidated barn and its surrounding fields into his new home, creating The Barn Garden at Serge Hill.
In the summer of 2013, the first Festival of Garden Literature in the UK was held at The Barn Garden.

Career
After working with Hal Moggridge and Elizabeth Banks, Stuart-Smith established his own landscape design business in 1998. Since 1984, he has designed a number of large private and public gardens in the English countryside as well as smaller inner city gardens, as well as overseas projects throughout Europe, India, the US and the Caribbean.
His most notable work includes Broughton Grange (commissioned by Stephen Hester) in Oxfordshire, Mount St John in Yorkshire, Fort Belvedere in Windsor Great Park, and a new garden at Windsor Castle which was commissioned by the Royal Household to mark the Queen's Golden Jubilee. Stuart-Smith was also involved with landscape designer Piet Oudolf in creating a landscape masterplan at Trentham Gardens and the recasting of its Italian garden. More recent work includes the two-hectare garden around the Bicentenary Glasshouse at Wisley for the Royal Horticultural Society, which was opened to the public by the Queen in June 2007. In 2013 Tom worked with Factum Arte to create a unique brass sculpture of an Ilex crenata tree for The Garden of Illusion at The Connaught hotel in London. He was also commissioned to create the Keeper's House Garden at the Royal Academy of Arts. Stuart-Smith has designed eight Gold Medal-winning gardens at the Chelsea Flower Show, with three being awarded best in show.
An exhibition on his work, the first about a living garden designer in the UK, was held at the Garden Museum in London in 2011. He has also lectured in the UK and the USA. Stuart-Smith is a member of the Society of Garden Designers and the Landscape Institute.

More recently Tom Stuart-Smith has created the overall plan for the RHS Garden Bridgewater in Worsley in Salford, Greater Manchester, and a garden surrounding The Hepworth Wakefield in West Yorkshire, dedicated to the works of sculptor Barbara Hepworth.

He was listed in House & Garden in 2021 as one of the top 50 garden designers in the UK.

Stuart-Smith was appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in the 2023 Birthday Honours for services to landscape design.

Writing
Stuart-Smith has written articles for the Financial Times, Guardian and Telegraph on the subject of gardening and landscape design.

In 2011 he co-wrote and published a book titled The Barn Garden.

References

External links
Tom Stuart-Smith
Broughton Grange
Trentham Gardens

1960 births
Living people
English landscape architects
People from Three Rivers District
Writers from Hertfordshire
People educated at Radley College
Alumni of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge
Officers of the Order of the British Empire


title: Rae L. Egbert

text:
Rae Livingston Egbert (August 15, 1891 – May 11, 1964) was an American businessman and politician from New York.

Early years
He was born on August 15, 1891, on Staten Island, Richmond County, New York, the son of George L. Egbert (1862–1957) and Ella L. Turner (died 1919), and a descendant of the farming family for which Egbertville is named. He attended the public schools on Staten Island, and Mount Hermon School. In 1911, he began to work in his father's haberdashery in Tompkinsville. During World War I, he enlisted as a private in the U.S. Army, and remained stationed at Fox Hills, on Staten Island. He finished the war as a sergeant major.

Career
Egbert was a member of the New York State Senate (24th D.) from 1935 to 1940, sitting in the 158th, 159th, 160th, 161st and 162nd New York State Legislatures. He was defeated for re-election in 1940 and 1942. In 1944, he ran for Congress in the 16th District but was defeated by Republican Ellsworth B. Buck.

In 1958, he removed to Gulfport, Florida.

Family life
On June 4, 1917, he married Olive Doll, and they had one daughter: Joan Egbert.

Death
He died on May 11, 1964, while on a visit at his sister Grace's home in Stapleton, Staten Island.

Sources

1891 births
1964 deaths
Democratic Party New York (state) state senators
Politicians from Staten Island
People from Gulfport, Florida
20th-century American politicians
United States Army personnel of World War I
United States Army non-commissioned officers


title: Colin Fairservice

text:
Colin Fairservice (6 August 1909 – 29 December 1999) was an English professional cricketer. He played for Kent County Cricket Club from 1929 to 1933 and for Middlesex County Cricket Club in 1936, making a total of 74 first-class cricket appearances in his career.

