text: One of the earliest of these invasions resulted in the creation of the various states which we commonly associate with the Mandingo or Mande, now, as throughout the Middle Ages, one of the most important people of the French Sudan. As in East Africa, so here Hamitic elements conquered the native Negroes and ruled them while establishing themselves as the aristocracy. But whatever physical or racial distinctions may have existed, in the course of time interrelations between these groups resulted in a leveling out of racial differences, so that in most cases the reference to the Hamitic origin of groups, cultures, or states may appear ill substantiated. A few of the Mandingo states should be mentioned: The earliest was the empire of Ghana between the Senegal and the Niger, which was in existence during the period of the late Roman Empire. The most prominent was perhaps that of Melle, which was founded in the Upper Niger area during the twelfth century. Also of North African origin was the empire of Songhai, which was established during the Middle Ages and had the famous town of Timbuktu as its center.