title: Shifting securities in Northern Ireland. European Journal of Cultural Studies, 2007, 10 (3), pp.343-359. &#x27E8;10.1177/1367549407079706&#x27E9;. &#x27E8;hal-00571548&#x27E9;
text: G D Q A D Q S   R G H E S H MDFT RQDNBOTDQ@HMSHIDNRT HQMM@MKNQNSE G D Q M  H Q D K @ M C  #OPYRIGHT ¥  3!'% 0UBLICATIONS ,OS !NGELES ,ONDON .EW $ELHI AND 3INGAPORE 6OL  n   $/)  WWWSAGEPUBLICATIONSCOM 3HIFTING SECURITIES IN .ORTHERN )RELAND @4ERROR AND @THE 4ROUBLES IN GLOBAL MEDIA AND LOCAL MEMORY $AVID (ERBERT 4HE /PEN 5NIVERSITY @ARSQ@BS $RAWING ON INTERVIEWS CONDUCTED BETWEEN 3EPTEMBER  AND !PRIL  THIS ARTICLE EXAMINES THE INTERACTION BETWEEN PERCEPTIONS OF SECURITY GENERATED WITHIN .ORTHERN )RELAND AND THOSE SHAPED BY THE INTER NATIONAL MEDIA CONCERNING @GLOBAL TERRORISM POST  )T OFFERS INSIGHTS INTO A SOCIETY WHERE SECURITY CONCERNS ARE SHIFTING FROM LARGE SCALE POLITICAL VIOLENCE TO THE CONSEQUENCES OF SOCIAL SEPARATION AND PARAMILITARY RELATED CRIMINALITY )T ARGUES THAT THE LOCAL CONFLICT PROVIDES FRAMES WHICH SHAPE ATTITUDES TO THE MEDIA TYPOLOGICALLY AND SCEPTICALLY AND THAT .ORTHERN )RISH SOCIETY SHEDS LIGHT ON THE EFFECTS OF LONG TERM EXPOSURE TO HEIGHTENED SECURITY CONCERNS AND TRANSNATIONAL MEDIA JDXVNQCR FRAMING IDENTITY MEDIA .ORTHERN )RELAND PUBLIC SPHERE RELIGION RISK SOCIETY SECURITY SOCIAL MEMORY STEREOTYPING )NTRODUCTION 4HIS ARTICLE EXAMINES PERCEPTIONS OF SECURITY IN .ORTHERN )RELAND IN THE CONTEXT OF THE CONFLUENCE OF DISCOURSES STEMMING FROM @THE 4ROUBLES n AND THEIR AFTERMATH AND NEW SECURITY RELATED DISCOURSES GENERATED IN THE WAKE OF THE @7AR ON 4ERROR FOLLOWING THE ATTACKS OF  3EPTEMBER  THE CONTENTIOUS INVASION AND OCCUPATION OF )RAQ AND THE ATTACKS ON ,ONDON ON  *ULY    4HIS MULTILAYERED PRODUC TION PROCESS IS EXAMINED THROUGH THE LENS OF SEMI STRUCTURED INTERVIEWS CONDUCTED OVER AN  MONTH PERIOD FROM 3EPTEMBER  TO !PRIL  AMONG A SAMPLE OF  FROM ACROSS .ORTHERN )RELAND SIX 0ROTESTANT FOUR #ATHOLIC AND FIVE FROM $UBLIN AND THE BORDER COUNTIES OF THE 2EPUBLIC OF )RELAND FOUR #ATHOLIC ONE 0ROTESTANT  0SEUDONYMS HAVE BEEN USED TO PROTECT THE PARTICIPANTS ANONYMITY )N THE CONTEXT OF A PROJECT ON THE MULTILINGUAL NEWS CONSUMPTION OF RACIALIZED MINORITIES PREDOMINANTLY -USLIM  IN THE MAINLAND OF THE  @QSHBKD D T Q N O D @ M  I N T Q M @ K  N E  B T KS T Q @ K  R S T C H D R     5NITED +INGDOM A WHITE .ORTHERN )RISH FOCUSED SAMPLE IS OF INTEREST FOR SEVERAL REASONS .ORTHERN )RELAND CAN OFFER INSIGHTS INTO THE LONG TERM SOCIAL EFFECTS OF HEIGHTENED SECURITY CONCERN ALSO IT HAS LONG BEEN A SITE OF POLITICIZED RELIGIOUS IDENTITIES AND COMPETING AND CONTESTED NATIONAL IDENTITIES AS WELL AS NATIONAL AND @QUASI NATIONAL MEDIA SYSTEMS -EDIA PRODUCED IN "RITAIN THE 2EPUBLIC OF )RELAND AND WITHIN .ORTHERN )RELAND ITSELF ARE WIDELY RECEIVED AND READ ACROSS .ORTHERN )RELAND "AIRNER USES THE TERM @QUASI NATIONAL FOR .ORTHERN )RELAND SPECIFIC MEDIA SUGGESTING THAT @THE PEOPLE OF .ORTHERN )RELAND HAVE GREATER ACCESS TO MEDIA OUTPUT IN ALL ITS FORMS THAN ANY OTHER GROUP EITHER IN MAINLAND "RITAIN OR THE 2EPUBLIC OF )RELAND    4HIS COMMENT PRECEDED THE WIDESPREAD DISSEMINATION OF MULTILINGUAL NEWS MEDIA VIA DIGITAL AND SATELLITE TELE VISION AND THE INTERNET GIVEN THIS INCREASED ACCESS FOR DIVERSE ETHNIC AND LINGUISTIC GROUPS ACROSS THE 5+ "AIRNERS POINT PROBABLY DOES NOT HOLD TODAY (OWEVER .ORTHERN )RELAND MAY STILL OFFER A UNIQUE OPPORTUNITY WITHIN THE 5+ TO RESEARCH LONG TERM EXPOSURE TO TRANSNATIONAL AND MULTI SOURCE MEDIA OUTPUTS WHETHER IN TERMS OF THE INTERPRETATION OF AND AT TITUDES TOWARDS NEWS SOURCES THE PERCEIVED LEGITIMACY OF GOVERNMENT POLICIES OR THE FRAGMENTATION OF THE PUBLIC SPHERE AS AUDIENCES TEND TO SELECT SOURCES WHICH CONFIRM THEIR EXISTING VIEWS 'IVEN THE NEW PROMINENCE OF RELIGIOUS AND SPECIFICALLY -USLIM IDENTITY IN POST  MEDIA DISCOURSES .ORTHERN )RELAND PROVIDES A LONG TERM CASE STUDY OF THE POLITICIZATION OF RELIGIOUS IDENTITY AND OF ARGUMENTS OVER THE BOUNDARIES BETWEEN RELIGION AND POLITICS IN RELATION TO THE PRODUCTION OR AMELIORATION OF CONFLICT "REWER  -ERRYMAN  -ITCHELL   .ORTHERN )RELAND ALSO PROVIDES DISTINCTIVE INSIGHTS INTO THE INTERACTION BETWEEN THE MEDIA AND OTHER POWERFUL SOURCES OF SOCIAL MEMORY -EDIA FOCUSED SOURCES TEND TO EMPHASIZE THE CENTRALITY OF THE MEDIA IN SHAPING CONTEMPORARY PERCEPTIONS OF NEWS #OTTLE  WHEREAS THESE INTER VIEWS TESTIFY TO THE PERSISTENT VITALITY OF LOCAL COMMUNITIES OF INTERPRETATION WHICH EXERT AN INDEPENDENT INFLUENCE ON SOCIAL MEMORY AND POWERFULLY SHAPE THE MANNER OF CONSUMPTION OF MASS MEDIA 4HIS ARTICLE ARGUES THAT THE PARTICIPANTS PERCEPTIONS OF SECURITY ARE SHAPED BY DISCOURSES CIRCULATING AT THREE MAIN LEVELS  LOCAL COMMUNITY NETWORKS AND STRUCTURES PRINCIPALLY TRANSMITTED FACE TO FACE AND BY WORD OF MOUTH CHURCHES NEIGHBOURHOOD NETWORKS /RANGE LODGES IE LOYALIST ASSOCIATIONS  PARAMILITARY