Fairservice was born in Hadlow in Kent in 1909, the son of Bill Fairservice who made over 300 first-class appearances for Kent between 1902 and 1921. He grew up in Kent and Northumberland and attended Newcastle Royal Grammar School.

Having played for Northumberland Juniors, Fairservice first played for Kent Second XI in the Minor Counties Championship in 1927. He made his first-class debut in 1929 against Derbyshire at Queen's Park, Chesterfield. After playing occasionally for the county in 1929 and 1930 he became a regular in the First XI in 1931 and was awarded his county cap in that season. Fairservice made a total of 59 appearances for Kent before leaving the county at the end of the 1933 season. He spent the following two years qualifying to play for Middlesex, during which he made occasional first-class appearances for MCC. During 1936 he played six times for Middlesex before ending his first-class career.

Fairservice worked at Stonyhurst College and then coached cricket and rugby at The King's School, Canterbury between 1954 and 1975. He coached David Gower who went on to captain the England cricket team. He died at Canterbury in 1999 aged 90, at the time Kent's oldest living cricketer.

References

External links

1909 births
1999 deaths
English cricketers
Kent cricketers
Middlesex cricketers
Marylebone Cricket Club cricketers
Players cricketers
English cricketers of 1919 to 1945
People from Hadlow
Cricketers from Kent


title: Grand Finale (film)

text:
Grand Finale is a 1936 British comedy film directed by Ivar Campbell. The film was made at Shepperton Studios as a quota quickie for distribution by Paramount Pictures.

Cast
 Mary Glynne as Lina Parsons
 Guy Newall as Hugo Trench
 Glen Alyn as Pat Mainwaring
 Douglas Rhodes as Peter Trench
 Kim Peacock as Editor

References

Bibliography

External links

1936 films
British comedy films
1936 comedy films
Films directed by Ivar Campbell
Films shot at Shepperton Studios
Films produced by Anthony Havelock-Allan
Paramount Pictures films
British black-and-white films
British and Dominions Studios films
1930s English-language films
1930s British films
English-language comedy films


title: Razor (configuration management)

text:
Razor is an integrated suite software configuration management system from Visible Systems, which provides process management, issue/problem tracking, version control, and release management.

Razor provides a framework for managing software development processes, including support for agile and waterfall methodologies. It includes a built-in issue tracking system that allows users to log and track bugs, defects, and other issues that arise during the software development process. It also includes a version control system that allows users to track changes to their code over time and collaborate with other team members. Apart from all these functions, the Razor have a release management system that allows users to manage the release process for their software, including tracking the status of different releases and managing the distribution of software to customers and other stakeholders.

Razor runs on Windows, NT, Unix, Linux, or Motif environments.  It was developed as an integrated product to support Integrated Development Environment for IBM VisualAge, Microsoft Visual Studio, Microsoft.NET, Rational Rose, and PowerBuilder.

References

Bug and issue tracking software
Version control systems


title: Pedro López Quintana

text:
Pedro López Quintana (born 27 July 1953) is a Spanish prelate of the Catholic Church who has worked in the diplomatic service of the Holy See since 1984. Since becoming an archbishop in 2003, he has been the head of the papal offices in India, Nepal, Canada, Lithuania, Estonia and Latvia. He has been Apostolic Nuncio to Austria since March 2019.

Biography
Pedro López Quintana was born on 27 July 1953 in Barbastro, Spain. His parents were from Galicia. He entered the seminary in Compostela where he did his ecclesiastical studies and graduated in theology. He was ordained a priest on 15 June 1980 by Pope John Paul II.

To prepare for a diplomatic career he entered the Pontifical Ecclesiastical Academy in 1980 He earned a licentiate in Dogmatic Theology from the Pontifical Gregorian University and a doctorate in Canon Law from the Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas (the Angelicum). He joined the diplomatic service of the Holy See on 10 February 1984 and his early assignments included stints in Madagascar, the Philippines, and India. On 7 February 1998, he took up the post of Assessor for General Affairs in the Secretariat of State in Rome.

On 27 August 1986 Pope John Paul II appointed him a chaplain of His Holiness with the title monsignor.