ORGANIZATIONS   LOCAL AND REGIONAL QUASI NATIONAL .ORTHERN )RELAND BASED PRINT AND ELECTRONIC MEDIA AND  "RITISH AND )RISH MEDIA MOSTLY PRINT AND ELECTRONIC WHICH CIRCULATE NEW DISCOURSES ON INTERNATIONAL SECURITY IN THE WAKE OF  IMPACTING ON .ORTHERN )RELAND RESIDENTS BOTH DIRECTLY THROUGH THEIR CONSUMPTION OF THESE MEDIA AND INDIRECTLY THROUGH INTERNATIONAL DIASPORA NETWORKS  4HERE IS A DIALECTICAL RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THESE LEVELS OF DISCOURSE 4HE .ORTHERN )RISH CONFLICT PROVIDES FRAMES WHICH SHAPE ATTITUDES TO THE G D Q A D QS   R G H E S H M F  R D B T Q H S H D R  H M  M N QS G D Q M  H Q D K@ M C MEDIA AS WELL AS POINTS OF COMPARISON WHILE INTERNATIONAL EVENTS ESPECI ALLY THE @7AR ON 4ERROR ALSO IMPACT ON ATTITUDES TO THE SITUATION IN .ORTHERN )RELAND 4HUS SOME BELIEVE THAT THE ARRIVAL OF TERRORISM ON !MERICAN SHORES WITH THE  ATTACKS HAS CHANGED 53 PERCEPTIONS OF THE VIABILITY OF @ARMED STRUGGLE IN .ORTHERN )RELAND MAKING IT MORE DIFFICULT FOR ARMED GROUPS TO CLAIM LEGITIMACY !S 3USAN PUT IT 4HE TWIN TOWERS BOMBING CHANGED THINGS POLITICALLY BECAUSE ROMANTICISM IN !MERICA ABOUT TERRORISM HAD PERSISTED UNTIL THEN n PEOPLE WERE PREPARED TO TURN A BLIND EYE TO A COUPLE OF THOUSAND PEOPLE HERE DYING BUT THE TWIN TOWERS BROUGHT TERRORISM HOME AND MADE IT MUCH MORE DIFFICULT FOR TER RORIST GROUPS HERE 4HIS DOES NOT MEAN THAT SUCH GROUPS HAVE @GONE AWAY /NGOING PARA MILITARY ACTIVITIES AND EXPERIENCES OF THREAT AND VIOLENCE DESPITE THE CEASEFIRES ARE SIGNIFICANT FOR PERCEPTIONS OF SECURITY #ONTEXT 4HE MEDIA IN .ORTHERN )RELAND )N  AT THE HEIGHT OF THE 4ROUBLES A GROUP OF 5LSTER LOYALISTS WROTE TO 4HE .EWS ,ETTER THE MAIN ORGAN OF UNIONIST OPINION AND INDEED THE OLDEST SURVIVING NEWSPAPER IN THE 5+ FIRST PUBLISHED IN  IN @PROTEST AGAINST THE GROSS IRRESPONSIBILITY OF THE ""# AND )46 IN THE REPORTING OF DAY TO DAY TROUBLES IN .ORTHERN )RELAND 4HEY COMPLAINED .O TIME OR EXPENSE IS SPARED IN THE INTERVIEWING OF THE GUNMAN x 9ET HUNDREDS OF 0ROTESTANT FAMILIES ARE WITHOUT HOMES HAVING BEEN EVICTED AT THE POINT OF THE GUN LOYALIST WOMEN AND THEIR CHILDREN ARE LIVING IN FEAR BUSINESS PREMISES HAVE BEEN BURNED AND LOOTED AND LITTLE OF THIS SIDE OF THE STORY IS TOLD QUOTED IN #ATHCART   4HIS ILLUSTRATES THE LONGSTANDING AND CONTROVERSIAL NATURE OF THE MEDIAS RELATION TO EVENTS IN .ORTHERN )RELAND 3INCE THE START OF THE 4ROUBLES IN  THERE HAVE BEEN ACCUSATIONS OF MEDIA