On 12 December 2002, Pope John Paul II appointed him titular archbishop of Acropolis. He received his episcopal consecration on 6 January 2003 from Pope John Paul. On 8 February of that year, he was appointed Apostolic Nuncio to India and Nepal. On 10 December 2009, Pope Benedict XVI appointed him nuncio to Canada, a post he resigned on 28 September 2013.

On 8 March 2014, Pope Francis appointed him apostolic nuncio to Lithuania. On 22 March 2014, Pope Francis also appointed him Nuncio to Estonia and to Latvia.  This continues the recent practice of having a single apostolic nuncio representing the Holy See in the Baltic states but residing at the nunciature in Vilnius.

On 4 March 2019 Francis named him Apostolic Nuncio to Austria.

See also
 List of heads of the diplomatic missions of the Holy See

References

External links

 catholic-hierarchy.org

Spanish Roman Catholic titular archbishops
Pontifical Ecclesiastical Academy alumni
Apostolic Nuncios to Canada
Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas alumni
Pontifical Gregorian University alumni
Apostolic Nuncios to India
Apostolic Nuncios to Nepal
Apostolic Nuncios to Estonia
Apostolic Nuncios to Latvia
Apostolic Nuncios to Lithuania
Apostolic Nuncios to Austria
1953 births
Living people
People from Barbastro


title: Salvatore Pennacchio

text:
Salvatore Pennacchio (born 7 September 1952 in Marano, Italy) is a Catholic archbishop and diplomat of the Holy See, currently president of the Pontifical Ecclesiastical Academy.

Biography
He received his priestly ordination on 18 September 1976 for the Diocese of Aversa. He attended the Pontifical Ecclesiastical Academy and entered the diplomatic service of the Holy See. On 28 November 1998 he was appointed by Pope John Paul II as the apostolic nuncio to Rwanda and titular archbishop of Montemarano. He received episcopal consecration on 6 January 1999 by Pope John Paul II, co-consecrated by Giovanni Battista Re and Francis Monterisi.

On 20 September 2003 he was appointed apostolic nuncio to Thailand, to Singapore, and to Cambodia, as well as apostolic delegate to Myanmar, to Laos, to Malaysia and to Brunei.

On 8 May 2010, Pope Benedict XVI appointed him Apostolic Nuncio to India and on 13 November 2010 to Nepal. On 6 August 2016, Pope Francis appointed him Apostolic Nuncio to Poland.

On 25 January 2023, Pope Francis appointed him as president of the Pontifical Ecclesiastical Academy.

See also
 List of heads of the diplomatic missions of the Holy See

References

External links

 Catholic Hierarchy: Archbishop Salvatore Pennacchio
 GCatholic.org: Archbishop Salvatore Pennacchio
 Biography at the website of the Apostolic Nunciature to India and Nepal

1952 births
Living people
Apostolic Nuncios to India
Apostolic Nuncios to Poland
21st-century Italian Roman Catholic titular archbishops
Pontifical Ecclesiastical Academy alumni
Apostolic Nuncios to Rwanda
Apostolic Nuncios to Thailand
Apostolic Nuncios to Singapore
Apostolic Nuncios to Cambodia
Apostolic Nuncios to Nepal
Apostolic Nuncios to Myanmar
Apostolic Nuncios to Malaysia
Apostolic Nuncios to Laos


title: Hydrophyllum brownei

text:
Hydrophyllum brownei, or Browne's waterleaf, is a rare North American plant species found only in the Ouachita Mountains in Arkansas. It grows in forested hillsides above the Cossatot River in Howard County, as well as in Polk and Garland Counties.

Hydrophyllum brownei is an herb up to 50 cm (20 inches) tall, spreading by means of underground rhizomes. Leaves are pinnately compound, the leaflets very often pinnately lobed, with short bristly hairs. Flowers are lavender to almost white, 10–12 mm long.

References

brownei
Flora of Arkansas
Plants described in 1991


title: Rohit Phalke

text:
Rohit Phalke (born 10 October 1997) is an Indian actor. He made his debut with Balak-Palak film in Marathi cinema.

Career

Phalke has acted in Marathi movie Balak-Palak and also in a show on Star Pravah named 'Be Dune Daha'. He has also written and directed a short film named 'Dadu' which is based on a father-daughter relationship.

Rohit has played one of the three leading roles in the Marathi movie Manjha, directed by Jatin Wagle, alongside Ashwini Bhave. He received the Dr. Kashinath Ghanekar Award from the Government of Maharashtra for his role as Jaideep/JD.

He was recently seen in the Marathi Film "Panghrun" released in 2022.

He formerly worked at MIT Vishwashanti Gurukul, an IB School in Pune as an economics, TOK, and integrated humanities teacher and EE Supervisor, before moving to Good Shepherd International School, in Ooty as an IGCSE and IBDP Economics Teacher.

Filmography

Television

Mythology
On October 1, 2021, Rohit started a research project 'The Purāṇa Project'.

References

External links

Living people
Indian male film actors
Indian male television actors
21st-century Indian male actors
1997 births


title: Ardara

text:
Ardara may refer to:
Ardara, Sardinia, a comune (municipality) in the Province of Sassari in the Italian region Sardinia.
Ardara, County Donegal, a small town in County Donegal, Ireland.
Ardara Road Halt railway station was a station which served Ardara, County Donegal.
Ardara, North Huntingdon Twp., Westmoreland Co., Pennsylvania, United States, a coal mining ghost town (see List of ghost towns in Pennsylvania)


title: Charles Hardwick (antiquary)

text:
Charles Hardwick (10 September 1817 – 8 July 1889) was an English antiquary, known for his writings related to Lancashire.

Life
The son of an innkeeper at Preston, Lancashire, he was born there on 10 September 1817. He was apprenticed to a printer, but on the expiration of his bond he devoted himself to art, and practised as a portrait-painter in Preston. Having joined the Odd Fellows he took part in the reform of the Manchester Unity, and was elected grand-master of the order.

Hardwick was a vice-president of the Manchester Literary Club, of which he was a founder. The original idea for the club, founded in 1862, has been attributed to Hardwick, Joseph Chattwood and Edwin Waugh.

Hardwick died at Manchester on 8 July 1889.

Works
Hardwick's major works were:

 History of the borough of Preston and its Environs in the county of Lancaster, Preston, 1857
 The History, present position, and social importance of Friendly Societies, London, 1859 and 1869
 Traditions, Superstitions, and Folk-Lore (chiefly Lancashire and the North of England:) their affinity to others . . . their eastern origin and mythical significance, Manchester, 1872
 On some antient Battlefields in Lancashire and their historical, legendary, and aesthetic associations, Manchester, 1882

Hardwick also was editor of Country Words: a North of England Magazine of Literature, Science, and Art, 17 numbers, Manchester, 1866-67. Ben Brierley assisted him with the magazine.

Notes

Attribution

External links

1817 births
1889 deaths
English antiquarians
English male journalists
Writers from Preston, Lancashire
19th-century British journalists
19th-century English male writers


title: Chamaraja Wodeyar IV

text:
Chamaraja Wodeyar IV (25 July 1507 – 9 November 1576) was the seventh maharaja of the Kingdom of Mysore. He was youngest son of Chamaraja Wodeyar III, the fifth raja of Mysore.  He took over the kingdom at the age of 65 after his older brother's death in 1572 and ruled for four years until 1576.

As king
He was struck by a lightning and was reduced to baldness, thereafter nicknamed Bola (the bald).

In 1572, he succeeded on the death of his elder brother Timmaraja Wodeyar II. Although Timmaraja Wodeyar II had declared Mysore Kingdom independent of the Vijayanagara Empire, it was not ratified. Chamaraja Wodeyar IV strongly opposed Vijayanagara. He immediately expelled the Vijayanagar envoys and revenue collectors from Mysore Kingdom. Although he had to retain a small delegation of Vijayanagara in Srirangapattana, he had all other traces of Vijayanagara high command removed throughout his kingdom.