BIAS FROM BOTH NATIONALIST AND UNION IST SIDES WITH SOME UNIONIST OPINION SEEING THE "RITISH MEDIA AS GIVING SYMPATHETIC COVERAGE TO THE 0ROVISIONAL )RISH 2EPUBLICAN !RMY )2! WHILE NATIONALISTS ARGUED THAT "RITISH MEDIA ACTED @AS CHANNELS FOR THE DIS SEMINATION OF GOVERNMENT PROPAGANDA "AIRNER    .OTORIOUSLY THE )RISH AND "RITISH GOVERNMENTS ATTEMPTED TO DENY @TER RORISTS @THE OXYGEN OF PUBLICITY BY BANNING THE VOICES OF MEMBERS OF NAMED @TERRORIST ORGANIZATIONS INCLUDING 3INN &EIN THE 2EPUBLICAN POLITICAL PARTY FROM BROADCAST MEDIA 4HESE BANS BETWEEN  AND  AND  AND  RESPECTIVELY MUST BE AMONG THE LEAST EFFECTIVE ATTEMPTS AT CENSORSHIP IN MEDIA HISTORY SINCE THEY WERE REPEATEDLY CIRCUMVENTED BY HAVING ACTORS READ THE WORDS OF POLITICIANS 4HIS HISTORY HAS PRODUCED WIDESPREAD SCEPTICISM TOWARDS MEDIA SOURCES IN .ORTHERN )RELAND AND SENSITIVITY TO ATTEMPTS TO MANIPULATE THE MEDIA FOR PROPAGANDA PURPOSES  D T Q N O D @ M  I N T Q M @ K  N E  B T KS T Q @ K  R S T C H D R     4HE TELEVISION STATIONS OF "RITAIN ""# )46 AND THE )RISH 2EPUBLIC 24% ARE WIDELY IF PATCHILY AVAILABLE ACROSS .ORTHERN )RELAND 3EVERAL PARTICIPANTS COMPLAINED THAT 24% WAS UNAVAILABLE IN PREDOMINANTLY 0ROTESTANT AREAS ALTHOUGH THE REASONS FOR THIS ARE UNCLEAR "RITISH AND )RISH 2EPUBLIC RADIO STATIONS ARE WIDELY AVAILABLE AS ARE STATIONS BROADCASTING FROM WITHIN .ORTHERN )RELAND INCLUDING ""# .ORTHERN )RELAND "ELFAST #OMMUNITY 2ADIO #OOL &- $OWNTOWN 2ADIO AND THE )RISH LANGUAGE STATION 2ADIO NA 'AELTACHTA "AIRNER   .EWSPAPERS FROM %NGLAND AND THE 2EPUBLIC ARE WIDELY SOLD AS ARE 3COTTISH NEWSPAPERS IN 0ROTESTANT AREAS 4HREE DAILY NEWSPAPERS ARE PRODUCED WITHIN AND CIRCULATED ACROSS .ORTHERN )RELAND 4HE .EWS ,ETTER 4HE )RISH .EWS FOUNDED  AND MAINLY SERVING THE NATIONALIST COMMUNITY AND 4HE "ELFAST 4ELEGRAPH FOUNDED  AND WITH A WIDE CROSS COMMUNITY CIRCULATION IN SPITE OF ITS UNIONIST ORIGINS  4HE FIRST TWO ARE CONSIDERED A SIGNIFICANT FACTOR IN REPRODUCING @SECTARIAN ATTITUDES AND @THE POLITICS OF DIVISION "AIRNER    3EVERAL THEORIES HAVE BEEN PROPOSED CONCERNING MEDIA INFLUENCE ON THE COURSE OF THE CONFLICT 3OME ARGUE THAT THE CONFLICT HAS BEEN AGGRAVATED BY MANIPULATION OF THE MEDIA ON THE ONE HAND BY THE )RISH AND ESPECIALLY "RITISH GOVERNMENTS MORE THAN  TELEVISION PROGRAMMES ABOUT .ORTHERN )RELAND WERE BANNED CENSORED OR DELAYED AS A RESULT OF "RITISH GOVERNMENT POLICY BETWEEN  AND  "AIRNER  OR ON THE OTHER HAND BY