Major acquisition: Bangalore town
Kempe Gowda I had built a town out of an uninhabited mass of land at nearly the time Chamaraja Wodeyar IV was born. He had grown up listening to the valorous stories of Kempe Gowda I and his Bangalore town. Mysore Kingdom has made quite considerable expansion in the last 173 years and had grown into a formidable kingdom. Chamaraja Wodeyar IV led an expedition after Kempe Gowda's death in 1569. and acquired Bangalore.

On 9 November 1576, he died, and his nephew Chamaraja Wodeyar V succeeded him.

See also
 Bangalore town
 Wodeyar dynasty

External links
 Mysore Palace and the Wodeyar Dynasty

1507 births
1576 deaths
Kings of Mysore
Chamaraja IV
16th-century Indian monarchs


title: 2002 City of Bradford Metropolitan District Council election

text:
Elections to City of Bradford Metropolitan District Council were held on 2 May 2002. One third of the council was up for election, and it remained under no overall control.

Election result

This result had the following consequences for the total number of seats on the council after the elections:

Ward results

References

2002
Bradford
2000s in West Yorkshire


title: Pasteuriaceae

text:
The Pasteuriaceae are a family of nonmotile Gram-positive bacteria. They are moderately to strongly resistant to heat. Species in this family produce a septate mycelium with one refractile endospore. The mycelium grows bigger on one end to form sporangia and sometimes endospores. The size of the endospores is different for each species of the genus Pasteuria. Species of the family of Pastueriaceae are endoparasitic in plant, soil, and freshwater invertebrates.

Parasitism
Bacteria of the Pasteuriaceae family are endoparasitic within nematodes or cladoceran hosts. After the infection, the host gets castrated by the parasite and shows gigantism. The infection pathway is not fully discovered yet. The core of the endospores is covered by glycoproteins that are presumed to be involved in the attachment of the endospores to the invertebrates host.

List of species of the genus Pasteuria
 Pasteuria ramosa (Metchinokoff 1888) obligate endoparasite of water fleas of the genera Daphnia and Moina.
 Pasteuria nishizawae ( Sayre, Wergin, Schmidt and Starr 1992) obligate endoparasite of the pseudocoelom of Heterodera glycines.
 Pasteuria penetrans (Sayre and Starr 1986) parasites in the pseudocoelomic cavities of Meloidogyne spp.
 Pasteuria thornei (Starr and Sayre 1988) parasite of Pratylenchus.
 "Candidatus Pasteuria usgae" ( Giblin-Davis, Williams, Bekal, Dickson, Brito, Becker and Preston 2003) obligate endoparasite of the pseudocoelom of Belonolaimus longicaudatus.

See also
 List of bacteria genera
 List of bacterial orders

References

Bacillales
Endoparasites


title: Ken Fontenette

text:
Kenneth Julius Fontenette, Jr. (born January 14, 1986) is an American football defensive back who is currently a free agent. He was signed by the Kansas City Command as an undrafted free agent in 2011. He played college football at University of Houston.

References

External links
Houston Cougars bio
Arena Football League bio

1986 births
Living people
American football defensive backs
Houston Cougars football players
Arkansas Diamonds (indoor football) players
Kansas City Command players
San Antonio Talons players
San Jose SaberCats players


title: Gabriel Epstein

text:
Gabriel Epstein (25 October 1918 in Duisburg, Germany – 25 July 2017 in Paris), often known as Gabi Epstein, was a British architect and urban planner, particularly noted for his master plan of the University of Lancaster, as well as several other major development plans and social housing plans.

Early life

Gabriel Epstein was born on 25 October 1918 in Duisburg (Germany), an industrial city in the lower Rhine, a region where his ancestors lived for centuries. Epstein's father Harry was an influential attorney, and was strongly committed to Zionism. In the mid-1930s the family fled Nazi Germany. After a brief stay in Brussels (Belgium), Gabriel Epstein left for British Mandatory Palestine. Beginning in 1937 Epstein became an apprentice to Erich Mendelsohn in Jerusalem. As a child, in 1925–1927, he had seen Mendelsohn sketch the extension of the family department store in Duisburg, Cohen & Epstein. Later, Epstein came to admire Mendelsohn's creativeness and energy even though he never considered himself a true disciple.