TER RORIST GROUPS "AIRNER   !N ALTERNATIVE VIEW IS THAT THE EXTERNAL MEDIA HAVE HAD LITTLE IMPACT BUT A SIGNIFICANT ROLE MAY BE ATTRIBUTED TO THE LOCAL AND QUASI NATIONAL MEDIA IN STOKING SECTARIAN FIRES ON BOTH SIDES -OST WORK HAS FOCUSED ON THE ANALYSIS OF MEDIA CONTENT RATHER THAN AUDIENCE OR READER INTERPRETATION 4HE PRESENT STUDY AIMS TO MAKE A MODEST CONTRIBUTION TO FILLING THAT GAP 4HE OVERALL IMPRESSION FROM THE INTERVIEWS IS THAT MEDIA REPORTS ESPECIALLY BY "RITISH )RISH AND OFFICIAL CHANNELS OF INFORMATION EG POLICE STATISTICS GOVERNMENT REPORTS AND WORD OF MOUTH REPORTS BY THE PARTICIPANTS ARE WIDELY DIVERGENT 4HE LATTER SUGGEST A FAR HIGHER LEVEL OF INSECURITY DUE TO ONGOING INTIMIDATION AND VIOLENCE AND FAILURE OR AB SENCE OF POLICING AND OTHER FORMS OF STATE CONTROL #ONFLICT AND DIVISION IN .ORTHERN )RELAND SINCE THE "ELFAST !GREEMENT   )N SPITE OF THE REDUCTION IN LARGE SCALE POLITICAL VIOLENCE AND DEMILITARIZATION WITH THE ONCE UBIQUITOUS "RITISH !RMY LARGELY CONFINED TO BARRACKS .ORTHERN )RELAND REMAINS A HIGHLY DIVIDED SOCIETY AND SOME DIVISIONS EVEN APPEAR TO BE DEEPENING )N   PERCENT OF SCHOOLING OCCURRED IN SEPARATE #ATHOLIC OR 0ROTESTANT SCHOOLS -C+ERNON   )N   TO  PERCENT OF PEOPLE LIVED IN @ENTIRELY SEGREGATED NEIGHBOURHOODS WHILE  PERCENT LIVED IN STREETS WHERE ONE OR OTHER GROUP COMPRISED  PERCENT OR MORE OF THE POPULATION (EWSTONE ET AL   -OST OR ALL OF THEIR FRIENDS ARE #ATHOLIC SAY  PERCENT OF #ATHOLICS AMONG 0ROTESTANTS THE EQUIVALENT IS  PERCENT (EWSTONE ET AL   3PORT LEISURE SHOPPING AND G D Q A D QS   R G H E S H M F  R D B T Q H S H D R  H M  M N QS G D Q M  H Q D K@ M C CULTURAL FACILITIES ARE PURSUED LARGELY OR USED PREDOMINANTLY BY ONE COM MUNITY OR THE OTHER 4HE VOLUNTARY SECTOR IS ORGANIZED MOSTLY ON AN INTE GRATED CROSS COMMUNITY BASIS  ACCORDING TO -ILLWARD "ROWN 5LSTER  BUT DELIVERY OF SERVICES IS OFTEN ON A SINGLE COMMUNITY BASIS LIMITING FACE TO FACE ENCOUNTER ONLY  PERCENT OF THOSE WHO CLAIMED TO DO VOLUNTARY WORK WHICH INVOLVED HELPING OTHERS SAID THAT THEY DID SO REGULARLY ON A CROSS COMMUNITY BASIS #RUCIALLY FOR COMMUNITY RELATIONS AS ONE STUDY COMMENTS @MUCH CONTACT IS SUPERFICIALLY COURTEOUS BUT DOES NOT CHALLENGE STEREOTYPES (EWSTONE ET AL  n  3UCH STEREOTYPES ARE FED BY LONG MEMORIES WHICH ARE RENEWED EACH YEAR IN PARTICULAR DURING THE @MARCHING SEASON CLIMAXING ON  *ULY WHEN 0ROTESTANTS COMMEMORATE THE  "ATTLE OF THE "OYNE  $OROTHY AN