In 1938 Epstein left for London to study at the Architectural Association School of Architecture. When World War II broke out, Epstein happened to be in Jerusalem, and for several months he worked for Heinz Heinrich Rau, whom he always thought of as his master.  In 1942, he joined the Palestine Regiment and was later commissioned in the Royal Engineers and stationed in North Africa. Epstein was demobilised in 1946, and returned to the United Kingdom where he graduated with honours at the Architectural Association School of Architecture in 1949.

Initially German, Epstein then held a Mandatory Palestine passport, and was stateless in 1948 until he became a British citizen in the early 1950s.

Architectural design and teaching

After graduation, Gabriel Epstein went into practice with Derek Bridgwater and Peter Shepheard. The firm was first known as Bridgwater and Shepheard, later Shepheard and Epstein and later still Shepheard Epstein and Hunter. Until his departure from the practice in 1986, Epstein designed social housing in London, colleges of education and schools.  Epstein's master plan for the University of Lancaster was made up of buildings of a modest scale that were arranged around a central
walkway known as "The Spine", which ran from north to south and was covered for most of its length. The campus design was described by Sir Charles Frederick Carter, the founding vice-chairman, as "one of the major achievements of British architecture", which "set new standards and precepts for all University and Urban Plans".

A series of intervention plans followed, including the redesign plan of the University of Warwick, and the redesign of the master plan as well as the addition of new buildings for The Open University in Milton Keynes. Epstein also designed a new campus at Chelsea College (University of London) which was never actually built. Outside the United Kingdom, Epstein designed a master plan for the University of Ghana and was responsible for several buildings at the Catholic University of Louvain, situated in Louvain-la-Neuve (Belgium).  Epstein was also the planning consultant to the University of Konstanz, Germany.

Beginning in 1979, Gabriel Epstein divided his time between his work in London, and his teaching as Director of the Institute of Public Buildings and University Planning (Institut für öffentliche Bauten und Hochschulplanung) of the University of Stuttgart, Germany. Epstein was also Professor at its Centre for Infrastructure Planning. From the 1990s he lived in Paris, France, with his wife Josette and their three children.

On Architecture and Urban Planning

Epstein's emphasis was to create an environment in which people would have pleasure to live and work rather than an architectural statement per se: "The conflict between the building and life always results from a concentration on the building as a building, the building as a shape, the building as the great work. (...)Our birth, our life, and our death are rooted in the sensual and we can never forget that".

Sensuousness is a theme he often stressed when discussing his work: "I care for materials that age gracefully, for rhythm, proportion, roofs and a lively contrast between light and dark surfaces, especially in the English climate." Epstein encouraged his students and planners to be more attentive to the men and women who use their buildings and towns, or in his own words, to "get on their wavelength so as to know what people would need and love if they knew how to ask".

"The real problem is to conceive and plan great humane urban centres, he wrote. It is this and the creation of public spaces which has concerned me for years. In this regard we do not deal with short-lived tendencies: the sensual and functional relation of people to public space is unchanging and practically independent of climate and culture. The meaning of Venice, Cambridge or Isphahan is the same for all; it flows from the experience of the spaces and the life that goes on in them. For a long time, we have assumed that cities cannot be built without creating problems, that they can no longer satisfy us in terms of humanity, economics, aesthetics or culture in the way they once did. And yet we shall build them because our cities are still expanding and those of the developing world will grow enormously for decades. (...) I believe that our modern conditions can be harmonized in practice with the traditional concept of the city – the city that is the foundation of our culture."

National Life Stories conducted an oral history interview (C467/89) with Gabriel Epstein in 2009 for its Architects Lives' collection held by the British Library.

Awards and honours

Gabriel Epstein was a member of the Council of the Architectural Association from 1956 to 1965 and was President of the Architectural Association from 1963 to 1964. In 1970 he received an Honorary Doctorate from the University of Lancaster for "Distinguished contribution to architecture, and especially to the University". In the same year, he became a lifelong member of the Academy of Arts, Berlin. In 1976 he was elected President of the Franco-British Union of Architects and in 1978 became a member of the SADG (Société des Architectes Diplômés par le Gouvernement, Paris).