ELDERLY #ATHOLIC RECALLED /N A SUMMER EVENING ) WAS VERY YOUNG AND ) WAS IN BED EARLY x 4HEY HAVE A HORRIBLE OMINOUS SOUND THE ,AMBEG DRUMS A REALLY SINISTER HORRIBLE SOUND !ND FROM A VERY EARLY AGE ) REMEMBER THEY USED TO MARCH DOWN IN FRONT OF THE #ATHOLIC CHURCH AND STAND THERE AND BEAT THE DRUMS 6IOLENCE AND INTIMIDATION REMAINS A PROBLEM ,ARGE BOMBS AND FRE QUENT SHOOTINGS MAY HOPEFULLY BE A THING OF THE PAST BUT PARAMILITARY ORGANIZATIONS REMAIN IN OPERATION AND SOME ARE ACTIVE IN EXTORTION DRUG DEALING AND OTHER FORMS OF CRIMINALITY %FFECTIVE POLICING REMAINS HIGHLY PROBLEMATIC AT A LOCAL LEVEL AS SEVERAL PARTICIPANTS TESTIFY 2ELIGION IDENTITY AND CONFLICT /BVIOUSLY RELIGION IS ASSOCIATED WITH THE CONFLICT IN .ORTHERN )RELAND BUT THE NATURE OF THIS INVOLVEMENT IS CONTESTED )N THE SCHOLARLY LITERATURE ASSERTIONS THAT RELIGION @REALLY HAS NOTHING TO DO WITH THE CONFLICT HAVE BE COME RARE ALTHOUGH THEY PERSIST IN THE PRESS INCLUDING THE RELIGIOUS PRESS -ERRYMAN   4HE VIEW THAT RELIGION MERELY REPRESENTS OR COINCIDES WITH ETHNIC AND POLITICAL IDENTITIES HAS BEEN DISPLACED BY A VIEW OF RELIGION AS PLAYING AN ACTIVE PART IN CONSTRUCTING SOCIAL DIFFERENCES SOCIAL IDENTITIES AND POLITICAL IDEOLOGIES 4HESE ALL PLAY A SIGNIFICANT PART IN PERPETUATING SOCIAL DIVISIONS EG ON #ATHOLICISM -ITCHELL  ON 0ROTESTANTISM -ITCHELL  ON MILITANT 0ROTESTANTISM 3OUTHERN   )N SPITE OF DE CLINING BELIEF AND RELIGIOUS PARTICIPATION AMONG MAINSTREAM 0ROTESTANTS IN FACT A MODEST DECLINE FROM A MUCH HIGHER LEVEL THAN IN OTHER PARTS OF THE 5+ "REWER  RELIGION CONTINUES TO PLAY IMPORTANT SOCIAL AND POLITICAL ROLES IN .ORTHERN )RELAND "REWER   4HE #ATHOLIC #HURCH IS IMPORTANT IN EDUCATION AND BOTH MAIN TRADITIONS ARE ACTIVE IN SOCIAL WELFARE COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT AND CULTURAL LIFE 4HIS INCLUDES PEACE AND RECONCILIATION MOVEMENTS AND ECUMENICAL ACTIVITIES WHICH CONTEST DIVISIONS WHICH ARE SIGNIFICANT FOR SOME PARTICIPANTS SEE THE FOLLOWING SECTION  2ELIGION REMAINS A CENTRAL DETERMINANT OF POLITICAL IDENTIFICA TION IN   PERCENT OF 0ROTESTANTS IDENTIFIED AS UNIONISTS AND  PER CENT AS NATIONALISTS  PERCENT OF #ATHOLICS AS NATIONALIST AND  PERCENT  D T Q N O D @ M  I N T Q M @ K  N E  B T KS T Q @ K  R S T C H D R     AS UNIONIST SHOWING VERY LOW POLITICAL IDENTIFICATION ACROSS RELIGIOUS TRADITIONS "REWER   )NTERVIEWS 3AMPLE 4HE SAMPLE .  REFLECTS A MIXTURE OF URBAN .  AND RURAL . 