Major designed and directed projects

 Many large-scale social housing schemes, amongst them six prize-winning schemes in the London area, starting from 1951.
 Several schools, colleges of education, university colleges, etc. in London, Oxford, Windsor, Leicester, Lincoln, etc. (1950–1980)
 Liverpool Students Union, now the Liverpool Guild of Students building (160 Mount Pleasant), 1964
 University of Lancaster (master plan and buildings), 1963–1986
 University of Ghana, Accra (revised master plan), 1968–1980
 University of Konstanz, Germany (planning consultant), 1968
 University of Makerere, Kampala, Uganda (planning consultant), 1970
 University of Warwick (re-design of master plan and several faculty buildings), 1971
 University of Warwick (Social science buildings), 1972
 University of Louvain, Belgium (central library, two lecture hall complexes and two faculty buildings), 1970–1982
 Open University, Milton Keynes (redesign of master plan and several buildings), 1975–1986
 Chelsea College, University of London (plan for new campus in Wandsworth), 1976
 Chelsea College, University of London (students residence), 1976
 University of Ghana, Legon, Accra (design of master plan extension), 1976
 University and National Library, Accra, Ghana (not executed), 1977
 University of Tlemcen, Algeria (master plan, with WS Atkins International, not executed), 1978
 London Docks, Wapping (development plan – traffic, housing, commerce, sports – for the London Borough of Tower Hamlets, not executed), 1977–1981
 Limehouse Basin, London (development plan for apartments, offices, leisure, commerce, workshops, with Waits, not executed), 1981
 Gough Grove and Pigott Street, London (social housing), 1975–1982
 University of London's Senate House (extension), 1984
 Prince's Dock, Liverpool (development plan – housing, commerce, offices, exhibition centre – for the Mersey Docks & Harbour Co.), 1985
 St Katharine Docks, London (development plan for extension – for St Katherine-by-the-Tower Co.Ltd, not executed), 1985–1986)
 Pôle Universitaire, Hauts-de-Seine, France (consultant), 1992
 Université du Plateau St Martin, Cergy-Pontoise, France (consultant), 1992
Quartier Léopold and European Parliament Complex, Brussels (planning consultant), 1993–1994

Prizes and awards

 Ministry Medal for Good Design in Housing, for housing in Camden Town, 1968
 Civic Trust Award for the University of Lancaster, 1968
 Highly Commended for Good Design in Housing for GLC Housing at Gough Grove, Tower Hamlets, 1976
 London Region Award of the Royal Institute of British Architects for housing at Gough Grove, London, 1977
 International Prize for Architecture from the Belgian National Housing Institute, for housing at Pigott Street, London, UK, 1983

References

British architects
British urban planners
1918 births
2017 deaths
Members of the Academy of Arts, Berlin
Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to Mandatory Palestine
Academic staff of the University of Stuttgart
British Army personnel of World War II
Palestine Regiment officers
Royal Engineers officers
Mandatory Palestine emigrants to the United Kingdom


title: Chamaraja Wodeyar V

text:
Chamaraja Wodeyar V was the eighth maharaja of the Kingdom of Mysore, who reigned only for two years between 1576 after his uncle's death and 1578 until his demise.

Ascension to throne and immediate death
After his paternal uncle Chamaraja Wodeyar IV's death, Chamaraja Wodeyar V took over, but died in two years' time on the throne. In span of less than a decade, three monarchs had died, his being the most recent. His father died in 1572, later his paternal uncle in 1576, and now himself in 1578. A stable king was necessary for the perpetuity of Mysore Kingdom. These short-span kings and deaths was a repetition of Vijayanaga's past. Further, Vijayanagara Empire was itself in the ruins, rampaged by the Bahamani and Deccan sultans. Sriranga I, during Chamaraja Wodeyar's time, carried the restoration of the Vijayanagara empire, but his reign was marred with repeated attacks and loss of territories from his Muslim neighbours. Now, Chamaraja's death caused more concern among Mysore nobles. Fortunately, his first-cousin, Raja Wodeyar I, who succeeded him, ruled stably.

See also
 Maharaja of Mysore
 Wodeyar dynasty

External links
 Mysore Palace and the Wodeyar Dynasty

Kings of Mysore
Chamaraja V
16th-century Indian monarchs